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Difference between revisions of "Pramana-varttika"

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[[Pramana-varttika]], ( [[Sanskrit]]: “Commentary on Valid [[Knowledge]]”) perhaps the foremost work on [[Buddhist]] [[logic]] and {{Wiki|epistemology}}, written in the 7th century. The [[Pramana-varttika]] is the chief work of [[Dharmakirti]], originally a southern [[Indian]] [[Brahman]].
 
[[Pramana-varttika]], ( [[Sanskrit]]: “Commentary on Valid [[Knowledge]]”) perhaps the foremost work on [[Buddhist]] [[logic]] and {{Wiki|epistemology}}, written in the 7th century. The [[Pramana-varttika]] is the chief work of [[Dharmakirti]], originally a southern [[Indian]] [[Brahman]].
  
The [[Pramana-varttika]] is written in about 2,000 [[stanzas]] of mnemonic verse, and its four chapters deal, respectively, with inference, valid [[knowledge]], [[sense]] [[perception]], and [[syllogism]]. Composed as comprehensive commentaries on an earlier work by [[Dignaga]], [[Dharmakirti’s]] treatises in turn stimulated a great number of commentaries and have become the standard works in their field, especially in [[Tibet]].
+
The [[Pramana-varttika]] is written in about 2,000 [[stanzas]] of mnemonic [[verse]], and its four chapters deal, respectively, with inference, valid [[knowledge]], [[sense]] [[perception]], and [[syllogism]]. Composed as comprehensive commentaries on an earlier work by [[Dignaga]], [[Dharmakirti’s]] treatises in turn stimulated a great number of commentaries and have become the standard works in their field, especially in [[Tibet]].
  
  
It hardly needs to be stated that the question of [[Pramaa.na]], i. e. the source and proof of knowledge-in all its four aspects of Number ([[Sa"nkhyaa]]), Nature ([[Svaruupa]]), [[Object]] (Arth or [[Vi.saya]]) and the Result ([[phala]]); constitutes the [[heart]] and [[soul]] of {{Wiki|Epistemology}} as we have it in various systems of [[Indian philosophy]]. I intend drawing through this short paper, the [[attention]] of the [[scholars]] to the question of the number of [[Pramaa.nas]] as pertains to the [[Buddhist]] {{Wiki|Epistemology}}. While doing so I am fully [[conscious]] of the first reaction, they may well evince. It is likely to be said, "What is there in this question ? It is already settled. The [[Buddhist]] accept two [[Pramaa.nas]] [[Pratyak.sa]] ([[perception]]) and [[Anumaana]] (inference) and the fact is testified not only by the modern historians of [[Indian Philosophy]][2] but also by such well-known authors of compendia on [[Indian]] [[Thought]] as [[Maadhavaacaarya]][3] and [[Haribhadra]] Suuri."[4]
+
It hardly needs to be stated that the question of [[Pramaa.na]], i. e. the source and proof of knowledge-in all its four aspects of Number ([[Sa"nkhyaa]]), [[Nature]] ([[Svaruupa]]), [[Object]] (Arth or [[Vi.saya]]) and the Result ([[phala]]); constitutes the [[heart]] and [[soul]] of {{Wiki|Epistemology}} as we have it in various systems of [[Indian philosophy]]. I intend drawing through this short paper, the [[attention]] of the [[scholars]] to the question of the number of [[Pramaa.nas]] as pertains to the [[Buddhist]] {{Wiki|Epistemology}}. While doing so I am fully [[conscious]] of the first {{Wiki|reaction}}, they may well evince. It is likely to be said, "What is there in this question ? It is already settled. The [[Buddhist]] accept two [[Pramaa.nas]] [[Pratyak.sa]] ([[perception]]) and [[Anumaana]] (inference) and the fact is testified not only by the {{Wiki|modern}} {{Wiki|historians}} of [[Indian Philosophy]][2] but also by such well-known authors of compendia on [[Indian]] [[Thought]] as [[Maadhavaacaarya]][3] and [[Haribhadra]] Suuri."[4]
  
I dare challenge the [[view]], throwing thus overboard the heavy burden of [[tradition]], emboldened by an oft-quoted advice of the [[Buddha]], as we find it recorded in [[A"nguttara-Nikaaya]]. "Believe [[nothing]]", the [[Tathaagata]] is attributed to have said, "because a so-called [[wise]] man said it. Believe [[nothing]] because the [[belief]] is generally held. Believe [[nothing]] because it is written in ancient [[books]]. Believe [[nothing]] because it is said to be of a [[divine]] origin. Believe [[nothing]] because someone else believes it. But believe only what you yourself judge to be true."
+
I dare challenge the [[view]], [[throwing]] thus overboard the heavy [[burden]] of [[tradition]], emboldened by an oft-quoted advice of the [[Buddha]], as we find it recorded in [[A"nguttara-Nikaaya]]. "Believe [[nothing]]", the [[Tathaagata]] is attributed to have said, "because a so-called [[wise]] man said it. Believe [[nothing]] because the [[belief]] is generally held. Believe [[nothing]] because it is written in {{Wiki|ancient}} [[books]]. Believe [[nothing]] because it is said to be of a [[divine]] origin. Believe [[nothing]] because someone else believes it. But believe only what you yourself judge to be true."
  
 
Contrary to the general [[belief]], what I judge to be true is that [[Buddhist]] {{Wiki|Epistemology}}, in general, does not accept [[Anumaana]] ([[Inference]]) as an independent source and proof of [[knowledge]] and the only school of [[Buddhist Philosophy]] that seems to do so fails to show it as such and succeeds merely in depicting [[Anumaana]] to be an instrument dealing with connected, directed and reflective, but abstract [[thought]], at best.
 
Contrary to the general [[belief]], what I judge to be true is that [[Buddhist]] {{Wiki|Epistemology}}, in general, does not accept [[Anumaana]] ([[Inference]]) as an independent source and proof of [[knowledge]] and the only school of [[Buddhist Philosophy]] that seems to do so fails to show it as such and succeeds merely in depicting [[Anumaana]] to be an instrument dealing with connected, directed and reflective, but abstract [[thought]], at best.
  
I, for one, am not able to understand as to why should not we check our tendency to lump together schools of [[thought]] that differ widely. Covered, as they are, by the general name of [[Buddhist Philosophy]], it is alright for us, to seek in them the common and [[essential]]. But, in the process, we must not gloss over the important differences and distinctions. Because, if we do so, we are likely to confuse issues. To me, it seems an all the more unpardonable a mistake when [[knowing]] fully well the various distinctions and differences among various schools of [[thought]] one attributes something to the totality of them what may legitimately or illegitimately belong to only one of them.
+
I, for one, am not able to understand as to why should not we check our tendency to lump together schools of [[thought]] that differ widely. Covered, as they are, by the general [[name]] of [[Buddhist Philosophy]], it is alright for us, to seek in them the common and [[essential]]. But, in the process, we must not gloss over the important differences and distinctions. Because, if we do so, we are likely to confuse issues. To me, it seems an all the more unpardonable a mistake when [[knowing]] fully well the various distinctions and differences among various schools of [[thought]] one [[attributes]] something to the {{Wiki|totality}} of them what may legitimately or illegitimately belong to only one of them.
 
[[File:400.jpg|thumb|250px|]]
 
[[File:400.jpg|thumb|250px|]]
To my [[mind]], [[Maadhavaacaarya]], as also all those who seem to follow him in this, appears to commit precisely this serious mistake. For, he is not only aware of the division of [[Buddhist Philosophy]] into four important points of departure with the names [[Vaibhaa.sika]], etc.[5] but also takes note of their {{Wiki|epistemological}} differences[6]. Further, he does indicate very clearly that only one of the schools, namely, the [[Sautraantika]] alone could, if at all, accept '[[Anumaana]] as an additional Pramaa.na to [[Pratyak.sa]] to gain [[knowledge]] of the external [[objects]], in particular, and that too by implication as his actual words are: "According to the [[Sautraantikas]] the external [[objects]] are not graspable by [[Pratyak.sa]] ([[Sautraantikena pratyak.sa graahyortho na bahirmata.h]])"[7]. In the [[light]] of this, one is left wondering as to what makes [[Maadhavaacaarya]] attribute the [[view]] to the [[Buddhists]], in general, that they accept two  .
+
To my [[mind]], [[Maadhavaacaarya]], as also all those who seem to follow him in this, appears to commit precisely this serious mistake. For, he is not only aware of the division of [[Buddhist Philosophy]] into four important points of departure with the names [[Vaibhaa.sika]], etc.[5] but also takes note of their {{Wiki|epistemological}} differences[6]. Further, he does indicate very clearly that only one of the schools, namely, the [[Sautraantika]] alone could, if at all, accept '[[Anumaana]] as an additional [[Pramaa.na]] to [[Pratyak.sa]] to gain [[knowledge]] of the external [[objects]], in particular, and that too by implication as his actual words are: "According to the [[Sautraantikas]] the external [[objects]] are not graspable by [[Pratyak.sa]] ([[Sautraantikena pratyak.sa graahyortho na bahirmata.h]])"[7]. In the [[light]] of this, one is left wondering as to what makes [[Maadhavaacaarya]] attribute the [[view]] to the [[Buddhists]], in general, that they accept two  .
  
It is true, the [[Sautraantika]] school is distinguished from the. [[Vaibhaa.sika]] in [[being]] the upholder of [[Baahyaanumeyavaada]] as against the [[Baahyapratyak.savaad]]a [[view]] of the latter. But that is all that we have of the [[Sautraantika]] position. I am unaware if there is any detailed treatment of [[Anumaana]] in all its (already mentioned) aspects by any thinker claiming to be a Sautraantika. [[Scholars]] are yet not sure to which of the four well-known schools of [[Buddhism]], namely, [[Vaibhaa.sika]], [[Sautraantika]], [[Yogaacaara]] and [[Maadhyamika]] do [[Dharmakiirti]], the celebrated author of the well-known {{Wiki|epistemological}} treatise '[[Nyaayabindu]]' and [[Dharmottara]], the accredited commentator of the work belong [8].
+
It is true, the [[Sautraantika]] school is distinguished from the. [[Vaibhaa.sika]] in [[being]] the upholder of [[Baahyaanumeyavaada]] as against the [[Baahyapratyak.savaad]]a [[view]] of the latter. But that is all that we have of the [[Sautraantika]] position. I am unaware if there is any detailed treatment of [[Anumaana]] in all its (already mentioned) aspects by any thinker claiming to be a [[Sautraantika]]. [[Scholars]] are yet not sure to which of the four well-known schools of [[Buddhism]], namely, [[Vaibhaa.sika]], [[Sautraantika]], [[Yogaacaara]] and [[Maadhyamika]] do [[Dharmakiirti]], the celebrated author of the well-known {{Wiki|epistemological}} treatise '[[Nyaayabindu]]' and [[Dharmottara]], the accredited commentator of the work belong [8].
  
May be, they, along with [[Di"nnaaga]], the author of such important works on [[Buddhist]] {{Wiki|Epistemology}} as [[Pramaa.nasamuccaya]], [[Nyaayaprave'sa]], and [[lambanapariik.sa]], etc. subscribe to a school independent of all the four. Their school is known, roughly, by the name of the school of [[Buddhist]] [[logic]]. It is to this school that '[[Saantarak.sita]], the author of [[Tattvasa"ngraha]] and [[Kamala'siila]], the commentator of the work also seem to belong. Despite having a common bond, pressed by their [[metaphysical]] considerations, the great [[logicians]], seem to pull in different [[directions]]. If [[Di"nnaaga]] is keen to take a [[neutral]] stand and wants his [[logic]] to be an instrument fit for the use of both Realists and {{Wiki|Idealists}} and is ready to drop the [[character]] '[[non-illusiveness]] ([[abhraantam]])' from his definition of [[pratyak.sa]] to that effect [9], then '[[Saantarak.sita]] and [[Kamala'siila]] do lean towards the [[Yogaacaara]] position and [[Dharmakiirti]] and [[Dharmottara]] towards a position somewhat between the [[Sautraantika]] and the [[Vaibhaa.sika]] [10]. T.R.V. Murti's remark seems to be apt in this context when he observes, "there is no such a thing as a [[neutral]] [[logic]] which every [[philosopher]] accepts or has to accept [11]".
+
May be, they, along with [[Di"nnaaga]], the author of such important works on [[Buddhist]] {{Wiki|Epistemology}} as [[Pramaa.nasamuccaya]], [[Nyaayaprave'sa]], and [[lambanapariik.sa]], etc. subscribe to a school independent of all the four. Their school is known, roughly, by the [[name]] of the school of [[Buddhist]] [[logic]]. It is to this school that '[[Saantarak.sita]], the author of [[Tattvasa"ngraha]] and [[Kamala'siila]], the commentator of the work also seem to belong. Despite having a common bond, pressed by their [[metaphysical]] considerations, the great [[logicians]], seem to pull in different [[directions]]. If [[Di"nnaaga]] is keen to take a [[neutral]] stand and wants his [[logic]] to be an instrument fit for the use of both Realists and {{Wiki|Idealists}} and is ready to drop the [[character]] '[[non-illusiveness]] ([[abhraantam]])' from his definition of [[pratyak.sa]] to that effect [9], then '[[Saantarak.sita]] and [[Kamala'siila]] do lean towards the [[Yogaacaara]] position and [[Dharmakiirti]] and [[Dharmottara]] towards a position somewhat between the [[Sautraantika]] and the [[Vaibhaa.sika]] [10]. T.R.V. Murti's remark seems to be apt in this context when he observes, "there is no such a thing as a [[neutral]] [[logic]] which every [[philosopher]] accepts or has to accept [11]".
  
No [[doubt]], they (the [[Buddhist]] [[Logicians]]) all, apparently accept both [[Pratyak.sa]] and [[Anumaana]] as [[Pramaa.nas]]. But, somehow, caught in the web of their own {{Wiki|reasoning}}, guided or misguided by the consequences of accepting a certain definition of [[Pratyak.sa]] ([[Pratyak.sa"m Kalpanaapo¯ ham]]), they find it extremely difficult to maintain even [[Savikalpa]] [[pratyak.sa]] (determinate [[Perception]]) to be an instrument of [[knowledge]] what to say of the [[Anumaana]] "which is" in the words of'[[Satkari Mookerjee]], "invariably associated with ideal constructions (Kalpanaa) [12]".
+
No [[doubt]], they (the [[Buddhist]] [[Logicians]]) all, apparently accept both [[Pratyak.sa]] and [[Anumaana]] as [[Pramaa.nas]]. But, somehow, caught in the web of their own {{Wiki|reasoning}}, guided or misguided by the consequences of accepting a certain definition of [[Pratyak.sa]] ([[Pratyak.sa"m Kalpanaapo¯ ham]]), they find it extremely difficult to maintain even [[Savikalpa]] [[pratyak.sa]] ({{Wiki|determinate}} [[Perception]]) to be an instrument of [[knowledge]] what to say of the [[Anumaana]] "which is" in the words of'[[Satkari Mookerjee]], "invariably associated with {{Wiki|ideal}} constructions (Kalpanaa) [12]".
 
[[File:7fca.jpg|thumb|250px|]]
 
[[File:7fca.jpg|thumb|250px|]]
It is hard for me to agree with [[Mookerjee]] when he suggests, that [[Di"nnaaga]]'s omission to put [[pratyk.sa]] under the rubric of "[[valid knowledge]]"(Samyagj~naana) was a trifling matter unduly made capital of by [[Uddyotkara]] [13] and so was the fact of not caring, to supply the word  [[J~naana]] in his definition of [[Pratyak.sa]] on the part of '[[Saantarak.sita]] [14]. For, the explanation of [[Kamalasiila]] on '[[Saantarak.sita]]'s behalf and declaring not only [[Pratyak.sa]] but also [[Anumaana]] to be '[[valid knowledge]]'-[[dvividha"m Samyagj~naanam]] [15] and [[Pratyak.samanumaana~nca]] on the part of [[Dharmakiirti]] [16] by way of amending the [[view]] of [[Di"nnaaga]] are of little avail when, despite [[Dharmottara]]'s clever [[logical]] tight-rope-walking the School of [[Buddhist]] [[Logicians]] is unable to come out of {{Wiki|Logical}} difficulties of its own making.
+
It is hard for me to agree with [[Mookerjee]] when he suggests, that [[Di"nnaaga]]'s omission to put [[pratyk.sa]] under the rubric of "[[valid knowledge]]"(Samyagj~naana) was a trifling matter unduly made capital of by [[Uddyotkara]] [13] and so was the fact of not caring, to supply the [[word]] [[J~naana]] in his definition of [[Pratyak.sa]] on the part of '[[Saantarak.sita]] [14]. For, the explanation of [[Kamalasiila]] on '[[Saantarak.sita]]'s behalf and declaring not only [[Pratyak.sa]] but also [[Anumaana]] to be '[[valid knowledge]]'-[[dvividha"m Samyagj~naanam]] [15] and [[Pratyak.samanumaana~nca]] on the part of [[Dharmakiirti]] [16] by way of amending the [[view]] of [[Di"nnaaga]] are of little avail when, despite [[Dharmottara]]'s clever [[logical]] tight-rope-walking the School of [[Buddhist]] [[Logicians]] is unable to come out of {{Wiki|Logical}} difficulties of its own making.
  
The significance of [[Di"nnaaga]]'s omission and '[[Saantarak.sita]]'s lapse, I am sure, could not have been lost to [[Mookerjee]] and he should not have ridiculed the {{Wiki|Brahmanical}} critics on the point had it been kept by him in his [[mind]] that [[nirvikalpa]] [[pratyak.sa]]-which alone is revalatory of knowledge-was of little practical use and [[Savikalpa]] was invalid because of Vikalpa. More so, when he is not only aware of the situation but also takes note of it elsewhere in his brilliant work on [[Buddhist Philosophy]] [17]. "Unless and until it is determined" observes he about [[nirvikalpa]] [[pratyak.sa]] "as such the [[experience]] is as good as non-existent ([[Asatkalpa]]), because it can not lead to any [[activity]] and so there is no acquisition of anything"[18]. Despite referring to a distinction drawn by [[Dharmottara]] between [[Vikalpa]] (reflective [[thought]]) that arises in the trail of [[perception]] and generated under its [[influence]] ([[Pratyak.sabalotpanna]]) and the one that represents [[pure]] [[imagination]] without any touch with external [[reality]] and mentioning the same to be of [[vital]] importance according to him ([[Dharmottara]]). [[Mookerjee]] could not avoid the inescapable conclusion about [[Savikalpa]] [[Pratyak.sa]] as he states, "the contention that perceptual [[knowledge]] together with [[Vikalpa]] should be held as valid testimony therefore falls to the ground"[19]'therefore' in the statement refers to his argument a part of which runs thus, "the purely subjective [[character]] of this reflective process, which is necessary for the interpretation of [[Perception]], does not in any way detract from or add to the evidentiary value of perceptual [[knowledge]]."[20]
+
The significance of [[Di"nnaaga]]'s omission and '[[Saantarak.sita]]'s lapse, I am sure, could not have been lost to [[Mookerjee]] and he should not have ridiculed the {{Wiki|Brahmanical}} critics on the point had it been kept by him in his [[mind]] that [[nirvikalpa]] [[pratyak.sa]]-which alone is revalatory of knowledge-was of little practical use and [[Savikalpa]] was invalid because of [[Vikalpa]]. More so, when he is not only aware of the situation but also takes note of it elsewhere in his brilliant work on [[Buddhist Philosophy]] [17]. "Unless and until it is determined" observes he about [[nirvikalpa]] [[pratyak.sa]] "as such the [[experience]] is as good as {{Wiki|non-existent}} ([[Asatkalpa]]), because it can not lead to any [[activity]] and so there is no acquisition of anything"[18]. Despite referring to a distinction drawn by [[Dharmottara]] between [[Vikalpa]] (reflective [[thought]]) that arises in the trail of [[perception]] and generated under its [[influence]] ([[Pratyak.sabalotpanna]]) and the one that represents [[pure]] [[imagination]] without any {{Wiki|touch}} with external [[reality]] and mentioning the same to be of [[vital]] importance according to him ([[Dharmottara]]). [[Mookerjee]] could not avoid the inescapable conclusion about [[Savikalpa]] [[Pratyak.sa]] as he states, "the contention that {{Wiki|perceptual}} [[knowledge]] together with [[Vikalpa]] should be held as valid testimony therefore falls to the ground"[19]'therefore' in the statement refers to his argument a part of which runs thus, "the purely subjective [[character]] of this reflective process, which is necessary for the interpretation of [[Perception]], does not in any way detract from or add to the evidentiary value of {{Wiki|perceptual}} [[knowledge]]."[20]
  
 
[[Dharmottara]] is blowing [[hot]] and cold when he asserts that there is a distinction of [[vital]] importance between two varieties of [[Vikalpa]] and also insists at the same [[time]] that 'both the varieties are equally unreliable and invalid by their very constitution' [21]. This alone is enough to reach the conclusion drawn by [[Mookerjee]] in a somewhat roundabout [[manner]].
 
[[Dharmottara]] is blowing [[hot]] and cold when he asserts that there is a distinction of [[vital]] importance between two varieties of [[Vikalpa]] and also insists at the same [[time]] that 'both the varieties are equally unreliable and invalid by their very constitution' [21]. This alone is enough to reach the conclusion drawn by [[Mookerjee]] in a somewhat roundabout [[manner]].
  
Summing up, I may say that as far as I am concerned I do not think it can be validly affirmed that the [[Buddhists]] accept [[Anumaana]] as a source and proof of [[knowledge]]. This, however, does not mean that the way [[Anumaana]] has been conceived by the [[Buddhists]] has no utility of its own. [[Anumaana]], understood the [[Buddhists]] way has immense value as an instrument of purely formal [[logic]].
+
Summing up, I may say that as far as I am concerned I do not think it can be validly [[affirmed]] that the [[Buddhists]] accept [[Anumaana]] as a source and proof of [[knowledge]]. This, however, does not mean that the way [[Anumaana]] has been conceived by the [[Buddhists]] has no utility of its own. [[Anumaana]], understood the [[Buddhists]] way has immense value as an instrument of purely formal [[logic]].
  
 
NOTES
 
NOTES
Line 33: Line 33:
 
1. Cf. [[Nyaayabindu]] '.Tikaa (Bibliotheca Indica edition) p. 7;
 
1. Cf. [[Nyaayabindu]] '.Tikaa (Bibliotheca Indica edition) p. 7;
  
Prakara.napa~ncaka p. 38; Pariik.saamukhasuutra .Tikaa 1-as quoted and referred to by T. R. V. Murti, the Central [[Philosophy]] of [[Buddhism]], p. 151, fn. 2.
+
Prakara.napa~ncaka p. 38; Pariik.saamukhasuutra .Tikaa 1-as quoted and referred to by T. R. V. [[Murti]], the Central [[Philosophy]] of [[Buddhism]], p. 151, fn. 2.
  
2. See, e.g. S. Radhakrishnan, [[Indian Philosophy]], Vol.1, pp. 462-469;
+
2. See, e.g. {{Wiki|S. Radhakrishnan}}, [[Indian Philosophy]], Vol.1, pp. 462-469;
  
 
M. Hiriyanna, Outlines of [[Indian Philosophy]], p. 188 ff;
 
M. Hiriyanna, Outlines of [[Indian Philosophy]], p. 188 ff;
  
Chandradhara Sharma, A Critical Survey of [[Indian Philosophy]], pp131-2; Sinha, J.N., A History of [[Indian Philosophy]], vol, II, p. 414 ff.
+
Chandradhara Sharma, A Critical Survey of [[Indian Philosophy]], pp131-2; [[Sinha]], J.N., A History of [[Indian Philosophy]], vol, II, p. 414 ff.
  
3. Sarvadar'sanasa"ngraha, Ch. II, verse 36 (edited by V. S. Sharma [[Rishi]]), p. 102.
+
3. Sarvadar'sanasa"ngraha, Ch. II, [[verse]] 36 (edited by V. S. Sharma [[Rishi]]), p. 102.
  
4. Sa¯ ddar'sanasamuccaya, verse 9.
+
4. Sa¯ ddar'sanasamuccaya, [[verse]] 9.
  
5. The same as supra note 3 (2nd line of the verse)
+
5. The same as supra note 3 (2nd line of the [[verse]])
  
 
6. Ibid verses 37, 38, pp. 102-3.
 
6. Ibid verses 37, 38, pp. 102-3.
  
7. Ibid verse 37, second line.
+
7. Ibid [[verse]] 37, second line.
  
8, See Introduction (In Hindi) by one Chandrashekhar Shastri to the [[Kashi]] [[Sanskrit]] Series (No. '22) edition of the Nyaayabindu.
+
8, See Introduction (In {{Wiki|Hindi}}) by one Chandrashekhar Shastri to the [[Kashi]] [[Sanskrit]] Series (No. '22) edition of the [[Nyaayabindu]].
  
9. Cf. Th. Stcherbatsky, [[Buddhist]] [[Logic]], Volume 1, pp. 155 ff.
+
9. Cf. Th. [[Wikipedia:Fyodor Shcherbatskoy|Stcherbatsky]], [[Buddhist]] [[Logic]], Volume 1, pp. 155 ff.
  
 
10 Ibid.
 
10 Ibid.
  
11. T. R. V. Murti, The Central [[Philosophy]] of [[Buddhism]], p. 152.
+
11. T. R. V. [[Murti]], The Central [[Philosophy]] of [[Buddhism]], p. 152.
  
12. See, The [[Buddhist Philosophy]] of [[Universal]] Flux (Calcutta. 1935), p. 275.
+
12. See, The [[Buddhist Philosophy]] of [[Universal]] Flux ({{Wiki|Calcutta}}. 1935), p. 275.
  
 
13. Ibid p. 274 (See fn. 2 for Uddyokara's {{Wiki|criticism}}).
 
13. Ibid p. 274 (See fn. 2 for Uddyokara's {{Wiki|criticism}}).
Line 65: Line 65:
 
14. Ibid.
 
14. Ibid.
  
15. Tattvasa"ngraha Pa~njikaa (Gaikwad's Oriental Series edition). p. 367.
+
15. [[Tattvasa"ngraha]] Pa~njikaa (Gaikwad's {{Wiki|Oriental}} Series edition). p. 367.
  
16. Nyaayabindu (supra note 8), pp. 7, 8.
+
16. [[Nyaayabindu]] (supra note 8), pp. 7, 8.
  
 
17. Op, cit. (Supra note 12), pp. 343-45.
 
17. Op, cit. (Supra note 12), pp. 343-45.

Revision as of 10:56, 28 December 2013

25Dharmakīrti.jpg

Pramana-varttika, ( Sanskrit: “Commentary on Valid Knowledge”) perhaps the foremost work on Buddhist logic and epistemology, written in the 7th century. The Pramana-varttika is the chief work of Dharmakirti, originally a southern Indian Brahman.

The Pramana-varttika is written in about 2,000 stanzas of mnemonic verse, and its four chapters deal, respectively, with inference, valid knowledge, sense perception, and syllogism. Composed as comprehensive commentaries on an earlier work by Dignaga, Dharmakirti’s treatises in turn stimulated a great number of commentaries and have become the standard works in their field, especially in Tibet.


It hardly needs to be stated that the question of Pramaa.na, i. e. the source and proof of knowledge-in all its four aspects of Number (Sa"nkhyaa), Nature (Svaruupa), Object (Arth or Vi.saya) and the Result (phala); constitutes the heart and soul of Epistemology as we have it in various systems of Indian philosophy. I intend drawing through this short paper, the attention of the scholars to the question of the number of Pramaa.nas as pertains to the Buddhist Epistemology. While doing so I am fully conscious of the first reaction, they may well evince. It is likely to be said, "What is there in this question ? It is already settled. The Buddhist accept two Pramaa.nas Pratyak.sa (perception) and Anumaana (inference) and the fact is testified not only by the modern historians of Indian Philosophy[2] but also by such well-known authors of compendia on Indian Thought as Maadhavaacaarya[3] and Haribhadra Suuri."[4]

I dare challenge the view, throwing thus overboard the heavy burden of tradition, emboldened by an oft-quoted advice of the Buddha, as we find it recorded in A"nguttara-Nikaaya. "Believe nothing", the Tathaagata is attributed to have said, "because a so-called wise man said it. Believe nothing because the belief is generally held. Believe nothing because it is written in ancient books. Believe nothing because it is said to be of a divine origin. Believe nothing because someone else believes it. But believe only what you yourself judge to be true."

Contrary to the general belief, what I judge to be true is that Buddhist Epistemology, in general, does not accept Anumaana (Inference) as an independent source and proof of knowledge and the only school of Buddhist Philosophy that seems to do so fails to show it as such and succeeds merely in depicting Anumaana to be an instrument dealing with connected, directed and reflective, but abstract thought, at best.

I, for one, am not able to understand as to why should not we check our tendency to lump together schools of thought that differ widely. Covered, as they are, by the general name of Buddhist Philosophy, it is alright for us, to seek in them the common and essential. But, in the process, we must not gloss over the important differences and distinctions. Because, if we do so, we are likely to confuse issues. To me, it seems an all the more unpardonable a mistake when knowing fully well the various distinctions and differences among various schools of thought one attributes something to the totality of them what may legitimately or illegitimately belong to only one of them.

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To my mind, Maadhavaacaarya, as also all those who seem to follow him in this, appears to commit precisely this serious mistake. For, he is not only aware of the division of Buddhist Philosophy into four important points of departure with the names Vaibhaa.sika, etc.[5] but also takes note of their epistemological differences[6]. Further, he does indicate very clearly that only one of the schools, namely, the Sautraantika alone could, if at all, accept 'Anumaana as an additional Pramaa.na to Pratyak.sa to gain knowledge of the external objects, in particular, and that too by implication as his actual words are: "According to the Sautraantikas the external objects are not graspable by Pratyak.sa (Sautraantikena pratyak.sa graahyortho na bahirmata.h)"[7]. In the light of this, one is left wondering as to what makes Maadhavaacaarya attribute the view to the Buddhists, in general, that they accept two .

It is true, the Sautraantika school is distinguished from the. Vaibhaa.sika in being the upholder of Baahyaanumeyavaada as against the Baahyapratyak.savaada view of the latter. But that is all that we have of the Sautraantika position. I am unaware if there is any detailed treatment of Anumaana in all its (already mentioned) aspects by any thinker claiming to be a Sautraantika. Scholars are yet not sure to which of the four well-known schools of Buddhism, namely, Vaibhaa.sika, Sautraantika, Yogaacaara and Maadhyamika do Dharmakiirti, the celebrated author of the well-known epistemological treatise 'Nyaayabindu' and Dharmottara, the accredited commentator of the work belong [8].

May be, they, along with Di"nnaaga, the author of such important works on Buddhist Epistemology as Pramaa.nasamuccaya, Nyaayaprave'sa, and lambanapariik.sa, etc. subscribe to a school independent of all the four. Their school is known, roughly, by the name of the school of Buddhist logic. It is to this school that 'Saantarak.sita, the author of Tattvasa"ngraha and Kamala'siila, the commentator of the work also seem to belong. Despite having a common bond, pressed by their metaphysical considerations, the great logicians, seem to pull in different directions. If Di"nnaaga is keen to take a neutral stand and wants his logic to be an instrument fit for the use of both Realists and Idealists and is ready to drop the character 'non-illusiveness (abhraantam)' from his definition of pratyak.sa to that effect [9], then 'Saantarak.sita and Kamala'siila do lean towards the Yogaacaara position and Dharmakiirti and Dharmottara towards a position somewhat between the Sautraantika and the Vaibhaa.sika [10]. T.R.V. Murti's remark seems to be apt in this context when he observes, "there is no such a thing as a neutral logic which every philosopher accepts or has to accept [11]".

No doubt, they (the Buddhist Logicians) all, apparently accept both Pratyak.sa and Anumaana as Pramaa.nas. But, somehow, caught in the web of their own reasoning, guided or misguided by the consequences of accepting a certain definition of Pratyak.sa (Pratyak.sa"m Kalpanaapo¯ ham), they find it extremely difficult to maintain even Savikalpa pratyak.sa (determinate Perception) to be an instrument of knowledge what to say of the Anumaana "which is" in the words of'Satkari Mookerjee, "invariably associated with ideal constructions (Kalpanaa) [12]".

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It is hard for me to agree with Mookerjee when he suggests, that Di"nnaaga's omission to put pratyk.sa under the rubric of "valid knowledge"(Samyagj~naana) was a trifling matter unduly made capital of by Uddyotkara [13] and so was the fact of not caring, to supply the word J~naana in his definition of Pratyak.sa on the part of 'Saantarak.sita [14]. For, the explanation of Kamalasiila on 'Saantarak.sita's behalf and declaring not only Pratyak.sa but also Anumaana to be 'valid knowledge'-dvividha"m Samyagj~naanam [15] and Pratyak.samanumaana~nca on the part of Dharmakiirti [16] by way of amending the view of Di"nnaaga are of little avail when, despite Dharmottara's clever logical tight-rope-walking the School of Buddhist Logicians is unable to come out of Logical difficulties of its own making.

The significance of Di"nnaaga's omission and 'Saantarak.sita's lapse, I am sure, could not have been lost to Mookerjee and he should not have ridiculed the Brahmanical critics on the point had it been kept by him in his mind that nirvikalpa pratyak.sa-which alone is revalatory of knowledge-was of little practical use and Savikalpa was invalid because of Vikalpa. More so, when he is not only aware of the situation but also takes note of it elsewhere in his brilliant work on Buddhist Philosophy [17]. "Unless and until it is determined" observes he about nirvikalpa pratyak.sa "as such the experience is as good as non-existent (Asatkalpa), because it can not lead to any activity and so there is no acquisition of anything"[18]. Despite referring to a distinction drawn by Dharmottara between Vikalpa (reflective thought) that arises in the trail of perception and generated under its influence (Pratyak.sabalotpanna) and the one that represents pure imagination without any touch with external reality and mentioning the same to be of vital importance according to him (Dharmottara). Mookerjee could not avoid the inescapable conclusion about Savikalpa Pratyak.sa as he states, "the contention that perceptual knowledge together with Vikalpa should be held as valid testimony therefore falls to the ground"[19]'therefore' in the statement refers to his argument a part of which runs thus, "the purely subjective character of this reflective process, which is necessary for the interpretation of Perception, does not in any way detract from or add to the evidentiary value of perceptual knowledge."[20]

Dharmottara is blowing hot and cold when he asserts that there is a distinction of vital importance between two varieties of Vikalpa and also insists at the same time that 'both the varieties are equally unreliable and invalid by their very constitution' [21]. This alone is enough to reach the conclusion drawn by Mookerjee in a somewhat roundabout manner.

Summing up, I may say that as far as I am concerned I do not think it can be validly affirmed that the Buddhists accept Anumaana as a source and proof of knowledge. This, however, does not mean that the way Anumaana has been conceived by the Buddhists has no utility of its own. Anumaana, understood the Buddhists way has immense value as an instrument of purely formal logic.

NOTES

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1. Cf. Nyaayabindu '.Tikaa (Bibliotheca Indica edition) p. 7;

Prakara.napa~ncaka p. 38; Pariik.saamukhasuutra .Tikaa 1-as quoted and referred to by T. R. V. Murti, the Central Philosophy of Buddhism, p. 151, fn. 2.

2. See, e.g. S. Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy, Vol.1, pp. 462-469;

M. Hiriyanna, Outlines of Indian Philosophy, p. 188 ff;

Chandradhara Sharma, A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy, pp131-2; Sinha, J.N., A History of Indian Philosophy, vol, II, p. 414 ff.

3. Sarvadar'sanasa"ngraha, Ch. II, verse 36 (edited by V. S. Sharma Rishi), p. 102.

4. Sa¯ ddar'sanasamuccaya, verse 9.

5. The same as supra note 3 (2nd line of the verse)

6. Ibid verses 37, 38, pp. 102-3.

7. Ibid verse 37, second line.

8, See Introduction (In Hindi) by one Chandrashekhar Shastri to the Kashi Sanskrit Series (No. '22) edition of the Nyaayabindu.

9. Cf. Th. Stcherbatsky, Buddhist Logic, Volume 1, pp. 155 ff.

10 Ibid.

11. T. R. V. Murti, The Central Philosophy of Buddhism, p. 152.

12. See, The Buddhist Philosophy of Universal Flux (Calcutta. 1935), p. 275.

13. Ibid p. 274 (See fn. 2 for Uddyokara's criticism).

14. Ibid.

15. Tattvasa"ngraha Pa~njikaa (Gaikwad's Oriental Series edition). p. 367.

16. Nyaayabindu (supra note 8), pp. 7, 8.

17. Op, cit. (Supra note 12), pp. 343-45.

18. Ibid p. 343.

19. Ibid p. 344,

20. Ibid.

21. Ibid p. 343.

Source

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