1 Our colleague Peter Schwieger is a well-known historian. Since his last book deals with The Dalai Lama and the Emperor of China. A Political History of the Tibetan Institution of Reincarnation, I thought that he might be curious to read this contribution by an anthropologist examining a reincarnation story set in contemporary times. This article deals with the young Ram Bahadur Bomjon, said by some to be the reincarnation of the Buddha. Ram Bahadur Bomjon: A New Buddha in the Making (Nepal)?1 Katia Buffetrille (EPHE/CRCAO) Introduction At the end of 2005, the Nepali media broke a story that soon ignited the international press: a 15 year-old Nepali youth, Ram Bahadur Bomjon, had been meditating in the jungle without food or drink2 for more than six months, sitting in the lotus position in the hollow of a pipal or ‘Bodhi’ tree. Originally from the Tamang ethnic group —a Tibeto-Burman speaking community practicing a Nyingma (rnying ma) form of Tibetan Buddhism which they link to Tibetan antiquity3 —he settled down near his village in the south of the country, in Bara district, not far from the Indian border. He announced that he would practice asceticism for six years in order to achieve enlightenment (bodhi), as did the Buddha. Every day, hundreds, then thousands of pilgrims arrived from Nepal, as well as from India and even from the West in the hope of meeting the one that some already started to consider as the “reincarnation of the Buddha.” This title, given by the pilgrims and taken up by the media, was quickly challenged by several local scholars, monks and laymen, for whom the Buddha, an enlightened being, has left the cycle of existence (samsāra), and therefore cannot have any reincarnation. The young boy himself stipulated during one of his rare public addresses that he was not a Buddha: he was just, so he said, on the way to enlightenment. He presented himself as a bodhisattva or future 1 I thank M.D. Even and D. Masset for their remarks and comments. I am very grateful to B. Steinmann who accepted to share with me the results of the fieldwork she did in 2015. Last but not least, I am deeply indebted to Matthew Akester who, as usual, took the time to correct my English. 2 See Olson 2014, 2: 1-14 on the violence the ascetics inflict upon themselves by fasting. 3 “The Nyingmapa Tamangs were « reformed » by the adoption of teachings related to the tertön (gter ston) Jatsön Nyingpo ( 'Ja’ tshon Nyingpo, 1585-1656).” Oral communication by B. Steinmann (October 9th 2016.). See Steinmann 2007: 58. Also Smith 2001: 241 and 330. 1 2 Buddha, a being who develops the aspiration for enlightenment, bodhicitta, in order to work for the good of others. The question of whether a human being can live without food or drink for several months was therefore at the heart of many discussions, on the internet and in newspapers, between researchers and journalists both Nepali and Western. While for some, such a statement proved that the whole affair was only a deception, others agreed that some great yogis had demonstrated such abilities.4 Western TV crews (BBC, CNN, Envoyé spécial, etc.) were sent to the scene to try to film the young meditator uninterruptedly for several days. But this was not possible. Indeed, barriers were erected to prevent the crowd from coming within forty meters of the tree where Ram Bahadur sat. In addition, from November 2005, a curtain was hung around him during the night —to protect him from the crowd, according to his older brother, who quickly became his spokesman. This decision immediately nourished the suspicions of the critics, who found in it confirmation of their certainty that the whole story was a piece of trickery to garner money. The films made by the Western media —that can be seen on YouTube5 —tried to give a balanced view. They present the comments and views of scientists —dieticians, psychologists, neuroscientists— and those of pilgrims and devotees, for whom the phenomenon was not so surprising. The Nepal government itself sent scientists charged with the task of determining whether Ram Bahadur was a highly spiritual being or a “crook”, but his entourage forbade them to make blood tests or even to examine him closely.6 This article does not address the question of the truth or the falsehood of the matter, but aims to show how and why a completely unknown young Nepali presented himself on the national and international scene as a great spiritual figure, despite many critics, and why the interest it generated quickly declined or even disappeared, at least in the media, even though the young Tamang has now established himself as a spiritual master, the guru of a community that, on November 29th 2010, took the name of “Bodhi Shrawan Kalyan Mitra Dharma Sangha 4 See http://www.lightdocumentary.com/ on “Yogi Prahlad Jani [who] allegedly did not eat and drink for more than 70 years.” 5 For example : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jQ7fpqPaeIc (570 060 views, October 19th, 2016), or https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0ZqEo3hdP_U (1 354 807 views, November 2016). 6 https://web.archive.org/web/20060328024904/http://www.nepalnews.com/archive/2006/others/feature/mar/news _feature04.php (October 20th, 2016). 2 3 (BSKDS), 7 or “Community [formed around] the Doctrine of the Spiritual Friends of the Enlightenment Tradition.” The Hagiography A biography, or rather a hagiography which we might call “official,” disseminated among others by the elder brother of Ram Bahadur, found its most complete version rather quickly on a website dedicated to Ram Bahadur.8 The information below comes from an interview with the elder brother conducted in 2006, from various conversations with other Nepali and Western informants, and from data published in English on many websites.9 Ram Bahadur was born on April 9, 1990, a full moon day, in a poor family of Tamang farmers. His mother was called Maya Devī —that is, it must be stressed, the name of the mother of the Buddha. He was the third of nine children. While small, we are told, his crying was like music, and he often had a very particular behaviour: he worshipped pipal trees —the tree under which Buddha achieved enlightenment— looked intensely at all religious people, and distinguished himself by a solitary and introverted character. Moreover, he never fought, and spoke little, but smiled a lot. His mother maintains that he never ate fish or meat,10 and never drank alcohol. She could not eat meat while pregnant with him because she immediately became sick. After studying for several years in a local school in southern Nepal, Ram Bahadur entered a monastery near the house of his parents for two years: he agreed to follow the five precepts of the laity - not to kill, steal, have sexual activity, lie, or take intoxicants - and received the religious name of Palden Dorje (Dpal ldan rdo rje).11 He then went to Lumbini, the birthplace of the Buddha, for a ceremony performed by a Sakyapa (sa skya pa) monk from Dehradun (Uttarakhand, India), whom he then accompanied to his monastery. After two years of study, he returned to his village. On May 16, 2005, he settled 7 http://paldendorje.com/en/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=23:dharma-teacers-decided-thefollowing&catid=1:news&Itemid=8 (access on April 8th, 2014, blocked in October 2016). See http://f1softhost.com/dharma_sangha/en/News/bodhi-shravan-dharma-sangha-central-committee-sworn-in.html (October 10th, 2016); http://f1soft-host.com/dharma_sangha/en/News/dharma-teachers-decided-the-following.html (October 10th 2016); 8 http://maitriya.info/en/maha-sambodhi-dharma-sangha-biography (October 14th, 2016). 9 Among them http://sikkimtamangyouthsociety.blogspot.fr/2012/11/Bouddha-boy-ram-bahadur-bomjon_1.html, http://maitriya.info/fr/maha-sambodhi-dharma-sangha-biography, (October 2016). http://mystiquearth.blogspot.fr/2008/11/ram-bahadur-bomjon-Bouddha-boy-re.html, (October 2016). http://www.Bouddhadharma.com/Palden.html (November 12th, 2014, blocked in October 2016). 10 Not eating meat or fish or being sick after eating them is considered in Buddhism as a sign of “holiness.” In the biography of Houei-chao, a famous Chinese monk from the 5th century, we read: “While an infant child, when his mother gave him fish or meat to eat, he vomited them at once” (Gernet 1960: 532. My translation). 11 http://maitriya.info/fr/maha-sambodhi-dharma-sangha-biography (October 4th, 2016). 3 4 under a pipal tree and began his meditation. Disturbed by young people, he moved to another pipal tree where he was discovered a few days later by villagers. In March 2006, Ram Bahadur disappeared and a large search operation was conducted, without any result. It was only in December that the villagers found him further inside the jungle. He told them that he had wandered in the forest and continued to practise the meditation that he had entered for six years. He was carrying a sword, a detail used by his critics to prove that he was no saint, and which he explained by the need to defend himself in the jungle, arguing that even the Buddha himself had to ensure his security. He returned to his place of meditation, but disappeared again in March 2007. This time he was found two weeks later. He asked for an underground place of meditation which was built where he stayed some months before beginning, in August 2007, to give teachings to thousands of people, while continuing to meditate, but in the open air. After 2008 he appears on websites under the name of Maitriya Guru Maha Sambodhi Dharma Sangha, 12 “Community [formed around] the Doctrine of the Great Enlightenment of the Master Maitreya.” In the teachings he gave in November 2008, he identified himself as a guru, a spiritual master who come to “liberate” all beings from suffering under the guidance of Maitreya, the future Buddha, whose coming will be at the time of the disappearance of Buddhism: Ram Bahadur reputedly had a vision of Maitreya, from whom he received teachings, during his long meditation. The biography of Ram Bahadur is not devoid of miracles, presented as irrefutable evidence of his spiritual abilities. We have already spoken of his complete abstinence from food and drink during the six years that his meditation lasted. Although twice bitten by poisonous snakes at the beginning of his asceticism, he was in no way affected. 13 In November 2005, many devotees said that they saw a light emanating from his forehead. It is also said that elephants bowed down in front of him, and that a young man and a young woman, struck dumb, recovered the power of speech after meeting him.14 In addition, in January 2008, a fire emanated from his body, igniting his shawl. In a film that was shown to me on the spot by the brother of Ram Bahadur, and now available on 12 http://maitriya.info/fr/ (October 5th, 2016) 13 BBC 30_11_05) http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/4479240.stm (October 14th, 2016). This story reminds that of the God Śiva who, at the time of the churning of the ocean of milk which is the source of all the wonders of creation, takes the poison which threatens the universe and survives. 14 http://www.dharma-sangha.com/docs/default-source/press-articles/nepali-aawaz-fortnightly.pdf?sfvrsn=6 (October 14th, 2016). 4 5 YouTube,15 one can see him sitting cross-legged, naked, surrounded by a fire whose heat he does not seem to feel. Then he stands up, holding in his hands a vajra and a bell, and turns around while the fire continues to burn without him being affected in any way. Many people have explained this phenomenon by the ability gained in his practice of one of the six dharmas of Naropa16, called tumo (Tib. gtum mo) or “internal heat.” This technique for the mastery of sexual energy, the aim of which is the purification of mental defilements, entails a significant rise in body temperature. It belongs to the completion stage (Tib. rdzogs rim) of the Anuttarayogatantra, and is mainly practised in the Kagyüpa (Bka’ brgyud pa) and Gelugpa (Dge lugs pa) schools of Tibetan Buddhism. Adepts are generally between 16 and 40 years old (Huber 1999: 87). This explanation, however, is problematic because adepts of tumo are especially known to resist the cold and to be able to dry a soaked cloth wrapped around them while they remain meditating in the icy wilderness of the high mountains (Huber 1999: 87ff). The experience of Ram Bahadur rather resembles practices characteristic of Indian ascetics, seeking the “internal heat” by staying “near the fire, or under the sun” (Renou-Filliozat 1985, I: 372, my translation). According to the testimony of the Manu Laws, which date from the beginning of our era, some of them “expose themselves in summer to the solar heat, reinforced by four fires lit around them” (ibid: 602). 17 Seeking thus the contact of fire, and showing his deep affinity for an element to which it seems to be invulnerable, Ram Bahadur takes over a very ancient Indian tradition. Accusations without power Between 2008 and July 2010, Ram Bahadur disappeared and reappeared regularly in various places in southern Nepal. At that time, he again appeared on the front page of the local newspapers but, this time, for very different reasons: either for exercising violence, or because his followers were involved in various incidents. 15 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kjbiPDh4G_o https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1rpWWm8PDDc (312 104 views on October 14th, 2016). 16 The six dharmas of Naropa are a set of tantric techniques. Naropa (1016-1100), a mahāsiddha (Tib. grub thob chen po, Great adept”), an Indian student of Tilopa (988-1069), transmitted them to the Tibetan master Marpa (1012-1097), who taught them to Milarepa (1040-1123), whose followers founded the various branches of the Kagyüpa school. Tsongkhapa (Tsong kha pa), the founder of the Gelugpa school, also received the transmission of these six dharmas, which explains their importance in the Kagyü and Gelug schools. See Cornu 2001: 541ff. 17 See Tarabout 2005: 143-169. 5 6 From 2010, incidents that tarnished his public image multiplied.18 He was first accused of attacking a young man with a sword, then of beating a group of seventeen villagers who came to pick berries and disturbed his meditation. They filed a complaint. In 2012, two young women, at least one of whom is said to have been one of his disciples, were kidnapped for several months and were accused by Ram Bahadur of practicing witchcraft to hinder his meditation. Moreover, one of them accused one of his followers of rape. His brothers and sisters intervened, and advised him to disengage himself from followers whose misbehaviour might endanger his position (April 2012). In response, he also beat them. Finally, it was learned that a fake birth certificate was issued in the name of Bodhi Shrawan Dharma Sangha, “Community [formed around] the Doctrine of the Enlightenment tradition” to obtain a citizenship certificate under that name. 19 Nevertheless, all these various allegations, even when brought to court, do not seem to have had any consequences, and Ram Bahadur continued to give teachings to followers who remain loyal to him. His popularity is thus not affected by all the rumors about him, even by websites created to expose more widely the misdemeanours of which he and some of his followers were accused. Note that from November 2014, when I returned to these sites, some were blocked, but by June 2015, and still in October 2016, access to some of them had been restored.20 Ram Bahadur has established branches of his organization abroad: mostly in Eastern Europe, mainly in Russia with twenty-eight centers in Ukraine, Belarus, Kazakhstan, and also in Japan, Germany and the United States, among others.21 According to the French magazine Paris Match,22 on May 20th 2011, a ceremony to celebrate his “Enlightenment” was attended by thousands of people in a forest in southern Nepal. It was on this day that he resumed eating. Internet sites devoted to him specify that in 2008, he attained enlightenment, like the Buddha, at Bodh Gaya (I have not found any mention of this trip to Bodh Gaya anywhere else).23 Ram Bahadur gives his teachings in a reedy voice, and in a monotone, sometimes with hesitation. They are rather banal, but with a commitment to universality. He presents an 18 http://www.halkoria.myewebsite.com/articles/media/correction-of-errors-about-Bouddhaboy-in-themedia.html (May 4th, 2014. Lack of access in November 2014 and in October 2016). http://www.halkoria.myewebsite.com/articles/their-guru/ (May 4th, 2014. Lack of access in November 2014, access possible in June 2015 and October 2016). http://www.halkoria.myewebsite.com/ (May 4th 2014. Blocked in November 2014, access in June 2015. Blocked in October 2016). 19 http://maitriyaguru.blogspot.fr/ (October 19th, 2016). 20 http://www.halkoria.myewebsite.com/articles/their-guru/ 21 http://maitriya.info/en/bodhi-Mo-dharma-sangha (October 19th, 2016). 22 http://www.parismatch.com/Actu/International/Le-retour-de-Little-Bouddha-148329 (October 19th, 2016). 23 http://maitriya.info/en/maha-sambodhi-dharma-sangha-biography (October 19th, 2016). 6 7 apocalyptic vision of the world that knows only violence, murder, greed, anger and temptation, a world that can only be saved through spirituality 24 and the practice of the Dharma. He presents himself as the spiritual master, the guru who has come to save all beings of the world and bring peace. He is said to be endowed with the benevolence (Sanskrit: maitri) of Maitreya.25 He advocates a moral code in eleven points,26 including among others tolerance between all religions, the end of all discrimination (caste, religion, gender or race) and the abolition of blood sacrifices (still common in Nepal).27 In 2009, he called for an end to animal sacrifices28 during the festival in honor of the goddess Gadhimai in southern Nepal. This festival, held every five years, during which hundreds of thousands of animals are killed, attracts thousands of Nepalis as well as Indians from Uttar Pradesh and Bihar where sacrifices are banned. He added his voice to those of many animal welfare activists and on 28 July 2015, Ram Chandra Shah, chairman of the temple’s trust, announced in a press release that the Gadhimai temple would renounce animal sacrifices during the festival: “The Gadhimai Temple Trust hereby declares our formal decision to end animal sacrifice. With your help, we can ensure Gadhimai 2019 is free from bloodshed. Moreover, we can ensure Gadhimai 2019 is a momentous celebration of life.”29 The situation is still not clear, the Trust having declared some days after that it was forced by an NGO to make the announcement and that they alone cannot stop this centuries-old tradition. 30 Ram Bahadur also promotes vegetarianism 31 By 24 http://glauxberg.blogspot.fr/2013/03/palden-dorje-Bouddha-by.html (Teaching given on August 2nd, 2007, access October 19th, 2016). 25 http://loveinspiration.co.nz/maha_Sam.php (Accesss on November 9th, 2014; no access in October 2016). 26 http://maitriya.info/en/news/150/the-eleven-maitri-precepts (October 2016). 27 The Eleven Maitri Precepts 1. Never discriminate on the basis of name, appearance, complexion, class, belief, community, power, position, or qualification; even discard differentiating between the concepts of material and spiritual. 2. Being acquainted with the Eternal Dharma, the Path, and the Guru, respect all religions and beliefs. 3. Forsake lying, allegations, counter-allegations, belittling and spreading falsehood through baseless gossip. 4. Forsaking philosophies or ways that make boundaries of divisiveness and difference of opinion, take up the Satya Marga – The Perfect Path. 5. Following the Satya GuruMarga – the True and Perfect GuruPath – throughout life, renouncing evil actions, always remain intent in union with the Guru Tattva – The Guru Essence. 6. Not having reached enlightenment oneself, do not seek to prove what it is with clever words; and while still in confusion, do not make others confused. 7. Renouncing such craven behavior as killing sentient beings and violence, consume wholesome food. 8. Do not keep narrow-minded thoughts about people and countries on the basis of national identity. 9. Including oneself in the pursuit of the Satya GuruMarga – the True and Perfect GuruPath – perform actions that benefit the Earth. 10. When one realizes the Truth, the GuruMarga – the GuruPath – takes form, so achieve Enlightenment for all sentient beings. 11. Staying in the highest and deepest state of Chitta – Pure Awareness – be free from all bondage by having assimilated within the self these precepts. 28 http://www.vegetari1.net/article-des-nouvelles-du-petit-boudha-nepalais-58871489.html (October 2016). 29 http://www.sanskritimagazine.com/indian-religions/hinduism/victory-animal-sacrifice-banned-duringgadhimai-festival-in-nepal/ See also http://www.fondationbrigittebardot.fr/international/animaux-domestiques/actualites/Gadhimai2014 30 http://admin.myrepublica.com/feature-article/story/25873/reported-animal-sacrifice-ban-at-gadhimai-wasforced.html 7 8 doing so, he subscribes to the international vegetarian discourse related to environmental protection, abhorrence of slaughter, and healthy lifestyle principles. Since September 2013, Ram Bahadur has been living in a valley of the middle hills, below the village of Malemchigaon in Helambu, on a piece of land measuring 136 ropani32 donated by a Sherpa living in the US.33 A website shows pictures of his disciples (monks and nuns) about whom I could not find any information.34 His followers, shaved headed, are all dressed in a blue monastic robe with a white shirt. He himself wears a blue shirt decorated with a white border and a white dress, and keeps his long hair loose. Blue clothing is rarely worn in the religious community. Only Bönpo and some tantric adepts sometimes dressed in this unusual color.35 He is also surrounded by a certain number of Western disciples who claim to have been in direct contact with the guru either in dreams or via telepathy.36 Prestigious models One factor that may explain the success of this young guru with the public is an attractive image, conceived in imitation of prestigious models that have a much higher radiance than the Tamang religious specialists. As already said, the Tamang follow the Nyingma school of Tibetan Buddhism, but they have developed their own form of Buddhism with some local and Hindu cults, a cult of the ancestors and of the clan-gods, to which we should add shamanic practices. Moreover, Tamang Buddhism is non-monastic. The lama is the most important and respected of the practitioners: he is a married man, engaged in everyday life activities, even if he avoids plowing. His title is passed from father to son. He receives the teachings from a master (guru), and he gives oral teachings based on books written in a Tibetan mixed with Tamang terms. He is responsible for funeral rituals and for the ritual of the gods of the clan, among other things. Other specialists also intervene, including the lambu who makes sacrifices to propitiate deities and to appease evil spirits, and the shaman or bompo.37 31 http://maitriya.info/en/maha-sambodhi-dharma-sangha-biography (October 16th, 2016); http://carsthemovie.top/?p=429 (October 16th, 2016). 32 One ropani = about 500 m2. 33 Oral communication from B. Steinmann (October 9th, 2016). 34 http://maitriya.info/en/photo/1939/maitriya-guru-maha-sambodhi-dharma-sangha-in-a-car-decorated-withmaitriyaflags?utm_source=feedburner&utm_medium=feed&utm_campaign=Feed%3A+en%2Fmaitriya+%28en %29&utm_content=FaceBook 35 This color is contrary to the monastic discipline codes of ancient Buddhism: according to the Vinaya (PTS edition, I, 306 and II, 268), it is forbidden for religious followers to wear blue, brown, crimson or black robes... (I thank Danièle Masset for this reference). 36 Oral communication from B. Steinmann (October 9th, 2016). 37 Steinmann 1989: 127-146; Holmberg 1996:2. 8 9 However, Ram Bahadur does not attempt to follow in the footsteps of these “religious technicians,” but rather those of the great spiritual leaders. As is the case for many Indian and Tibetan masters, his hagiography contains clichés that tend to prove that he was predestined to become a great religious figure, such as exhibiting the behaviour of a child prodigy, spiritual aspirations manifested at an early age, and an abundance of miraculous signs. We find these common assumptions in the Buddhist tradition, but also in the Hindu world, for example with Shobha Ma (Clémentin Ojha 1990: 50ff), a village girl from eastern Bengal who became a guru, and runs an ashram in Varanasi that she founded herself. But the main model to whom Ram Bahadur constantly refers in his life as in his spiritual journey is the Buddha, whose path he seems to mimic: by his birth —not far from Lumbini— to a mother whose name was the same as that of the Buddha’s; his six years of asceticism in the forest, reminiscent of the six years of mortification to which the Buddha dedicated himself before understanding that such practices would not allow him to put an end to the cycle of rebirth; and lastly because, like the Buddha, he claims to have attained enlightenment in Bodh Gaya. The identification with this model, which might appear overwhelming for such a young person, was facilitated by the manifestation of abilities unusual for a boy of fifteen: over a period of several months, he would remain absolutely motionless for days on end, under the eyes of pilgrims as well as cameras. It should also be noted that the almost messianic reference to the Buddha Maitreya, to whom he is said to be related, promotes the cult that developed around him, since it is with Maitreya that the advent of the golden age is expected. It may be emphasized that his position in the field of religion is justified not only by his references to the Buddha, but also by his (short) monastic education in a Sakyapa school. Through this link, he may stand among the representatives of Tibetan Buddhism, the most celebrated of all being the Dalai Lama. One site38 even asserts that the hierarch gave Ram Bahadur the label “guru of the guru.” 39 Considering how Tibetan lamas look down upon Tamang practitioners, the appearance of Ram Bahadur as a local and international religious figure can be seen as a revenge of the Tamang over the Tibetans. Moreover, the success of Ram Bahadur can rekindle a feeling of pride among the Tamang population. As is well-known, Tibetan Buddhism, which has spread around the world since the Chinese invasion of the 1950s and the escape of many masters into exile, is considered positively in the West, where it has many followers. For its part, the Western media finds in the history of 38 http://thehimalayanvoice.blogspot.fr/2013/05/writing-on-Bouddha-boy-ram-bomjon-palden.html (October 20th, 2016). 39 I found nothing on the Tibetan side to support this assertion. 9 10 the “little Buddha” all the ingredients peculiar to this mythical Tibet that continues to feed the fantasies of a public eager for wonders. Finally, by using Sanskrit to designate himself and to name his community of disciples, Ram Bahadur clearly manifests the will to be connected with the most authentic Indian tradition: in the Indian sub-continent, Sanskrit is, even today, the sacred language par excellence —that of Hinduism, but also of Mahāyāna Buddhism. All this could only capture the imagination of a Nepali population sensitive to mystical experiences and which, from the beginning of the People's War launched by the Maoists in 1996 to its end in 2006, has experienced constant instability and political conflicts, and has lived every moment in fear. The Political Context The political situation 40 in Nepal in the 2000s is an important factor in explaining the appearance of this new guru and his success with the public. In February 1996, the Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist), whose role was decisive during the 1990 popular uprising, launched the “People's War” following the refusal by the government to consider its requests in Forty-Points Demand. Nepali Maoists, although historically aligned with the Indian Naxalites,41 claim to adhere to orthodox Maoism. The first violence broke out in the west, in the districts of Rolpa, Rukum and Sindhuli, then spread to the eastern regions in 1998. The massacre of the royal family on 1 June 2001, followed by the autocratic rule of King Gyanendra, the younger brother of the murdered king, only accentuated the conflict: it resulted in the death of more than 13,000 people according to official figures, and more than 100 000 displaced persons fleeing conflict areas. On 1 February 2005, a year qualified as one of “terror,”42 the king seized all powers by force under the pretext of restoring order —while the Maoist insurgency recurred with greater intensity after his accession to the throne— provoking a strong opposition movement. On 24 April 2006, he was obliged to restore the Parliament under popular and international pressure, but the days of the monarchy were by then numbered, and in November 2006, the new prime minister signed a peace agreement with the Maoist leader. The Nepali guerrilla insurgency that lasted ten years had a significant impact on the economy as well as on education, culture and also religion. While Nepal did not experience the 40 See Anne de Sales http://transcontinentales.revues.org/498 Naxalites were Indian Maoists who formed a new group in 1967 following a split in the Communist Party of India. 42 Lecomte-Tilouine 2010: 14. 41 10 11 atrocities that marked Mao Zedong’s rule in China, the “people's fighters” sought to impose a moral order that was applied in areas they controlled with varying degrees of determination.43 Any form of caste or gender discrimination, polygamy, alcohol consumption and child marriage, was banned. Animal sacrifices and religious festivals were banned in theory, but some persisted, even with the help of local Maoist (as in Halase). 44 Many temples were closed. Towards the shamans, they have sometimes sought to banish their practices as superstitions, at least for a time,45 but other times their attitude was more conciliatory and they seem to have left them be, at least in certain areas about which we have information. Perhaps, as was explained one day by an informant of the anthropologist Marie Lecomte, an expert in these matters, “because they too are sick” and use the therapeutic services of the shamans.46 Although it is not known what relationship Ram Bahadur had with the Nepalese Maoists, it can be said that they did not prevent his ascetic practice, probably because his teachings echoed some demands of the Maoists, for example an end to discrimination and blood sacrifices. The Maoist presence also had a significant impact on the history of our young master Ram Bahadur, arousing other controversies. His spiritual abilities were not the only point that was debated: after he settled in the Terai, shops and restaurants were established to meet the needs of the thousands of pilgrims who came every day on foot, by bike, car or bus, transforming a deserted jungle area into an active market. Pictures, brochures and DVDs of the master were being snapped up. Large sums of money were collected through their sale, but also thanks to the many donations that were made to the young meditator. Rumors began to circulate, often in the media: was this money not used to replenish the war chests of the Maoists and thus help them take power? Thus, for the district chief, the whole story was a Maoist plot. Others accused Ram Bahadur of being a crook enriched through the gullibility of crowds. The government eventually became involved and the assets that he and his family held in the bank (up to 600,000Rs according to some people, about 5000 €, a large sum in Nepal) were frozen. In analyzing the reasons that made the success of Ram Bahadur as a spiritual master, the political situation and the personality of this guru —ultimately not such a new sort of guru— are not matters to be neglected 43 Lecomte 2010; Ghimire 2008-2009: 123-141. See Buffetrille 2012: 163-208. 45 See de Sales 2013: 465-481. 46 Oral communication by Marie Lecomte (8 April 2014). 44 11 12 Ram Bahadur Tamang appeared at a time of extreme political tension: in 2005, the war was at its most intense. His charisma, which cannot be denied, certainly helped to promote his cult. In interviews with pilgrims and devotees, it is obvious that for them he emanated the kind of charisma that Max Weber (1995: 320) described as the “extraordinary quality [...] of an individual personality who is, so to speak endowed with supernatural powers or qualities, or at least outside everyday life, inaccessible to ordinary mortals; or is regarded as sent by God or as an example, and therefore considered as a leader.”47 The appearance of charismatic personages in periods of political conflict and their disappearance at the end of the turmoil is not uncommon, as can be seen from another example, the “Nyemo incident”, which started in late 1966 in Central Tibet, southwest of Lhasa.48 In the early years of the Cultural Revolution, two rival Maoist factions composed of Tibetans and Chinese, called Gyenlog (“Rebel”, Gyen log) and Nyamdrel (“Alliance”, Mnyam 'brel) struggled for control of the TAR. The conflict spread to rural areas, including Nyemo county (Snye mo rdzong), where the incident took place. A young nun, Trinle Chödrön (‘Phrin las chos sgron), whom some considered mad, asserted that she was possessed by Ane Gongme Gyalmo, (A ne gong ma’i rgyal mo), the aunt and celestial advisor of Gesar, the hero of the great Tibetan epic, and aligned herself with the “Rebel” faction. Despite the suspicions of some people, she won the trust of many. She promised her followers supernatural protection to wage war against the enemies of Buddhism, her aim being to defend the religion, which was then under constant attack. A first victory led the Gyenlok leaders to use her to attract new supporters, despite the reluctance of some who saw in her a manifestation of Tibetan superstition. Soon, a certain number of villagers began to be possessed in turn by various characters of Gesar’s entourage and became a sort of personal bodyguard of the nun, who was herself perceived as a deity defending Buddhism. Later, they would play an active role in the murder and mutilation of many of their opponents. At that time when restrictions on religion were at their peak, Nyemo appeared as a kind of island where religion persisted, and moreover was supported by a Maoist revolutionary movement, but with one only purpose: to defeat its rivals. The so-called "Nyemo incident" was ultimately a total failure for the “Rebels.” The nun was executed and the “guards” of her entourage were killed, either in the fighting or by execution. In this case, as in that of Ram Bahadur, we are witnessing the emergence of charismatic figures in a very difficult political situation. It is likely that the “Nyemo incident” would not 47 48 My translation. See Goldstein et al. 2009. 12 13 have taken place without the chaos created by the Cultural Revolution. Maybe the young Tamang spiritual master would not have experienced such success if he had appeared in different circumstances? Conclusion Nepal is no longer suffering the horrors of the people’s war, but the country is still battered by other disasters. The earthquakes of 25 April and 12 May 2015 that hit the country hard will certainly have a significant impact on the relationship that Nepalis have with their gods, and therefore with those they consider their spiritual masters. The vicissitudes of Ram Bahadur’s career are certainly not coming to an end, as we see from his re-establishment with his followers in the middle hills. Also, the controversy between supporters and opponents of the guru continues on the internet, where critical sites are blocked, then unblocked, showing that the interest he has raised is not extinguished. To date, it is impossible to know what future awaits the one who calls himself Maitriya Guru Maha Sambodhi Dharma Sangha: will he continue, thanks to his charisma and the efforts of his entourage, to generate a veneration that will make him a spiritual master who will leave a mark on his era, or will he eventually slip into oblivion, soon replaced by a new charismatic guru?49 BIBLIOGRAPHIE Buffetrille, Katia. 2012. “Low Tricks and high Stakes surrounding a Holy Place in Eastern Nepal: The Halesi Māratika Caves”. In Buffetrille, Katia (ed.) Revisiting Rituals in a Changing Tibetan World. Leiden-Boston: Brill, 163-208. 49 Since this article was written (2016), other accusations have been relayed by the press: rape of a nun in 2018 and even suspicion of murder of two men and two women who disappeared from the ashram. Following a raid of the place by the police in January 2019, Ram Bahadur withdrew himself all of a sudden from public sphere. 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