History of Science in South Asia
A journal for the history of all forms of scientific thought and action, ancient and modern, in all regions of South Asia
Al-Bīrūnī’s India, Chapter 14: an Account of
Indian Astronomical, Mathematical and Other
Literature
Noémie Verdon and Michio Yano
Kyoto University and Kyoto Sangyo University
style citation form: Noémie Verdon and Michio Yano. “Al-Bīrūnī’s India, Chapter 14: an Account of
Indian Astronomical, Mathematical and Other Literature.” History of Science in South Asia, 8 (2020): 57–76.
DOI: 10.18732/hssa.v8i.54.
MLA
Online version available at: http://hssa-journal.org
HISTORY OF SCIENCE IN SOUTH ASIA
A journal for the history of all forms of scientific thought and action, ancient and modern, in all
regions of South Asia, published online at http://hssa-journal.org
ISSN 2369-775X
Editorial Board:
•
•
•
•
•
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Dominik Wujastyk, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada
Kim Plofker, Union College, Schenectady, United States
Dhruv Raina, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India
Clemency Montelle, University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand
Fabrizio Speziale, School of Advanced Studies in the Social Sciences (EHSS), Paris, France
Michio Yano, Kyoto Sangyo University, Kyoto, Japan
Gudrun Bühnemann, University of Wisconsin-Madison, USA
Publisher:
History of Science in South Asia
Principal Contact:
Dominik Wujastyk, Editor, University of Alberta
Email: ⟨wujastyk@ualberta.ca⟩
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Al-Bīrūnī’s India, Chapter 14: an Account of
Indian Astronomical, Mathematical and Other
Literature
Noémie Verdon and Michio Yano
Kyoto University and Kyoto Sangyo University
INTRODUCTION
A of information for various aspects of Indian culture. Since al-Bīrūnī’s main
L-BĪRŪNĪ’S KITĀB TAḤQĪQ MĀ LI-L-HIND (hereafter Taḥqīq, ca. 1030 CE) is a mine
interest was in astronomy and astrology, it is natural that he devoted many pages
of this book – in fact, half of it – to these two sciences. Much of its content
that is related to these scientific fields is extremely precious to Indologists who
study the history of science, because this testimony sheds light on Indian texts
and authors who are otherwise not extant or unknown within Sanskrit literature.
Today, our understanding of al-Bīrūnī’s works, from the perspective of history
of Indian astronomy and mathematics, mostly relies on studies done by Carl Edward Sachau, David Pingree, N. A. Baloch and E. S. Kennedy. There is, however,
no monograph dedicated to this question, and information which can be drawn
from these important studies is still fragmentary. In this article we would like
to offer an English translation of Chapter 14, in which al-Bīrūnī gives very rich
information on Indian astronomy and astrology.
Sachau published the Arabic edition of the Taḥqīq in 1887, with a valuable
introduction. Later, he translated the work into English (1888) with rich annotations.1 Sachau laid the essential foundations for the study of al-Bīrūnī’s book.
1 We base our translation on the Hyderabad
edition of the Taḥqīq, referred to as Taḥqīq
(1958), and indicate when its reading di-
verges from that of Sachau’s edition: Taḥqīq
(1887).
HISTORY OF SCIENCE IN SOUTH ASIA 8 (2020) 57–76
DOI: 10.18732/HSSA.V8I.54
58
AL-BĪRŪNĪ’S INDIA, CHAPTER 14
Even though he was not a Sanskritist, many of his identifications of Indian texts,
authors and concepts remain valid today. A peculiarity of Sachau’s translation,
however, is that it is rather liberal, mostly when the Arabic original is obscure and
intricate, and thus it can at times be misleading. Further, more than a century
has passed since Sachau’s publications. In the last hundred years, many works
on Indian astronomy, astrology and mathematics have appeared. For instance,
whereas Sachau knew about the existence of a manuscript of the Brāhmasphuṭasiddhānta (hereafter BSS), which he names Brāhmasiddhānta, probably following
al-Bīrūnī’s designation, he also writes that it had “not yet been completely edited
or translated” at the time (Sachau 1888: II, 303). In 1973, N. A. Baloch edited and
translated al-Bīrūnī’s translation of the Karaṇatilaka (Baloch 1973). Baloch’s introduction to the translations offered interesting insights into al-Bīrūnī’s knowledge
of Indian astronomy and the context in which he had prepared his translation.
Baloch also discussed the transmission of Sanskrit astronomical works to the Abbasid caliphate in the middle of the eighth century CE. Lastly, especially important are David Pingree’s works. His Census of Exact Sciences in Sanskrit (hereafter
CESS) is one of the most significant contributions to Indology and history of science in the twentieth century.2 Pingree’s studies on the Pauliśasiddhānta and on
the author Balabhadra have also been particularly helpful (Pingree 1969; 1983).
With Pingree’s works at hand we are in a position offer numerous additions and
corrections to Sachau’s translation. This paper offers some examples.
We begin by providing below an updated translation of Chapter 14 of the
Taḥqīq and – to the extent possible – we contextualize it in the footnotes. In this
chapter, al-Bīrūnī gives the table of contents of the work which he calls Brāhmasiddhānta. In the appendix of the present article, we compare this list with
the table of contents found in S. Dvivedin’s edition of the Brāhmasphuṭasiddhānta
(BSS).
2 Since CESS is incomplete, we also referred
to his book Jyotiḥśāstra (Pingree 1981).
HISTORY OF SCIENCE IN SOUTH ASIA 8 (2020) 57–76
NOÉMIE VERDON AND MICHIO YANO
59
CHAP TER 1 4 : O N THE RECO RD O F THEIR BO O K S IN THE
OTHER S CIENCES 3
Sciences are many, and by the periodic change of ideas about them, they increase
when their time is favourable. The characteristic of such [time] is the desire and
respect of people for [sciences] and its practitioners.
And those who are more entitled to this (i.e., the growth of science) are those
who rule over the [people], because their (i.e., the rulers’) work is to unload the
hearts overwhelmed by worldly stress and to stimulate4 inclination to increase
praise and favour, because hearts are disposed to the love of this and to the hate
of its opposite.
Our time is not of this described characteristic. But on the contrary, if that
is necessarily the case, when does a [new] science appear, or [when] does what
has appeared progress?5
But what is found now is a residue and a remnant of the time which used to be
of this characteristic. When something spreads all over the earth, all [groups of
people] on [earth] receive their share. India is one of them. Their (i.e., Indians’)
belief in [cyclic] change of time agrees with visual observation.6
The science of stars is most famous among them, because the matters of religion are dependent on it. The title of astrologer and astronomer does not occur by mere computation to those who do not understand the judgements [of
stars]. That which our authors know as “Sindhind” is [their] “Siddhānta” or
“upright,” not crooked and not changeable. This name refers to each science of
3 In the preceding two chapters of the
Taḥqīq, al-Bīrūnī discusses religious, grammatical and poetic literature. In chapter 14,
he chiefly deals with astronomical, astrological and mathematical literature, while
briefly mentioning the Carakasaṃhitā and
the Pañcatantra. (On the Carakasaṃhitā in the
Taḥqīq, see also Sachau 1888: I, 162–3, 382–
3.) In his translation of this title, Sachau
adds elements absent in the Arabic original.
His translation is as follows: “Hindu literature in the other sciences, astronomy, astrology, etc.” (Sachau 1888: I, 152). In general, in the Taḥqīq al-Bīrūnī very rarely uses
a specific adjective referring to the Indians.
When he does so, the Arabic term is either
the collective noun al-hind ( YJêË@), i.e., India or Indian, or a derived adjective al-hindī
( ø YJêË@), i.e., Indian. Sachau constantly
translates these Arabic terms as “Hindu,”
and regularly adds the adjective, even when
the term does not occur in the Arabic text.
4 Taḥqīq (1887): 73, line 4: QîE., Taḥqīq
(1958): 118, line 1: QîE.
5 The Arabic passage is rather idiomatic.
Sachau translates in the following way:
“The present times, however, are not of this
kind. They are the very opposite, and therefore it is quite impossible that a new science
or any new kind of research should arise in
our days” (Sachau 1888: I, 152).
6 This sentence appears a little out of context, but it simply serves as a transition
sentence between the discussion on the developments of ideas and sciences and the
actual topic considered hereafter in the
chapter, science of stars. At any rate, alBīrūnī appears to consider (cyclic) change
of time as true.
HISTORY OF SCIENCE IN SOUTH ASIA 8 (2020) 57–76
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AL-BĪRŪNĪ’S INDIA, CHAPTER 14
computation of stars that rises to the highest rank for them, even though for us
they fall short of our Zīğes, and they are five: (1) Sūryasiddhānta related to the
sun, which Lāṭa composed. (2) Vasiṣṭhasiddhānta related to one of the stars of
the Great Bear 7 and which Viṣṇucandra composed.8 (3) Pulisasiddhānta, related
to Paulisa,9 who was a Greek [man] from the city of Sayntara which I think is
Alexandria10 and Pulisa composed [this text]. (4) Romakasiddhānta, related to
Byzantium and which Aŝrīkhīn composed.11 (5) Brāhmasiddhānta12 related to
Brāhma and which Brahmagupta, the son of Jiṣṇu, composed in the city of Bhillamāla, which is between Multān and Anhilwāra,13 by [a distance of] 16 yojanas.
All of them are based on the book of Paitāmaha which is related to the first father
who is Brahmā.14
Varāhamihira composed a small-sized Zīğ, which he calls Pañcasiddhāntikā.
The title implies that it contains what are in the [afore-mentioned] five, but it is
not [just] like that. And this [book] is not superior to them, so as to call it better
than the five. But the name is established as five because of their number.15
Then, Brahmagupta says16 that the Siddhāntas are many. One of them is
7 Vasiṣṭha is 𝜁 Ursae Majoris. Cf. Bṛhatsaṃhitā 13.5-6.
8 For Viṣṇucandra, see CESS: A5, 704. His
name is found in BSS XI, 31, 50 and 55.
9 Pulisa/Paulisa is Pauliśa in Varāhamihira’s Pañcasiddhāntikā (PS). Pingree
(1969) discusses the later Pulisa known to
al-Bīrūnī.
10 The two Arabic editions read sayntra
( QJ). According to al-Bīrūnī, this corresponds to Alexandria. There are several cities known as Alexandria (Dey 1927: 4; Bhattacharyya 1991: 56–7).
11 Sachau identifies this name as Śrīsheṇa,
i.e., Śrīṣeṇa, which is possible since the interchange of /ṣ/ and /kh/ is a common phenomena in north Indian writing systems.
See below where Ṣat- of Ṣatpañcaśika is written Khatt-. Śrīṣeṇa is mentioned in BSS XI,
31, 46 and 55.
12 Actually, there exists a Brahmasiddhānta
which is different from Brahmagupta’s
Brāhmasphuṭasiddhānta,
edited by S.
Dvivedin (Benares, 1901–1902, abbreviated
BSS). The Brahmasiddhānta is included in
the compendium Jyotiṣasiddhāntasaṃgraha
edited by V. P. Dvivedin (Benares, 1912).
See the Appendix to this article (p. 68
below) for a commented comparison of
the division into chapters of the Brahmasiddhānta with that found in S. Dvivedin’s
edition of the Brāhmasphuṭasiddhānta.
13 Anhilwāra ( èP@ñÊîE@), also known as
Nahrvāra, corresponds to the Sanskrit
toponym Anahilapurapattana and today’s
Pattan/Patan (23∘ 52’N, 72∘ 10’E) in Gujarat
(Dey 1927: 6; Bhattacharyya 1991: 67, 227;
Bosworth and Minorsky 1937: 88, 238, 245).
Anhilwāra was ruled by a king known
as Balla-ray (i.e., Vallabha-rāja of the
Rāṣṭrakūṭa dynasty) in Arabic and Persian
sources.
14 Pingree (1969: 177–9) discusses this
passage.
15 This remark is not easy to understand.
Al-Bīrūnī perhaps means that the title only
refers to the number of the five well-known
Siddhāntas, but that Varāhamihira’s work
differs from them in content. Anyway the
Pañcasiddhāntikā al-Bīrūnī used might have
been different from what we have today.
16 We cannot find the relevant passage of
this statement. Therefore it is difficult to determine where exactly the quotation ends.
HISTORY OF SCIENCE IN SOUTH ASIA 8 (2020) 57–76
NOÉMIE VERDON AND MICHIO YANO
61
“Sūrya,” one of them is “Indu”,17 one of them is “Pulisa,” one of them is “Romaka,” one of them is “Vasiṣṭha,” and one of them is “Yavana”,18 namely Greek.
In spite of their abundance, they don’t differ [from each other]; only the wording [differs], not the meaning. [A man] who looks at them with a right attention
will find their [points of] agreement. By now I do not have any copy [of them],
except the ones by Pulisa and by Brahmagupta. Its translation by me is still not
complete, but I record the list of the chapters of the Brāhmasiddhānta, because this
would be helpful for [its] understanding.19
1. On the conditions of the sphere and the shape of heaven and earth.20
2. On the rotations of the planets and the study of time, the derivation of mean
[longitude of] planets, and computation of the Sines (ğuyūb) of arcs.
3. On the equation of planets.
4. On three questions which are the shadow [of gnomon], the time passed in
the day, and the ascendant and derivation of one from the other.
5. On the appearance of the planets from the sun’s ray and their disappearance in it.
6. On the sight of the new moon (hilāl) and the condition of moon’s horns.
7. On the lunar eclipse.
8. On the solar eclipse.
9. On the shadow of the moon.
10. On the conjunction of the planets and their meeting.
11. On the latitudes of the [fixed] stars.
12. On the criticism of the books and the Zīğes and on the distinction between
the true and the false.
13. On mathematics and its study of plane geometry and others.
14. On the correction (uttara) of the mean planets.21
15. On the correction of the equation the planets.
16. On the correction of the three questions.
17 Since indu means the Moon, al-Bīrūnī
might be referring to the Somasiddhānta,
which is contained in the Jyotiṣasiddhāntasaṃgraha mentioned in footnote 12.
18 Yavana is mentioned again later as one of
the books on astrology. We do not know any
book on astronomy called Yavana.
19 See Appendix, p. 68 below.
20 In S. Dvivedin’s edition this is the 21st
chapter titled Golādhyāya. See Appendix.
The text known to al-Bīrūnī is different
from that of S. Dvivedin’s twentieth-century
edition.
21 The word uttara has several meanings.
Brahmagupta uses this word in the title of
the second half of his Khaṇḍakhādyaka where
he gives the ‘’correction” of the first part.
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AL-BĪRŪNĪ’S INDIA, CHAPTER 14
17. On the deviation (deflection) of eclipses.
18. On the correction of the sight of the new moon (hilāl) and its horns.
19. On kuṭṭaka, which means “pounding,” i.e. the endeavour to search
for minute [things], from which oil is extracted. This is about al-ǧabr
wa-l-muqābala,22 by putting together in search of other numbers.
20. On the matters of shadows.
21. On the computation of the metrics of poetry and its prosody.
22. On the rings and instruments.23
23. On the time and four measures, namely solar, civil, lunar, and of the nakṣatra.
24. On the signs of the numbers and numerals in metrical treatises.24
In this way are 24 chapters, as Brahmagupta said, while the 25th chapter is
Dhyānagrahādhyāya in which emerges25 the search for reflection (fikra)26 without
the study of mathematics.27 I did not record it here (i.e., in the above enumeration of chapters), because I would depart from mathematics. I think that
what he alluded to, with it, was the proofs of operations, otherwise how [can
a man] draw something from this art [of astrology] without mathematics.28
All [texts] which are below the rank of siddhānta are mostly called either tantra
or karaṇa. As for tantra, its meaning is to act in the hand of a governor (i.e.,
to be subordinate or secondary). As for karaṇa, it means secondary, namely
to siddhānta. In addition its experts are ācāryas, or learned ascetics who are
followers of Brahmā.29 Āryabhaṭa and Balabhadra30 each has a famous tantra
22 The expression al-ǧabr wa-l-muqābala
means “perfective addition and compensative subtraction” according to Lane’s
Lexicon (Lane 1863–93). The two words are
technical terms of mathematical operation.
The former is the origin of the modern term
“algebra.”
23 The word “ring” means armillary
sphere.
24 This is al-Būrūnī’s misunderstanding.
See Appendix.
25 The two editions read éJ¯ h. Qm' ø YË@
(Taḥqīq (1887): 74, l. 13; Taḥqīq (1958): 120,
ll. 7–9). The MS reading is éJÓ h. Qm' ø YË@
according to Sachau’s edition (Taḥqīq
(1887): 74, fn. 3).
26 This is al-Bīrūnī’s understanding of
dhyāna.
27 Actually Dhyānagrahopadeśādhyāya is
full of highly mathematical computations. We think that this chapter could
constitute a bridge between the Siddhānta
of S. Dvivedin (BSS) and Karaṇa of the
Khaṇḍakhādyaka. However, it seems that
al-Bīrūnī did not understand this chapter.
28 Cf. The beginning of Wright 1934: 1.
29 The Arabic term ʿāmilūna ( àñÊÓA«), translated here as “experts,” literally means
doers, workers, while also referring to the
person in charge of an administrative office.
Sachau for his part interprets the term as referring to the “governors,” as follows: “Under governors they understand the Ācāryas,
i.e., the sages, anchorites, the followers of
Brahman.” (Sachau 1888: v. 1, 155).
30 In the Taḥqīq, al-Bīrūnī makes abund-
HISTORY OF SCIENCE IN SOUTH ASIA 8 (2020) 57–76
NOÉMIE VERDON AND MICHIO YANO
63
and Bhānurajas31 has a book Rasāyana tantra and rasāyana is explained in his
book.32 As for the karaṇa related to its name (i.e., rasāyana?), it is Brahmagupta’s
Khaṇḍakhādyaka. This name refers to a sweet type [of food] among the [Indians].
I heard, concerning the reason of this [title], that Sugrīva, a Buddhist,33 composed a Zīğ called Dadhisāgara, namely the ocean of sour milk.34 His disciple
composed a Zīğ called Kūrababaya,35 namely “the mountain of rice.” Then Indu
composed Lavaṇamuṣṭi, namely “a handful of salt.” And therefore, Brahmagupta
called his book “candy” in order to make complete the meal and its ingredients.
This [book] was based on the view of Āryabhaṭa and therefore he continued
it with the book which he calls Uttarakhaṇḍakhādyaka, namely “its correction’.
Then, another book follows – I do not know whether it belongs to him (i.e.,
Brahmagupta) or to someone else – which is called Khaṇḍakhādyakatappā36 in
which the reasons of the numbers used in it (i.e., Uttarakhaṇḍakhādyaka) are given
and which, as I think, belongs to Balabhadra. Vijayanandin,37 the commentator
from the city of Vārānasī, wrote a Zīğ known by [the name] Karaṇatilaka, namely
Ġurra al-tawābiʿ.38 Vaṭeśvara, the son of Mahadatta39 from the city of Nāgpūr
ant references to Balabhadra, chiefly when
the discussion deals with astronomical and
cosmological subjects. Sachau hypothesizes
that Balabhadra could be the commentator
of the Kitāb Pātanǧal (Sachau 1888: v. 2, 264).
This position is however not supported by
evidence (Verdon 2020). On Balabhadra in
al-Bīrūnī’s work, see Pingree 1983.
31 CESS: A4, 294. Bhānurajas is entered as
“the author of Karaṇapratilaka(?),” but no
more information is given.
32 In the Taḥqīq, al-Bīrūnī describes rasāyana áK AP as a fourth path leading to liberation, basing himself on the Kitāb Pātañjal. He further defines it as “procedures involving drugs resembling alchemy in the obtainment of what is by nature impossible”
ú¯ ZAJÒJºË@ øQm.× øQm.' éK ðX AK. QK. @YK ùë)
JJÒÒË@ ÉJm'
(AîE. HAª
Taḥqīq (1958): 61 ll. 4–6; Sachau 1888: v. 1, 80.
See also Sachau 1888: v. 1, 188–93.
33 Śamanā, Skt. śramaṇa.
Ï @) is used here.
34 A Persian word ( IAÖ
35 The Arabic transliteration kūra-babaya is
most probably from the Sanskrit kūraparvata
(kūra: boiled rice; parvata: mountain). The
Sanskrit phonemes /p/ and /v/ in parvata were transliterated into Arabic by a
single sound /b/, in the same way as vihāra
became bihār PAîE. in Arabic transliteration
(Taḥqīq (1958): 349, l. 9). Further, the original /r/ disappeared under a Prakrit influence. Lastly, as the Arabic letter /t/ ( AK) and
/y/ ( AK) differ only by the diacritical signs it
is possible that these were interchanged in
the transliteration of the term.
36 Pingree 1983.
37 For Vijayanandin, see CESS: A5, 625. His
name is referred to in S. Dvivedin (BSS) XI,
49 and 58.
38 Literally, the title Ġurra al-tawābiʿ
( ©K. @ñJË@ èQ«) means “ornament on the
forehead of a dependency.” It seems to be
a literal Arabic translation of the Sanskrit
title Karaṇatilaka, the Arabic tawābiʿ (plural
of tāʿiba) referring to something of minor
importance and rendering the Sanskrit
karaṇa, i.e., secondary. See also Baloch’s
translation of this title (Baloch 1973: 7). The
Arabic translation of the Karaṇatilaka by
al-Bīrūnī has been edited and translated
into English by Baloch (1973). The title of
.' QË@ H Q«. See
the work in this edition is HAm
Baloch’s translation of the two titles (Baloch
1973: 7).
39 Shukla 1985–6. See also CESS: A5, 555.
HISTORY OF SCIENCE IN SOUTH ASIA 8 (2020) 57–76
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AL-BĪRŪNĪ’S INDIA, CHAPTER 14
wrote a Zīğ whose name is Karaṇasāra,40 namely the extract from the secondary
(i.e., karaṇa). Bhānurajas composed a book [entitled] Karaṇapratilaka as an
extract from it.41 They assumed that the aspects of the planets are related to
each other.42 Utpala, the Kaśmīrian, composed the Rāhunrākaraṇa,43 namely
“breaking of tawābiʿ” and the Karaṇapāta,44 namely “killing of tawābiʿ”.45
[Further, there is] the Karaṇacūḍāmaṇi. I do not know its author. Then,
there are other books with other titles, such as the great Mānasa46 from the
work of Manu47 and which Utpala commented on, and the small Mānasa,48
which Mañjula49 from the southern district composed. And the Daśagītikā of
Āryabhaṭa and his Āryāṣṭaśata.50 Lokānanda51 by the name of its author, and the
book by Bhattila52 the Brahmin, [titled] by his name. You will hardly count [the
books] of this genre.
As for their books on astrology (aḥkām al-nuğūm), each of the following
[authors] Māndavya (?),53 Parāśara,54 Garga, 55 Brāhma, Balabhadra,56 Divyātattva57 composed, and Varāhamihira composed a book [called] [Bṛhat]Saṃhitā,
whose definition is: a collection which contains in abundance a little bit of
everything, such as report on travelling58 by the phenomena of the sky, matters
40 There is no entry for Karaṇasāra in CESS.
41 See footnote 31.
42 The meaning of this sentence is unclear.
Sachau connects it to the previous sentence,
as follows: “another one, by Bhāṇuyaśas (?),
is called Karaṇaparatilaka, which shows, as
I am told, how the corrected places of the
stars are derived from one another” (Sachau
1888: I, 157). Sachau’s Bhāṇuyaśas should
be Bānurajas.
43 CESS: A4, 283, Rā.h.t(?).ra karaṇa
(Ārdharātrikakaraṇa?).
44 According to Pingree (CESS: A4, 283),
Karaṇaghāta, or ‘Killing of karaṇa’ is Utpala’s
work.
45 The meaning of “killing of tawābiʿ” is not
clear. A similar idea may be found in the
example of Mādhava, a Sāṃkhya teacher,
who was referred to as sāṃkhyanāśaka, i.e.,
destroyer of Sāṃkhya, “because he deviated
from the Sāṃkhya position” (Larson and
Bhattacharya 2008: 147).
46 This is Bṛhanmānasa of Muñjāla (or
Mañjula). See CESS: A4, 435.
47 This should be Mañjula.
48 See Shukla 1990, especially page 4.
49 Arabic text is Éj
JK which Sachau reads
“Puñcala.”
50 Daśagītikā is the first chapter of Āryabhaṭīya, but sometimes it is regarded as an
independent work. The rest of the Āryabhaṭīya, consisting of 108 Āryā verses, is
called Āryāṣṭaśata as a work on its own. AlBīrūnī reflects the tradition which regards
the Daśagītikā and the Āryāṣṭaśata as two separate works.
51 No information about this book or author is avalable in CESS.
52 No informatin is available in CESS.
. YKAÓ.
53 Arabic text reads māndabba H
54 There are many Parāśaras. See CESS: A4,
194–202.
55 Garga is the author of the Gārgyajyotiṣa
(CESS: A2, 116 f). Bill Mak organized an
working group on Garga tradition. The recent result is: Geslani et al. 2017.
56 For Balabhadra see CESS: A4, 233. See
also Pingree 1983: 353–60.
57 Pingree only gives his name (CESS: A3,
112).
58 yātrā in Sanskrit. Especially military
expeditions.
HISTORY OF SCIENCE IN SOUTH ASIA 8 (2020) 57–76
NOÉMIE VERDON AND MICHIO YANO
65
of dynasties59 and interrogation,60 then physiognomy,61 dreams,62 and zaǧr.63
Their learned people believe in it and they follow the prescription of the astrologers which they interpret from the knowledge of phenomena of the sky and
cosmos by the Saṃhitā. Each one of [the authors] Parāśara, Satya,64 Maṇittha,65
Jīvaśarman,66 Mau67 the Greek, composed a book [known as] Jātaka, namely
book on nativity. Varāhamihira composed two books on this [topic], small and
large68 and Balabhadra commented on it. I translated the smaller of the two into
Arabic.69
On the topic on nativity, they have a large book called Sārāvalī,70 that is an anthology like the Pazīdaǧ71 which Kalyānavarman the king composed, and which
reflects scientific excellence. A book, larger than this [one], which brings together all subjects related to astrology, is known as Yavana72 , i.e., belonging to
the Greeks. And Varāhamihira composed small books, among which [one is]
Ṣaṭpañcasikā,73 i.e., 56 subjects on interrogations, a book Horāpañcahatarā (?) also
on this topic. Concerning journeys, [he has] books [entitled] Yogayātrā and the
Tikanikayātrā,74 concerning marriage and wedding, a book Vivāhapaṭala,75 and
concerning architecture … (lacuna). Then on zaǧr,76 omen and the like, there is
59 This refers to a kind of astrology which
developed in Persia. The famous historian Ibn Khaldūn discusses this topic in his
Muqaddima. It offers the interpretation of
historical events, especially that of dynasties.
This kind of astrology is absent in India, although a book of this kind is ascribed to
“Kanaka al-Hindī.”
60 This genre is called praśna (lit. question)
in Sanskrit. According to Pingree 1981: 101 ff
it corresponds to the “catarchic astrology.”
61 For physiognomy (puruṣalakṣaṇa), see
Zysk 2016.
62 On dream (svapna) Michio Yano has prepared an English translation, which has not
been published yet, of the svapna chapter of
the Atharvavedapariśiṣṭa.
63 This word corresponds to Sanskrit
śākuna (literally omen), a prognostication
by the behaviour of animals. According to
Steingass (Arabic-English dictionary), the
term zaǧr (Qk. P) refers to an omen based
on the flight of birds, from the verbal root,
zaǧara meaning “to take omen from birds’
flight.”
64 Satya is frequently quoted in Utpala’s
commentary on the Bṛhajjātaka. See Pingree
1981: 83–84.
65 CESS: A4, 343. Maṇittha is a Greek.
66 Cf. CESS: A3, 70. Jīvaśarman is quoted
by Varāhamhira in the Bṛhajjātaka 7.9 and
11.1.
67 Probably Maya who was regarded as the
author of the Sūryasiddhānta.
68 Laghujātaka and Bṛhajjātaka, respectively.
69 In chapter 80 of the Taḥqīq, al-Bīrūnī offers translations of passages drawn from
the Laghujātaka. See Arabic text, Taḥqīq
(1958): 529–35 and Taḥqīq (1887): vol. 2, 225–
34.
70 For the Sālāvalī of Kalyānavarman, see
CESS: A2, 26.
71 Persian word? h. YK Q.Ë@
72 This is the Yavanajātaka, edited and translated by Pingree (1978).
73 Al-Bīrūnī is mistaken here. The author
of Ṣaṭpañcasikā is Pṛthuyaśas, the son of Varāhamihira. See CESS: A4, 277 f; A5, 219 ff,
and Pingree 1981: 110–11.
74 Both Yogayātrā and Tikanikayātrā are
Varāhamihira’s works on expedition. It is
surprising that al-Bīrūnī does not mention
Bṛhadyātrā.
75 For Varāhamihira’s Vivāhapaṭala, see
CESS: A5, 573. See also Sugita (2001).
76 See footnote 63.
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66
AL-BĪRŪNĪ’S INDIA, CHAPTER 14
a book [entitled] Surūdava77 and it exists in three copies.78 One the them is attributed to Mahādeva.79 The author of the second [one] is Vimalabuddha,80 while
that of the third [copy] is Baṅgāla.81 There [exists] a book, Cūḍāmaṇi,82 i.e., the
science of the supernatural, composed by a Buddhist, an author who is a śramaṇa
wearing a red garment, and a book, Praśna Cūrāmaṇi, i.e., questions on the science of the supernatural, which Utpala composed.83 Among their savants whose
names are not handed down with [their] books, are: Pradyumna,84 Sangahil,85
Divākara,86 Pareśvara,87 Sārasvata,88 Pīruvāna,89 Devakīrti,90 and Pṛthūdakasvāmin.91
The science of medicine is like the science of stars except that it (i.e., astral science) is entangled with religion. And they have a book, known by [the name of]
its author who is Caraka,92 and which they prefer among their books on medicine. [They] believe about him that he was a ṛṣi in the last Dvāpara [yuga] and
that his name was Agniveśa. Later on, he was named Caraka, that is the intelligent [one], after he obtained medicine from the best children of Sūtra, who were
ṛṣis. These [ṛṣis] received it from Indra and Indra received it from Aśvinī,93 one
of the two physician devas, who received it from Prajāpati, who is Brahman the
first father.94 This book was translated into Arabic for the Baramakids family.95
They have variety of several other sciences. You [can] hardly count [their] books,
but I could not comprehend them by [my] knowledge. I wish I could translate
the book Pañcatantra, which is known among us as the book Kalīla wa-Dimna. It
moved to and fro between Persian and Indian [languages] and later on Arabic.
The Persian [version comes] from the mouth of people whose alternation is not
faithful to it (i.e., original version?), such as ʿAbd al-lāh ibn al-Muqaffaʿ by his addition of the chapter on “Barzūya” in [his version], aiming at awakening doubt
77 CESS: A4, 283, S.rū.dh.w (Sūtradhāra?).
K; Taḥqīq
78 Taḥqīq (1887): 75, l. 19 IÊ
K.
(1958): 122, l. 14 HC
79 It is difficult to idenfity this person.
80 There is no entry for this person in CESS.
81 Nothing is known about Baṅgāla.
82 See CESS: A3, 52; Pingree (1981: 88).
83 CESS: A4, 283, where Praśnacūrāmaṇi =
Āryasaptati which is again = Praśnajñāna =
Bhuvanadīpikā = Jñānamālā (CESS: A4, 282).
84 Pradyumna is attested in S. Dvivedin
(BSS) XI, 46 and 58.
85 There is no entry for Sangahil in CESS.
86 Divākara before al-Bīrūnī is not known.
87 There is no entry for Pareśvara in CESS.
88 Nothing is known about Sārasvata.
89 There is no entry for Pīruvāna in CESS.
90 There is no entry for Devakīrti in CESS.
91 For Pṛthūdakasvāmin, see CESS: A4, 221.
His full name is Caturveda Pṛthūdakasvāmin (fl. 864). His commentary on S.
Dvivedin (BSS) Chapter 21 (Chapter 1
according to al-Bīrūnī) was studied by
Ikeyama (2003). Pṛthūdakasvāmin’s commentary on the Khaṇḍakhādyaka is edited
and translated by Sengupta (1934).
92 For Caraka in the Islamic world, see
Meulenbeld (1999–2002: 1A, 116).
).
93 The Arabic text reads Aśvinī ( úGñ@
Aśvins are twins and regarded as the physicians of gods.
94 This episode is described in Caraksasaṃhitā 6.1.4.4.
95 On the Barmakids see van Bladel (2011).
See also Sachau (1888: I, xxxi–xxxii; II, 313.).
HISTORY OF SCIENCE IN SOUTH ASIA 8 (2020) 57–76
NOÉMIE VERDON AND MICHIO YANO
67
of [people who are] weak in religious beliefs and at their breaking in order to
call [them] up to the Manichean creed. If he is suspect regarding what he added,
he is not free from the same regarding what he translated.96
96 The Sanskrit collection of fables, known
as Pañcatantra, was translated into Pahlavi
and Syriac in the mid-sixth century CE.
It was transmitted into Arabic during the
eighth century under the title Kalīla waDimna, which reflects the Sanskrit names of
two important protagonists of the original
stories, i.e., Karaṭaka and Damaṇaka. As
al-Bīrūnī notices, the book Kalīla wa-Dimna
was neither literal nor direct translation of
the Pañcatantra. ‘Abd Allah Ibn al-Muqaffa
(ca. 720–756), on the basis of the Pahlavi
text, made some modifications in his Arabic
translation of it (Brockelmann 2012; Gabrieli 2012).
HISTORY OF SCIENCE IN SOUTH ASIA 8 (2020) 57–76
68
AL-BĪRŪNĪ’S INDIA, CHAPTER 14
AP P ENDIX : CO NTENTS O F THE BRĀHMASPHUṬASI DDHĀNTA
Al-Bīrūnī’s Taḥqīq Dvivedin’s edition
È@ñk @ ú¯ (1)
PB@ð ZAÒË@ éJJëð èQºË@
QÓð I» @ñºË@ P@ð X @ ú¯ (2)
h. @QjJ@ @ éJÓPB@ éËð@
.
@
úæ®Ë@ H. ñJm.Ì '@ð I.»@ñºË@ HAð
I.»@ñºË@ Õç' ñ®K ú¯ (3)
úæAÖÏ @ð É¢Ë@ ùë úæË@ IKCJË@ éË@ñ B@ ú¯ (4)
ªK. áÓ AîDªK. h. @QjJ@ð ©ËA¢Ë@ð PAîDË@ áÓ
¨Aª áÓ I.» @ñºË@ Pñê£ ú¯ (5)
éK. AîEA®Jk@ð ÒË@
éJKQ¯ ÈAgð ÈCêË@ éK ðP ú¯ (6)
¬ñ» ú¯ (7)
QÒ®Ë@
¬ñ» ú¯ (8)
ÒË@
É £ ú¯ (9)
QÒ®Ë@
AîE@Q¯@ ð I.»@ñºË@ ¨AÒJk. @ ú¯ (10)
I.» @ñºË@ ðQ« ú¯ (11)
Õæ®Ë@ áÓ iJjË@ QJÖßð HAm.' QË@ð I.JºË@ ú¯ AÓ XA® JK@ ú¯ (12)
Ï @ ú¯ éJËð@QÓð H. AmÌ '@ ú¯ (13)
AëQ«ð HAgAÖ
I.»@ñºË@ Að @ J ®m ' ú¯ (14)
I.»@ñºË@ Õç' ñ® K J ®m ' ú¯ (15)
éJËAJË@ éËñB@
J ®m ' ú¯ (16)
¯@Qm' @ ú¯ (17)
¬ñºË@ HA
ÈCêË@ éK ðP J ®m ' ú¯ (18)
éJKQ¯ð
. B@ éJ. úæªÓ úΫ YË@
YK
ñëð ½J» ú¯ (19)
. I.Ê¢Ë@ ú¯ XAîDk
A®Ö Ï @ð QmÌ '@ ú¯ ñëð áëYË@ éJÓ h QjJ AÓ
KQ®Ö Ï AK. éÊK
HA
.
..
.
éK XY« Qk @ IËA¢Ó ú¯ð
.
É¢Ë@ PñÓ@ ú¯ (20)
à@Pð @ HAK
. Ak ú¯ (21)
éðQ«ð QªË@
HBB@
QK@ð YË@ ú¯ (22)
éªK P B@ QK XA®Ö Ï @ð àAÓP B@ ú¯ (23)
.
¢JÖÏ @ ÈCg ú¯ ÐA¯P B@ð X@Y« B@ HAÓC«
ú¯ (24)
HAÓñ
Aë XAëQÂJëX (25)
(21) golādhyāya
(1) madhyamādhikāra
(2) spaṣṭādhikāra
(3) tripraśnādhikāra
(6) udayāstādhikāra
(7) candraśṛṅgonnatyādhikāra
(4)candragrahaṇādhikāra
(5) sūryagrahaṇādhikāra
(8) candracchāyādhikāra
(9) grahayutyadhikāra
(10) bhagrahayutyadhikāra
(11) tantraparīkṣādhyāya
(12) gaṇitādhyāya
(13) madhyagatyuttarādhyāya
(14) sphuṭagatyuttarādhyāya
(15) tripraśnottarādhyāya
(16) grahaṇottarādhyāya
(17) śṛṅgonnatyuttarādhyāya
(18) kuṭṭakādhyāya
(19) śaṅkucchāyādijñānādhyāya
(20) chandaścityuttarādhyāya
(22) yantrādhyāya
(23) mānādhyāya
(24) saṃjñādhyāya
(25) dhyānagrahopadeśādhyāya
HISTORY OF SCIENCE IN SOUTH ASIA 8 (2020) 57–76
NOÉMIE VERDON AND MICHIO YANO
69
GENERAL COMMENTS
The sequence of the chapters found in al-Bīrūnī’s work differs from that of
Dvivedin’s edition. His chapter 1 corresponds to chapter 21 in Dvivedin. His
chapters 2 to 4, correspond to chapters 1 to 3 of Dvivedin’s. His chapters 5 and
6 correspond to chapters 6 and 7 in Dvivedin respectively, while his chapters
7 and 8 are Divedin’s chapters 4 and 5. From al-Bīrūnī’s chapters 9 to 21, the
chapter numbers correspond to Dvivedin’s 8 to 20. Chapters 22 to 25 in Arabic
and Sanskrit exactly correspond.
In chapter 14 of the Taḥqīq, al-Bīrūnī explains that he did “not have any copy
[of them] (i.e., Siddhānta), except the ones by Pulisa and by Brahmagupta.” The
extent to which he could actually access Brahmagupta’s work or parts of it is
uncertain. Indeed, in the preceding chapter of the Taḥqīq, dealing with grammar
and metrical science, al-Bīrūnī states the following:97
I have not studied a thing about them (i.e., books on metrical science),
nor about most of the chapter in the Brāhmasiddhānta which deals with
the calculation of [metrical science]
®Ö Ï @ áÓ QJ» úΫ Bð AîDÓ Zúæ úΫ ©Ê£ @ ÕËð
éËA
ú¯ YKAëY Ñë@QK. ú¯ úæË@
AîE. Ak
He also makes this striking comment:98
I have only read one leaf of the afore-mentioned chapter (i.e., in the
Brāhmasiddhānta) and this [chapter] most certainly contains precious
things, as principles related to numbers
JÓ
× B ùëð èYg@ð é¯Pð
B @ èPñ»YÖÏ @ éÊ ®Ö Ï @ áÓ ©ËA£ @ ÕËð
éËAm
úΫ éÊÒ
éK XYªË@ ÈñB@ áÓ A®K
The discrepancy in the arrangement of chapters may be due to a difference of
textual transmission, but if al-Bīrūnī did not read the whole manuscript, then the
oral commentary by his Indian informants may also account for this difference.
Whereas there is evidence that he frequently adapted his Sanskrit sources when
rendering them into Arabic, in case of enumerations he adds explanations but
does not generally change the sequence of listed items.99
97 Taḥqīq (1958): 106,
1888: I, 137–38.
98 Taḥqīq (1958): 117,
1888: I, 150–51.
ll. 14–15,
Sachau
ll. 12–14,
Sachau
99 See Maas and Verdon (2018: 315–28) on
al-Bīrūnī’s interpretative choices and Verdon (2020) on his way of dealing with lists.
HISTORY OF SCIENCE IN SOUTH ASIA 8 (2020) 57–76
70
AL-BĪRŪNĪ’S INDIA, CHAPTER 14
Thus, there is little chance that this difference results from al-Bīrūnī’s own
reworking. Further, so far, only one manuscript and one edition of Sanskrit exist of the Brāhmasphuṭasiddhānta.100 This difference, then, may imply that the text
which he accessed was different in some respects from that which has been transmitted to us. In addition to this main discrepancy, al-Bīrūnī complemented some
chapters’ titles with explanations of their content. On the whole, however, his
translation is rather true to the original subject matter. We provide below specific
comments on al-Bīrūnī’s wording, as compared to the Sanskrit list:
Taḥqīq 1: Al-Bīrūnī paraphrases the original title by explaining that sphere (Skt.
) is both celestial and terrestrial.
gola; Ar. èQ»
Taḥqīq 2: Al-Bīrūnī provides more details about the content of the chapter.
Taḥqīq 3: Al-Bīrūnī does not give a literal translation but refers in his title to the
mathematical operation through which the mean planet becomes its apparent position.
Taḥqīq 4 and 5: Al-Bīrūnī provides with a paraphrase.
Taḥqīq 11: Al-Bīrūnī uses the term latitude ( ðQ«) in the title; which shows that
he understood its content, because the conjunction of planet and nakṣatra
implies this calculation. This title also indicates the two possible translations of the Arabic term kawākib ( I
. » @ñ») as planets or stars.
Taḥqīq 12: Al-Bīrūnī paraphrases here the original Sanskrit title and differen
.' P).
tiates between books ( I
. J») and astronomical tables, or Zīğes ( HAm
The Sanskrit titles, from this chapter onward, contain the word adhyāya
(chapter) instead of adhikāra (section). The reasons for this change are
unclear.
Taḥqīq 13: Al-Bīrūnī refers to the Sanskrit kṣetragaṇita (lit. calculation of plane
Ï @).
figures), by the term plane geometry HAgAÖ
Taḥqīq 14: Al-Bīrūnī translates uttara by the Arabic J®m'. The Sanskrit term signifies either “second part” or “correction” in different contexts. In the Sanskrit corresponding chapter (Dvivedin 13), Brahmagupta provides a correction of the computation of mean planets which was given in his chapter 1
(Taḥqīq 2; Dvivedin 1).
Taḥqīq 17: Al-Bīrūnī does not translate the term correction by J®m' here, which
raises the question of whether this difference in the titles reflects a difference in the chapter’s content.
Taḥqīq 19: It is the only place in this list where al-Bīrūnī transliterates the Sanskrit term into Arabic. However, he could not provide an Arabic translation
of this title, which refers to a specific algorithm developed by Indian mathematicians/astronomers. Instead, he explains it as meaning,
100 There is a printed edition by Śarmā et al.
(1966), but it is totally based on the edition
by S. Dvivedin (BSS).
HISTORY OF SCIENCE IN SOUTH ASIA 8 (2020) 57–76
NOÉMIE VERDON AND MICHIO YANO
71
pounding, i.e., the endeavour to search for the minute [things],
from which oil is extracted. This is about algebra ( éÊK. A®ÖÏ @ð Q.m.Ì '@,
by “putting together in search of other numbers.”
Al-Bīrūnī appears to first provide his readers with an etymological explanation, and subsequently with a mathematical one.
Taḥqīq 21: The content of this chapter in Sanskrit dealing with chandas, or metrical science, is very obscure and difficult to understand. Al-Bīrūnī deals
with chandas in chapter 13 of the Taḥqīq.101
Taḥqīq 22: Rings ( QK@ð X) or armillary spheres were used for demonstrations,
) for observations.
while instruments ( HB@
Taḥqīq 23: Al-Bīrūnī lists the four measures of time as follows: solar, civil, lunar,
and of the mansions ( úÍ PAJÓ), i.e., of the nakṣatras. He knew well about
them, as he discussed them separately in Al-āṯār al-bāqiya,102 the Tafhīm103
and the Taḥqīq.104
Taḥqīq 24: The title of this chapter in the edition of S. Dvivedin (BSS) is Saṃjñādhyāya, or “Chapter on the technical terms.” But in this chapter, consisting of only 13 verses, Brahmagupta gives a summary of the second part of
the Brāhmasphuṭasiddhānta and therefore this chapter is a kind of colophon.
Thus al-Bīrūnī’s title is misleading.
101 Taḥqīq (1958): 105, l. 17–117 l. 18, Sachau
1888: I, 136–52.
102 Sachau 1878: 13, ll. 4–10; 1879: 15.
103 Wright 1934: 169.
104 Taḥqīq (1958): 297, l. 9–299 l. 17, Sachau
1888: I, 353–56.
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72
AL-BĪRŪNĪ’S INDIA, CHAPTER 14
ABBREVIATIO NS
Brahmasiddhānta Dvivedin, V. P. (1912) (ed.), Brahmasiddhānta in Jyautiṣasiddhāntasaṃgrahaḥ tatra Pitāmahasiddhāntaḥ, Vṛddhavasiṣṭhasiddhāntaś ca (Benares Sanskrit Series, 154; Benares: Braj
Bhushan Das & Co.), 1–79, http://n2t.net/ark:/13960/
t6353t221; the last work in the compendium.
BSS
Dvivedin, S. (1901–2) (ed.), Brāhmasphuṭasiddhānto Dhyānagrahopadeśādhyāyaś ca, GaṇakacakracūḍāmaṇiSrīBrahmaguptaviracitaḥ = Brāhmasphuṭasiddhānta and Dhyānagrahopadeśādhyāya by Brahmagupta (The Pandit, New Series, 23 and 24;
Benares: Medical Hall Press), http://n2t.net/ark:/13960/
t9f50913n.
CESS
Pingree, D. E. (1970–94), A Census of the Exact Sciences in Sanskrit, 5 vols. (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society),
http://n2t.net/ark:/13960/t4dp0cq1z, (on 9 Mar. 2018).
Taḥqīq (1887)
Sachau, C. E. (1887), Albêrûni’s India: An Account of the Religion,
Philosophy, Literature, Geography, Chronology, Astronomy, Customs, Laws and Astrology of India about A.D. 1030. Edited in the
Arabic Original (London: Trübner & Co.), https://gallica
.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k8538742.
Taḥqīq (1958)
Bureau of Osmania Oriental Publications (1958) (ed.), Kitāb
al-Bīrūnī fī taḥqīq mā li-l-Hind min maqūla maqbūla fī l-ʿaql aw
marḏūla = Kitāb fī Taḥqīq-ī-Mā li’l-Hind or Al-Bīrūnī’s India
(Arabic Text) … Revised by the Bureau from the Oldest Extant
MS. in the Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris [Schefer 680] (Da’irat
al-Ma’arif il-Osmania Publications, 11; Hyderabad: Da’irat
al-Ma’arif il-Osmania Publications, Osmania University),
http://n2t.net/ark:/13960/t5w66sf79, (on 9 Jan. 2020).
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Baloch, N. A. (1973), Ghurrat al-Zijat or Karana Tilaka. A Handbook of Astronomy
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