Ancient History, Medieval History & Art and Culture Author: Team Unique Shiksha Published & Solely Distributed by: Preface Why is this book important for your preparation? T here are several books in the market pertaining to the Ancient History, Medieval History and Art and Culture, but none of them deals with the current pattern of the examination. Hence, there is an urgent need to cater to the requirements of the aspirants of lAS, State Public Services, as well as other competitive examinations. This book has been designed keeping in mind the pattern of Civil Services examination. Since there is a major change in the pattern of the questions of different examinations, especially UPSC, this book serves as an elixir to the aspirants. This material is very comprehensive and covers all aspects of Ancient History, Medieval History and Indian Art and Culture alongwith the objective and subjective practice questions. The content has been designed in point format and in lucid language covering length and breadth of each topic. Though it is a factual topic but it includes many underlined concepts and inter-linkages which help in constructing a time-line of events through ages. Thus, this book will enable students to understand the finer points as well the multi-dimensional perspective of the subject. Last but not the least; I would like to thank my parents, who supported me with love and understanding, my committee members, each one of them has provided patient advice and guidance throughout the research process. Suggestions for improvement in the book are welcome. Best Wishes Amrit Singh Chopra Chief Educator Unique Shiksha About the Book Thought behind the Book The ever-changing pattern of Civil Services Examination and the evolving needs of aspirants drove us to create a new series of reference books following a Unique Pattern. This has been designed to meet two basic needs of every Civil Services Aspirant: • Content Retention Management (Understanding of basic concepts and retention of facts); and • Time Management (saving time by avoiding reading from different sources). Pedagogical Assistance to be Found in the Book The book covers – Ancient History, Medieval History and Art and Culture material comprehensively. The team comprising of the author, editors and publishing experts have followed the below mentioned concepts to ensure this book meets requirements like no other. Salient features are: • Each chapter is broken into units to signify how much content an aspirant must cover daily. • Though it is a factual topic but it includes many underlined concepts and inter-linkages. All topics and key points are broken down into bullet points to help with lucid and concise learning. • The materials have been designed to give student a time-line of historical events so that the connection can be established. • Every unit ends with Prelims and Mains oriented questions to ensure that the aspirants test themselves on what they have studied to ensure clarity of concepts. How this book is One-Stop reference • The book is the amalgamation of different sources, edited by experts to provide one stop solution for Ancient History, Medieval History and Art and Culture. • The content has been designed by taking assistance of NCERT, NIOS and other standard books. Further deep analysis of previous year papers have also been done to add more relevant topics. • Hence it will act as a complete self-study material. UNIQUE SHIKSHA MASTER SERIES vs. Other Books Specifications MASTER SERIES OTHER BOOKS Standard content referred from different sources Yes Yes Crisp and Concise concept with indepth analysis Yes No Practice Questions Yes No Pictorial representation of content for easy retention Yes No Trend Analysis of Ancient History • Ancient History forms an important part of the Civil Services Examination. The weightage of questions asked in Prelims are generally 4-5. • According to the trend, the questions related to Ancient History asked in the UPSC IAS prelims exam were moderate to tough in their difficulty level. • Hence, Ancient history is an important portion of prelims paper which can’t be ignored. • Year No. of questions 2018 2 2017 1 2016 8 2015 2 2014 5 If we analyse the previous year questions, certain sub-sections are frequently asked in the paper such as – Indus Valley Civilization, Vedic and Later Vedic Society, administrative aspects of different empires, etc. Trend Analysis of Medieval History • • Though in UPSC less questions are asked from Medieval India but the questions are direct and factual in nature. Thus a student can easily score in that. Year No. of questions 2018 1 2017 1 2016 3 2015 4 2014 1 If we analyse the previous year questions, certain sub-sections are frequently asked in the paper such as – Administrative system of Mughals, Vijayanagar empire, Bhakti Movement. Trend Analysis of Art and Culture In Prelims Examination • The UPSC does not specify the detailed syllabus related to the Art and Culture in Prelims (it comes under History of India) and in Mains it is described as “Indian Culture will cover the salient aspects of Art Forms, Literature and Architecture from ancient to modern times”. • Due to this, student many a times are not able to identify the areas to be prepared and end up losing marks in the examination. • However, Indian Art and Culture form an important part of the Civil Services Examination. The weightage of questions asked in Prelims are increasing year by year. Though it is a factual topic but it includes many underlined concepts and inter-linkages which help in constructing a time-line of events through ages. • Similarly atleast two questions are asked from this section in Mains examination. • Yet year by year the numbers of questions in the examination related to it are increasing. The trend is as follows: • Year No. of questions 2018 7 2017 5 2016 5 2015 7 2014 14 If we go through the questions, certain sub-sections are frequently asked in the paper such as– Buddhism, Jainism, Architecture, Vedic literature and Classical dance. Hence, student should study above stated topics thoroughly. In Main Examination • The questions asked in the Main examination are analytical in nature thus it require thorough understanding of concepts. Year by year the marks of questions in the examination are increasing. The trend is as follows: Year No. of Marks 2018 35 2017 10 2016 25 2015 25 2014 40 Important Notes: 1. A student should focus on understanding the chronology of events for retaining the facts in the history. He/She should read each chapter minutely, jot down the important points as designing Self study notes are very important for the revision. 2. The Topics and sub-topics related to Previous Year Questions have been catered in the book. What makes this book special? ANCIENT INDIA MASTER SERIES UNIT 1 Pre-Historic AGE Day-wise self study plan to achieve reasonable targets with respect to different demensions of the subject. The Division of Stone Age ● In earlier studies of History, the division was made into three groups based on the material of manufacture of these weapons and implements, recognized as three ages of stone, bronze and iron. ● The Stone Age was initially divided into an earlier period of chipped stone tools and a later period of ground or polished stone tools by, and is called as Palaeolithic and Neolithic, respectively. Bullet format material for easy reading and high retention of facts MCQs for Preliminary Examination Neolithic Age in India is characterized by 1. (a) domestication of cattles (b) crop agriculture Chapter end prelims questions for immediate practice and progressive learning. (c) Both (d) None Subjective type questions for Main Examination 1. Throw light on elements of change and the continuity in pattern of life in Indian subcontinent during Stone Age. 2. Trace the evolution of life in Indian subcontinent during Stone Age on the basis of archaeological evidences till date. Chapter end Subjective questions for enhancing the Art of Answer Writing How a Unique Shiksha foundation student should use this Book? • Chapters and Content are in sync with the class to help in achieving desired daily progress. Thus student can use the material for daily revision and practicing of questions. • Class Tests are drawn from the book to test a student for progressive learning. • The subjective type questions can be given for checking to teachers once in a while, this may help in improving Answer Writing Skill. Contents Part A - Ancient History Unit 1: Pre-historic Age 1.1 The Evolution of Man 1.2 Division of Stone Age 1.2.1 Paleolithic Age 1.2.2 Mesolithic Period 1.2.3 Neolithic Period 1.2.4 Chalcolithic Period 1.3 Iron Age Unit 2: Indus Valley Civilization 2.1 Ancient Civilization of India – At Harappa 2.2 Pre-Harappan Phase 2.3 Phases of Harappan civilization 2.4 Cities of Indus Valley Civilisation 2.5 Town Planning in Indus Valley Civilisation 2.5.1 Houses in Harappa Towns 2.5.2 Granaries 2.5.3 Great Bath 2.5.4 Dockyard at Lothal 2.5.5 Water Management 2.6 Society of Indus Valley Civilisation 2.7 Culture of Indus Valley Civilisation 2.7.1 Script and Language 2.7.2 Burials 2.7.3 Pottery 2.7.4 Seals 2.7.5 Beads 2.7.6 Stone Sculptures 2.7.7 Bronze Figures 2.7.8 Terracotta Figurines 2.8 Science and Technology in Indus Valley Civilisation 2.9 Trade and Transportation 2.10 Agriculture 2.11 Religious Practices 2.12 Decline of the Great Indus Civilisation 2.13 Legacy of Indus Valley Civilisation 1-15 16-27 Unit 3: The Vedic Age 3.1 The origins of Aryans 3.2 Early Aryan Settlements in India 3.3 The Vedic Literature 3.4 The Rig Vedic Period 3.5 3.4.1 Rig Vedic Economy 3.4.2 Rig Vedic Society 3.4.3 Varna System 3.4.4 Position of Women 3.4.5 Rig Vedic Society 3.4.6 Rig Vedic Religion Later Vedic Period 3.5.1 Later Vedic Economy 3.5.2 Later Vedic Society 3.5.3 Varna System 3.5.4 Position of Women 3.5.5 Later Vedic Polity 3.5.6 Later Vedic Religion Unit 4: Mahajanpadas and the Magadha Empire 4.1 Age of Mahajanpadas 4.2 Rise of Magadha 4.3 Haryanka Dynasty 4.4 Sisunga Dynasty 4.5 Nanda Dynasty 4.6 Mauryan Empire 4.6.1 Chandragupta Maurya 4.6.2 Bindusara 4.6.3 Ashoka 4.6.4 Mauryan Administration 4.6.5 Local Administration 4.6.6 City Administration 4.6.7 Classes of Society 4.6.8 Mauryan Economy 4.6.9 Art and Architecture 4.6.10 Decline of Mauryas 4.7 28-38 Sunga 4.7.1 4.7.2 4.7.3 4.7.4 Dyansty Administration Sunga Art Society Economy 39-59 4.8 Foreign Dynasties 4.8.1 Indo-Greeks 4.8.2 Sakas 4.8.3 Parthians 4.8.4 Kushans 4.8.5 Impact of Foreign dynasties Unit 5: Gupta and Post-Gupta Age 5.1 Gupta Age 5.1.1 The Gupta administration 5.1.2 Decline of Guptas 5.1.3 Governance during Guptas 5.1.4 Literature of Gupta Period 5.1.5 Description of Gupta Age through Foreigners 5.1.6 Economy during Gupta Period 5.1.7 Trade and Commerce 5.1.8 Science and Technology 5.1.9 Art and Architecture during Guptas 5.1.10 Society and Religion during Guptas 5.2 Post-Gupta Age 5.2.1 Guptas of Magadha 5.2.2 Maukharis 5.2.3 Maitraka 5.2.4 Pushyabhutis 5.2.5 Harsha 5.3 Kingdoms of Eastern, Central and South India 5.4 India After Harsha 5.4.1 Yashovarman 5.4.2 Gurjara Pratiharas 5.4.3 Palas 5.4.4 Literature 5.4.5 Economy 5.4.6 Art and Architecture 5.4.7 Religion Unit 6: Rise 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 of Heterodox Sects: Jainism and Buddhism Reasons for emergence of Heterodox Sects Rise of Various Heterodox Sects Six systems of Philosophy Buddhism 6.4.1 Philosophy of Buddhism 6.4.2 Buddhist Literature 6.4.3 Sects of Buddhism 60-88 89-101 6.5 6.4.4 Buddhist Architecture 6.4.5 Buddhist Councils Jainism 6.5.1 Mahavira 6.5.2 Teachings of Jainism 6.5.3 Triratnas of Jainism 6.5.4 Philosophy of Jainism 6.5.5 Jain Literature 6.5.6 Jain Councils 6.5.7 Architecture Unit 7: Southern Kingdoms during Ancient India 7.1 Megalithic Phase 7.1.1 Megalithic Burials 7.1.2 Megalithic Tools 7.2 Sangam Period 7.2.1 Sangam Administration 7.2.2 Sangam Economy 7.2.3 Sangam Society 7.2.4 Sangam Literature 7.2.5 Sangam Polity 7.2.5.1 Chola 7.2.5.2 Chera 7.2.5.3 Pandyas 7.3 Satvahanas of Deccan 102-115 Part B - Medieval History Unit 1: Early Medieval India 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Struggle for Kannauj 1.2.1 Rashtrakutas 1.2.2 Pratiharas 1.2.3 Palas 1.3 Rajput Clans 1.4 Administration during Early Medieval India Unit 2: Delhi Sultanate 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Mahmud of Ghazni 2.3 Mohammad Ghori 1-10 11-26 2.4 2.5 2.6 Slave Sultans 2.4.1 Qutb-ud-din Aibak 2.4.2 Iltutmish 2.4.3 Raziya 2.4.4 Ghiyasuddin Balban 2.4.5 Muiz-ud-din Qaiqabad Khalji Dynasty 2.5.1 Jalal-ud-din Khalji 2.5.2 Alauddin Khalji Tughlaq Dynasty 2.6.1 Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq 2.6.2 Muhammad Bin Tughlaq 2.6.3 Firoz Shah Tughlaq 2.7 Sayyid Dynasty 2.8 Lodhi Dynasty 2.9 2.8.1 Bahlul Lodhi 2.8.2 Sikander Lodhi 2.8.3 Ibrahim Lodhi Sultanate Administration 2.10 Society 2.11 Economy 2.12 Architecture 2.13 Literature Unit 3: Mughal Dynasty 3.1. Introduction 3.2. Babur 3.3. Humayun 3.4. Sur dynasty 3.4.1 Administration under Sher Shah Sur 3.4.2 Adminsitrative Division 3.4.3 Economic developments 3.5 Akbar 3.5.1 Introduction 3.5.2 Bairam Khan’s Regency 3.5.3 Akbar’s Theory of Kingship 3.5.4 Administration 3.5.5 Relation with Rajputs 3.5.6 Deccan policy 3.5.7 Religious policies 3.6 Jahangir 27-67 3.7 Shah Jahan 3.8 Aurangzeb 3.9 3.8.1 Aurangzeb’s Rajput Policy 3.8.2 Aurangzeb’s Deccan Policy 3.8.3 Religious Policy 3.8.4 Popular Revolts during Aurangzeb Mughal’s Foreign policy 3.10 Conquest of South by Mughals 3.11 Mughal Army and Mansabdari System 3.12 Social Life under Mughals 3.13 Trade and Commerce 3.14 Downfall of Mughals Unit 4: Rise of Marathas 4.1 Early Career of Shivaji 4.2 Shivaji and the Mughals 4.3 Treaty of Purandar 4.4 Administration of Shivaji 4.5 Shivaji’s Achievements Unit 5: Vijayanagar and Bahmani Kingdom 5.1 5.2 5.3 6.2 6.3 73-84 Vijayanar Empire 5.1.1 Sources 5.1.2 Political history 5.1.3 Administration 5.1.4 Social life 5.1.5 Economic condition 5.1.6 Cultural contribution Bahamani Kingdom 5.2.1 Administration 5.2.2 Downfall of Bahamani Kingdom Conflicts between Vijayanagar and Bahamani Kingdom Unit 6: Bhakti and Sufi Movements 6.1 68-72 Sufism 6.1.1 Growth of Sufism in Islamic World 6.1.2 Sufi Movement in India 6.1.3 Silsilah Bhakti Movement 6.2.1 Sankaracharya 6.2.2 Monotheistic Bhakti 6.2.3 Vaishnava BHakti Guru Nanak 85-96 Part C - Art and Culture Unit 1: Characteristics of Indian Culture 1.1 What is Culture? 1.2 Salient features of Indian Culture 1.3 Culture and its Determinants Unit 2: History and Culture of India through Ages 2.1 Evolution of Humankind 2.2 Quaternary Period 2.3 Stone Age 2.3.1 Paleolithic Age 2.3.2 Mesolithic Age 2.3.3 Neolithic Age 2.3.4 Chalcolithic Age 2.4 Iron Age 1-4 5-18 Unit 3: Indian Architecture 3.1 Art and Architecture 3.1.1 Indus Valley Civilisation 3.1.2 Cave Architecture 3.1.3 Art and Architecture during Mauryan Period 3.1.4 Temple Architecture 3.1.4.1 Nagara Style 3.1.4.2 Dravidian Style 3.1.4.3 Vesara Style 3.1.5 Indo-Islamic Architecture 3.2 Indian Sculpture 3.2.1 Indus Valley Civilisation 3.2.2 Buddhist Sculptures 3.2.3 School of Arts 3.2.4 Gupta Sculpture 3.2.5 Medieval School of Sculpture 3.2.6 Colonial Sculptures in India 3.2.7 British Architecture Styles 19-38 Unit 4: Languages and Literature 4.1 Vedas 4.2 Buddhist and Jain Literature 4.3 Dravidian Literature 4.4 Sangam Literature 4.5 Regional Literature 4.6 Tribal Literature 39-47 Unit 5: Religions and Schools of Philosophy 5.1 Religions in India 5.1.1 Hinduism 5.1.2 Buddhism 5.1.3 Jainism 5.1.4 Christianity 5.1.5 Sikhism 5.1.6 Zoroastrianism 5.1.7 Islam 5.1.8 Judaism 5.2 Sufi Movement 5.3 Bhakti Movement 5.4 Vaishnavite Movement 5.5 Shaivite Movement 5.6 Schools of Philosphy 5.6.1 Samkhya System 5.6.2 Yoga 5.6.3 Nyaya 5.6.4 Vaisheshika 5.6.5 Mimansa 5.6.6 Vedanta 5.6.7 Charvaka 48-59 Unit 6: Paintings and Performing Arts 6.1 Paintings in India 6.1.1 Paintings in Ancient India 6.1.2 Paintings in Medieval India 6.1.3 Paintings in Modern India 6.2 Regional Paintings 6.3 Indian Handicrafts 6.4 Classical Dances in India 6.5 Folk Dances of India 6.5.1 North India 6.5.2 South India 6.5.3 East India 6.5.4 West India 6.6 Indian Music and Instruments 6.6.1 Carnatic Music 6.6.2 Hindustani Music 6.6.3 Types of Musical Instruments 6.7 Puppetry in India 6.8 Theatre forms of India 60-96 Unit 7: History of Indian Coins through Ages 7.1 Ancient Indian Coinage 7.2 Medieval Indian Coinage 7.3 British Indian Coinage 7.4 Republic India Coinage Unit 8: Miscellaneous Information on Art and Culture 8.1 Science and Technological Developments 8.2 Cultural Institutions in India 8.3 National Symbols of India 8.4 Classical Languages of India 8.5 National Calendar 8.6 Festivals in India 8.7 Martial arts of India 8.8 Sarees and styles 8.9 Foreign travelers in India 8.10 Cultural awards 8.11 World Heritage Sites of India 8.12 Geographical Indication Tag 97-102 103-128 Part - A Ancient History Pre-Historic Age 1 ANCIENT INDIA MASTER SERIES UNIT 1 Pre-Historic AGE From Palaeolithic To Iron Age What is Pre-history? Pre-history is the period of human existence, after inclear which written records are availble about the existence of humans. It is the study of pre-literate societies of our earliest hunter-gatherer ancestors and the progress, technological and otherwise, as they domesticated animals, gradually mastered agriculture, and settled down in the earliest settlements, villages and towns. It follows the development of some of these settlements into differentiated and centralised human societies and the emergence of the first great civilisation of the world. The story of the progress from the earliest hunter-gatherer lifestyle to the diversity of human activity today encompasses a vast span of time, and is not uniform in the different parts of world. The Evolution of Man It is believed that the genus Homo evolved in Africa roughly 2.5 million years ago. The Homo Habilis species that emerged were the first members of the Homo Lineage, and is definitely known to have made and used stone tools and artefacts. It is known that Homo Erectus populations, which had appeared around 1.8 million years ago, had spread out of Africa and occupied large regions of Eastern and Southeast Asia half a million years ago. (Refer Fig. 1.1) Fully modern man or Homo sapiens appears in the period between 100,000 BP (before present) and 60,000 BP, initially in South Africa and the Near East. In the Indian context, the oldest fossils of the Homo lineage have been found in Tamil Nadu and have been dated to 1.5 million years ago. India is one of the oldest inhabited regions on the planet. The Hominid activity in the subcontinent dates back to over 250,000 years. Significant human activity was underway in India by the Holocene Period some 10,000 years ago. Before delving into the ancient history of India, one of the vital thing to understand is the Geological timeframe for better understanding of continuity and cultural pattern of the Indian history. 2 Master Series : Ancient India Fig. 1.1. The Evolution of Man Through Ages The Quaternary Period The Quaternary Period is the current and most recent of the three periods of the Cenozoic Era in the geologic time scale. It spans from 2.588 million years ago to the present. The Quaternary Period is divided into two epochs, the Pleistocene (2.588 million years ago to 11.7 thousand years ago) and the Holocene (11.7 thousand years ago to today). Pleistocene Epoch ● Pleistocene climate was marked by repeated glacial cycles in which continental glaciers pushed to the 40th parallel in some places. ● It is estimated that, at maximum glacial extent, 30% of the Earth's surface was covered by ice. The mean annual temperature at the edge of the ice was −6°C (21°F), and at the edge of the permafrost, 0°C (32°F). ● The evolution of anatomically modern humans took place during the Pleistocene. In the beginning of the Pleistocene, Paranthropus species are still present, as well as early human ancestors, but during the lower Palaeolithic they disappeared, and the only hominine species found in fossil records is Homo erectus for much of the Pleistocene. ● The Middle Palaeolithic saw more varied speciation within Homo, including the appearance of Homo sapiens about 200,000 years ago. Modern humans migrated from Africa, spreading all over the ice-free world during the late Pleistocene. Holocene Epoch The Holocene also encompasses the growth and impacts of the human species worldwide, including all its written history, development of major civilizations, and overall significant transition toward urban living in the present. The beginning of the Holocene corresponds with the beginning of the Mesolithic age in majority areas. The Late Holocene brought advancements such as the bow and arrow (at some places) and saw new methods of warfare. Spear throwers and their large points were replaced by the bow and arrow with its small narrow points beginning. Villages built on defensive bluffs indicate increased warfare, leading to food gathering in communal groups for protection rather than individual hunting. Contd.. Pre-Historic Age 3 Ancient history can be divided into different periods according to the tools used by people then. 1. Palaeolithic Period: 2 million BC–10,000 BC 2. Mesolithic Period: 10,000 BC–8000 BC 3. Neolithic Period: 8000 BC–4000 BC 4. Chalcolithic Period: 4000 BC–1500 BC 5. Iron Age: 1500 BC–200 BC The Division of Stone Age ● In earlier studies of History, the division was made into three groups based on the material of manufacture of these weapons and implements, recognized as three ages of stone, bronze and iron. ● The Stone Age was initially divided into an earlier period of chipped stone tools and a later period of ground or polished stone tools by, and is called as Palaeolithic and Neolithic, respectively. ● Later, in the course of the discovery and study of several sites, it emerged that the Palaeolithic was not a single homogeneous period, but a sequence of prehistoric phases marked by faunal changes, and the changes in the lithic industries (lithic means stone). The Stone Age was thus divided into the Upper, Middle, and the Lower Palaeolithic. ● Stone tools smaller than the trademark Palaeoliths, known as microliths, were increasingly found in many deposits overlying Palaeolithic stone assemblages, which were ascribed to a period between the late Palaeolithic and early Neolithic. This period was given the term Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age). Therefore, the Mesolithic age was the transitional period from hunting-gathering to food-producing cultures. General Transitions through the Stone Age ● The time span of the Lower Palaeolithic was the maximum covering the whole of Lower Pleistocene and bulk of the Middle Pleistocene epoch. During this span many river valleys and terraces were formed. Earlier, people preferred to live near the water supply, as the stone tools are found mainly in or adjacent to the river valleys. Evidence of the earliest stone tools in Western Europe has appeared from the deposits of first inter-glacial phase in the Lower Pleistocene. ● The Upper Palaeolithic is marked by a lot of technological advances such as profusion in the variety of stone and bone tools and artefacts, constructing dwellings, sewing clothes with bone needles, etc. This is also the earliest occurrence of art–painting on walls of cave-sand dwellings, carving of human and animal figurines from stones and ivory and decorating bodies of the living and the dead with beads and pendants. ● The Middle Stone Age or Mesolithic is a brief period of transition between the Palaeolithic and the food-producing stage of the Neolithic in most parts of the world, and is characterised by the appearance of microliths (tiny stone artefacts, often a few centimetres in size), in the archaeological record. It is characteristically a few thousand years in duration after the last stages of the Upper Palaeolithic and ends with the advent of agriculture. ● The onset of the Neolithic varies between 10,000BC to 3,000 or 2500BC in different parts of the world. The Neolithic marked the beginning of settled life for humankind, though sections of the population still lived as nomadic or semi-nomadic hunter-gatherers or agro-pastoralists. What is Proto-history? Protohistory is a period between prehistory and history, during which a culture or civilisation has not yet developed writing skills.. ● The Stone Age (Palaeolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic) was followed by the Bronze Age in most parts of the world, and later the Iron Age. Script or writing makes an appearance in the Bronze Age in many parts of the world, 4 Master Series : Ancient India and by the end of the Iron Age, prehistory merges into recorded history in most parts of the world. Some researchers prefer the term ‘proto-history’ to refer to those periods when literature was available, but little used or little evidence for literature survives but other cultures have already noted its exisence in their own writings. Roman-Britain or early days of literate civilizations in Mesopotamia and Egypt may be called proto-historic, as possibly the Neolithic-Chalcolithic, and the Iron Age in south India. ● The periods following the Iron Age is in written part in most parts of the world, and hence the start of recorded history in these regions begins. The Palaeolithic Age ● Palaeolithic is the first stage of Stone Age. During this period, man relied on hunting and had no knowledge of cultivation and house-building. ● During the Paleolithic Age or Old Stone Age man used crude implements for hunting wild animals or for the purpose of cutting and boring. The chief implements used were consisted of darts, scrapers, axes, and throwing the stones. (Refer Fig. 1.3) ● Tips of stones sharpened were used as heads of spears, lances or daggers. Most of the Paleolithic remains in India were made of a peculiar kind of rock called quartzite. ● According to the nature of tools and the change in the climate, the Paleolithic Age in India is divided into three phases; 1. Lower Paleolithic (500,000 BC to 50,000 BC), 2. Middle Paleolithic (50,000 BC to 40,000 BC), and 3. Upper Paleolithic (40,000 BC to 10,000 BC). A. Lower Palaeolithic Age ● They were mainly hunters and food gatherers; tools used were axes, choppers and cleavers. ● Earliest lower Palaeolithic site is Bori in Maharashtra. ● Limestone was also used to make tools. Major sites of lower Palaeolithic age Soan valley (in present Pakistan), sites in the Thar Desert, Kashmir, Mewar plains, Saurashtra, Gujarat, Central India, Deccan Plateau, Chotanagpur plateau, North of the Cauvery River, Belan valley in UP. ● There are also habitation sites including caves and rock shelters. ● The Early or Lower Stone Age in India may be associated with the people of the Homo sapiens group. B. Middle Palaeolithic Age ● Tools used were blades, pointers, scrapers and borers. ● The tools were smaller, lighter and thinner. Important middle Palaeolithic age sites Belan valley in UP, Luni valley (Rajasthan), Son and Narmada rivers, Bhimbetka. C. Upper Palaeolithic Age ● Emergence of Homo sapiens. ● Lot of bone tools, including needles, harpoons, blades, fishing tools and burin tools. Major sites of Upper Palaeolithic age Belan, Son, Chota Nagpur plateau (Bihar), Maharashtra, Orissa and Eastern Ghats in Andhra Pradesh Bhimbetka Rock Shelters ● Bhimbetka rock shelters are located in Raisen District of Madhya Pradesh, 45 km south of Bhopal at the southern edge of the Vindhyachal hills. ● These served as shelters for Paleolithic age man for over more than 1 lakh years. ● This is the most exclusive Paleolithic site in India which contains the rock carvings and paintings. ● These paintings belong to the Paleolithic, and Mesolithic ages, Chalcolithic, early-historic and even medieval times ● It was excavated by VN Mishra and it has many rock shelters and caves and is considered as richest haul of such dwelling. Conti... Pre-Historic Age 5 ● Quarzite were used in Bhimbetka and is the earliest example of rock painting. Various colours were used in the paintings, i.e., Green and Dark Red colour. These colours were prepared by combining manganese, hematite, wooden coal, soft red stone, plant leaves. Sometimes animal fat and extracts of leaves were used as well. Brushes were made of the fiber of plants. ● It depicted animals, hunting scenes, birds and humans. Main animals depicted are: Elephant, Tiger, Lion, Bison, Rhinoceros, Bear. ● Bhimbetka is a World heritage Site. Earlier it was considered to be a Buddhist site and was later recognized as Paleolithic site. Bhimbetka Rock shelters were included in the world heritage list in 2003. Fig. 1.2. The Bhimbetka Dwellings ● Nearly all of our knowledge of Palaeolithic human culture and way of life comes from archaeology and ethnographic comparisons to modern hunter-gatherer cultures. ● The economy of a typical Palaeolithic society was a hunter-gatherer economy. Humans hunted wild animals for meat and gathered food, firewood, and materials for their tools, clothes, or shelters. Human population density was very low, around only one person per square mile. ● This was most likely due to low body fat, infanticide, women regularly engaging in intense endurance exercise and a nomadic lifestyle. At the end of the Palaeolithic, specifically the Middle and or Upper Palaeolithic, humans began to produce works of art such as cave paintings, rock art and jewellery and began to engage in religious behaviour such as burial and ritual. Palaeolithic Tools ● Palaeolithic humans made tools of stone, bone, and wood. Evidence shows these early hominids intentionally selected raw materials with good flaking qualities and chose appropriate sized stones for their needs to produce sharp-edged tools for cutting. ● The earliest Palaeolithic stone tool industry began around 2.6 million years ago. It contained tools such as choppers, burins and awls. The most recent Lower Palaeolithic implements completely vanished from the archaeological record around 100,000 years ago, and were replaced by more complex Middle Palaeolithic tool kits. ● Lower Palaeolithic humans used a variety of stone tools, including hand axes and choppers. Although they appear to have used hand axes often for various purposes of attack and defence. ● Choppers and scrappers were likely used for skinning and butchering scavenged animals and sharp ended sticks were often obtained for digging up edible roots. Presumably, early humans used wooden spears as early as five million years ago to hunt small animals, much as their relatives, chimpanzees. ● The Lower Palaeolithic hominid Homo erectus possibly invented rafts to travel over large bodies of water, which may have allowed a group of Homo erectus to reach the distant islands. Around 200,000 BP, Middle Palaeolithic Stone tool manufacturing spawned a tool making technique. ● This technique increased efficiency by allowing the creation of more controlled and consistent flakes. It allowed Middle Palaeolithic humans to create stone tipped spears, which were the earliest composite tools, by hafting sharp, pointy stone flakes onto wooden shafts. Microliths or small stone tools or points were invented around 70,000 or 65,000 BP and were essential to the invention of bows and spear throwers in the following Upper Palaeolithic period. The invention of these devices brought many additional foods like fish into the human diets, which provided a hedge against starvation and a more abundant food supply (the period of appearance of microliths in India is still an issue of debate). 6 Master Series : Ancient India Fig. 1.3. Palaeolithic Sites in India Pre-Historic Age 7 ● Fire was used by the Lower Palaeolithic hominid as early as 300,000 or 1.5 million years ago, and possibly even earlier. ● However, the use of fire only became common in the societies of the following Middle Palaeolithic Period. Use of fire reduced mortality rates and provided protection against predators. ● Early hominids may have begun to cook their food as early as the Lower Palaeolithic or at the latest in the early Middle Palaeolithic. ● Some scientists have hypothesized that Hominids began cooking food to defrost frozen meat, which would help ensure their survival in cold regions. Paleolithic: The Info-Sheet 1. The Paleolithic infers to a time-period in history from approximately 2.6 million years ago to roughly 10,000 years ago. 2. In 1865, the archeologist lohn Lubbock coined the term Paleolithic which is derived from Greek words palaios meaning 'old', and lithos meaning 'stone'. 3. Paleolithic age is also called as Old Stone Age. 4. During Paleolitrhic many human cultures had emerged, and community living became a way of life. 5. In Paleolithic itself, the man began to use fire for cooking, develop early religions, and started creating art farms as can be seen in cave paintings dating back to this time. 6. Food items of the period included meat from animals, fish, fruit wild vegetables, insects nuts and legumes. 7. The Paleolithic tools included hand axes, stonetipped spears, harpoons, and bow and arrows. 8. Animals such as dogs were perhaps first domesticated during the Paleolithic Age. 9. Calendars were devised during the Upper Paleolithic to track migration of animals. 10. The Paleolithic population was about 10 Lakhs. 11. Climate Change during the Paleolithic led to glacial cycles. 12. The end of Paleolithic means end of last ice age, and warming up of the Earth. Palaeolithic Society The social organization of the Lower Palaeolithic societies remains largely unknown to scientists, though Lower Palaeolithic hominids were likely to have had more complex social structures than the so called chimpanzee societies. Later Homo erectus may have been the first people to invent home bases and incorporate them into their foraging and hunting strategies like contemporary hunter-gatherers, possibly as early as 1.7 million years ago. ● However, the earliest strong evidence for the existence of home bases among humans only dates back to 500,000 years ago. ● Human societies from the Palaeolithic to the early Neolithic farming tribes lived without states and organized governments. By the end of the Palaeolithic era, about 10,000 BP people began to settle down into permanent locations, and began to rely on agriculture for sustenance in many locations. ● Much evidence exists that humans took part in long-distance trade between ‘bands’ for rare commodities such as ochre, which was often used for religious purposes such as ritual and raw materials, as early as 120,000 years ago in the Middle Palaeolithic. ● Some sources claim that most Middle and Upper Palaeolithic societies were possibly fundamentally egalitarian and may have rarely or never engaged in organized violence between groups (war). ● Nor was there a formal division of labour during the Palaeolithic. Each member of the group was skilled at all tasks essential to survival, regardless of individual abilities. Mesolithic Period (Middle Stone Age) The Middle Stone Age ● Continuing from the end of Paleolithic, in early Mesolithic, major climate change happened. The climate became warmer, and more humid. ● Humans began to live in groups and started switching towards the sedentary life style. The increase in the group size created the need of more food for the survival of all members of the family, this lead to improvements of the tools and weapons. ● The Mesolithic Era also brought modifications in the clothing and food style of those times. People started wearing clothes made of animal’s skin as well eating cooked food 8 Master Series : Ancient India ● ● ● ● ● through use of fire. Primitive people were also fond of art and paintings as depicted by the popular cave paintings present at the Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh. Rainfall increased, and so more availability of flora and fauna. Domestication of animals and plants has been found for the first time, started 12000 years ago. First animal to be domesticated was the wild ancestor of the dog. Sheep and goats were the most common domesticated animals. Hunting and food gathering continued. The Mesolithic sites in distribution cover almost the entire country except a few areas like Indo- gangetic plain, Assam and most of the Western coast of India. In Indo-gangetic plain, their absence can be explained by the lack of primary raw material (stones) for making tools. Assam and Western coast were probably left uninhabited due to very high rainfall and dense vegetation in this area. Mesolithic: The Info Sheet 1. Transitional Phase between Paleolithic & Neolithic Age 2. Characteristic tools of this Age: Microliths 3. Tools were very small made of stone, probably stuck to stones to be used as saws and sickles. 4. Major Sites: Brahmagiri (Mysore), Narmada, Vindhya, Gujarat, UP, Sojat (Rajasthan), Bhimbetka, Godavari Basin, Sarai Nahar Rai. 5. Prominent Mesolithic tools used were blades, crescents, triangles, trapezes, spearheads, knives, arrowheads, sickles, harpoons and daggers. 6. It seems that the Mesolithic people preferred the particular dwellings like Sand-dunes, Rock-shelters, Alluvial plains, Rocky plains, Lake-shore, Coastal environment Mesolithic Tools ● The Mesolithic people perhaps produced a variety of implements and weapons such as arrows, spears, knives, sickles, etc. ● The unique features of these composite tools was that, being made of a number of micro-lithic components, one of the broken ● ● ● ● components could easily be replaced without discarding the whole tool. Meso-tools are characterised by parallel-sided blades taken out from prepared cores of fine-materials as chert, crystal, chalcedony, jasper, carnelian, agate, etc. In India, Microlith tools are associated with only Mesolithc period (whereas in many other parts of the world microliths are also found during Palaeolithic period). Numerous types among the microliths have been excavated such as blunted back blades, obliquely truncated blades, points, lunates, triangles, crescents, trapezes etc. Size of these tools varies between 1cm and 3cm. Some of the microliths were used as components of spearheads, arrowheads, knives, sickles, harpoons and daggers. They were fitted into grooves in bone, wood and reed shafts, and joined together by natural adhesives like gum and resin. It can be inferred that the Mesolithic people enjoyed a little material culture. Later, in contact with the metalworking and farming people, they acquired a few items of material culture like, pottery, metal tools, and stone beads for ornaments. Mesolithic Society ● It seems to be certain that this period experienced the arrival of new people in India, possibly from the west. This is the reason for which the Upper Palaeolithic blade industry was non-existent in Indian context. ● The process of disposing off the dead was also unspecialized amongst Mesolithic people. The bodies used to be buried within the habitation area, whether it is a rock-shelter or an openair site. ● At the site Sarai Nahar Rai in the District Pratapgarh in Uttar Pradesh all the skeletons are found to be placed in West-east direction keeping the right forehand diagonally across the abdomen. ● In fact, we are not sure whether the microlith makers of India were the hunters and foodgatherers of Palaeolithic tradition or they were the agriculturists. Pre-Historic Age 9 This new subsistence economy based on food production had a lasting impact on the evolution of human society and the environment. ● Agriculture had not fully developed till this period. ● The earliest evidence of domestication of animals has been provided by Adamagarh in Madhya Pradesh and Bagor in Rajasthan. ● The Pachpadra basin and Sojat Area of Rajasthan is a rich Mesolithic sites and lot of microliths have been discovered. ● Bagor in Rajasthan is the almost largest Mesolithic site in India. Another major Mesolithic site is in Rajasthan, at Tilwara. ● In Gujarat, some places on the banks of River Sabarmati are Mesolithic sites which include the Akhaj, Valsana, Hirpur, Langhanj etc. Sarai Nahar Rai in Allahabad-Pratapgarh of Uttar Pradesh is a Mesolithic site. Other sites in Uttar Pradesh are Morhana Pahar and Lekkahia. ● In Madhya Pradesh Bhimbetka along with Adamgarh are major Mesolithic sites. In Jharkhand Chhota Nagpur plateau is a major Mesolithic site of India. In Orissa, Mayurbhanj, Keonjhar, Sundergarh are the major Mesolithic sites found in India. ● In south India Godavari basin is rich in microliths. ● The rock painting of Mesolithic period is found in Adamgarh, Bhimbetka of Uttar Pradesh and Pratapgarh, Mirzapur of Rajasthan. ● Apart from the animals, hunting scenes, the Mesolithic sites have also painting of social life, sexual activity, child birth, rearing of children and burial ceremony, which makes it clear that Mesolithic man had developed an aesthetic sense. Neolithic Period (New Stone Age) The human settlements in the Mesolithic era got more sedentary and this was the beginning of establishment of villages. Moving from nomadic to settled life, the man now could domesticate cattle, sheep and goats and protect crops from pests. Onset of Food Production Economy ● In due course, as the efficiency of agricultural production improved, some farmers were able to generate the surplus food. As a consequence, a section of the population were freed from the task of food production and their talents and energies were diverted to tasks such as the production of pots, baskets, quarrying of stone, making of bricks, masonry and carpentry. This was the beginning of the new occupations such as the oil presser, washer man, barber, musician, dancers etc. This transition from hunting-gathering to food production is called the Neolithic revolution. ● Wheel was discovered. Ragi, wheat and horse gram were cultivated. Neolithic people knew to make fire. Around 6000 BC, the smelting of metals such as copper began which was used for raw material to be used in tool production. Later, tin was mixed with bronze appeared which stronger metal than both tin and copper was. ● Use of bronze for tools led to the invention of wheel which revolutionized transport and pottery production. Art was seen in cave paintings of dance, evidence of well-designed houses, also show first intentional disposal of the dead. Important Neolithic Sites Inamgaon, Burzahom (Kasmir), Mehrgarh (Pakistan), Daojali Hading (Tripura/ Assam), Hallur (AP), Paiyampalli (AP), Chirand (Bihar). In north India, Burzahom site in Kashmir is located in a cave inside Mahadeva hills on famous Kashmir Valley. The other twin sites, Gurfkral & Martand, are close to it. ● The unique evidence of pit-dwellings with wooden super-structures, coarse grey or black polished pottery frequently with ‘mat-bases’, large number of bone tools in the shape of points, awls, needles, harpoon heads, stone-axes, ring-stones, a type of specialized choppers (pierced, rectangular), knife with razor-like blade, are the characteristics of the Burzahom Period. Burzahom cave site has another interesting point to note—an engraved hunting scene which strongly suggests hunting economy of the Neolithic. ● Most of the Neolithic sites of Central and South India lie in the zone between river Tapti in the north-west and Tungabhadra 10 Master Series : Ancient India and lower Krishna Rivers in the south-east. Most of these sites may be declared as Neo-chalcolithic sites, excepting Brahmagiri and Sanganakallu which are referred to as orthodox Neolithic sites occurring in this part of this sub-continent. ● The significant zones of eastern India includes Assam, Bengal-Bihar-Orissa cultural sites. In Assam Neolithic sites, a type of small ground cells with rounded contour, shouldered cells, etc which are conspicuously lacking in the Neolithic sites of north and central India are found. These Neolithic finds are associated with the common occurrence of ‘Megalithic monuments’, widely distributed in entire hill areas of Assam. The raw materials for such tools are flat slabs of chert, sandstone and slate. Brahmaputra valley, Khasi, Garo and Kachar hills are the prominent Neolithic sites of Assam. In some places, tanged axes, grooved hammer-stones could be noticed in addition to other common tools. The districts of Midnapur, Bankura, Burdwan, Birbhum and Purulia in West Bengal together form a triangular zonal shape which offers significant Neolithic cultural tools. Polished elongated Celts, rectangular polished chisels, black coloured polished pottery, etc have been discovered from these Neolithic sites The Neolithic culture had been established in India at a stage when a far more advanced urban culture exhibiting Chalcolithic features flourished in the extreme north centring round Indus valley. This urban culture as found in Indus valley might have positive influence of Western Asiatic Neolithic-cum-Chalcolithic mixed cultural thrust. ● The Western Indian and Malwa forms of Neolithic tradition may better be termed as Neo-Chalcolithic, have had, their origin from a ‘self-evolved’ microlithic base. Thus, it is safer to say that the Neolithic culture developed in different parts of India, but not from a single source. ● Philological researches have established a definite link between these Neolithic peoples of India and the primitive tribes that lived in Indo-China, the Malayan Peninsula and the Indian Archipelago. Neolithic Tools ● The tools and implements of the Neolithic Age were very different from those of the preceding ages, i.e., the Palaeolithic and Mesolithic. The people of this age used stones other than quartzite and the tools and implements they made were far better grooved, grounded and polished. ● For different types of work, the Neolithic people had different types of highly finished tools and these can be very easily distinguished from the rough, crude tools of the erstwhile Palaeolithic Age. ● As the name Neolithic suggests, it was the New Stone Age, metals except gold being then unknown. Neolithic people were skilled farmers, manufacturing a range of tools necessary for the tending, harvesting and processing of crops (such as sickle blades and grinding stones) and food production (e.g. pottery, bone implements). ● They were also skilled manufacturers of a range of other types of stone tools and ornaments, including projectile points, beads, and statuettes. The tools and implements left by the Neolithic people of India have been found all over India. ● A stone factory of the time has been discovered in the Bellary district of Madras where traces of the various stages of the making of the tools and implements can be still seen. Neolithic Society ● The life and living of the Neolithic men showed a distinct advance from those of the previous ages. Agriculture became known to them, domestication of animals like ox, goat etc, production of fire by friction of bamboos or pieces of wood or flint, making of painted pottery were all known, to them. ● They lived in caves, decorated these by painting scenes of hunting, dancing, etc. They knew spinning and weaving, as also making of boats. Some tombs of the Neolithic men which have been discovered show that they used to bury their dead in large earthen urns. There were also tombs with stone-slab roof on stone pillars. Pre-Historic Age 11 ● The domestication of large animals (c. 8000 BC) resulted in a dramatic increase in social inequality in most of the areas where it occurred. Possession of livestock allowed competition between households and resulted in inherited inequalities of wealth. Neolithic pastoralists who controlled large herds gradually acquired more livestock, and this made economic inequalities more pronounced. ● Families and households were still largely independent economically, and the household was probably the centre of life. Whether a non-hierarchical system of organization existed is debatable, and there is no evidence that explicitly suggests that Neolithic societies functioned under any dominating class or individual, as was the case in the later chiefdoms of the Bronze Age. Neolithic Revolution ● Between 10,000 and 3000 BCE, people in several areas around the Earth developed new agricultural methods and machines, such as the plough pulled by horses or oxen. During this time, people also began domestication and development of both crops and animals. ● The results of these changes made agricultural production much more productive. Food output increased. More land could be farmed by fewer people or in fewer hours. This resulted in greatly improved production and the increased availability of food. ● Most importantly, the agricultural surplus and techniques also brought about deep social divisions and in particular encouraged inequalities between the sexes (male and female). The change from hunting/gathering to primitive farming appears so sudden and fast that this technological change is often characterized as the Neolithic Revolution. The revolution resulted in the discovery of smelting and the creation of bronze tools led to the Bronze Age (name given to Late Neolithic period). ● Agricultural innovation greatly increased the food production output and created a surplus beyond what was needed for survival. ● Producing more food freed people’s time from agricultural work. Some people continued to work in agriculture, while others did other forms of work in large numbers (artisans, clerks, and priests etc). ● People could specialize in different works other than agriculture. The amount of non-agricultural goods produced had increased. ● With more food and temporarily better nutrition, the population increased. Often, a population increased at a faster rate than an area’s resources were capable of sustaining it, and nutrition per person returned to its original level. ● As families and the number of potential workers grew, food production could increase even more. These developments provided the basis for densely populated settlements, specialization and division of labour, trading economies, the development of non-portable art and architecture, centralized administrations and political structures, hierarchical ideologies, depersonalized systems of knowledge (writing), and property ownership. Personal land and private property ownership led to hierarchical society, class struggle and armies. Chalcolithic Period (Copper Age/Bronze Age) ● About 5,000 years ago the man started using bronze along with the stone. Now the man had developed to a great extent. The population was mainly urban, including the priests, writers and clerks at this stage. ● Though the tools excavated suggest that there was over-lapping in use of stone and the metal, the similarity in the shape and types of stone and bronze tools shows simultaneous use of the bronze and stone. Tin mixed with copper was the major material used. That is why, the period is called as the Bronze age. ● The specialists were needed to manufacture goods with the metal, like smiths, miners and the smelters. During this period, the discovery of wheel revolutionized the whole system. The transportation was improved which eventually brought about the complexities in life of people. The initial commerce was developed. 12 Master Series : Ancient India ● There was surplus production, the people could now sell it away for luxuries. This gave rise to capitalism. The person with more resources was able to control the power. The status of rich and poor developed and along with this came the exploitation. This age is witnessed in Indus Valley Civilization that spread to long belt along the western India. Chalcolithic : The Info Sheet 1. Cultivation & cattle rearing along with crop rotation use of irrigation & harvesting. 2. Excavation reveals structures like granaries, embankment & fortification, mud houses made of mud in circular & rectangular pattern along with mud chulha. 3. Famous Pottery of this age Black on Red ware. 4. Some other Chalcolithic settlements were Brahmagiri, Navada Toli (Narmada region), Chirand (Ganga region), and Mahishadal (West Bengal). Chalcolithic Tools ● The Chalcolithic people used tiny tools and weapons of stone in which the stone-blades and blade-lets occupied an important role. In certain settlements, copper objects are found in good numbers, e.g., at Ahar and Gilund in Rajasthan. ● The Chalcolithic people made tools, weapons and bangles of copper, manufactured beads of semi-precious stones such as carnelian, steatite, and quartz because spindle whorls have been discovered in Malwa. Discovery of cotton, flax and silk threads shows that they knew well the manufacture of cloth. Painted pottery is one of the distinguishing feature of the Chalcolithic period, most prominent being ‘Black and Red ware’. They used both Iota and thali. No plough or hoe has been found at Chalcolithic sites. ● Though copper and bronze came to be used, their usage was limited due to the scarcity of the material, and the dependence on stone tool equipment did not changed much. The Neolithic trend of using polished stone tools continued in this period also. Copper and its alloys were used in making axes, chisels, knives, fishhooks, pins, rods, etc. Chalcolithic Society ● People domesticated animals and practised agriculture widely. Occasionally their houses were made of mud bricks, but mostly they were constructed with wattle and daub, and seem to have been thatched. However, the people in Ahar lived in stone-built houses. ● Though the Chalcolithic people of Harappa made extensive use of bricks, the Chalcolithic people in the rest of India did not use any such material. The walls were constructed out of mud or mud and wattle. The houses were either circular or rectangular on plan, plastered with cow dung and lime. They had some light roof supported on wooden posts as post-holes were encountered in large number in all the Chalcolithic sites. ● The Chalcolithic people subsisted on farming and hunting-fishing, reared cattle, sheep, goat, buffalo and pig. The principal cereal was barley, though wheat was also cultivated. Neither plough nor hoe has been attested to at Chalcolithic sites, but perforated stone discs, which were used as weights for the digging sticks, do abound. ● Fish and animal flesh formed an important part of the diet of the Chalcolithic people. Fish bones and fishhooks attest to active fishing. Hunting also was an important occupation for bones of wild animals like wild pig, deer, stage, sambhar, cheetah, etc were found in the excavations. Cattle, buffalo, goat, sheep, pig and rarely horse were among the domesticated animals. ● Regional differences in regard to cereals, pottery, etc, appear in this phase. The dead were buried. Terracotta figurines of women suggest that the Chalcolithic people venerated the mother goddess. Probably, the bull was the symbol of a religious cult. Both the settlements and burial practices suggest existence of social inequalities. The rate of infant mortality was very high. Although most Chalcolithic cultures those existed in the Pre-Historic Age 13 major part of the country are younger than the Indus Valley civilization, they did not derive any substantial benefit from the advanced technological knowledge of the Indus people. ● The rural life pattern, started in Neolithic period has been perfected in the Chalcolithic period, and this period forms the transition from stone age to pure metal age. Chalcolithic Culture ● Chronologically, there are several series of Chalcolithic settlements in India. Some are pre-Harappan, others are contemporaries of the Harappan culture and still others are post-Harappan. Pre-Harappan strata on some sites in the Harappan zone are also called early Harappan to distinguish them from the mature urban Indus civilization. Thus the pre-Harappan phase at Kalibangan in Rajasthan and Banwali in Haryana are distinctly Chalcolithic. So is the case with Kot Diji in Sind. The Kayatha culture in Madhya Pradesh (2000-1800 BC) is a contemporary of the Harappan culture. It has some pre-Harappan elements in pottery, but it also shows Harappan influence. Several post-Harappan Chalcolithic cultures in these areas are influenced by the post-urban phase of the Harappan culture. ● Several other Chalcolithic cultures, though younger in age than the mature Harappan culture, are not connected with the Indus Civilization. The Malwa culture (1700-1200BC) found in Navadatoli, Eran and Nagda is considered to be nonHarappan. So is the case with the Jorwe culture (1400-700 BC) which covers the whole of Maharashtra except parts of Vidarbha and Konkan. ● In the southern and eastern parts of India, Chalcolithic settlements existed independently of the Harappan culture. In south India they are found invariably in continuation of the various Neolithic settlements. The Chalcolithic settlement of the Vindhyan region, Bihar and Bengal Pre-Harappan Chalcolithic cultures spread farming communities in Sind, Baluchistan, Rajasthan, etc., and created conditions for the rise of the ‘new’ urban civilization. ● In Western India, these cultures disappeared by 1200 BC or so. Only the Jorwe culture continued until 700 BC. However, in several parts of the country, the Chalcolithic ‘black and red ware’ continued till the second century BC. ● The eclipse of the Chalcolithic habitation could be attributed to a decline in rainfall from about 1200 BC onwards. In fact, the Chalcolithic people could not continue for long with the digging stick in the black soil area which is difficult to break in the dry season. In the red soil areas, especially in eastern India, however, the chalcolithic phase was immediately followed, without any gap, by the iron phase which gradually transformed the people into full-fledged agriculturists. Similarly, at several sites in southern India Chalcolithic culture was transformed into megalithic culture using iron. ● In South India, the Neolithic phase imperceptibly faded into the Chalcolithic phase, and so these cultures are called Neolithic-Chalcolithic. The Chalcolithic communities founded the first large villages in peninsular India and cultivated far more cereals than is known in the case of the Neolithic communities. The settlements at Kayatha and Eran in Madhya Pradesh and Inamgaon in western Maharashtra were fortified. Iron Age ● The Iron Age was a period found at different points around the world where societies recovered from the collapse of Bronze-Age civilization, developed new tools, and built bigger, more complex civilizations than ever before. This is the era that gave Europe Aristotle, Plato, and Socrates. It’s the time in which China developed Confucianism and Taoism. India, of course, was not to be left out of this. ● India’s Iron Age laid religious, philosophical, social, and political foundations that would go on to influence people across the world. ● India’s Iron Age emerged in an era of transition known as the Vedic period (ca. 1,500-600 BCE). The Vedic period covers both the end of the Bronze Age following the collapse of the Harappan civilization around 1,400 CE and the start of the Iron Age. ● The Harappan civilization of the Indus River Valley had been complex and highly urbanized. The societies of the Vedic period were smaller, most only about the size of a 14 Master Series : Ancient India village, recovering from the changes in the regional economy as well as drought, the likely culprit that collapsed India’s BronzeAge stability. ● This was a time of re-organization, but also religious growth. The Vedic period is named for the Vedas, foundational religious texts of Hinduism. The oldest, written in the ancient script of Vedic Sanskrit, was likely created between 1,500 and 1,200 BCE. ● Thriving from about 1,200 to 600 BCE along the Indus and Ganges river valleys, the Painted Grey Ware people started using iron for agricultural tools, domesticate horses, and started re-organizing into more complex social and political units. ● This is the first period in Indian history to show clear evidence of social and political hierarchies, as well as true governments. (a) The upper Ganges valley and its peripheries (b) Malwa plateau and Tapti valley (c) South and Central Indian megalithic areas (d) Baluchistan plains (e) Middle and Lower Ganges valleys (f) North west mainly Peshawar region. Pre-Historic Age 15 1 Ancient India Master Exercise MCQs for Preliminary Examination 1. Neolithic Age in India is characterized by (c) 2 and 3 (a) domestication of cattles (d) 1 and 3 (b) crop agriculture 2. (c) Both Subjective type questions for Main (d) None Examination Men started cave paintings in the 1. Throw light on elements of change and the continuity in pattern of life in Indian subcontinent during Stone Age. 2. Trace the evolution of life in Indian subcontinent during Stone Age on the basis of archaeological evidences till date. Which of the following statement is true? 3. (a) Mesolithic Technology is based on microblades which were mass produced. Highlight the changes witnessed by Human life in Mesolithic period. 4. The Indian subcontinent witnessed revolution during Neolithic age. Comment. 5. Mesolithic rock cut architecture of India not only reflects the cultural life of the times but also a fine aesthetic sense comparable to modern painting. Critically evaluate this comment. UPSC 2015 (GS-I) 6. Underline the factors behind the social changes of pre-historic people. 7. Discuss how Neolithic Age was an age of revolution which pushed the society so it could achieve so much in next few millenniums. 8. The prehistoric man was concentrated in the few pockets of the Indian subcontinent and unlike modern man did not inhabit all of it. Elucidate. 9. Underline the basic principles of the division of the pre-historic time period. (a) Palaeolithic period (b) Mesolithic period (c) Chalcolithic period (d) Megalithic period 3. (b) First animal to be domesticated was sheep. (c) Both (d) None 4. Which of the following statements are true about Mesolithic culture? (a) People knew stock breeding. (b) People cooked on fire. (c) Both (d) None 5. Which of the following periods belongs to proto historic periods? 1. Neolithic Culture 2. Chalcolithic Culture 3. Vedic Age Choose the correct answer from the codes given below: (a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 2 Answers to MCQs 1. (c) 2. (a) 3. (a) 4. (c) 5. (b) 16 Master Series : Ancient India ANCIENT INDIA MASTER SERIES UNIT 2 The Indus Valley CIVILIZATION The ‘Discovery’ of Harappa in 1920s With the discovery of Harappa (in 1920s), nearly thousand settlements having similar traits, have been discovered till now. Historians named it the ‘Indus Valley Civilization’ because initially most of the settlements were discovered in the plains of the river Indus and its tributaries. Archaeologists however prefer, to call it the ‘Harappan Civilization’. The Ancient Civilisation of India – At Harappa ● “The term ‘Harappan Civilization’ refers to a large number of cities, towns and villages which flourished in the 3rd millennium BC. This geographical space would roughly cover the areas of modernday Rajasthan, Punjab, Gujarat, Pakistan and some of the surrounding areas. The areas of present day Pakistan and NorthWestern India formed the core region of the Harappan civilization.” ● These areas are characterised by dry weather and scanty rainfall. However, there are some important variations among these areas. The areas of Punjab and Sind are dominated by the alluvial plains of the Indus river system, the areas of Baluchistan are characterised by steep craggy hills. In North-Eastern Baluchistan the valley floors might provide some possibilities of agriculture. This area has been inhabited by another set of people also, namely pastoral nomads. These pastoral nomads with their herds of sheep, goat and cattle kept shifting from uplands to lowlands in search of pastures for their herd. Naming of Harappa Civilisation In archaeology there is a convention that when an ancient culture is described, it is named after the name of the site which first revealed the existence of this culture. We do not know what those people called themselves because we have not been able to read their writing. Thus, we call them Harappans after the modern place Harappa where the evidence of this forgotten civilization was first unearthed in our times. The Early Beginning ● The earliest evidence for the emergence of agricultural communities comes from a place called Mehargarh, in the Baluchistan province of Pakistan. Beginning as a seasonal camp the place turned into a settled village in the 5th millennium BC itself. People of Mehargarh lived in mud houses which could sometimes have five to six rooms. By the middle of the 3rd millennium BC, many small and large villages had sprung up around the Indus, Baluchistan and Afghanistan area. ● Once these agriculturists learnt to exploit the highly fertile flood plains of the Indus there was a sudden expansion in the size and numbers of villages. These agriculturists gradually learnt to exploit the Indus plains and to control the flooding of the Indus. Richer returns per acre planted, resulted in larger surpluses. This led to an increase in the The Indus Valley Civilization 17 Timeline of the Indus Valley Civilisation with respect to the other Civilizations Name Period Area Occupations Writing Religion Indus Valley 3000-1503 BC Northwest India, Potter’s wheel, Pictographic Unknown Civilization-Hasppa/ Pakistan Agriculture, dams, Mohenjo-daro city planning, seals Mesopotamian 3000-750 BC Sumer, Babylonia, Dairyfarming, Cuneiform Polytheistic Assyric Highlands textile, metal working, potter’s wheel, sexagesimal sysem Egyptian 3000–8000 BC North Eastern Egyptian Pyramids, Hieroglyphic Polytheistic Africa along River Mummification, Nile Decimal system, Sdar calendar Chinese 1600 BC–1AD China Silk, Pottery, Chinese Taoism Chinaware, Metals, Confuoanism Great Wall, Paper Persian 700 BC Greaer Persia Agricultuie, Cuneiform, Zoroastrianism architecture, Pahlavi landscaping, postal service Greek 2700 BC–1500 Greece (PeloAgricultuie, Greek Polytheistic BC (Cycladic ponnese, Epirus, winemaking, and Minoan Central Greece, architecture poetry, civilisation 1600 Western Greece, drama, philosophy, BC–1100 BC Macedon), later history, rhetoric (Mycenaean Alexandria mathematics, Greece), 800 BC political science, (Ancient Greece) astronomy, physics chemistry, medicine number of settlements in Sindh, Rajasthan, Baluchistan and other adjoining areas. They also managed to exploit stone quarries and mines useful to them. ● There are indications of the existence of pastoral nomadic communities in this period in the form of seasonal settlements. The interactions with these groups seem to have helped agriculturists exploit resources from other regions as the pastoral nomads are known to engage in trading activities over the areas they cover during their travels. All this led to the development of small towns. Pre-Harappan Phase (5500 BC3500 BC) ● The representative site of the era include Mehargarh and Killi Ghul Mohammad. It practiced pastoralism and limited agriculture and had temporary villages. Later on, the villages became permanent. They had mud houses and people domesticated cattle, sheep and goat. They also had the knowledge of wheat, rice, barley and dates. Pottery tradition and craft production started in this era. Three Main Phases of the Harappan Civilization (Ref. Fig. 2.1) Early Harappan Phase ● The Early Harappan Phase lasted from 3300 BC to 2800 BC. It is related to the Hakra Phase, identified in the Ghaggar-Hakra River Valley. The earliest examples of the Indus script dates back to 3000 BC. This phase stands characterized by centralized authority and an increasingly urban quality of life. Trade networks had been established and 18 Master Series : Ancient India Fig. 2.1. Indus Valley Civilisation there was also domestication of crops. Peas, sesame seeds, dates, cotton, etc were grown during that time. Kot Diji represents the phase leading up to Mature Harappan Phase. ● The representative site of the early Harappa era include Amri, Kot Diji and Kalibangan. The phase marked the phenomenal rise in settlements and knowledge about copper was discovered. The potteries also showed regional traditions. Defensive walls along the cities were built and long distance trade got started. It also led to the emergence of unifying traditions in the pottery. Motifs such as ‘Horned Deity, Pipal, and Humped Bull’ were widely used. Mature Harappan Phase ● By 2600 BC, Indus Valley Civilization had entered into a mature stage. The early Harappan communities were turning into large urban centres, like Harappa and Mohenjodaro (in Pakistan now), and Dholavira, Kalibangan, Rakhigarhi, Rupar, and Lothal, etc. ● The representative sites of Mature Harappan phase includes Harappa and Mohenjodaro. This phase marks the rise of cities, planned The Indus Valley Civilization 19 township, and uniformity in bricks size, uniformity in tools and weapons, uniformity in seals, beads, pottery, long distance trade, craft specialization and script evolved. Late Harappan Phase ● The signs of a gradual decline of the Indus River Valley Civilization are believed to have started around 1800 BC. By 1700 BC, most of the cities were abandoned. However, one can see the various element of the Ancient Indus Valley Civilization in later cultures. Archaeological data indicates the persistence of the Late Harappan culture till as late as 1000-900 BC. The major reasons of the decline of the civilization are believed to be connected with climate change. Not only did the climate become much cooler and drier than before, but substantial portions of the Ghaggar Hakra river system also disappeared. Lothal – The City of Dead ● Lothal, is regarded as prominent city of not just Indus Valley Civilization,but of all other ancient civilizations of the world. ● It is located in the Bhal region of modem day Gujarat. ● Lothal, which means ‘The City of Dead’, is an old city dating back to the 4,400-year-old Harappan civilization. ● In the year 1955, archeologists discovered the remnants of an ancient city in Lothal. ● Lothal was originally the site for the lustrous Red Ware culture, associated with the post-Rigvedic Vedic civilization, and named for its mica-related pottery. ● The people of Lothal worshipped a fire god, that could be the homed deity depicted on ancient seals. ● Lothal was a great centre of the bead industry, gems and valuable ornaments that flourished until 1900 BC. ● Lothal had had trade relations with as far as West Asia and Africa. ● The massive dockyard of Lothal, the world’s earliest known dock found anywhere in the world, was fully equipped to berth and service ships. ● The representative site of the late Harappan phase includes Lothal. The phase marks the abandonment of many cities, resulting in end of urban phase. Elite and literate tradition ceased to exist along with tradition of script and uniform weights & measures. It also marks the end of trade. Cities of Indus Valley Civilisation ● Approximately 1052 cities and settlements belonging to the Indus Valley Civilization have been excavated till date, mainly in the general region of the Ghaggar and Indus Rivers and their tributaries. The artefacts discovered in these cities suggest a sophisticated and technologically advanced urban culture. ● The concept of urban planning is also widely evident. There is also the existence of the first urban sanitation systems in the world in the Harappa. The sewerage and drainage system found in each and every city of Indus Valley comes across as even more efficient than those in some areas of India, even till today. ● Dockyards, granaries, warehouses, brick platforms, wide streets, public and private wells, drains, bathing platforms, reservoirs and protective walls have been found in almost all the cities of the Indus Valley Civilization. The evidence suggests that most city dwellers were traders or artisans, who lived with others belonging to the same occupation in well-defined neighbourhoods. Social equality seems to be widely prevalent in the cities of Indus Valley, though there were some houses that are bigger than the others. The cities used the same sized bricks and standardized weights. ● There were other highly developed cultures in adjacent regions of Baluchistan, Central Asia and peninsular India. Material culture and the skeletons from the Harappa cemetery and other sites testify to a continual intermingling of communities from both the west and the east. ● The purpose of the "Citadel" remains debated. In sharp contrast to this civilization's contemporaries, Mesopotamia and ancient Egypt, no large monumental or imperial structures were built. There is no conclusive evidence of palaces or temples or kings, armies, or priests. Some structures are thought to have been granaries. Found at one city is 20 Master Series : Ancient India Major cities in Harappan Civilization City Harappa Mohejo-daro Chanhu-daro Lothal Kalibangan Banawali River Bank Ravi Indus Indus Bhogavo Ghapcar Ghaggar Current Day Location Punjab, Pakistan Sindh, Pakistan Sindh, Pakistan Gujarat, India Rajasthan, India Haryana, India Starting of Excavation 1921 1922 1930 1955 I960 1973 an enormous well-built bath, which may have been a public bath. Although the "Citadels" are walled, it is far from clear that these structures were defensive. They may have been built to divert flood waters. ● Most city dwellers appear to have been traders or artisans, who lived with others, pursuing the same occupation in well-defined neighbourhoods. The seals have images of animals, gods, etc., and inscriptions. Some of the seals were used to stamp clay on trade goods, but they probably had other uses. Although some houses were larger than others, Indus civilization cities were remarkable for their apparent egalitarianism. For example, all houses had access to water and drainage facilities. One gets the impression of a vast middle-class society. Town Planning in Indus Valley Civilisation ● A great uniformity in town planning, the fundamental lay-out of prominent urban settlements exhibits apparent similarities. Based on the grid-pattern, streets and lanes cutting across one another at right angles, dividing the city into a number of rectangular blocks. Main Street ran from North to South and were as wide as 30 feet. Street and lanes were not paved. ● Entire city complex was bifurcated into two distinct parts: the Citadel–a fortified area which housed important civic and religious public buildings including granaries and residences of the ruling class and the Lower Town, somewhat bigger in area and invariably located east of the Citadel, meant for commoners. Evidence of fortification of the lower towns as well from a few urban centres Lead Excavator Daya Ram Sahni RD Banerji NG Majumdar SR Rao Amlanand Ghosh – Marker, BB Lal – Excavator RS Bisht like Surkotda and Kalibangan and evidence of division of the city into three parts instead of two from Dholavira can also be sighted. ● Use of standardized burnt bricks on massive scale in almost all types of construction (an extraordinary feature of the contemporary civilizations). There is a complete absence of stone structures. ● Elaborate and planned underground drainage system was the hallmark of Harappa. Houses were connected to the main drain equipped with manholes, mostly made up of bricks with mud mortar. With use of gypsum and lime to make it watertight. Cesspits were there inside the houses to deposit solid wastes. Brick culverts meant for carrying rain and storm water have also been found. Houses in Harappa Towns ● The houses were plain and did not exhibit any refinement and beauty. So far as the decorative value of the houses was concerned, they lacked it completely. In general, they exhibited a plain and un-decorative look. ● An average house comprised of courtyard and four to six living rooms, a bedroom, a kitchen and a well. Presence of staircase gives indication of the second storey. Houses had side-entrances and windows were conspicuously absent. ● Houses varied from a single-roomed tenement to houses with a number of rooms and even having a second storey. Floors were generally of beaten, earth coated with cow dung. Fireplaces are common in rooms. Walls were thick and square holes in them suggests use of wooden beams. ● Every house was separated by another by a The Indus Valley Civilization 21 narrow space of ‘no-man’s land’. The staircases were usually wooden, but some made up of burnt bricks have been found too. ● Roofs were flat. Doors were set in wooden frames and the average width of a door was one metre. Square and rectangular pillars of burnt bricks were used in larger rooms, the round pillars were absent. Kitchen was small in size. A round oven meant for baking chapattis has been also discovered. Granaries ● The largest building found at Mohenjo-Daro is a granary, running 150 feet long, 75 feet wide and 15 feet high. The granary was divided into 27 compartments in three rows. It was well ventilated and it was possible to fill grain in from outside. The large size of the granary probably indicates a highly developed agricultural civilization. Great Bath ● The Great bath at Mohenjo-Daro is about 179 feet long and 107 feet wide. The complex has a large quadrangle in the centre with galleries and rooms on all sides. In the centre of this quadrangle there is a large swimming enclosure, that is 39 feet long, 23 feet wide and 8 feet deep. The entire complex is connected to an elaborate water supply and sewer system. The Great Bath was most probably used for religious or ritualistic purposes. Dockyard at Lothal ● Lothal had a large structure that has been identified as a tidal dock for sea-faring ships. There is a great deal of evidence that Indus Valley cities traded extensively with other civilisations of that period. Mesopotamian records mention trade with cities of Indus, and objects from the Indus region have been found in West Asian cities. Lothal’s dock— the world’s earliest known, connected the city to an ancient course of the Sabarmati river on the trade route between Harappan cities in Sindh and the peninsula of Saurashtra when the surrounding Kutch desert of today was a part of the Arabian Sea. Water Management ● Water management is a unique feature of the IVC. The excavation site at Dholavira suggests that river water was stored in gigantic reservoirs around the city walls. Sixteen reservoirs have been discovered at Dholavira, seven of which are still intact and can be entered via brick stairs along the walls. Lessons of Urban Planning from Indus Valley Civilization The Indus Valley Civilization displayed remarkable planning in its urban towns, especially in the area of sanitation and drainage. To a great extent, it can provide vital inputs to the present day urbanization. One of the major challenges of urban planning, in India, has been dealing with the haphazard construction of buildings. In the IVC, the streets were built on grid-like patterns, which allowed for methodical and planned growth. In modern times, Le Corbusier’s plans for Chandigarh provided for a rectangular shape with grid iron pattern, which enabled fast movement of traffic and reduced the area. In the IVC, the town was also demarcated clearly between residential areas and common/public areas. The granaries of IVC are also an example of intelligent design, with their strategically placed air ducts and the platforms being divided into units. The houses in the IVC were constructed in such a manner that it didn’t disturb the layout of the roads in any way. The houses had doors that opened out into the lanes instead of the roads. The warehouse in Lothal is an exemplary instance of designing with precision. The drains in the IVC connected each and every house, and enabled them to dump their waste directly. These drains were covered, and they directly connected to the larger sewerage outlets. There were inspection holes on the drains for maintenance purposes and there were manholes on the streets. Thus, urban planning of the IVC has extensively helped us learn from it. Society of Indus Valley Civilisation Presence of various classes–priests, merchants, craftsmen, peasants, labourers (social status is reflected in different forms of dwellings). Out of these, the peasants, the labourers and the traders formed the majority. ● A good number of toy-clay carts, rattles, bulls with mobile head, monkey with movable arms, dices, chess-boards etc. were used for amusement purposes. Other than playing, the other activities included hunting, fishing and cock fighting. 22 Master Series : Ancient India ● Females were scantily dressed and they wore short skirts. They used cosmetics such as – tweezers, ear-scoops, piercer, antimony rods, ivory combs, mirrors, hair-pins, round buttons for clothes, minor razors, kohl pots and sticks too were used by the women’s. ● The male wore a robe which were embroidered sometimes. Cotton was used, but, there is no evidence of use of linen and wool. Footwears too have not been discovered. Special care of hair is evident from the reference of pony-tail, plait, bun and coiled hair. Curly hairs were in fashion (Evidence from a clay figure from Mohenjo-Daro). Beards (not very long) and the trend of shaven upper lips was in vogue. Besides above mentioned dresses and ornaments, other fashionable items of the time included – Necklaces, beads, girdle, bracelet, fillets, finger-rings, bangles, nose-ornaments and anklets. Script & Language ● The Indus script has yet not been deciphered. It was pictographic and approximately 396 signs have been listed, written from right to left and left to right in alternate lines, i.e; boustrophedon style. Burials ● Cemeteries at Harappa, Mohanjo-Daro, Lothal, Kalibangan and Ropar were located at the outskirts of the city. The evidence clearly suggests that a separate land for the burials of the dead were used. Generally, three forms of burials were practiced – complete burial, fractional burials and post-cremation burials. ● There is an evidence of various other types of burials such as – Coffin burial at Harappa, Joint burial of male and female from Lothal, Pit burial from Kalibangan. Generally, the dead body was lying on its back and head was pointed towards the north direction. Pottery It comprised of two types – Plain Pottery and Red & Black Pottery with decoration, majority being the former. There was widespread use of potter’s wheel made up of wood. Fire technique and kiln were used for the permanent shape of the pottery. ● A variety of pleasing designs were usedhorizontal strips, checks, chess-board pattern, intersecting circles (pattern exclusively found), leaves & petals. Natural motifs of various animals were also used such as – birds, fish, plants, human figures were rare (a man & child found from Harappa) and triangles. ● The potteries had plain bases, few ring bases have also been found. Polychrome pottery was rare (discovered at Nal, Baluchistan and Amri of pre-Harappan period). Spouted pottery of Babylonia was absent. Large jars for grains have been found. Pots from Lothal show high skill. Plain and un-decorated pottery were more common in Mohanjo-Daro. Harappan & Mohanjo-Daro pottery were monochrome. Seals ● Seals are the greatest artistic creation of the Harappan people – Cutting & polishing craftsmanship is excellent. Number of seals discovered is approximately 2000. It was made of steatite (soft-stone). Sometimes it was made up of copper, shell, agate, ivory, faience and terracotta. The size of these seals varied from ½ inch to 2½ inch. (Refer Fig. 2.2) ● It came in various shapes–square, rectangular, button, cubical, cylindrical and round. The two main types were square (carved animal & inscription, small boss at the back) and rectangular (inscription only, hold on the back to take a cord). ● The seals had dead white appearance and the display symbols included – circles, crosses, dots, swastiks, leaves of pipal tree. Most frequently depicted animal was unicorn. Other animals included on seals were of elephant, tiger, rhinoceros, antelope, and crocodiles. ● The purpose was to show marked ownership of the property. It was also used in applying to bales of merchandise (discovery of such seals from beside the dockyard of Lothal), and also as amulets. Chahnudaro had only yielded square stamp seals. The famous Pasupati Seal has been found from Mohanjo-Daro. It depicts Siva seated on a stool flanked by an elephant, a tiger, a rhinoceros, a buffalo and two antelopes and goats. Marshall identified it with ProtoSiva. Persian Gulf Seals have also been discovered from Lothal. The Indus Valley Civilization 23 Bronze Figures Fig.2.2. Harappan seals ● They are few in numbers and employed cast bronze. It was mainly found in Mohanjo-Daro. The specimens discovered exhibit remarkable skill and craftsmanship. Some of the exquisite figures are of the Dancing Girl from Mohanjo-Daro, animal motifs of buffalo and ram from Mohanjo-Daro, Bullock-cart and Ikkas from Harappa and Chahnudaro. Daimabad have also yielded four marvellous pieces. (Refer Fig. 2.3) Terracotta Figurines ● It was less sophisticated and refined in artistic skill than the seals & bronze sculptures. It has been discovered in good numbers from almost all the settlements of Harappa. Majority of them were cult objects and toys, animals and birds being predominant. Red colourings were used for the decoration. Fig.2.3. Harappan Artefacts Beads ● Beads were abundant and varied. They were made up of gold, silver, copper, bronze faience, steatite, shells and semi-precious stones. It was mainly made up of steatite, such beads were barrel shaped. Bead-maker’s shop have been found from Chahnudaro and Lothal. Stone Sculptures ● Soft stones such as steatite, limestone and alabasters were used for the creation of stone sculptures. Size was always moderate and no life-size sculptures have been found. They served as cult objects and icons. Carvings of animals are rare, not found in plenty. A few pieces have been discovered in mutilated and fragmentary conditions. Most of sculptures have been found from Mohanjo-Daro and a few from Harappa. The master-piece are the Bearded Priest of Mohanjo-Daro and two male figures, a dancer and a youth with muscular body from Harappa. Terracotta figurines are classified into Animal and Human figures. The most frequently depicted animal is unicorn and others being rhinoceros, elephant, monkey, turtle, dog and sheep. The human figures mainly comprised of females. Some master-pieces include Horned figure and a Man from Mohanjo-Daro, models of Carts and a Bull with moving head. Science and Technology in Indus Valley Civilisation ● The people of the Indus Civilization achieved greater accuracy in measuring length, mass, and time. They were among the first to develop a system of uniform weights and measures. Their smallest division, which is marked on an ivory scale found in Lothal, was approximately 1.704 mm, the smallest division ever recorded on a scale of the Bronze Age. Harappan engineers followed the decimal division of measurement for all practical purposes, including the measurement of mass as revealed by their hexahedron weights. ● Weights were made up of variety of materialslate, jasper, cherts, alabaster, limestone and quartzite. It was mainly made up of polished chert. For larger weights, the decimal system was used and for smaller ones, the binary 24 Master Series : Ancient India system was followed. The unit weight had the calculated value of 0.875 gms and the largest weight was 10970 gms. ● The brick weights were in a perfect ratio of 4:2:1. The numerous inventions of the Indus River Valley Civilization include an instrument used for measuring whole sections of the horizon and the tidal dock. The people of Harappa evolved new techniques in metallurgy and produced copper, bronze, lead and tin. They also had the knowledge of proto-dentistry and the touchstone technique of gold testing. As in other cultures of the ancient, actual weights were not uniform throughout the area. The weights and measures later used in Kautilya's Arthashastra are the same as those used in Lothal. The engineering skill of the Harappans was remarkable, especially in building docks. Trade and Transportation ● Trade seems to the major occupation of the people of the Harappan Civilization. The main forms of transport included bullock carts and boats. Archaeologists have also discovered an enormous, dredged canal and docking facility at the coastal city of Lothal. The pottery, seals, figurines, ornaments, etc of the civilization show great similarities with those of Central Asia and the Iranian plateau, indicating wide-trade with them. Then, there are signs of maritime trade network between the Harappan and Mesopotamian civilizations also. The “Meluha” of Mesopotamia People Ancient Mesopotamian texts speak of trading with seafaring civilizations of ‘Meluha’. This trade was conducted with real financial sophistication in amounts that could involve tons of copper. The Mesopotamians speak of Meluha as a land of exotic commodities. A wide variety of objects produced in the Indus region have been found at sites in Mesopotamia. Agriculture ● The nature of the Indus civilization's agricultural system is still largely a matter of conjecture due to the limited amount of information surviving through the ages. Food production was largely indigenous to the Indus Valley. Already, the Mehargarh people used domesticated wheat and barley. The agriculture in Indus civilization must have been highly productive, after all, it was capable of generating surpluses sufficient to support tens of thousands of urban residents who were not primarily engaged in agriculture. It relied on the considerable technological achievements of the pre-Harappan culture, including the plough. There is no evidence of irrigation, but such evidence could have been obliterated by repeated, catastrophic floods. ● The main crops were wheat and barley. Other crops were peas, rye, and sesames, mustard, cotton and dates. There is no evidence of sugarcane and rice was rare (evidence from Rangpur & Lothal). The major cultivated cereal crop was naked six-row barley, a crop derived from two-row barley. ● In addition, it is also known that people practiced rainfall harvesting, a powerful technology that was brought to fruition by classical Indian civilization but nearly forgotten in the 20th century. At a recently discovered Indus civilization city in western India, archaeologists discovered a series of massive reservoirs, hewn from solid rock and designed to collect rainfall, that would have been capable of meeting the city's needs during the dry season. Religious Practices ● In the absence of definite decipherment of Harappan script the artefacts recovered from various excavations at the sites are the only source of information about Harappan religion. No buildings, which could be identified as temples or places of worships have so far been discovered in any site. SR Rao, however, has identified a few low structures found in the excavation sites at Lothal and Kalibangan as fire altars, and it is assumed that animals were scarified at those altars. A major debate is centred on whether Harappan religion belonged to Vedic or non-Vedic traditions. ● From the archaeological findings, it may be presumed that the most important feature of the Indus Valley religion was the cult of Mother Goddess or Nature Goddess. There are quite a few figurines of terracotta or other material which display a standing female figure, with minimum clothing but profusely The Indus Valley Civilization 25 ornamented, with head-dress, collar, etc., wearing a girdle or band round her loins. Also the representation of a figure standing in a bifurcated tree, may be interpreted to identify the Mother Goddess with the Nature Goddess. Among male deities Siva can be identified easily as a principal deity in Harappan religion. Most remarkable representation of this deity is a three-faced figure wearing a three-horned head-dress, surrounded by a variety of animals. Also, the Indus Valley people might have been worshipping various animals. Though some of the animal figures might have been used as toys, others were used for religious purposes. ● The Indus Valley people also worshipped natural objects like water, fire, trees, etc. Various trees, plants and foliage have been found depicted on a number of seals. Fire must have been worshipped (evidence from Lothal & Kalibangan). Evidence of Male Deity – Pasupati Siva; Animal worship – Unicorn; Tree worship-Pipal, Fertility CultPhallic Worship; Amulets and Talisman have also been found. Decline of the Great Indus Civilization ● Around 1900 BCE, signs of a gradual decline begin to emerge. People started to leave the cities. Those who remained were poorly nourished. By around 1700 BCE, most of the cities were abandoned. ● In 1953, Sir Mortimer Wheeler proposed that the decline of the Indus Civilization was caused by the invasion of an Indo-European tribe from Central Asia called the "Aryans". As evidence, he cited a group of 37 skeletons found in various parts of Mohenjo-Daro, and passages in the Vedas referring to battles and forts. However, scholars soon started to reject Wheeler's theory, since the skeletons belonged to a period after the city's abandonment and none were found near the citadel. Subsequent examinations of the skeletons by Kenneth Kennedy in 1994 showed that the marks on the skulls were caused by erosion, and not of any violent aggression. ● Many scholars believe that the collapse of the Indus Civilization was caused by drought and a decline in trade with Egypt and Mesopotamia. It has also been suggested that immigration by new peoples, deforestation, floods, or changes in the course of the river may have contributed to the collapse of the IVC. Alternatively, a crucial factor may have been the disappearance of substantial portions of the Ghaggar–Hakra river system. According to their theory, the slow eastward migration of the monsoons across Asia initially allowed the civilization to develop. The monsoon-supported farming led to large agricultural surpluses, which in turn supported the development of multitude of cities. The IVC residents did not develop irrigation capabilities, unaware, they relied mainly on the seasonal monsoons. As the monsoons kept shifting eastward, the water supply for the agricultural activities dried up. The residents then migrated towards the Ganges basin to the east, where they established smaller villages and isolated farms. The small surplus produced in these small communities did not allow development of trade, and the cities died out in the due course of time. ● A tectonic event may have diverted the system's sources toward the Ganges Plain, though there is complete uncertainty about the date of this event, as most settlements inside Ghaggar–Hakra river beds have not yet been dated.The actual reason for decline might be any combination of these factors. Legacy of Indus Valley Civilisation ● Previously, it was also believed that the decline of the Harappan civilization led to an interruption of urban life in the Indian subcontinent. However, the Indus Valley Civilization did not disappear suddenly, and many elements of the Indus Civilization could be found in later cultures also. Current archaeological data suggests that material culture classified as Late Harappan may have persisted until at least c. 1000-900 BCE and was partially contemporaneous with the Painted Grey Ware culture. Archaeologist Richard Meadow points to the late Harappan settlement of Pirak, which thrived continuously from 1800 BCE to the time of the invasion of Alexander the Great in 325 BCE. 26 Master Series : Ancient India Recent archaeological excavations indicate that the decline of Harappa drove people eastward. After 1900 BCE, the number of sites in India increased from 218 to 853. Excavations in the Gangetic plain show that urban settlement began around 1200 BCE, only a few centuries after the decline of Harappa and much earlier than previously expected. Archaeologists have emphasized that, just as in most areas of the world, there was a continuous series of cultural developments. These link “the so-called two major phases of urbanization in South Asia”. ● In the aftermath of the Indus Civilization's collapse, regional cultures emerged, to varying degrees, showing the influence of the Indus Civilization. In the formerly great city of Harappa, burials have been found that correspond to a regional culture called the Cemetery H culture. At the same time, the Ochre Colored Pottery culture expanded from Rajasthan into the Gangetic Plain. The Cemetery H culture has the earliest evidence for cremation, a practice dominant in Hinduism today. The Indus Valley Civilization 27 Ancient India Master Exercise MCQs for Preliminary Examination 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Which of the following was/were the features of Indus Valley Civilizations? 1. Town Planning 2. Drainage systems 3. Postal System 4. Cantonment System Choose the correct answer from the codes given below: (a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 2 (c) 1, 2 and 4 (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 Indus Valley Civilization belonged to: (a) Mesolithic Age (b) Neolithic Age (c) Megalithic Age (d) Chalcolithic Age Which of the following statements are True about the Indus Valley Civilization? 1. The town planning followed a grid system. 2. Many cities of the civilization were walled. 3. They had trading relations with the South East Asia. 4. Harappa and Mohenjodero were twin capitals of the civilization. Choose the correct answer from the codes given below: (a) 1, 2, 3 and 4 (b) 1, 2 and 4 (c) 1 and 2 (d) 3 and 4 Which was the ancient port of Indus Civilization? (a) Harappa (b) Lothal (c) Dholavira (d) Surkotada Which of the following statements about Indus Valley Civilization are true? 1. They were mostly farmers and herders. 2. They were mostly traders. 3. Cattle remained absent. Choose the correct answer from the codes given below: (a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 2 (c) 1 and 3 (d) 2 and 3 2 Subjective type questions for Main Examination Harappan civilization had an abrupt end but Harappan culture continued to survive. Discuss this statement. 2. Discuss the nature and character of religions, social life and occupational systems of Harappan civilization on the basis of archaeological evidences. 3. Discuss the salient features of the Indus Valley Civilization. 4. Discuss the water management and its conservation planning in cities of Indus Valley. 5. Discuss the factors responsible for the decline of Indus civilization in the light of recent researches. 6. The ancient civilization in Indian Sub-continent differed from those of Egypt, Mesopotamia and Greece in that its culture and traditions have been preserved without the present day. Comment. UPSC 2015 (GS-I) 7. To what extent has the urban planning and culture of the Indus Valley Civilization provided inputs to the present day Urbanization? Discuss. UPSC 2014 (GS-I) 8. The Urbanisation of the Indus Valley Civilization was an spontaneous process. Examine. 9. Discuss the probable administrative structure of the Indus Valley Civilization. Support your arguments with logical examples. 10. The Indus Valley Civilization had a monotheistic religions devoid of priests, sacrifices and rituals. Examine. 11. The Indus Valley Civilization disappeared without leaving a trace. For Indians of later times it seems as alien a civilization as in any distant continent. Critically comment. 1. Answers to MCQs 1. (b) 2. (d) 3. (b) 4. (b) 5. (b) 28 Master Series : Ancient India ANCIENT INDIA MASTER SERIES UNIT 3 The Vedic AGE The Vedic Civilisation Indus Valley was start of great civilisational march of India. After decline of Indus valley, another great civilisation flourished in this part of earth, this civilisation is called Vedic civilisation. The people who were responsible for the evolution of this civilization called themselves Aryas or Aryans. ‘Arya’ literally means the man of ‘noble character’, and the “free-born”. They spoke the Indo-European languages from which modern languages like Sanskrit, Persian, Latin, Greek, Celtic, and Gothic have developed. The origin of Aryans There are various hypotheses about the origin of Aryans and their appearance in India. ● Aryan Invasion Theory: The Aryans invaded the Indus Valley Settlements at their point of decline and superimposed their own civilization over them, leading to prominence of Vedic civilization as well as loss of prominence of Indus Valley. ● Aryan Migration Theory: The Aryans were not one single group but multiple groups who gradually migrated from Central Asia to Gangetic plains. There was no "war" involved, rather they "settled in" peacefully with a rich cultural interaction with Dravidians and Mundas. ● Indigenous Aryan Theory: The Aryans were exclusively Indo-Gangetic and were either Indus-Valley residents or co-existed with them. ● Out-of-India Theory: The Aryans are not exclusively from Indo-Gangetic. Rather the direction of migration was reverse, i.e., it started in India and went westwards. According to Giles, Balkan countries were the original home of the Aryans. The flora and fauna and the animals with which the early Aryans were familiar could be found in the Balkan countries at that time. Some historians believe that the Aryans migrated from Lithuania (Europe) into Caucasus and from there they entered into Iran. Some historians held the view that the Aryans entered into India from the region of South Russia. Brandenstein has suggested that the Aryans migrated to India from Steppes of Russia. Some historians held the view that Aryans belonged to India. The Rig Veda refers to ‘Sapta Sindhu’ land (of seven rivers) which was the name of Punjab. Subsequently, it was called “Panchanada” (land of five rivers). The flora and fauna with which the Aryans were familiar are not found in Punjab. Again the fertility of Punjab must have attracted immigration. From the linguistic viewpoint Greek and Latin belong to Aryan group of Languages. These considerations led the historians to believe that Aryans do not originally belong to India. The general assumption is that Aryans migrated from the Central Asia/Steppes region. Those who migrated to West were Greeks and Latins. Another part migrated to Anatolia (Turkey) and gave birth to a political system known as Hittites (1900-1700 BC). Some of them migrated to Iran (related to India). Out of Iran, one part moved to Iraq known as Kassites (1600 BC). Another part migrated to Syria known as Mittanis (1400 BC). Another part migrated to India, known as Aryans. Linguistic similarities do provide some clues to their original homeland. The Vedic Age 29 ● Racial characteristic of the Aryans were tall stature, long head, white skinned, sharp nose who were hefty and sturdy than the general Indus people. Other trademarks of the Aryans include use of spoked wheels, use of horse, powerful swords and arrows, cult of fire, soma, animal sacrifice, and possessing distinct language. ● Rig Veda has many things in common with ‘Avesta’ Iranian text. The ‘Rig Veda’ and ‘Avesta’ use the same names for several gods and even for several classes. Some Aryan names engraved in the Kassite inscriptions of 1600 BC and the Mittani inscriptions of the fourteenth century BC found in Iraq proves that from Iran a branch of the Aryans did really moved towards the west. Important Inscriptions ● Tel-el-amaran Inscription (1400 BC): It deals with the names of Mittani princes ● Hittite Inscription (1900-1700 BC): Found in Anatolia, it gives some specimen of Indo-European languages. ● Kassite Inscription (1600 BC): Found in Iraq, it provides some Aryan names. ● Boghazkoi Inscription (Capital of Mittanis): Information about treaty between Hittites and Mittanis are discovered along with the names of four Vedic Deities, i.e; Indra, Varuna, Mitra and Aswin/Nasatyas Early Aryan settlements in India ● The Aryans appeared in India a little earlier than 1500 BC. The earliest Aryans settled down in eastern Afghanistan, Punjab, and on outskirts of present day of Uttar Pradesh. Though they were confined mainly in Punjab, yet their outer settlements reached to the banks of the Ganges and the Yamuna. They named that region Madhya Desa. Gradually, they occupied the whole of Uttarapatha, the land between Himalayas and the Vindhyas and from the western seas to the east, the whole landmass called as Aryavarta. The Vedic Age can be divided into two phases. 1. Rig Vedic Age 2. Later Vedic Age The Vedic Literature The Vedas were probably authored during 1500 BC and 600 BC. Rig Veda is one of the earliest specimen of Indo-European literature. The word Rig is derived from the Sanskrit meaning ‘to know’. Originally, Vedas were not in a written form. In the early days, they were chanted orally. For centuries together, they were transmitted orally to the successive generations. The Vedas acquired the written form hundreds of centuries later. Vedas are also called ‘apaurusheya’ (not made by man), ‘nitya’ (existing in all eternity), and shruti (handed down from one generation to another). The ‘Rishis’ to whom they are ascribed are known as ‘Mantradrasta’ (Those who received the mantra by sight directly from the Supreme Creator). The entire Vedic literature can be divided into four parts: The Veda/Samhitas, the Brahmanas, the Aranyakas and the Upanishads. The Veda/Samhitas and the Brahmanas form the Karma-Kanda segment of the Vedas. They are apparently concerned with the ceremonial rites and rituals. The Aranyakas and the Upanishads form the Gyan-Kanda segment of the Vedas. They explicitly focus on the philosophy and spiritualism. 1. The Vedas/Samhitas The Samhitas form the first part of each of the Vedas. A Samhita is a collection of mantras, so the Samhitas are sometimes also referred to as the ‘mantras’. Most of the mantras or hymns were concerned with the nature and the deities. The ancient man worshipped the elements of nature as deities. The Vedic man used the mantras in sacrificial ceremonies, and for performing mystic rituals. The Samhitas are named after the Vedas they belong to. For example, the Samhita of the Rig Veda is called the Rig-Veda-Samhita or the Rig-Samhita. The RigSamhita contains the mantras or the hymns known as ‘richas’. These hymns are metered verses. The SamSamhita contains mantras in the form of songs meant for liturgy or public worship. The Yajur-Samhita contains mantras composed in the poetical and the prose forms. The Atharva-Samhita contains mantras meant for routine rites and rituals. 30 Master Series : Ancient India Four Vedas/Samhitas are (a) The Rig Veda: It is a collection of hymns. and it is the oldest of all Vedas and belongs to ‘Sakala’ school and Hotays sages were associated with it. It has ten Mandalas & eight Ashtakas, with a total of 1028 ‘Suktas’ or ‘stutis’ for the worship of gods like Indra, Surya, Agni, Yama, Varuna, Ashwini, Usha etc. The oldest Mandal are II, III, IV, V, VI and VII, known as family books on account of their composition being ascribed to various families of the sages. The Mandalas II to VII are ascribed to Gritsamada, Viswamitra, Vamadeva, Atri, Bhardwaja and Vasistha. The latest Mandalas are I, VIII, IX and X. The IX Mandala is completely devoted to the Vedic God Soma. (b) Sama Veda: A collection of songs mostly taken from Rig Veda of which only 75 hymns are the original. It is also known as ‘Book of chants’. The hymns were meant for singing at the Soma sacrifice. It contained 1549 stutis. Udgataris sages were associated with it. Earliest evidence of music comes from this text – Saman (melody/singing). It is available in three versions viz. the Jaiminiya in Carnatic, the Kauthuma in Gujarati and Ranayaniya in Marathi. (c) Yajur Veda: A collection of rituals for performing different sacrifices. It is recited by the priests known as Adhavaru. This is the only Veda in prose. It has 40 Mandals. There are two distinct forms of Yajur Veda namely, “Sukla Yajur Veda” and “Krishna Yajur Veda”. The “Sukla Yajur Veda” contains the genesis while the “Krishna Yajur Veda” describes the “Vasya” or the philosophy. (d) Atharva Veda: A collection of charms, magic and spells. It preserves many popular cults and superstitions and contains non-Aryans elements (folk elements). It has twenty Mandalas with 731 ‘stutis’. It contains 20 Kandas or Books. The Kandas 18, 19 and 20 are the later additions. It deals with magic, hypnotism, enslavement through mantra. The hymns were meant for warding off evils & demons, winning over friends and to gain material success. It is regarded on a lower level than the other three Vedas. Gopath Brahmana belong to Atharva Veda and Mundaka and Prasara Upanishad is related to it. 2. The Brahmanas The Brahmanas constitute the second part of the Vedas. With the passage of time, the newer generations found the mantras of the Samhitas difficult to understand. An elaborate explanation of the mantras became necessary. The result was the Brahmanas. The Brahmanas are explanatory in nature. The Brahmanas are concerned with the religious rites and rituals, basically it was kind of Theology and Philosophy of the Brahamanas (Priestly class). The Rig Veda has two Brahmanas, Aitereya Brahmana and Shankhayana Brahmana. The Aitereya Brahmana deals with Soma sacrifice and various ceremonies of royal inagurations. The Yajur Veda has also two Brahamanas, Tattiriya and Shatpath Brahmana. The Shatpatha Brahmana of Yajur Veda is the largest of all the Brahmanas of all the Vedas. The Brahamanas associated with Sama Veda are Tandya Maha Brahmana/ Panchvimsa, Shadvimsa and Jaiminiya and Gopath Brahmana belongs to Atharva Veda. 3. The Aranyakas ● The Sanskrit word ‘aranya’ means a forest. The Aranyakas form the third part of the Vedas. However, it should be noted that the Aranyakas are sometimes considered as parts of the Brahmanas. It deals with mysticism, moral-values and philosophical doctrines. It gives emphasis on meditation. ● The Aranyakas were developed by the hermits, living in the forests. Due to the limited resources in the forests, they could not perform the conventional sacrifices, nor could they adhere to the rituals. It was then that the Aranyakas were developed. With the advent of the Aranyakas, the emphasis on the sacrificial rites seems to be diluting. The shift towards philosophic and spiritual interpretation of the rituals and ceremonials is evident. ● The Aranyakas reflect an explicit transition in the philosophy of life of a person. The speculative and intuitive thinking seems to be developing. Meditative thinking is conspicuous. The Vedic person seems to be The Vedic Age 31 turning from the gross to the subtle. His quest for knowledge seems to be intensified. Kalpa (ritual), Vyakarana (grammar), Nirukta (explanation of words i.e etymology). Terminologies for Territorial Divisions 4. The Upanishads ● The Upanishads are the concluding portions of the Vedas. Literally, it means a ‘session’, in which the mentor imparts esoteric teachings. It deals with Philosophy and Metaphysics. The Upanishads are at the end of the Vedas, therefore are referred to as the Vedanta. They are 108 in numbers. The Vedanta essentially refers to the philosophy pronounced in the Upanishads, the final parts of the Vedas. Some scholars treat the Vedas and the Upanishads altogether separately. ● Most of the Upanishads are in forms of dialogues between a master and a disciple. In Upanishads, a seeker raises a topic and the enlightened guru satisfies the query aptly and convincingly. Thus, the Upanishads contain the sublime knowledge that deals with the topic at great depth. The Upanishads discuss an enormous amount of topics like the Brahman, the atman, the existence, life and death, moksha (mukti), the jagat, the knowledge and its various types, the Brahma gyana, the Atmagyana and many other related issues elaborately. ● It is not known how many Upanishads existed originally. We do not know who composed them. Some of the Upanishads are in the prose form and some others in the verse form. Some of them are partly composed in prose and partly in verse. Some of the Upanishads have been composed in recent times. It is difficult to ascertain the precise number of the original, ancient Upanishads. It is believed that the Rig Veda has 10 Upanishads. The number of Upanishads for Shukla Yajur Veda is 19, for Krishna Yajur Veda 32 and for Sama Veda it is 16. Atharva Veda has 31 Upanishads. 1. Brahmavarta 2. Dhruvmadhyamandis 3. 4. 5. 6. Aryavarta Madhyadesha Dakshinapath Parvatasrayin 7. Brahmarshi Desa 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. Uttarpatha (Udichya) Aparanta (Pratichya) Purvadesa (Prachya) Tamilakam Parvaasrayin Rivers and Their Ancient Names 1. 2. 3. Jhelum Chenab Ravi 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. Beas Sutluj Gomal Sohan Kurram Kabul Gandak Ghaggar/Rakshi/Chitang Swat 5. Vedangas ● Besides the Vedas, there is another class of works whose authorship is ascribed to human beings. They are known as Sutras or Vedangas. There are six Vedangas. They are six subjects. These are Shiksha (deals with sound and pronunciation), Chhandas (rhyme and metre) Jyotisha (astronomy), Region between Sutlej and Yamuna (area of earliest Aryan settlement) Region between the Saraswati and the Ganga, literally means ‘firm middle country’ (Later Vedic settlement area) Northern India Central India Southern India The hill country of the north stretching from the jungles of Tarai to the crest of the Himalayas The Western part of Central India North-West India Western India Eastern India Tamil country Himalayan tract Vitasta Asikini Parushini/Iravati/ Yavjavati Vipasa Suturdi Gomati Sushoma Krumu Kubha Sadanira Saraswati/Drishadati Suvastu Types of Deities 1. 2. 3. Terrestrial Deities Agni, Soma, Prithvi Atmospheric Deities Indra, Vayu, Marut, Prajanya, Rudra Celestial Deities Surya, Usha, Vishnu, Varuna, Savitr, Dyaus, Asvins, Mitra, Pushan 32 Master Series : Ancient India The Rig Vedic Period The Rig Vedic migrations may have been accompanied with violent clashes with the people who already inhabited the regions of North-Western India. The Rig Veda contains accounts of conflicts between the Aryas and the Dasas and Dasyus. The Rig Veda describes Dasas and Dasyus as people who do not perform sacrifices (akratu) or obey the commandments of gods (avrata). Rig Vedic Economy According to some scholars when the Rig Vedic Aryans first entered India, they were a tribal-pastoral economy. Cattle rearing, particularly cow keeping was their principal occupation. Gradually, they look to agriculture and it became one of their principal occupations. Ultimately agriculture and cattle rearing became two principal occupations of the Rig Vedic Aryans. The Rig Vedic Aryans regarded cows and bullocks as their most valuable possessions. Cow was the measure of value. It was called “Godhana” or wealth of cow. The Rig Vedic economy was not very advanced. Trade was carried by barter. The gold coin Nishka could never be used as a medium of daily exchange. There was no copper coin for daily use. The means of transport was chariot and cart. Though a section of Aryans made surplus agricultural production by using the Sudras as slaves, the surplus was anything but impressive. There was still a trend of tribal economy type. Aryan tribes fought with each other for possession of cattle and water. There was still no such surplus production and its exploitation by any dominant class. Slavery and caste system was now in nebulous stage. ● The chief means of transport by land were Rathas (chariots) and wagons drawn by horses and oxen. The principal media of trade was barter. The banks of the Yamuna and the Indus tributaries were dotted with Aryan villages. Perhaps trade between them was carried along the river route. Trade by land route was also carried. Gradually pieces of gold called “nishka” were used as means of exchange. Commerce was generally managed by a class of people called Pani. We do not know definitely whether the Aryans had overseas trade with the West-Asian countries. The Harappans had an extensive trade with West-Asia. Whether the Aryans were able to continue it, is not certain. As the Aryan civilization in the Rig Vedic Age was less industrial and less urban than that of the Harappans, it may be presumed that the Aryan trade was wholly local in character. ● Yava (Barley) was the main crop and they used fire to burn down the forest cover and make land cultivable. Bali (voluntary offering) and war booty played an important part in the economy. The Rig Vedic Society ● The Rig Vedic society of the Early Vedic Civilization was patriarchal in nature. The foundations of society was the family. Kinship was the basis of social structure. The families or Kulas were ruled by male members. The head of the family or kula was called as kulapa. The eldest male member of the family was usually the kulapa. The families were generally joint, and were large. ● Varna system was prevalent during the age. Marriage was a sacrament and was not dissoluble, though Inter-Varna marriages were allowed. Widow-remarriage was allowed, but it was not common. Dowry was also prevalent and Bride-price was in practice. Inter-dining among the Varnas was not prohibited and Monogamy was the established pattern of the society. There were references of polygamy and polyandry but, it was not in vogue. Practice of Niyoga or levirate was practiced. Art of writing was absent. Practice of slavery and prostitution were present. Women slaves were used for domestic purposes. In general, the position of women was high and respectable. They had the right to attend religious ceremonies and assemblies. The Rig Vedic houses of Early Vedic Civilization were usually thatched roofs and mud built walls made the houses. There were fortified places called Puras. People used to take shelter in these places during danger of invasion. Pura did not necessarily mean a town or a city in the Rig Vedic Period. Cities and towns were very few in this age. The daily food of the Rig Vedic people consisted of barley, rice, beans, vegetables, milk, milk-products and cakes. They also ate non-vegetarian foods. The Rig Vedic Aryans drank intoxicating liquor called Sura made of corn and Soma was prepared from the juice of some plant. The Vedic Age 33 ● The Aryans used many musical instruments like the drum, flute, harp and cymbals. They had minute knowledge of sound, tana, and raga. The Aryans did not develop a script till about 700 BC. The Early Vedic Aryans preferred the oral learning. Varna System ● According to orthodox view Varna system existed even in the Rig Vedic Age. The Purusha Sukta hymn of Rig Veda gave birth of the four Varnas. But many eminent scholars rejected the theory that Varna system existed in the Rig Vedic Age. They hold that the Purusha Sukta is a late hymn. According to this school, in the Rig Vedic Age, Varna system was never very rigid and it was not probably hereditary too. There is a hymn in Rig Veda where the composer of a hymn says that he was a bard, his father was a physician and his mother was a grinder of corn. Thus, there was no hereditary profession. ● There are some instances which show that even priesthood was not hereditary in this period. Though there was no clear cut Varna division in the Rig Vedic Society, class division and division according to colour of skin were in vogue. Position of Women ● The Rig Vedic families being patrilineal, birth of a male child was always desired. A couple without son was deplored like poverty. Female child had no right to perform funeral rite of the father. But when female child was born, she was by no means neglected, nor was her education denied. ● Female scholars like Ghosha, Vishwavara and Apala were known in the Rig Vedic Society Age. Few Vedic hymns were composed by them. The wife could take part in the religious rites with the husband during the Rig Vedic Period. There was no Purdah system. Girls were usually married after attaining the age of puberty. But child marriage was not unknown. Free choice on the part of both the bride and bridegroom was permitted. Undesirable son-in-law had to pay the bride’s price. Both dowry and bride-price were recognized. ● Polygamy was practiced but polyandry was very rare. But monogamy was the general rule during the Early Vedic Period. Widow Remarriage was permitted. The custom of marrying the brother’s widow (Niyoga) was prevalent. Varnashrama Dharma During later part of the Rig Vedic Age the ideal of Four Ashramas developed. Ashrama Resting Place Main Duty Supporting Organ Parts of Vedas Type of Chanting Brahmacarya Gurukula Study Mind and senses Samhitas Prastava Grihasta Svagriha Sacrifice Intelligence Brahmanas Udgitha Vanaprastha Forest dwelling Contemplation Breath Aranyakas Pratihara Sanyasa The world Renunciation Self Upanishads Nidhana Rig Vedic Polity ● The administrative machinery of the Aryans in the Rig Vedic period worked with a tribal chief in the centre. He was called Rajana. Although his post was not always hereditary, as we have also some traces of election by the tribal assembly called the Samiti. He protected its cattle, fought its wars and offered prayers to gods on its behalf. The basic unit was Kula (family). The political unit in ascending order was Kula, Grama, Vis, Jana and Rashtra. ● Several tribal assemblies, such as Sabha, Samiti, Vidatha, and Gana mentioned in the Rig Veda exercised deliberative, military and religious functions. Even women attended the Sabha and Vidatha in Rig Vedic times. But from the political point of view the important assemblies were only the Sabha and Samiti. The king did not maintain any regular or standing army, but in times of war he mustered a militia whose military functions were performed by different tribal groups called Vrata, Gana, Grama, Sardha. ● In the day-to-day administration, the king was assisted by a few functionaries. The most important functionary seems to have been the Purohita. The two priests who played a major part in the time of Rig Veda were Vasishtha and Visvamitra. The next important functionary seems to be the Senani. ● The Rajan could not have an elaborate administrative machinery because of the nature of the Rig Vedic economy. An economy in which the surplus was very small, the Rajan received only Bali, i.e. offering to a prince or 34 Master Series : Ancient India to a god from the conquered people. However, these tributes were neither regular and nor stipulated and hence cannot be called a tax. There was no system of taxation as there was no machinery for it and there was dearth of network of ‘collector’ officials. Literature Diary of Vedic Age Sl.No. Literature 1. Rig Veda 2. Yajur Veda 3. Sama Veda 4. Atharva Veda 5. Brahmanas 6. 7. Aranyaka Upanishad Facts Oldest of all the Vedas Has 1028 hymns Contains the Gayatri mantra. Has 10 Mandalas and 8 Akhtaks 10th mandala was added later. Contains procedures for sacrifices and rituals for yajnas It is a prose Veda It is divided into two groups – Black (Krishna) Yajurveda and White (Shukla) Yajuryeda. ● It a Veda of Chants and melodies ● Dance and Music is rooted from this veda ● The youngest veda ● Was added later in the vedic literature ● Contains the procedures for everyday life ● Contains mantras for Magic spell ● Regarded as one of the oldest text of Indian Medicine Rigveda – Aitereya, Kaushitaki; YajurVeda – Tattiriya., Satpatha; SamVeda – Tandya, Daiminiya; Atharva Veda – Gopatha Describe the philosophies of the Vedas. ● Discuseses the philosophical ideas of Brahman and the path of Moksha. ● Almost there 200 Upanishadas. ● Only 12-14 are considered as important, such as Isa, Kena, Katha, Prasna, Mundaka, Mandukya, Taittiriya, Aitareya, Chandogya, Brhadaranyaka, Svetasvatara Kausitaki, Mahanarayana and the Maitri. ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● Rig Vedic Religion ● The Rig Vedic religion personified the forces of nature and there was predominance of male deities. Few Goddesses find mention here. The aim of the worship was material gains, such as, progeny, cattle, longevity, victory in wars, increase in cattle wealth’s, etc. ● There was a cult of domestic hearth and its functions were performed by the Kulapa. Concept of life after death was vague–reference of ‘World of Father’ ruled by Yama, a place for blessed ones after death and ‘House of Clay’, a place for sinned has been mentioned. ● Sacrifice was the pivot of Aryan religion. It incorporated the use of formulas, performance of rituals, active role of priestly class and large scale slaughter of animals and there is absence of clearly defined Creator – the-God. The Later Vedic Period ● The Aryans further moved towards east in the Later Vedic Period. The Satapatha Brahmana refers to the expansion of Aryans to the eastern Gangetic plains. Several tribal groups and kingdoms are mentioned in the later Vedic literature. One important development during this period is the growth of large kingdoms. Kuru and Panchala kingdoms flourished in the beginning. After the fall of Kurus and Panchalas, other kingdoms like Kosala, Kasi and Videha came into prominence. Magadha, Anga and Vanga seem to be the easternmost tribal kingdoms. The later Vedic texts also refer to India as union of three region – Aryavarta (Northern India), Madhyadesa (Central India) and Dakshinapatha (Southern India). The Vedic Age 35 Later Vedic Economy ● The Later Vedic economy had been marked by a transition from a pastoral economy to a sedentary agrarian economy. ● Iron was used extensively in this period and this enabled the people to clear forests and to bring more land under cultivation. Agriculture became the chief occupation. Improved types of implements were used for cultivation. Besides barley, rice and wheat were grown and Cotton growing became a profitable occupation. ● Knowledge of manure was another improvement. Besides Agriculture, people started to opt for several new occupations to make their living. Industrial activity became more varied and there was greater specialization. ● Cattle still continued to be the chief source of wealth. Bull was regarded as useful for ploughing. Besides goat, sheep, horse were also domesticated. Buffalo was domesticated and harnessed to plough in the Age. In spite of deep ploughing and intensive cultivation there was not enough surplus food. Villages were just self-sufficient in food. ● The knowledge of writing probably developed in this period. Specialization in industry developed. With the growing complexities of the society, various new occupations like that of Charioteer, Carpenter, Rathakara, Ferryman, Bow-maker etc attracted the people. Metal work, leather work, carpentry and pottery made great progress. ● With the progress of civilization the volume of trade and commerce increased in the Later Vedic Age. Inland and maritime trade both developed in this Age. The people became familiar with the navigation of the seas. The Later Vedic people were familiar with the sea and they traded with countries like Babylon. ● The Vaishyas were hereditarily engaged in trade and the rich merchants were known as Shresthins. Trade in textile, leather, leather goods, and dress materials were profitable. Internal trade was spread over land and river routes from Punjab to Bihar and Nepal. Sravasti, Mathura, Taxila were trading centres. The merchants used to form guilds. Besides nishka (gold coin) of the Rig Vedic period, gold and silver coins like satamana and krishnala were used as media of exchange. Usury and money-lending also developed in the Later Vedic Society Period. Later Vedic Society ● The period marks the beginning of the practice of Primogeniture–eldest son succeeding the father, practice of worshipping of the male ancestors and increase in the position and status of two higher Varnas – Brahmins & Kshatriyas. It also gave rise to various functional groups as distinct castes. Gotra-system evolved during the period and gave rise to tribal exogamy. ● Varna System was slowly gaining its momentum. The four divisions of society (Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas and Sudras) was thoroughly established during the Later Vedic period. Sudras were devoid of any rights, such as no right to approach sacred fire, perform sacrifices and read sacred texts. A Brahmin occupied a higher position than a Kshatriya but sometimes Kshatriyas claimed a higher status over the Brahmins. Many sub-castes on the basis of their occupation appeared in this period and change of one’s own caste became unusual. ● Education became more general among the higher classes. The ideal of four Ashramas became more regularized than in the Rig Vedic Age. Students had to learn the knowledge of philosophy, Vedas, scriptures, ethics etc. in the house of the Gurus (teachers). The upper classes particularly observed the cult of four Ashramas. Varna System in Later Vedic Period ● The Later Vedic Society and Civilization witnessed far-reaching changes in the sphere of Varna system. The Brahmins and the 36 Master Series : Ancient India Kshatriyas (warrior class) now enjoyed the highest privileges in the Later Vedic Society. The status and power of the Kshatriyas greatly increased due to constant war with the non-Aryans. They became masters of land and leaders of the Later Vedic society. The Kshatriya kings claimed divine sanction behind them. The Brahmins and the Kshatriyas jointly governed the Later Vedic Society. The Brahmins assumed highest privileges. Assumption of power and prestige by the Brahmins was on the account of growing cult of sacrifices and rituals. Vaishyas who were engaged in agriculture and trade were looked as inferior class during the period of Later Vedic Society. They lost their earlier status in the society. From time to time the Vaishyas organized themselves into guilds to protect their eroding rights and status. ● Professions were not strictly hereditary. But there is a marked tendency to maintain the purity of descent. Hereditary caste was well now the rule. The term “Varna” was now used in the sense of caste, not in the sense of colour during this period. ● The concept of untouchability was germinating in the Later Vedic Society. Position of Women in Later Vedic Period ● As regards the condition of women in the Later Vedic Age, we find that the high position occupied by them in the Age of the Rig Veda was no longer prevalent in this age. They lost their right of Upanayana Sanskar and the right to perform religious rites and the right to join in political affairs. The position of women was degrading and evil practices such as dowry came into practice. Women also lost their political rights of attending assemblies. Child marriages had become common. According the Aitreya Brahmana a daughter has been described as a source of misery. However, the women in the royal household enjoyed certain privileges. They lost their right to property and could not own any property. Forms of Marriage in Later Vedic Period Marriage Type Brahma Vivah Daiva Vivah Arsa Vivah Prajapati Vivah Gandharva Vivah Asura Vivah Paisach Vivah Rakshasha Vivah Description Marriage of a girl with the boy of same Varna with Vedic rites and rituals When father donated his daughter to a priest as a part of Dakshina. A token bride-price of a Cow and a Bull was given Marriage without dowry It was a kind of love marriage or swyamavara type Marriage by Purchase Seduction of a girl while sleeping or mentally unstable due to a drink. Marriage by abduction ● Though we hear the names of Gargi and Maitreyi whose scholarship was recognized by the society as whole women lost their earlier status, political and economic rights and were deprived from inheritance to properties. The marriage rules became discriminating towards the bride. The women lost their earlier freedom and equality which they enjoyed in domestic life. Polygamy became more prevalent. Polyandry also appeared in a restricted way. Later Vedic Polity ● A more complex political development surfaced during the Later Vedic period. Many Jana or tribes were amalgamated to form Janapadas or Rashtras. Hence the royal power had increased along with the increase in size of the kingdom. The king performed various rituals and sacrifices to strengthen his position. These include Rajasuya (consecration ceremony), Asvamedha (horse sacrifice) and Vajpeya (chariot race for kingship). The kings also assumed titles like Rajavisvajanan, Ahilabhuvanapathi, (lord of all earth), Ekrat and Samrat (sole ruler). Divine attributes were given to the King. ● In the later Vedic period, rudimentary system of modern administration germinated, a large number of new officials were involved in the administration in addition to the existing purohita, senani and gramani. They include The Vedic Age 37 the treasury officer, tax collector, royal messenger, Bhagaduha, Sangrihtri and Akshvapa. This also gave rise to rudimentary form of taxation system. At the lower levels, the administration was carried on by the village assemblies. The importance of the Samiti and the Sabha had diminished during the later Vedic period. ● The formulae for sacrifices were invented and elaborated by the priestly class. Therefore, towards the end of this period there was a strong reaction against priestly domination and against sacrifices and rituals. The rise of Buddhism and Jainism was the direct result of these elaborate sacrifices. Also, the authors of the Upanishads turned away from these heavy rituals and insisted on true knowledge (jnana) for peace and salvation. Later Vedic Religion ● The age marks the rise of new Gods into prominence – Vishnu, Rudra, Prajapati. Older gods of Rig Vedic times like Indra, Varuna lost much of their importance. ● Sacrifice became more elaborate and complex, gained the pre-eminence over prayers. Due to these sacrificial tendencies the importance and prestige of priestly class increased greatly. ● New Philosophical concepts emerged, such as, Metaphysics, Samsara, and Karma. There was growth of pessimistic ideas leading to philosophical speculation, meditation, penance and ascetism. ● It also marked a beginning in the rise of Upanishadic thoughts – concept of Brahm, salvation by means of knowledge and realisation. 38 Master Series : Ancient India Ancient India Master Exercise 3 MCQs for Preliminary Examination 1. 2. 3. 4. Which of the following statements are True about Vedic corpus? 1. Each Veda has a Brahmana appended to it. 2. Brahmana explains the mantras and rituals for the performance of Vedic sacrifices. 3. Aranyaka contains the mystical teachings meant for meditation in forests. 4. Upanishads describe the category of priests suitable for each sacrifice and an elaborate list of precautions he must take. Choose the correct answer from the codes given below: (a) 1, 2, 3 and 4 (b) 1, 2 and 3 (c) 2, 3 and 4 (d) 2 and 3 Which among the following holds true for Rig Vedic society? 1. Trade was not a substantial part of the economy. 2. Yajna and sacrifices were largely the methods of worship. 3. It was largely a tribal society. 4. The coinage system was not known to them. Choose the correct answer from the codes given below: (a) 1, 2, 3 and 4 (b) 1, 2 and 3 (c) 1, 2 and 4 (d) 2, 3 and 4 Which of the following statement(s) is/are correct? (a) The Sutras were compiled to serve as aids to memorize teacher’s explanations. (b) Each of the Veda has a Sutra literature of its own. (c) Both of the above (d) None of the above Which one of the following usages was a postVedic development? (a) Dharma-Artha-Kama-Moksha (b) Brahmana-Kshatriya-Vaishya-Shudra (c) Brahmacharya-Grihasthashrama-Vanaprastha -Sanyasa (d) Indra-Surya-Rudra-Marut 5. The term ‘nishka’ which meant an ornament in the Vedic period was used in later times to denote: (a) Weapon (b) Agricultural implement (c) Script (d) Coin Subjective type questions for Main Examination Why do the historians generally consider the Harappan civilization and Vedic culture representing two different societies? 2. Bring out the elements of continuity and change between Early Vedic and Later Vedic cultures. 3. Throw light on the democratic elements of political life in Vedic age. 4. Discuss the position of women during the Vedic age. 5. Varna system leads to genesis of Caste system in India. Comment. 6. Give a detailed description of Vedic Literature. 7. The Vedic Literatures is the primary source to recreate the history, polity, society, economy and religion of the Rig Vedic people. Elucidate. 8. Underline the changes in Society and Economy that underwent from Rig Vedic to Later Vedic period. 9. The position of Women in the Vedic age was exactly on par with men and they enjoyed equal social and ritual rights. Examine. 10. Underline the features of the Varna system in the Vedic age and discuss the reasons behind the changes in Varna system from Rig Vedic to post Vedic age. 11. The Vedic religion was pagan in rituals and doctrines. However, one cannot rule out the undercurrents of the monotheism present during the time. Comment. 1. Answers to MCQs 1. (b) 2. (a) 3. (a) 4. (c) 5. (d) Mahajanpadas and the Magadha Empire 39 ANCIENT INDIA MASTER SERIES UNIT 4 Mahajanpadas and the Magadha EMPIRE The Magadha is considered as one of sixteen Mahajanapadas of the Ancient India. The Age of “Mahajanpadas” 2. Kosala Mahajanapadas literally mean “Great Kingdoms”. Ancient Buddhist texts like Anguttra Nikaya (which is a part of Sutta Pitaka) and Jainism text Bhagvati Sutra make frequent reference to sixteen great kingdoms and republics (the 16 Mahajanapadas) which had evolved and flourished in the northern and north western part of Indian subcontinent. These 16 territories were called as Shodasha Mahajanapads. 3. Anga Imperialistic outlook of rulers had resulted in territorial expansion as a result of which Janapadas of Later Vedic age transformed into Mahajanapadas. Economic progress created a solid material base for emergence of big political entities. Social factors like growth in population also contributed to rise of Mahajanapadas, as size of settlements increased. Most of Mahajanapadas were monarchical in character, only Malla and Vajji were republicans, in which the Head of state was elected one. There were sixteen of such Mahajanapadas: Kasi, Kosala, Anga, Magadha, Vajji, Malla, Chedi, Vatsa, Kuru, Panchala, Machcha, Surasena, Assaka, Avanti, Gandhara and Kamboja. 1. Kasi ● Kasi is the region around modern Varanasi. It has a predominant position among the sixteen Mahajanapadas. Matsya Purana and Alberuni talk immensely about Kasi read as Kausika and Kaushika there. Also we come to know much about Kasi from the folklores of the Jatakas. ● Kosala comprises of Shravasti, Kushavati, Saket and Ayodhya. Also it constituted of the modern regions of Oudh (Awadh), now Uttar Pradesh. Ayodhya was under the control of the Kosala king Prosenjit. A neighboring state was the famous Magadha. ● Anga was one of the earliest of all. This was centred around the Gangetic plains. This state was known by various names such as Malini, Champapuri, Kala malini, Champa malini, etc. It was in the Atharva Veda that the Angas were first mentioned. 4. Magadha ● Magadha was a powerful kingdom and was run by Bimbisara and Ajatshatru, his son. As per the Vedas, Magadha is the 'semi Brahman' state. In the later Vedic scriptures and texts it was referred to as Kikata. Also it is popular by various names as Magadhapura, Brihadrathapura, Vasumati, etc. 5. Vajji ● Vajji comprised of many different social groups and villages. It was a confederation of many clans such as the Licchavis, the Vedehans, the Jnatrikas and most importantly the Vajjis. Its capital was located at Vaishali. 40 Master Series : Ancient India 6. Malla ● Malla has been mentioned in the Buddhist and the Jain works. It existed in a republic of nine territories. The Mallas were known for their bravery and warlike temperament. They were conquered by Magadha after Buddha's death. 7. Chedis ● Chedis people existed on the southern part of the Yamuna River. The capital of Chedis was Suktimati and the Rigveda gives details of this Mahajanapada. It was ruled by Sisupala and it was in this city where the Pandavas (from Mahabharata) chose to spend the thirteenth year of their exile. 8. Vatsa ● Vatsa or also Vamsa followed a monarchial form of government. The capital of this Mahajanapada was located at Kausambi. It became a hub of all the economical activities, business and trade. 9. Kuru ● Kurus basically belonged to the Puru-Bharata family. These were the people who originated from Kurukshetra. They are believed to have shifted to the republic form of government in the fifth or the sixth century BCE. 13. Assaka ● Assaka, also known as Ashmaka, this was situated in the southern part of the country. Its capital was located at Potali. 14. Avanti ● Avanti lay in the western India. This kingdom nurtured Buddhism immensely. Its capital was known as Ujjaini. Initially its capital was Mahissati which later was integrated into Ujjaini. Avanti later dissolved in the Magadha Empire. 15. Gandhara ● Gandhara comprised of the Gandharas who were believed to be excellently trained in the art of war and have been mentioned in the Atharva Veda. The Gandhara are included in the Uttarapatha by the Puranic and Buddhist traditions. 16. Kamboja ● Kamboja was believed to have consisted of the areas around the Hindukush. It is mentioned in the great epic Mahabharata in many excerpts. 10. Panchala ● Panchala was divided into two parts: Uttara Panchala and Dakhsina Panchala with Chhatravati and Kampilya there capitals respectively. 11. Machcha ● Machcha was located to the south of Kuru and west to the river of Yamuna. As per the Pali literature the Machchas are generally linked with the Surasena. Its capital was Viratanagara. 12. Surasena ● Surasena as witnessed great metamorphism in religion. Their capital was at Mathura. Earlier Lord Krishna was worshipped here, later the disciples of Buddha took over this Mahajanapada. Fig. 4.1. The 16 Mahajanpadas of Ancient India Mahajanpadas and the Magadha Empire 41 Rise of Magadha ● Magadha was one of the 16 Mahajanapadas, in 4th Century BC. It got transformed into a great empire. The rise of Magadha Empire was the outcome of long process of gradual evolution going on since 2nd millennium BC (with Aryans). There were Janas during Vedic age,which transformed into Mahajanapadas and this process leads to rise of the Magadha Empire. Why and How Magadha Rose? ● Magadha was located in the heart of extensive alluvial fertile plains, number of perennial rivers passing through Magadha; Magadha climate was highly conducive to agriculture. That’s why Magadha agriculture was the most advanced one, and the rulers had huge resources. ● Arts and Crafts were highly developed in Magadha region because of local availability of iron and other mineral resources. The abundant natural resources in the form of Iron also helped them in weapon-making. ● Magadha trade and commerce was also highly developed because most important trade routes of India such as Uttar Patha was passing through Magadha. ● Magadhan capital enjoys natural defense as Rajgir (earlier capital) was surrounded by 5 hills and Patliputra (later capital) was surrounded by 3 rivers because of which Magadhan rulers need not to worry about safety of their capital. Hence they could concentrate on territorial expansion. ● Elephants were found only in forests of eastern India and Magadhan rulers could use powerful elephant force. ● Magadha was lucky enough to have many powerful and ambitious rulers.They had strong standing armies and the availability of iron enabled them to develop advanced weaponry. These major kings also developed a good administrative system. ● Magadhan society was unorthodox and liberal in nature. It had a good mix of Aryan and non-Aryan peoples. Society was not so much dominated by the Brahmanas and many kings of Magadha were of ‘low’ in origin. Haryanka Dynasty A. Bimbisara (558BC–491BC) ● The first dynasty ever ruled Magadha was Haryanka dynasty. Bimbisara ruled over Magadha from 544 BC to 493 BC. He was contemporary and follower of the Buddha and he was also said to be an admirer of Mahavira. ● He located his capital at Girivraja (Rajgir). He was the first king to have a standing army. He started the practice of using matrimonial alliances to strengthen his political position. ● He had three wives: Kosaladevi (King of Kosala’s daughter and the sister of Prasanjit), Chellana (daughter of the Lichchavi chief of Vaishali) and Khema (daughter of the king of Modra, Punjab). ● He followed a policy of conquest and expansion. He captured Anga which was situated in the east of Magadha.He had an effective and excellent administrative system. The officers occupying high posts were divided into three – executive, military and judicial. B. Ajatshatru (492 BC–460 BC) ● He was the son of Bimbisara and Chellana. He killed his father and became the ruler.He was the inventor of two weapons used in war called Rathamusala (blade chariot) and Mahshilakantaka (engine for ejecting big stones). ● He embraced Buddhism and patronized the first Buddhist council at Rajgir just after the death of Buddha in 483 BC. He fought war against Kosala, defeated Prasanjit and compelled him to marry his daughter. He defeated republic Mahajanpad Vaishali in the span of 16 years. He built Dhatu Chaityas around his capital. C. Udayin ● He was the son of Ajatshatru and last ruler of Haryanka dynasty. Sisunaga Dynasty A. Sisunaga ● He was the viceroy of Kasi before becoming king of Magadha. His capital was at Girivaraja but later shifted the capital to Vaishali. His biggest achievement was the destruction of 42 Master Series : Ancient India power of Avanti with its capital at Ujjain and brought an end to the long rivalry between Magadha and Avanti. B. Kalasoka ● He was the son of Sisunaga. He conducted the Second Buddhist Council at Vaishali which was presided by Sabakami. He was killed in a palace revolution that brought the Nanda dynasty to the throne. Nanda Dynasty ● This was the first non-Kshatriya dynasty and most powerful dynasty that ruled over Magadha. The first ruler was Mahapadma Nanda who usurped the throne of Kalasoka. A. Mahapadma Nanda ● He is called the “first historical emperor of India”. His origins are not clear. As per the Puranas, he was the son of the last Sisunaga king from a Sudra woman. As per some Jain texts and Greek writer Curtius, he was the son of a barber and a courtesan. His reign lasted for twenty eight years from 367 BC to 338 BC. ● He is also called “Sarva Kashtriyantaka” (destroyer of all the kshatriyas) and “Ekrat”. The empire grew under his reign. It ran from the Kuru country in the north to the Godavari Valley in the south and from Magadha in the east to Narmada on the west. He conquered many kingdoms including Kalinga. B. Dhana Nanda ● He was the last ruler of Nanda Dynasty. Alexander invaded North-Western India during his reign; but he could not proceed towards the Gangetic plains because of his army’s refusal. He inherited a huge empire from his father. He possessed a standing army of 200,000 infantry, 20,000 cavalry, 3000 elephants and 2000 chariots. Hence, he was a powerful ruler. ● He became unpopular with his subjects owing to an oppressive way of collection of taxes. Also, his Sudra origins and an anti-Kshatriya policy led to a large number of enemies. Finally he was overthrown by Chandragupta Maurya under the guidance of Chanakya in 321 BC, which led to the foundations of the Mauryan Empire in Magadha. Mauryan Empire Chandragupta Maurya ● With the help of an intelligent and politically astute Brahmin, Chanakya, Chandragupta usurped the throne by defeating Dhana Nanda in 321 BC. Greek accounts mention him as “Sandrokotus”. Chanakya wrote Arthashastra which is a book on statecraft, economics, and military strategy. ● Alexander had abandoned India’s conquest in 324 BC and within a year, Chandragupta had defeated some of the Greek-ruled cities in the north-western part of the country. Under the Kautilya’s strategy, Chandragupta Maurya raised a mercenary army of their own.Then, they moved eastward into Magadha. ● In 305 BC, he entered into a treaty with Selucus Nicator (a general of Alexander who ruled over northwest India) in which Chandragupta acquired Baluchistan, eastern Afghanistan and the region to the west of Indus. He also married Selucus Nicator’s daughter Helena. In return, Selucus Nicator got 500 elephants. Selucus Nicator avoided a war with the mighty Chandragupta. Megasthenes was the Greek ambassador at Chandragupta’s court. ● Chandragupta led a policy of expansion and brought under his control almost the whole of present India except of few places like Kalinga and the extreme South.His reign lasted from 321 BC to 297 BC. ● He abdicated the throne in favour of his son; Bindusara went to Karnataka with Jain monk Bhadrabahu. He had embraced Jainism and is said to have starved himself to death (which is called Santhara) according to the Jain tradition at Shravanabelagola. Bindusara ● He was the son of Chandragupta Maurya. He ruled from 297 BC to 273 BC. He was called as Amitraghata (Slayer of Foes) or Amitrochates in Greek sources. He was known as the king of two oceans. ● Deimachus was a Greek ambassador at his court. Greek sources tells that Bindusara asked the Syrian-King Antiochus I (of Syria) “to send him sweet wine, dried figs and a philosopher”. But, the Syrian King replied "we shall send you figs and wine, but the Greece Mahajanpadas and the Magadha Empire 43 laws forbid a philosopher to be sold”. He had appointed his son, Ashoka as the governor of Ujjain and elder son Susima as the governor of Taxila. The first ever revolt that erupted at Taxila, was suppressed by Ashoka. Bindusara is believed to have extended the Mauryan Empire to Mysore as well. Ashoka – The Great ● He was the first great emperor of not only India, but of the whole world. Even today, no ruler of the world anywhere near his persona. He was not the eldest son of Bindusara and hence, Susima is to be crowned as the next king but in the war of succession that followed after Bindusara’s death in 272 BC, Ashoka emerged victorious, aided by his father’s ministers. The name of his mother was Subhadrangi or Janpad Kalyani. He was the grandson of Chandragupta Maurya. He was the first king who left his records engraved on the stones and pillars like Darius I, the King of Iran. ● His other names were Devanampiya (Sanskrit Devanampriya meaning Beloved of the Gods) and Piyadasi. He was the first Chakarvarti ruler. At its zenith, Ashoka’s empire stretched from Afghanistan in the west to Bangladesh in the east. It covered almost the whole Indian subcontinent except present day Kerala and Tamil Nadu, and modern-day Sri Lanka. His capital was at Pataliputra (Patna) and had provincial capitals at Taxila and Ujjain. ● In the ninth year of his rule he waged a war with Kalinga in 261 BC, in which more than hundred thousand people were killed in the war. The horrors of war disturbed him so much that he decided to shun violence for the rest of his life and turned to Buddhism. Ashoka’s 13th Rock Edict describes the horrors of Kalinga war. ● He now became Dharmashoka (the pious Ashoka) from Chandashoka and he adopted the policy of Dhamma, abjuring Bherighosa policy for the whole life. ● In about 263 BC Ashoka converted to Buddhism. Ashoka even conducted the third Buddhist Council at Pataliputra under Moggaliputta Tissa’s presidency. He became the first king to sent missionaries abroad for the spread of Buddhism. He sent his son (Mahendra) and daughter (Sanghamitra) to Ceylon to propagate Buddhism. ● Most of his edicts are written in Pali and Prakrit in Brahmi script. Some are written in the Kharoshti and Aramaic scripts also. There are some edicts written in Greek as well. The language depends on the location of the pillar. He erected pillars and edicts all over the subcontinent and even in modern-day Afghanistan, Nepal, Bangladesh and Pakistan to spread the Buddha’s teachings. James Princep in 1837 deciphered the Ashoka’s edicts. ● These inscriptions were kept in public places and along trade routes so that maximum number of people would read them. More than religious discourses, they talked about moral duties of the people, duties of king, how to conduct life, Ashoka’s desire to be a good and benevolent ruler and about Ashoka’s work. Inscriptions are in the form of Rock edicts and Pillar edicts. However Rock edicts further divided into major and minor, depending on the content. Major Rock Edicts Major Rock edict 7 & 12 Talks about religious tolerance Major Rock edict 2 Talks about the south India kingdoms Major Rock edict 13 Talks about Kalinga war. Minor rock edicts Minor rock edicts are found on 15 rocks across the country and in Afghanistan also. Ashoka uses his name only in four of these places namely, Maski, Brahmagiri (Karnataka), Gujjara (MP) and Nettur (AP). After reading these inscriptions we came to know that Devnampiya is Ashoka. Pillar edicts There are seven pillar edicts. Two types of stones are used in the Pillars Spotted white sandstone (from Mathura) and buff coloured sandstone and quartzite (from Amaravati). All the pillars are monoliths (carved out of from stone). They have been found from different places like Kandhar (Afghanistan), Delhi, Vaishali and Champaran (Bihar), Sarnath and Allahabad (Uttar Pradesh), Amaravati (Andhra Pradesh), and Sanchi (Madhya Pradesh). ● Fragments of the same edict are found in different places. ● Many pillars are as high as 50 feet high and weigh as much as 50 tons. ● The pillars depict animals like lions, elephants, and lotus and wheel which are all important symbols in Buddha’s life. Pillar edict 5 Mentions the list of birds and animals that should not be killed, even in the royal kitchen. Pillar edict 7 Mentions the Ashoka’s work for fulfilling Dhamma and tolerance for all sects. 44 Master Series : Ancient India Mauryan Administration ● The Arthashastra written by Kautilya, aslo called Chanakya, contains the detailed description about the administrative system of the Mauryan Empire. Kautilya was the Prime Minister of Chandragupta Maurya. He was considered as the real architect of the Mauryan Empire. The Arthashastra The Arthashastra is the most important and authoritative source to the history of the Mauryas and is divided into 15 Adhikarnas or sections and 180 Prakaranas or subdivisions. It has about 6,000 slokas. It is a treatise on statecraft and public administration. Despite the controversy over its date and authorship, its importance lies in the fact that it gives a clear and methodological analysis of economic and political conditions of the Mauryan period. ● The similarities between the administrative terms used in the Arthashastra and in the Asokan edicts certainly suggests that the Mauryan rulers were acquainted with this work. Arthashastra provides useful and reliable information regarding the social and political conditions as well as the Mauryan administration. ● Megasthenese came in the court of Chandragupta Maurya as an ambassador of the Seleucus (the king of Greek). Megasthenese has given detailed accounts of India and Indian people in his book ‘Indica’. Though, the original book is lost; however, historians extracted Megasthenese’s description through the quotations in the works about the later Greek writers. ● The Indica of Megasthenes gives a vivid description of the Mauryan society under the rule of Chandragupta. Megasthenes described the glory of the Mauryan capital of Pataliputra. He also talked about the lifestyle in the cities and villages and the prosperity of the Mauryan cities. ● The inscriptions of the great Ashoka are the most important and authentic source for the history of Mauryan period.The Mauryan Empire had an efficient and centralised administrative system. ● Inscriptions of Ashoka found at Girnar hills in Junagarh district in Gujarat and at Sopara, in Thane district in Maharashtra reflect that these areas were under the rule of Mauryan Empire. In south India, Ashoka's inscriptions have been found at Maski, Yerragudi, and Chitaldurga in Karnataka. Rock Edict II and XIII of Ashoka explain that Chandragupta’s immediate neighboring states (in the south) were Cholas, Pandyas, Satyaputras, and Keralaputras. Mauryan Central Government ● Mauryan administration was highly centralised one. The king had the supreme power and source of all authority.He was assisted by a Council of Ministers. It was called ‘Mantriparishad’. The ministers were called ‘Mantris.’ The council was headed by ‘mantriparishad-adhyakshya’ akin to the Prime Minister of today. ● The king was the head of the state. The king used to issue ordinances known as ‘Sasana.’ He possessed the judicial, the legislative, and the executive powers.Sasanas are available in the form of ‘Edicts of Ashoka’. ● The Mauryas king had to follow the law of the country given by law givers and had to govern according to the customs of the land. He could not do whatever he liked.The civil courts were called ‘Dharmasthiya’ and criminal courts were called ‘Kantakshodhana’. ● The Mauryan Empire was divided into provinces. Pradeshikas was another officer of the Mauryan administration. He was the provincial governor. ● Bindusara appointed his son Ashoka as Governor of the Avanti region and posted him at Ujjain.Asoka’s elder brother Susima was posted at Taxila as the Governor of the northwestern provinces. The important provinces were directly under Kumaras (Princes); however, the total number of provinces is not known. ● Junagarh rock inscription of Rudradaman mentions that Saurashtra (Kathiawar) was governed by Vaisya Pushyagupta at the time of Chandragupta Maurya and by Yavana-raia Tushaspa at the time of Ashoka, both were the provincial governors. ● The Mauryan kingdom was divided into different provinces, which were subdivided Mahajanpadas and the Magadha Empire 45 into the districts and each district was further divided into groups of five to ten villages. Officials in Mauryan Kingdom ● Tirthas: Highest category of officials in the administration. There were 18 Tirthas. ● Adhyakshya: Ranked next only to Tirthas. There were 20 Adhyakshyas. They had economic and military functions. ● Mahamattas: Higher ranking officials. ● Amatyas: High ranking officials almost like present-day secretaries. They had administrative and judicial roles. The Adhyakshyas were formed into a secretariat, which was divided into many departments.Arthashastra mentions many Adhyakshyas for commerce, store houses, gold, ships, agriculture, cows, horses, city, chariots, mint, infantry, etc. The Arthashastra mentions the highest salary being 48,000 Panas and the lowest 60 Panas. There was a wide range of scales in salary. ● Yuktas: Subordinate officers responsible for the king’s revenue. ● Rajjukas: Officers in charge of land measurement and boundary-fixing.They were also given power to punish the guilty and set free the innocents. ● Sansthadhyasksha: Superintendent of mint ● Samasthadhyasksha: Superintendent of markets ● Sulkaadhyaksha: Superintendent of tolls ● Sitaadhyaksha: Superintendent of agriculture ● Navadhyaksha: Superintendent of ships ● Lohadhyaksha: Superintendent of iron ● Pauthavadhyakhsa: Superintendent of weights and measures ● Akaradhyaksha: Superintendent of mines ● Vyavharika Mahamatta: Judiciary officers ● Pulisanj: Public relations officers Registration of births and deaths, foreigners, industries, trade, manufacture and sale of goods, sales tax collection were under the administration’s control. Local Administration During Mauryan Period Head of a village was known as Gramika. The villages, during this time, enjoyed substantial autonomy. Most of the disputes of the village were settled by Gramika with the help of village assembly. It was the smallest unit of Mauryan administration. Some Important Posts of Mauryan Kingdom ● Pradeshika: He was the provincial governors or district magistrates.He used to tour the entire district every five years to inspect the administration of areas under his control. A group of officials worked in each district under him. ● Sthanika: Tax collectors working under Pradeshikas. ● Durgapala: Governors of forts. ● Antapala: Governors of frontiers. ● Akshapatala: Accountant General ● Lipikaras: Scribes City Administration During Mauryan Period ● The Arthashashtra has a full chapter on the administration of cities. ● The Edicts of Ashoka also describe name of the cities such as Pataliputra, Taxila, Ujjain, Tosali, Suvarnagiri, Samapa, Isila, and Kausambi. ● Megasthenese had described the administration of Pataliputra in detail.Megasthenese described that Pataliputra city was administered by a city council comprising 30 members. These 30 members were divided into a board of 5 members each. ● Each of the 5 member boards had specific responsibilities towards the administration of the city. For example 1. One such board was concerned with the industrial and artistic produce. Its duties included fixing of wages, and to check the adulteration, etc. 2. The second board dealt with the affairs of the visitors, especially foreigners who used to come to Pataliputra. 3. The third board was concerned with the registration of birth and death. 4. The fourth board regulated trade and commerce, kept a vigil on the manufactured goods and sales of commodities. 5. The fifth board was responsible for the supervision of manufacturing of goods. 6. The sixth board collected taxes as per the value of sold goods. ● The tax was normally one-tenth of the sold goods. Officers were appointed by the ‘City 46 Master Series : Ancient India council’ and were accountable for the public welfare such as maintenance and repairs of roads, markets, hospitals, temples, educational institutions, sanitation, water supplies, harbors, etc. Nagaraka was the officer in-charge of the city. There were numerous departments that regulated and controlled the activities of the state. Kautilya mentions several important departments such as accounts, revenue, mines and minerals, chariots, customs, and taxation. Other Important Aspects of Mauryan Kingdom Military ● The commander-in-chief of the entire military was called Senapati and his position was next to the king. He was appointed by the king. The military was divided into five sectors namely, infantry, cavalry, chariots, elephant forces, navy and transport & provisions.The army’s salary was paid in cash. Revenue ● The revenue department chief was called Samharta. Another important official was Sannidhata (treasurer). ● Revenue was collected on land, irrigation, shops, customs, forests, ferry, mines and pastures. License fees were collected from artisans and fines were charged in the law courts. Most of the land revenue was onesixth of the produce. Police ● All the main centres had police headquarters. Jail was called Bandhangara and lock-up was known as Charaka. Espionage ● The espionage system of the Mauryas was well-developed.There were spies who informed the king about the bureaucracy and markets. ● There were two types of spies: Sansthana (stationary) and Sanchari (wanderer). Gudhapurushas were the detectives or secret agents. ● They were controlled by the Mahamatyapasarpa. These agents were picked from different segments of society. There were also agents called Vishakanyas (poisonous girls). Transport ● The transport department fixed the width of the chariots, cattle tracks and pedestrians. Ashoka's Dhamma ● Ashoka's personal religion was Buddhism. In Bhabru rock edict, he says that he had full faith in Buddha, Dhamma, and Sangha. Ashoka accepted Buddhism as his main faith, but he never forced Buddhist ideals on his subjects. ● Ashoka believed in unity among ethical and moral values of all sects. He showed great respect to all sects and faiths. In Rock Edict XII Ashoka says, “I honour all sects and both ascetics and laymen, with gifts and various forms of recognition”. He pronounced his policy of equal respect to all religious sects very clearly. After the Kalinga War, the propagation of Dhamma became the utmost objective for Ashoka. ● Ashoka's edicts explained Dhamma as a 'Moral Law', a 'Common Code of Conduct,’ or an 'Ethical Order'. Further, he says that it is not a religion or a religious system.In Pillar Edict II, Ashoka puts a question to himself: “What is Dhamma?” Then he mentioned the two basic constituents of Dhamma as less evil and many good deeds. Ashoka explains evils as rage, cruelty, anger, pride, and envy that are to be avoided. ● Ashoka explains many good deeds as kindness, liberty, truthfulness, gentleness, self-control, purity of heart, attachment to morality, inner and outer purity. These good qualities are to be pursued ardently. Ashoka, in his Rock Edict XII, prescribes the some codes to be followed. 1. Obedience to mother and father, elders, teachers and other respectable persons. 2. Respect towards teachers. Mahajanpadas and the Magadha Empire 47 3. Proper treatment towards ascetics, relations, slaves, servants and dependents, the poor and miserable, friends, acquaintances, and companions. 4. Liberality towards ascetics, friends, comrades, relatives, and the aged. 5. Abstention from killing of living beings. 6. Non-injury to all living creatures. 7. Spending little and accumulating little wealth. 8. Mildness in a case of all living creatures. 9. Truthfulness. 10. Attachment to morality. 11. Purity of the heart. Dhamma – A Code of Moral and Virtuous Life Dhamma is a code for moral and virtuous life. It never discussed god or soul or religion.Ashoka implanted a moral law i.e. Dhamma as the governing principle in every sphere of life. Ashoka practiced all these principles of Dhamma and asked his countrymen to 1. have control over their passion; 2. cultivate purity of life and character in innermost thoughts; 3. learn other religions; 4. abstain from killing or injuring animals; 5. have regard for them; 6. be charitable to all; 7. be respectful to parents, teachers, relatives, friends, and ascetics; 8. treat slaves and servant kindly; and 9. tell the truth. ● Ashoka not only preached, but had actually practiced his dhamma principles. He gave up hunting and killing of animals.Ashoka made liberal donations to the Brahmans and ascetics of different religious sects.Ashoka established hospitals for humans and animals and constructed rest-houses. He also ordered wells to be dug and trees to be planted along the roads for welfare of the people. ● Ashoka adopted Buddhism after observing the brutality of the Kalinga war.Nonviolence and non-injury to living beings is the cardinal doctrines of Buddhism. Ashoka appointed a special class of officials called ‘Dharmamahamatras’ whose sole responsibility was to propagate Dhamma among the people. ● Ashoka conducted ‘Dharmayatras’ (religious journey) and instructed his officials to do the same.To propagate Dhamma, he sends his missionaries to western Asia, Egypt, and Eastern Europe. Some of the foreign kings from whom Ashoka received the message of Buddhism were: 1. Antiochus Theos of Syria 2. Ptolemy Philadelphus of Egypt 3. Antigonus Gonatas of Macedonia 4. Megas of Cyrene 5. Alexander of Epirus ● Ashoka sent his son Mahendra and daughter Sanghamitra to propagate Buddhism in Sri Lanka. Classes of Society Megasthenese mentioned that during this period, the society was comprising seven castes, namely 1. Philosophers 2. Farmers 3. Soldiers 4. Herdsmen 5. Artisans 6. Magistrates and 7. Councilors. ● Megasthenese, however, failed to comprehend the Indian society properly and confused among the terms Jati, Varna, and the occupation. ● Chaturvarna system continued to govern the society. ● The urban way of life developed and the craftsmen enjoyed a high place in the society. ● Teaching continued to be the main job of the Brahmans.Buddhist monasteries were developed as important educational institutions. Taxila, Ujjayini, and Varanasi were famous educational centers.Technical education was generally provided through guilds, where pupils learnt the crafts from the early age. ● The joint family system was the norm in the domestic life. A married woman had 48 Master Series : Ancient India her own property in the form of bride-gift (stree-dhana). The widows had given respect in the society. All stree-dhana (bride-gift and jewelry) belongs to her. Offences against women were severely dealt with. ● Kautilya also laid down penalties against officials, in charge of workshops and prisons who misbehaved with women.Megasthenese mentioned that slavery did not exist in India. Mauryan Economy ● Largely, the population was agriculturists and lived in villages. The state helped people to bring new areas under cultivation by cleaning the forest. But certain types of forests were protected by law. ● A number of crops like rice, coarse grains (kodrava), sesame, pepper, and saffron, pulses, wheat, linseed, mustard, vegetable and fruits of various kinds and sugarcane were grown. ● The state also owned agricultural farms, cattle farms, dairy farms, etc.Water reservoirs and dams were built by the state for irrigation. Steps were taken to distribute and measure this water for irrigation. ● The Mauryans enforced the rules and regulations in respect of agriculture, industry, commerce, animal husbandry, etc. Special measures were undertaken for the promotion of the economy gave great impetus to economic development during this period.Megasthenese mentioned about the extraordinary skill of craftsmen. ● Junagarh inscription of Rudradaman mentions that Pushyagupta (Chandragupta's governors) was responsible for building a dam on Sudarshana Lake near Girnar in Kathiawad. Skandagupta’s inscription of the later period mentioned that the dam (on Sudarshana Lake) was repaired during his reign, almost 800 years after its construction. ● Mauryans had extensive foreign trade with the western countries. The main items of trade were indigo, various medicinal substances, cotton, and silk. The foreign trade was carried on by the land as well as by the sea. ● Special arrangements were made for facilitation of the trade like security of traderoutes, provisions of warehouses, go-downs, and other means of transport. ● The trade was regulated by the state and the trader had to get a license to trade.The state also had the machinery to control and regulate the weights and measures. ● The land tax was one-fourth to one-sixth of the produce. The tax was also levied on all the manufactured goods. ● The toll tax was levied on all items, which were brought for sale in the market.Strabo mentions that craftsmen, herdsmen, traders, and farmers, all paid taxes. Those who could not pay the tax in cash or kind were to contribute their dues in the form of labor. ● Revenue was that main subject of Arthashashtra. It describes revenue at great length.Sources of revenue were increased from the income of mines, forests, pasture lands, trade, forts, etc. The income from the king's own land or estate was known as ‘sita.’ Brahmans, children, and handicapped people were exempted from paying the taxes. ● Tax evasion was considered a very serious crime and offenders were severely punished. The artisans and craftsmen were given special protection by the state and offences against them were severely punished. ● The main industries during this period were textile, mining and metallurgy, ship-building, jewelry making, metal working, pot making, etc.The industries were organized in various guilds. Jesthaka was the chief of a guild. The guilds were powerful institutions. It gave craftsmen great support and protection.The guilds settled the disputes of their members. A few guilds issued their own coins. ● The Sanchi Stupa inscription mentions that one of the carved gateways was donated by the guilds of ivory workers.Similarly, the Nasik cave inscription mentions that two weaver's guilds gave permanent endowments for the maintenance of a temple.The guilds also made donations to educational institutions and learned Brahmans. Mahajanpadas and the Magadha Empire 49 Art and Architecture During Mauryan Period ● Art and architecture had developed substantially during the Mauryan period. The main examples of the Mauryan art and architecture are: 1. Remains of the royal palace and the city of Pataliputra; 2. Ashokan pillars and capitals; 3. Rock cut Chaitya caves in the Barabar and Nagarjuni hills; and 4. Individual Mauryan sculptures and terracotta figurines; etc. ● Megasthenese had described in details about the famous city of Pataliputra (the modern Patna). He describes it stretched along the river Ganga in the form of a parallelogram. It was enclosed by a wooden wall and had 64 gates.Excavations have brought to light remains of palaces and the wooden palisade. ● The Mauryan wooden palace survived for about 700 years.Fa-Hien also saw it at the end of the 4th century A.D. The palace and also the wooden palisade had been destroyed by the fire. The burnt wooden structure and ashes have been found from Kumrahar. ● Seven rock-cut caves in the Barabar and Nagarjuni hills were built during this period. ● The inscription says that after having received his training in writing, mathematics, law, and finance, Kharavela ascended the throne of Kalinga in his 24th year.Kharavela spent the first year in rebuilding the capital of Kalinga. Kharavela invaded the kingdom of Magadha in the 8th and 12th years of his reign.The inscription mentions the achievements of Kharavela only up to the 13th year of his reign. Decline of the Mauryas ● After the death of Emperor Ashoka, the Mauryan Empire collapsed within five decades. There are many reasons given by historians for this disintegration of a once mighty empire. At its zenith, the Mauryan Empire stretched from Afghanistan in the west to Bangladesh in the east. It covered almost the whole Indian subcontinent except present Kerala and Tamil Nadu, and modern-day Sri Lanka. A few years after Ashoka’s death, the weakening of the empire started.The various reasons for the fall of the Mauryan Empire: 1. The Partition of the Empire ● After the death of Ashoka, the Mauryan Empire split into two halves – western and eastern parts.This weakened the empire. ● Kalhana, author of the work Rajatarangini which is an account of Kashmir’s history says that after Ashoka’s death, his son Jalauka ruled over Kashmir as an independent ruler. ● This partition resulted in invasions from the northwest. 2. Highly Centralised Administration ● Historian Romila Thapar is of the view that the highly centralised administration under the Mauryas became a problem with the later Mauryan kings who were not as efficient administrators as their predecessors. ● Powerful kings like Chandragupta Maurya and Ashoka could control the administration well. But weak rulers led to a weakening of the administration and ultimately led to the empire’s disintegration. ● Also, the sheer vastness of the Mauryan Empire meant that there had to be a very effective ruler at the centre who could keep coherent all the regions. ● A weakening of the central administration coupled with a large distance to communicate also led to the rise of independent kingdoms. 3. Weak Monarchs after Ashoka ● The successors of Ashoka were weak kings who could not carry the burden of the huge empire that was bequeathed to them. ● After Ashoka, only six kings could rule over the kingdom for a mere 52 years. ● The last Maurya king, Brihadratha was overthrown by his own army commander, Pushyamitra. 50 Master Series : Ancient India ● Only the first three kings of the Mauryan Empire were men of exceptional abilities and character. The later kings were no match in quality to their illustrious ancestors. 4. Independence of the Provinces ● After Ashoka, under the later kings, the centre’s hold over the vast empire began to disintegrate. This led to the emergence to various kingdoms. ● It is already mentioned that Jalauka ruled over Kashmir independently. ● Kalinga became independent. ● According to Tibetan sources, Virasena ruled over Gandhara independently. ● Vidarbha broke away from Magadha. As per Greek sources, a king named Subhagasena (Sophagasanus) began to rule over the northwestern provinces independently. 5. Internal Revolt ● During the rule of Brihadratha, there was an internal revolt led by his army chief Pushyamitra Shunga in about 185 or 186 BC. ● Bana describes in Harshacharita how Shunga killed Brihadratha during an army parade. ● This ended the rule of the Mauryas over Magadha and thence started the Shunga dynasty’s rule. 6. Foreign Invasions ● During the reign of the first three Mauryan kings, no foreign power tried to attack India from the north-west as there was a fear of the mighty Mauryan army. ● But after Ashoka’s death, the kingdom split up into two. This led to the Greek king Antiochus to attack India unsuccessfully. ● But in time, foreign tribes attacked and established their kingdoms on Indian soil. The notable ones were the Indo-Greeks, the Sakas and the Kushanas. 7. Ashoka’s Policies ● Some scholars suggest that Ashoka’s policies of non-violence and pacifism led to the weakening of the empire. ● Since he stopped waging wars, foreign powers were once again tempted to attack the kingdom. ● Also, he gave a lot of importance and efforts to the propagation of Buddhism. 8. Brahminical Reaction ● According to some historians, the Brahmins were unhappy with Ashoka’s unabashed patronage of Buddhism. ● He had banned animal slaughter which was a sacrifice conducted by the Brahmins. ● But this theory is refuted because many of Ashoka’s inscriptions talk about respecting Brahmins. ● Also, Pushyamitra Shunga, a general in the Mauryan army was a Brahmin which proves that they had powerful posts under the Mauryas. Sunga Dynasty Pushyamitra Sunga ● Pushyamitra Sunga, he was a Brahmin army chief of Brihadratha, the last king of the Mauryas. He was the founder of this dynasty. ● During a military parade, while Brihadratha (Last Mauryan King) was receiving guard of honour, he killed Brihadratha and established himself on the throne in 185 or 186 BC. His capital was at Pataliputra. He successfully countered attacks from two Bacterian kings namely, Menander and Demetrius. He also thwarted an attack from the Kalinga king Kharavela.He conquered Vidarbha. ● He followed Brahminism. Some accounts portray him as a persecutor of Buddhists and a destroyer of stupas but there has been no authoritative evidence to this claim.During his reign, the Stupas at Sanchi and Barhut were renovated. He built the sculptured stone gateway at Sanchi. Pushyamitra Sunga patronised the Sanskrit grammarian Patanjali and he performed Ashvamedha Yajna for Pushyamita Sunga. According to the Puranas, his reign lasted for 36 years. He died in 151 BC. Mahajanpadas and the Magadha Empire 51 Agnimitra ● Pushyamitra was succeeded by his son Agnimitra, who was the hero of Kalidasa’s drama “Malvikagnimitram”. His reign lasted from about 149 BC to 141 BC. ● By this time, Vidarbha broke away from the empire. His son Vasumitra succeeded him as king. Puranas talks of ten kings of Sunga dynasty. ● Vasumitra’s successors are not clearly known. One of the rulers among the later kings was Bhagvata, in whose court Heliodorous, The ambassador of bacterian king Antialkidas came. Heliodorous and Bhagvata erected the Besnagar pillar. The last king was Devbhutti. Effects of Sunga Rule ● Hinduism was revived under the Sungas. ● The caste system was also revived with the rise of the Brahmanas. ● Another important development during the Sunga reign was the emergence of various mixed castes and the integration of foreigners into Indian society. ● The language of Sanskrit gained more prominence during this time. Even some Buddhist works of this time were composed in Sanskrit. ● The Sungas patronised art and architecture. There was an increase in the usage of human figures and symbols in art during this period. Sunga Art ● Standing sculptures of Yakshas and Yakshis, discovered from Gwalior and Mathura. ● Dwarfish Yaksha from the Pithalkhora caves in Central India. Society in Post-Mauryan Period ● During the post-Mauryan period some changes took place in the social structure of the country. In place of four Varnas, some new mixed Varnas came into existence. Two factors were responsible for it. 1. First, some foreign elements or invaders entered India. After sometime they were absorbed into the vast Hindu society. This brought important changes to the social structure. 2. Secondly, some non-Aryan elements like Lichchavi, Malla, etc adopted Hinduism. Because of their courage and valor, they became Kshatriyas. ● But after taking everything in consideration perhaps it can be said that the appearance of these new sub-castes made no fundamental change in the Hindu society. The incorporation of foreign elements, however, gave new vigor to Indian civilization and culture. This is evident in the areas of art, literature and religion of the period. During this period women lost many of the privileges which they enjoy before. In the Dharmasastras and the Smritisastras, the women were considered inferior to men. ● Polygamy was practiced then. According to Greek sources, burning of widow or sati was in vogue. Smritisastras say that a woman would always be guided by a male member of the family – by her father during her childhood, by husband in the middle ages and by her son in case she become a widow. Economy in Post-Mauryan Period ● One of the most important elements in the society was the village community. To a certain extent the village community was independent of outside control as far as its internal affairs were concerned. In spite of preponderance of villages, some towns, big and small, came into existence. The emergence of towns made some impact on both the social and economic life. ● Agriculture still played a major role in the economic life of the people. Abundance of rainfall ensured production of adequate crops. Irrigation facilities were also provided. ● From the Junagarh inscription, we come to know that even the remotes areas of the Mauryan Empire enjoyed irrigation facilities. ● Trade and commerce thrived in this period. The unification of a large part of India under the Mauryas into a closely-knitted empire and opening of new trade routes led to a great expansion of both trade and commerce. Establishment of Indo-Greek rule and the emergence of Kushan Empire gave new fillip to these trends. 52 Master Series : Ancient India ● From the Mauryan period state took upon itself the responsibility of minting coins. That helped in the development of monetary economy which promoted trade. At first copper, silver or lead coins were used. ● Craftsmanship in different spheres like weaving, metal-working and jeweller, etc. achieved a high level of proficiency. The Greek writers praised the extra-ordinary skill of the Indian craftsmen. Among Indian industries textile manufacture was the most important. The finest fabrics were woven in Bengal, Karnataka, Kasi and Konkan. Large quantities of fabrics were exported from India, muslin had a good market in the Roman Empire. Kanva Dynasty Devabhuti was killed by his own minister, Vasudeva Kanva in around 73 BC. This established the Kanva dynasty at Magadha from 73 to 28 BC. Foreign Dynasties The Indo Greeks or Bacterian Greeks ● Some important Indo-Greek rulers were Euthydemus, Demetrius, Eucratides and Menander. The Indo-Greek kingdom was ruled by over 30 Greek kings in northwest and north India from the 2nd century BC to the beginning of the first century AD. The kingdom started when Graeco-Bactrian king Demetrius (son of Euthydemus I) invaded India around 180 BC. He conquered southern Afghanistan and parts of Punjab. ● The Indo-Greek kings imbibed Indian culture very well. Many coins have been unearthed of these kings and most of the information we get about them is from these coins. Coins have been found with Indian and Greek inscriptions. Many coins have been found with images of Indian deities also. The Indo-Greek kings were the first rulers who issued coins along with the name and image of king. They were the first rulers to issue gold coins. They influenced the Indian Science and Astronomy. ● The civil wars among the many Bactrian kings after the death of Demetrius facilitated the independent kingdom of Apollodotus I who, in this way, can be regarded as the first proper Indo-Greek king (whose rule was not from Bactria). His kingdom included Gandhara and western Punjab. Most of the Indo-Greek kings were Buddhists and Buddhism flourished under their rule. Greek influence is mostly seen in art and sculpture, particularly the Gandhara School of art which developed under their patronage. Menander (165 BC-145 BC) ● He ruled from his capital Sakala (modern Sialkot) in Pakistan. His empire extended from Kabul river valley in the west to the Ravi River in the east; and from Swat valley in the north to Arachosia (Helmand in Afghanistan). Milindpanho is a book which contains the questions of king Menander and answers of Buddhist monk Nagasena. In the work, Milinda is described as a wise, learned and able king. At the end of it, Milinda accepts Buddhism. Indo Greek Kingdom ended with the invasions of the Indo-Scythians (Sakas). Importance of the Indo-Greek Rule The Indo-Greeks were the first to issue coins which can be definitely attributed to the kings. They were the first to issue gold coins in India which increased in number under the Kushanas. The Greeks also introduced the practice of military governorship called strategos for maintaining the power of the new rulers over the conquered people. The Greek rule introduced features of Hellenistic art in the North-west frontier of India. The Gandhara art was largely Hellenistic in the beginning, but as time passed the style became more and more Indian and less and less Greek. The idea of representing the Buddha as a human being (idol worship) originated with the Greeks. The Greeks contributed to the development of the Indian theatre by the use of curtains (known as Yavanika, Sutradhara (stage manager), Nepathya (back stage, etc.) Indian astrology came to be influenced by Greek ideas, and from the Greek term horoscope was derived the term horasastra used for astrology in Sanskrit. Mahajanpadas and the Magadha Empire 53 Fig. 4.2. The Foreign Dynasties in Post-Mauryan period Sakas/Scythians ● Scythians were the nomadic tribe of Central Asia. They destroyed the Indo-Greek rule in North Western India. They entered India through Bolan Pass. They ruled from 1st century B.C to 4th century A.D. The Sakas were divided themselves in five branches and settled in various parts of India. ● First branch settled in Afghanistan, Second settled in Punjab with Taxila as its capital. Third branch in Mathura, Fourth branch established its hold over western India where Sakas continued to rule until 4th century A.D. Fifth branch settled in Upper Deccan. ● The Sakas had an Indian kingdom larger than the Indo-Greeks. The Sakas fought a war with a king who called himself Vikramaditya. Vikramaditya emerged victorious in this war and an era called Vikram Samvat is reckoned from this event in 57 BC. Rudradaman I ● He is considered as the greatest of the Saka ruler. He was the grandson of Chastana. His kingdom included Narmada valley, Kathiawar, other parts of Gujarat and Malwa. ● He issued the first ever insription in chaste Sanskrit which reveals that he conducted the repair work of the Sudarshana Lake at Kathiawar. This inscription is known as Junagarh Rock inscription. He married a Hindu woman and had converted to Hinduism. He took up the title of Makakshatrapa after becoming king. He maintained marital relationships with the Satavahanas. Vashishtiputra Satakarni was his son-in-law. But he also fought numerous wars with them. He supported Sanskrit literature and cultural arts. It was during Rudradaman’s reign that Yavaneshwara, the Greek writer lived in India and translated the Yavanajataka from Greek to Sanskrit. 54 Master Series : Ancient India ● The Saka Empire started declining after their defeat at the hands of the Satavahana Emperor Gautamiputra Satakarni. The Saka rule in northwest India and Pakistan came to an end after the death of Azes II (12 BC) when the region came under the Kushanas. ● In western India, their rule came to an end in the 4th century AD when the last Saka ruler Rudrasimha III was defeated by Chandragupta II of the Gupta dynasty in 390 A.D and after the victory over Sakas Chandragupta adopted the title Vikramaditya. Satrapa system and Western Kshatrapas ● The Achaemenid conquerors of north-western India were the first to introduce the Satrapa system of government in the country. The title Satrap or Kshatrapa is the Hellenized form of the Old Persian Kshatrapavan which means ‘protector of the kingdom’. ● The Satrap form of government received a fresh impetus during the Scythian rule in India, the chief feature of which was the system of joint rule of a Mahakshatrapa and a Satrapa. ● The two groups of satraps are known from the inscriptions and coins. The earlier group consists of two persons only, Bhumaka and Nahapana belonging to the Kshaharata race while the latter group comprises a large number of satraps known to have descended from Chashtana. Parthians ● Parthians also known as Pahalavas. They were the Iranian people. They ruled from Peshawar. The earliest King of this dynasty was vonones who adopted the title of Great King of Kings. ● Gondophernes was the greatest king of the Parthian kingdom. St Thomas a Christian missionary visited India during the reign of Gondophernes. The Kushanas or Yuechis ● The Kushanas were the most powerful of all the foreign invaders who came to India. Kushanas are considered to be one of the five clans among Yuechis tribe was divided. A. Kujala Kadphises/Kadphises I ● Kujula Kadphises was the first king to lay the foundation of the Kushana Empire in India. He established his supremacy over Kabul, Kandhar and Afghanistan.He was succeeded by his son Vima Kadphises or Kadphises II or Sadashkana (80 A.D- 95 A.D) who expanded the empire into northwest India. B. Vima Kadphises ● An inscription found at Rabatak in Afghanistan mentions that he was the father of Kanishka. He has issued a large number of gold and copper coins. He was a devotee of Shiva, clear from coins issued by him, as his coins showed Shiva holding Trident and Bull. The large number of Roman gold coins found from this era which shows the prosperity of India at that time and also the growing trade with the Romans. C. Kanishka ● Kanishka succeeded Kadphises II. Kanishka was most well-known and greatest king among all Kushana Kings. He is also known as second Ashoka. He ruled from Purushpur, modern day Peshawar. He started the Saka era in 78 A.D. He also sent the missionaries outside India to spread Buddhism. He constructed the Peshawar Stupa (relic stupa). The scholars in his court included Parsva, Ashvaghosha, Vasumitra, Nagarjuna, Charaka. Ashvaghosa wrote famous book Buddhacharita in Sanskrit. He also patronised the Greek engineer Agesilaus. ● Kanishka patronised the fourth Buddhist Council at Kundalvana in Kashmir which was presided by Vasumitra. He patronised Buddhism although he was very tolerant in his religious views. His coins contain a mix of Indian, Greek and Zoroastrian deities. He was also a patron of art and architecture. The Gandhara School of art flourished under him. He was the patron of Mahayana sect of Buddhism and he was largely responsible for propagating it in China. It is not known how he died. Mahajanpadas and the Magadha Empire 55 Fig. 4.3. The Kushan Empire Major Aspects of Rule of Foreign Dynasties (a) Growth of Urban Centers ● During this period, there is seen a growth of urban centres because this phase registered a distinct advance in building activities. We find the use of burnt bricks for flooring and roofing, construction of brick kilns, use of script files, and use of red pottery. (b) Economy and Coinage of the Period ● This age of foreign rule had the best impact on Indian trade and commerce. Unlike other ages of foreign rule, Sakas and Kushanas introduced better cavalry, use of reins, toe stirrups, turban, tunic, trousers and heavy long coat. India received a good deal of gold from Altai Mountains in central Asia. ● The Kushanas controlled the silk route which started from China and passed through their empire in central Asia and with the help of tolls levied from the traders, Kushanas built a large empire. It is significant that the Kushanas were the first rulers in India to issue gold coins on a wide scale. (c) Development of Religion ● Some of the foreign rulers were converted to Vaishanavism. The Greek ambassador Heliodoros set up a pillar in honour of Vishnu near Vidisha in Madhya Pradesh. The famous Greek ruler Menander was converted to Buddhism. The Kushan rulers worshipped both Shiva, and Buddha and the images of these two gods appeared on the Kushan coins. ● The Buddha was regarded as a god and images of the Buddha and Budhisatvas were made and worshipped. The goal of life also was changed from ‘Nirvana’ to the attainment of ‘Swarga’ or heaven. The old language Pali was also discarded in favour of the Sanskrit and faith took the place of logic. As a result of 56 Master Series : Ancient India these changes, the Buddhism gained immense popularity and it spread not only in India but also in several foreign countries like China, Japan, Tibet and Central Asia. (d) Hinduism Vaishnavism: There were 3 streams centered around worship of Vishnu or Bhagawat. 1. Vishnu as a minor god in Vedic times was worshipped as the Sun and fertility cult. 2. Narayana was a non-vedic tribal god. He was also called bhagavat. 3. Vishnu came to be identified as the hero of the vrishni tribe known as Krishna-Vasudeva. By 200 BC all these 3 streams merged into one and led to the creation of Bhagvatism. By the end of late Gupta Period, it’s assimilated into Vaishnavism and was commonly referred by the latter. (e) Buddhism ● Buddhism continued to receive royal patronage. Many kings of this era were Buddhists. Kanishka’s court was adorned by the presence of such scholars as Parsva, Vasumitra, Ashvaghosha, Charaka, and Nagarjuna. ● A major development in Buddhism was its splitting up in to two sects – The Hinayana and the Mahayana. Kanishka organized the 4th Buddhist council where this split happened. Hinayana Also known as Lesser Vehicle Treat Buddha has a guide (Since Buddha never said he was God) Worshipped only in form of symbols that represent various stages in the life of Buddha Literature only in Pali Mahayana Greater Vehicle Treat Buddha as a God Worshipped in human form, Bodhisattvas. Art. The Gandhara artists built beautiful large-size images of the Buddha, Budhisatvas and the Kushan rulers. ● They depicted scenes from the life of the Buddha on stone. Most of the specimens of the Ghandhara Art relating to this period are executed in stone. But some of the specimens founded at Taxila are in stucco (lime), cement, terracota (baked clay) and clay. The Gandhara Art greatly influenced other schools of Indian sculpture. ● The Greek influence is discernible even in the field of temple and palace architecture. Some of the walls and pillars of the Sun Temple at Taxila are executed in the Greek Style. The Indians also learnt the art of cutting rock caves. In Maharashtra, there are several rock-cut caves. Difference Between Gandhara and Mathura Art Gandhara Strong Greek influence and was based on Greco-Roman norms encapsulating foreign techniques and an alien spirit. It is also known as GraecoBuddhist School of art. Assimilating various traits of Acamenian, Parthian and Bactrian traditions into the local tradition is a hallmark of the Gandhara style. Blue-grey Mica/Grey Sandstone. Rendering of drapery with sharp flowing folds similar to those shown in Roman togas. Finer details and realistic images. Buddha carved out in various Mudras. Wavy curled hair. Sanskrit The Gandhara School of Art ● Before the Kushanas, the Gandhara School of Art was developed as a result of interaction between the Greeks and the Indians. But during the Kushan rule, the Gandhara Art reached its zenith. This art had developed on the north-western regions of India known as Gandhara. It was therefore called the Gandhara School of Art or the Indo-Greek Mathura No foreign Influence, however, later it cross fertilized with the Gandhara School. Its development took place indigenously. Initially inspired by Yaksha Images Spotted Red Sandstone Early period: Light volume having fleshy body. Later Period: Flashiness reduced. Not much attention to detailed sculpting. Halo not decorated. Images The halo around the head of Buddha was profusely are very expressive. decorated. Images less expressive. Mainly Buddhism All religions – Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism Mahajanpadas and the Magadha Empire 57 Society, Education and Culture ● Though the Indians knew about the Greeks even before Alexander’s invasion, their active contact started only after Alexander’s invasion. Alexander came to India like a storm and went back like a whirlwind, so there was no apparent impact of his invasion. ● After his death came the Indo-Bactrians, Indo-Parthians, Sakas, Kushanas and other alien tribes who founded their kingdoms on the Indian soil. Thereafter, India established contacts with these people for quite a long time. It was during this period that the Indians learnt from them in such fields as administration, coinage, astronomy, art, literature, religion and science, etc. Political Life and Administration ● The Kushanas and the Saka rulers assumed the title of ‘Devputra’ or the son of God. They thus strengthened the concept of the divine origin of kingship. The Kushanas defeated several of the Indian rulers, but restored the kingdoms if they acknowledged their over-lordships. It was the beginning of the feudal system in India. ● The Kushan Empire was divided into smaller units which were governed by the Kshatraps or Satraps. It was the beginning of the Kshatrapa system. They also started the curious practice of hereditary dual rule where both father and the son ruled the same kingdom at the same time. This practice of military governorship was also started during this period as these military governors were quite necessary to control the rebellious people. Social Life – New Elements in Indian Social Life ● The Bactrian’s, the Parthians, the Sakas and the Kushanas came into India and settled there permanently, thus becoming an integral part of the Indian society. Thus they lost their separate social identity and they became completely Indianized. Being brave and bold conquerors, they were admitted into the Indian social system as member of the Kshatriya caste. Astronomy During Foreign Dynasties ● The Indians also learnt a lot from the Greeks in the field of astronomy. The Indians too honoured the learned Greek astronomers and were impressed by their knowledge in this field. The renowned Indian treatise on astronomy ‘Gargi Samhita’ asserts, “The Yavanas are barbarians yet the science of astronomy originated with them and for this they must be reverenced like Gods”. Of the different principles of astronomy, the Indians borrowed many from the contemporary Greeks. Several of the Greek terms are still prevalent in Indian astronomy. Some scholars even believe that the Indians learnt from the Greeks the science of casting horoscopes. Coinage of Foreign Dynasties ● Before the Greeks, the Indian coins were rough and punch-marked. These coins were not cast in moulds and only one side bore any inscription. The Indians learnt from the Greeks the art of moulding coins and they now struck beautiful coins bearing inscriptions on both the sides. The gold coins of Kanishka were also beautiful and attractive with artistic images of Gods and Goddesses on them. Literature and Learning ● The foreign rulers patronised Sanskrit and consequently the Sanskrit scholars wrote several books of greater quality. The Kushan rulers were great lovers of knowledge and they patronised several scholars which led to the creation of high quality Sanskrit literature particularly, during the reign of Kanishka. ● Among the notable Sanskrit scholars of this period were Asvaghosha, Vasumitra and Nagarjuna. Asvaghosha wrote the ‘Buddha Charita’, ‘Saundrananda’and ‘Sahputra’. Vasumitra wrote ‘Prajnaparmita’, ‘Sutra Shastra’ and ‘Mahavibhasha’. ● The rise of the Mahayana sect led to the composition of dramas. The Indian drama 58 Master Series : Ancient India was also influenced by the Greece drama. It is on the Greek model that in the Indian dramas too the character of a clown (Vidushaka) was introduced and the use of curtain, which is called ‘Yavanika’ in Sanskrit, was started. Botany and Medicine During Foreign Dynasties ● In the field of botany, chemistry and medicine the foreign contribution to India is insignificant as India in these fields, had already made sufficient progress. Charka, the great Indian physician of Work Inscriptions and Literature of Era of Foreign Dynasties Author Theme Junagarh Rock inscription Milindapanho Saundarananda, Buddhacharita, Vajrasuchi Charaka-Samhita Sushruta-Samhita this time, wrote ‘Charka Samhita’ which deals with various diseases and the effective herbs (aushadhis) to cure them. ● The above account would suffice to conclude that the Indians learnt many things from the foreigners. But they never followed them blindly. They adopted the new knowledge in the context of the indigenous conditions. Whatever influences did the Indians acquired, the foreign elements were so assimilated with their own life that it would hardly be possible to distinguish them. Patronage Rudradaman I from the He’s credited to have issued the 1st long Rudradaman I Western Kshatrapa inscription in chaste Sanskrit. It mentions the repairs he undertook to improve the Sudershana Lake. Junagarh Rock also contains inscriptions from Ashoka and Skandgupta (from the Gupta Period almost 800 years later). Nagasena Menander asked Nagasena many questions Milinda related to philosophy and Buddhism, which together with Nagasena’s answers are recorded in Milindapanho or the Questions of Milinda. Ashvaghosh ● Buddhacharita is a complete life Kanishka of Buddha written in the form of Mahakavya. ● It is the first Buddist book written in Sanskrit. Charaka Extends Ayurveda, and lays down the concept of balance of 3 doshas called Vata, Pitta and Kapha. Sushruta (Father of Surgery) He mentions more than 120 instruments Mahajanpadas and the Magadha Empire 59 Ancient India Master Exercise 4 MCQs for Preliminary Examination 1. Which of the following inscriptions refers to the three generation of Chera rulers of the first century AD? 3. Violation of varna endogamous rules. 4. Violation of gotra exogamous rules. Select the correct answer from the codes given below. (a) Cave inscriptions found in the vicinity of Tanjore. (a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) Pugalar inscriptions in the Malabar Coast. (b) 2, 3 and 4 (c) Marandai Inscription in the Malabar Coast. (c) 1, 3 and 4 (d) Korkoi inscription in the Pandya country. 2. (d) All of them The first Sangam was presided over by: (a) Skanda Subjective type questions for Main (b) Tolkapipiyar Examination (c) Vasistha 1. Examine the nature and character of Mauryan State system. 2. Discuss the different views about Dhamma. 3. Bring out the elements of change and continuity of domestic and foreign policies of Ashoka. (b) The desire to control coastal region. 4. (c) The need for access to important trading Centers. Discuss about the dynasties that ruled over Magadha before Mauryans. 5. Mention and explain the factors responsible for the growth of Magadh into an Empire. 6. The matrimonial alliances were one of the vital strategies of the Magadh rulers. How far do you agree with the statement? 7. (c) There were regular Varnas of Kshatriya and Vaishyas. Post-Maurayan Period witnessed a rise in living of standard. Corroborate the statements with examples. 8. (d) The ruling class could come from only the Kashtriyas. Post-Mauryan phase was the phase of development for Towns and cities. Elucidate 9. What were the reasons for the downfall of the Mauryas? (d) Agastya 3. The main cause of conflict between the Cheras, Cholas, and Pandyas during the sangam age was: (a) The desires to control the fertile deltas. (d) None of these. 4. Which of the following statements about the society of Sangam age is not true? (a) Brahmins emerged as a regular varna. (b) They abstained from eating meat and drinking wine. 5. Which of the following factors were responsible for the rise of mixed castes? 1. Emergence of specialised occupational groups. 2. Assimilation of new tribes into Arya Society. Answers to MCQs 1. (b) 2. (d) 3. (a) 4. (d) 5. (a) 60 Master Series : Ancient India ANCIENT INDIA MASTER SERIES UNIT 5 Gupta and Post-Gupta AGE Gupta Kings – The ‘Remarkable’ History The Gupta period marks the important phase in the history of ancient India. The long and efficient rule of the Guptas made a huge impact on the socio-politico and cultural life of ancient India. Though the Gupta Empire was not widespread as the Maurya Empire, but it was quite successful in creating an empire that is significant in the history of India. Gupta Age ● The Gupta period is known as the “golden age” because of great progress in literature, culture, art, architecture as well as trade and commerce. After the downfall of Kushans, Guptas emerged and kept north India united for more than a century. (Refer Fig. 5.1) ● North India came under the rule of several foreign people, such as the Yavanas, Kushans, Sakas, Parthians, etc. They began to settle in north-west India from the first century BC onwards. Foreign rulers came to India due to the turbulent condition in central Asia.They adjusted themselves with Indian culture, and introduced some new elements in socio-polical and cultural life of India. ● Three big political powers emerged in India between the 1st century BC and 3rd century AD, which played an important stabilising factor over large regions. They were 1. Satavahanas in the Deccan, 2. Kushanas in the North, and 3. Sakas in the West. ● In the mid of 3rd century AD, the empires of the Satavahanas and Kushanas came to an end. ● A new dynasty, known as Gupta, emerged in the northern India. They made a permanent ● ● ● ● ● ● impact on Indian history by building up meticulously a large empire. They have firmly established several trends of Indian culture like the Mauryans a few centuries earlier. Apart from political might and strength, the Gupta kings were also known for their great achievements in the field of art, science, literature and culture. The Allahabad pillar inscription of Samudragupta mentions Maharaja Srigupta and Maharaja Ghatotkacha as his ancestors. But we do not know much about the early Guptas. I-tsing, a Chineses traveller, came to India between AD 671 and 695. He mentioned Srigupta as the builder of a temple at Gaya for the Chinese pilgrims about 500 years before his time. The king, Srigupta, has been identified as the first Gupta king mentioned in the Allahabad pillar inscription. Puranas also mention that the early Guptas controlled the area along the Ganga (the middle Gangetic basin), Prayag (Allahabad and surrounding region), Saketa (Ayodhya region), and Magadha. Ghatotkacha succeeded his father Srigupta. He was also referred as the Maharaja in Gupta records. Gupta and Post-Gupta Age 61 The Gupta Empire Chandragupta–I ● Chandragupta-I succeeded his father Ghatotkacha in AD 320.Chandragupta–I was considered to have laid the foundations of the great Gupta Empire, to prosper. He was married to a Lichchhavi princess Kumaradevi. The Lichchhavis were related to Gautama Buddha. The Lichchhavis were an old and established Ganarajya and quite powerful and still being respected in north India.The marriage alliance of Chandragupta–I was important for his political career as is proved by the coins Chandragupta I. These coins portray the figures of Chandragupta and Kumaradevi with the name of the Lichchhavis. ● In the Allahabad inscription, Samudragupta son of Chandragupta–I and Kumaradevi, proudly called himself Lichchhavis ‘Dauhitra’ i.e., son of the daughter of Lichchhavis. ● The Gupta era was started with a coronation of Chandragupta–I in AD 320. He was the first Gupta king to adopt the title ‘Maharajadhiraja’ and issued gold coins. Chandragupta–I introduced a new era called Gupta era. Samudragupta ● Samudragupta succeeded his father Chandragupta–I about AD 340. He earned a reputation as one of the greatest kings and conquerors. He was chosen by his father as his successor because of his qualities that would make him into a good king. ● The Allahabad pillar inscription gives a detailed account of the career and personality of Samudragupta. Harishena, one of the officials composed the inscription and engraved on the Ashoka's pillar at Allahabad. Samudragupta was a great military general. He had a long list of the kings and rulers whom he defeated and subdued as a part of his military achievements. He uprooted nine kings and princes from the Aryavarta and annexed their kingdoms. ● Campaign of Southern India was the most important campaign of Samudragupta. Altogether, twelve kings and princes of the south (Dakshinapatha) are listed in the inscription. ● During the campaign of southern India, he adopted the policy of first capturing the kings, then releasing them from captivity, and then reinstalling them as kings in their territories. By showing royal mercy, he won their allegiance. ● Samudragupta proceeded for his south Indian campaign, through the eastern and southern parts of Madhyadesha to Orissa and then advanced along the eastern coast and reached Kanchi and beyond and returned to his capital by way of Maharashtra and Khandesh. ● Samudragupta performed ‘Ashvamedhayajna’ after his several conquests and issued gold coins depicting the sacrificial horse and bearing the legend, which conveyed that he performed the Ashvamedha sacrifice. ● The Allahabad pillar inscription also lists fourteen kingdoms bordering the kingdom of Samudragupta. All these rulers paid tributes, followed his orders and showed their obedience by attending his the Samudra court. ● These subservient kingdoms were located in eastern Rajasthan, northern Madhya Pradesh, Assam, and Nepal. Further, some forest kings (atavika-rajas) are mentioned whom Samudragupta had made his ‘Paricharaka’ (helpers). ● Other political powers listed in the inscription are as Kushanas, Sakas, Murundas as well as Simhalas (Sri Lanka) and inhabitants of other islands. These rulers sent embassies to the Samudragupta's court. ● Meghavarna, the king of Sri Lanka, sent an embassy to Samudragupta for his permission to build a monastery and a guest house for Buddhist pilgrims at Bodh Gaya. ● Samudragupta was a versatile genius. He was called as ‘Kaviraja’ i.e., the king of poets. He was proficient in war and sastras as well. ● The Allahabad pillar inscription brads him a great musician. This is also confirmed by his lyricist type of coins, which shows him playing veena (lute). Samudragupta patronized learned men in his court and appointed them as his ministers. Samudragupta died in about AD 380, and was succeeded by his son Chandragupta II. 62 Master Series : Ancient India Timeline of Gupta Empire AD 320 AD 335 AD 337 AD 380 AD 380 AD 395 AD 415 AD AD AD AD AD 455 455 467 476 500 AD 510 AD 528 AD 550 Chandragupta I takes over the power. Samudragupta succeeds as next Gupta ruler. Birth of Faxian,a famed Chinese scholar, who later recorded and published many of the intellectual advances of the golden Gupta period. Chandragupta II becomes the Gupta King,after Samudragupta. Kalidasa, revered as the greatest Sanskrit poet and dramatist, produces his great work. Rudrasimha III, Chandragupta II’s main opponent, is defeated. Kumaragupta I succeeds as the Gupta ruler. Skandagupta succeeds as Gupta ruler. Skandagupta defeats the Huna. Purugupta succeeds as Gupta ruler. Aryabhatta is born. The Dashavatara Temple in Deogarh is built. Bhanugupta repels the Hun invasion. The Hun are driven out of India. The Gupta Empire ends. Chandragupta II ● Chandragupta II was the son of Samudragupta and Dattadevi and he was chosen by his father as his successor. The Gupta Empire reached its highest glory, both in terms of territorial expansion and cultural excellence under Chandragupta II. ● Chandragupta II had inherited a strong and consolidated empire from his father Samudragupta. ● Chandragupta II had established a matrimonial alliance with Vakatakas by marrying his daughter Prabhavatigupta with Rudrasena II of the Vakataka dynasty. Chandragupta II made an alliance with the Vakatakas before attacking the Sakas so as to be sure of having a friendly power to back him up in Deccan.Prabhavatigupta acted as a regent on behalf of her two minor sons after the death of her husband Rudrasena II. Chandragupta II’s victory over the mighty Sakas dynasty was his foremost success. The annexation of Sakas’s kingdom comprising Gujarat and part of Malwa strengthened the Gupta Empire, but also brought it into direct touch with western seaports. This gave a great motivation to foreign trade and commerce. ● Ujjain, a major centre of trade, religion, and culture became the second capital of the Gupta Empire after the conquest.After the victory over Sakas, Chandragupta II adopted the title of ‘Vikramaditya.’ Chandragupta II issued dated silver coins to commemorate his victory over Saka kshatrapas. ● The Mehrauli iron pillar inscription records portray a king named Chandra. This king Chandra is generally identified as Chandragupta II. This would mean his kingdom extended from Bengal to the NorthWest Frontiers. ● Chandragupta II's reign is remembered for his patronage of literature and arts and for the high standard of artistic and cultural life. Kalidas, the great Sanskrit poet was a member of Chandragupta II’s court. Fa-Hien, the Chinese Buddhist pilgrim visited India between AD 405 and AD 411. He visited for collecting Buddhist manuscripts and texts, and studied at Indian monasteries. Kumaragupta I ● Chandragupta II died in about AD 413. His son Kumaragupta became the next king. Kumaragupta ruled for more than forty years. He performed an Ashvamedha sacrifice; though his military achievements are not known. ● Kumaragupta issued Ashvamedha type of coins like his grandfather, Samudragupta.The epigraphic records show that he organised the administration of vast empire and maintained its peace, prosperity, and security for a long period of forty years. ● The Gupta Empire was challenged by the Pushyamitras at the end of Kumaragupta's reign.Pushyamitras were living on the banks of the Narmada. Gupta and Post-Gupta Age 63 Fig.5.1. The Gupta Empire Skandgupta ● Skandagupta was the son of Kumaragupta I. ● Kumaragupta-I died in AD 455. His son Skandagupta became the next king. Skandagupta's reign seems to have been full of wars. He struggled with his brother Purugupta. ● Hunas were the greatest enemies of Gupta’s empire during this period. Hunas were a ferocious barbarian hordes. They lived in central Asia. Skandagupta successfully defeated the Hunas. So they did not dare to disturb the Gupta Empire for next half a century. Though they continue to disconcert Persia during this period. ● The important event of Skandagupta's reign was the restoration and repair of the dam on Sudarsana Lake after 8 hundred years of construction. It was built during Chandragupta Maurya's reign. ● Sudarsana Lake was also repaired previously during the reign of Saka kshatrapa Rudradaman I. Decline of Guptas ● The Gupta dynasty continued to be in existence for more than 100 years after the death of Skandagupta in AD 467. ● Skandagupta was succeeded by his brother Purugupta. Nothing is known about his achievements. ● Budhagupta was the only Gupta ruler who continued to rule over a large part of the empire. ● Budhagupta inscriptions have been found from Bengal, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, and Madhya Pradesh. ● Huna’s leader, Toramana attacked Gupta Empire in AD 512. He conquered a large part of north India up to Gwalior and Malwa. 64 Master Series : Ancient India ● Toramana was succeeded by his son Mihira kula. He founded his capital at Sakala (Sialkot). Huna ruled in India for a very short period, but the Gupta Empire suffered much from it. Huna rule was one of the shortest instances of foreign rule over India. ● Hiuen-Tsang describes that Mihirkula invaded Magadha. He was defeated and captured by the Gupta king Baladitya. It is also mentioned that Mihirkula’s life was saved at the intervention of the queen mother of Magadha. ● Inscription from Malwa mentioned that Yasovarman was a powerful local ruler of Malwa. He also defeated Mihirakula (Huna Ruler). Governance During Guptas ● During the period from Guptas to Harsha, polity, religion, society, economic life, literature, art, and architecture and technology were in the highest state of glory. Because of this reason, this period is popular as ‘a golden period’ of Indian history. Structure of Administration ● Set-up of the government was well organized during the Gupta period, which provided a strong base for them to hold together their extensive territories for such a longer period. ● In spite of intermittent wars amongst them, the reigns of the Guptas survived for two hundred years; the Chalukyas lasted for four hundred years; and Pallavas lasted for about six hundred years. ● The basic (governance) functionalities of the different dynasties were almost the same except some differences in their terminology. ● The kingdom (Rajya) was divided into a number of provinces and they were known as ‘Bhukti’ in the north and ‘Mandala’ or ‘Mandalam’ in the south. ● The provinces were sub-divided as ‘Vishaya’ or ‘Bhoga’ in the north and ‘Kottams’ or ‘Valanadu’ in the south. ● Some other units of administration were the districts, which were called as ‘Adhis,’ ‘Thana,’ or ‘Pattana’ in the north and ‘Nadu’ in the south. ● The group of villages (i.e. modern tehsil) was known as ‘Vithis’ in the north and ‘Pattala’ and ‘Kurram’ in the south. ● The villages were the lowest administrative units. There was a number of central, provincial, and local officials to carry on the administration. ● The administration under Gupta Empire was largely dependent upon the old bureaucratic form of administration; however, they organized it much systematically and elaborately. ● The governor of ‘Bhukti’ was appointed by the king and known as ‘Uparika.’ Gupta Empire: Factsheet ● The Gupta Empire was founded by Maharaja Sri Gupta. ● The first ruler of the empire was Chandra Gupta I, who was succeeded by hfe son, the celebrated Samudragupta. ● Great and marked prosperity in the Gupta Empire heralded a period known as the Golden Age of India, marked by extensive inventions and discoveries in science, technology, engineering, art, dialectic, literature, logic, mathematics, astronomy, religion, and philosophy. ● Skandagupta, son of Kumaragupta, succeeded his father as ruler of the Gupta empire, and is considered the last of the great Gupta rulers. ● Gupta Empire at its peak, covered 21 kingdoms both inside and outside Indian subcontinent ● Gupta age was an age of “scholarship”. Some of the most prominent scholars of the era include Vatsyayana, Vishnu Sharma, Varahamihira, Kalidasa and Aryabhatta. ● Ayodhya, Nasik and Pataliputra became famous for their educational centers. ● Takshila and Nalanda were the two universities that were established during the Gupta Empire. ● The world famous Ajanta Paintings happened during the Gupta Empire. ● Gupta Empire existed about 230 years from AD 320 to AD 550. ● During Guptas,the socio-economic situation of shudras improved very much. ● The most negative drawback of Gupta period was that the position of women in society deteriorated the most. It believed the first Sati was occurred during this time only. ● Gold coins and silver coins were used as currency. Gold coins were called Dinars and Silver coins were referred as Rupyakas ● Sanskrit language reached its glory during this time, raised to pedestals of the court language. Conti... Gupta and Post-Gupta Age 65 ● The Chinese pilgrim Fa-Hien visited during the reign of Chandragupta II. ● Notable temples of the era are Dashavatara Temple of Deogarh, Vishnu Temple of Tigawa, Parvati Temple of Nachna Kuthara, Dhammekh Temple of Sarnath. Gandhara and Mathura were the two main centers of Sculptures. ● Ramayana and Mahabharata reached their peak in this time, in their popularity. ● Puranas and Smritis were developed in Gupta era. ● The administrative work was undertaken by a Board of Advisors, consisting of four members representing the various important sections, namely ♦ The ‘Nagarsresthis,’ were the chief of the guild of traders and bankers. They represented the guilds in particular and the urban population in general. ♦ The ‘Sarthavaha,’ were the head of guild of traders and represented the various trading communities. ♦ The ‘Prathamakulika’ (the chief of artisan) represented various artisan classes. ♦ The ‘Prathamakayastha’ might have represented the government official like the Chief Secretary of the present day. This body was known as ‘Adhisthanadhikarana.’ ● Each city administration had a council body.The village administration was under the control of rural bodies consisting of a headman and the village elders. ● During Gupta period, there was a remarkable growth of the local self-governing institutions such as the village committees and district committees. ● Inscriptions and literature records describe the existence of local bodies since the very early period. They describe about the nature and the activities of these local bodies and testify to the most wonderful organization that the ancient Indian had evolved. ● Two New classes of officers were introduced by the Guptas, namely 1. Sandhivigrahika: He was the minister of peace and war i.e. modern foreign minister 2. Kumaramatyas: He was a body of top ranking officials attached not only to the king, but also to the crown-prince, and sometimes placed as in-charge of districts. ● Ayuktas were another important official, they were same as Yuktas mentioned in the Ashokan inscriptions and in Kautilya's Arthasastra. ● During the Gupta period, many known officials – such as Mahapratihara, Mahabaladhikrita, and Mahadandanayaka, etc. used their title prefixed with ‘Maha.’ The powers of all these officials and officers emanated from the king. Gupta rulers assumed several titles such as ‘Maharajadhiraja,’ ‘Parambhattaraka,’ ‘Parmesvara,’ etc. ● In Allahabad pillar inscription, Samudragupta is described as equal to the Gods Indra, Varuna, Kuvera, and Varna and also as a ‘God dwelling on the earth’. Such titles were used by the rulers of foreign origin such as the Greeks, or the Kushanas, but never by a king of an Indian origin. ● Guptas were the first who adopted high sounding titles in the history of India. Literature of this period mentions the ideals of the popular government of the period. The Smritis explain that "the ruler has been made by Brahma, a servant of the people, getting his revenue as remuneration". ● During the Gupta’s period, the powers of the king were more restricted and he was advised to rule with the help of ministers and to respect the decision of guilds and corporate bodies. ● The Gupta kings are usually represented on their coins. They have been described as an excellent and unrivalled chariot warriors and horsemen. In the early history of India, Gupta period is considered as a landmark in the field of administration of law and justice. The legal literature, developed during this period, reflects a distinct advancement in the legal system. ● Lawmakers drew a clear line between civil and criminal law for the first time during the Gupta period. The Brihaspatismriti 66 Master Series : Ancient India ● ● ● ● enumerates eighteen titles of land and adds that fourteen of these have their origin in property (Dhanamula) and four in injury (Himsamula). During the Gupta period, the land became private property that could be sold for money. Detailed law about partition, sale, mortgage, and lease of land were mentioned in the lawbooks and in the inscriptions of this period. Kautilya’s Arthashastra enumerated a bigger list of taxes than those were found in the Gupta inscriptions.The burden of taxation was decreased in Gupta period because of the prosperity of state. Land taxes were collected both in cash and kind. It was varying from one-fourth to onesixth of the produce. Special officers are mentioned in the inscriptions to make proper records of assessment and collection of revenues, land transactions, etc. Literature of Gupta Period ● Gupta period was considered as the golden phase of Indian literature. The wonderful literature was produced in prose, poetry, drama, and grammar. It is the noticeable product of the system of education and learning. The Puranas and Smiritis The Puranas preserved the traditions, legends, moral codes, religious, and philosophical principles. They are eighteen in number. The Smritis are metrical texts containing the rules and regulations and laws for the guidance and governance of the society. Smritis are based on dharmasutras and grihyasutras of Vedic literature. They are written in verse. Some additions and alterations have been done to make Smritis suitable to the changing conditions of society. The commentaries on the Smritis were written after the Gupta period. The compilation of Ramayana and Mahabharata was completed by the 4th century AD. ● Kalidas has written the best works in poetry, drama as well as in prose. His kavyas such as Meghaduta, Raghuvamsa, and Kumarasambhava, and dramas such as Abhijnashakuntalam are the best literary works of this time and it is considered as the best even today. These works have been translated into many languages. ● Kalidas adorned the court of Chandragupta-II, the king of Ujjayini, who was popular as Vikramaditya. Inscriptions as Source of Gupta Literature A few inscriptions of the period are: 1. The Allahabad pillar inscription composed by Harisen; 2. Mandsor inscription composed by Vatsabhatt; and 3. Junagarh rock inscription, Mehrauli Pillar inscription, Aihole inscription composed by Ravikriti. ● These all inscriptions (listed above) consist mostly of the characteristic features of Sanskrit kavyas. ● The most notable in the field of drama were Bhasa, Sudraka, Kalidas, and Bhavabhuti. ● Mrichchakatika (written by Sudraka), is considered one of the best plays of ancient India. This play is about the love of a Brahman with the beautiful daughter of a courtesan. ● Vishakhadatta had written two plays, namely Mudrarakshasa and Devichandraguptam. ● Famous plays written by Kalidas are Malavikagnimitram, Abhijnanashakuntalam, and Vikramorvasiyam. ● Uttararama-charita and Malati-Madhava were written by Bhavabhuti. ● Panchatantra, written by Vishnu Sharma, is one of the most famous works of the period. It was translated into Persian and Arabic in the 8th century AD and has been translated into almost all European languages now.The popular work Hitopadesa is based on the Panchatantra. ● Harshacharita is the biography of Harsha written by Banabhatta. It is an outstanding work of the period.The development of Sanskrit grammar (based on Panini and Patanjali) was also seen in this period. ● Bhartrihari composed three Shatakas. He had Gupta and Post-Gupta Age 67 ● ● ● ● ● ● ● also written a commentary on the Mahabhasya of Patanjali. The compilation of the Amarakosha by Amarasimha is memorable work of this period. Amarasimha was a popular personality in the court of Chandragupta II. The Prakrit was popular language of the Gupta period (as it was earlier). The Svetambara Jain canon have been written in Ardha-Magadhi Prakrit. The religious texts of the Digambara Jain (of south India) were written in the Maharashtri and Sauraseni Prakrits. The commentaries on Buddhist texts were written in Pali. ‘Prakritaprakasha’ written by Vararuchi and ‘Prakritalakshana’ written by Chanda are the well-known grammar works on Prakrit and Pali language. ‘Katyayanaprakarna’ is a Pali grammar book. Description of Gupta Age – Through Foreigners ● Fa-Hien, the Chinese pilgrim with four other monks, came to India during the reign of Chandragupta II. Fa-Hien came to India through land route via central Asia and Kashmir and travelled across north India. Fa-Hien stayed three years at Patliputra and here he learned the Sanskrit language. Fa-Hien was interested only in Buddhism; however he gave an idea of general peace and welfare during Gupta’s court. ● Hiuen-Tsang, another Chinese traveller, visited India during Harsha's reign. He spent thirteen years in India, in which eight years, he stayed in Harsha's kingdom. HiuenTsang had studied at Nalanda University. He visited various Indian kingdoms and mentioned about their conditions. His book “Si-yu-ki” is a precious source of ancient Indian history. Hiuen-Tsang was honoured by Harshavardhana of Kanauj and Bhaskarvarma of Assam. ● I-tsing, a Chinese traveler, came to India via sea route. He spent many years in Sumatra and Sri Vijaya and learned Buddhism. I-tsing stayed at Nalanda for ten years and studied and translated Buddhist texts. I-tsing compiled a Sanskrit-Chinese dictionary and translated a number of Sanskrit texts. I-tsing mentioned about Buddhist religion as practised in India. He gave a detailed account of Buddhism and general condition of India and Malaya. Economy During Gupta Period ● India had developed an advanced system of agriculture, industry, and trade long before the rise of the imperial Guptas. The economic stability and prosperity facilitates all-round cultural progress made during this period. ● The agriculture system was well developed and scientific methods were used to increase agricultural production. The Amarakosha and the Brihat Samhita contain special chapters on the study of plants and gardens, forest, crops, manure, etc. ● Various branches of industry had developed because of the abundance of raw materials and the skill and enterprise of the artisans and the craftsmen. ● The literary works also describe a large variety of clothing such as cotton, silk, wool, and linen. Hiuen-Tsang described the classification of Indian clothing materials under the heads as – silk, cotton, linen, wool, and goat hair. ● Amarakosha mentions various terms used for the finer and coarser varieties of cloth as well as for unbleached and bleached silk. Ajanta wall paintings also exposed different techniques of weaving. The major centres of textiles production were Banaras, Mathura, Dashapura, and Kamarupa. ● The Mandsor inscription gives detail about the guilds of silk weaver and corporate activities of the period. Ivory work flourished during Guptas. A seal found in the excavation at Bhita reveals about the guilds of ivory workers. ● The leather industry also flourished during Guptas. Leather boots and shoes were shown in the contemporary sculptures and paintings. ● The art of the jewelery was in the advanced condition. The Brihat Samhita describes twenty-two jewels. Jewels were used at this 68 Master Series : Ancient India ● ● ● ● ● ● period for a large variety of purposes. Ratna pariksha mentioned the science of testing gems. Technical sciences were utilised for the manufacture of metals. Vatsyayana mentions about Ruparatnapariksha, Dhatuveda, and Maniragakarajnanam i.e., testing of precious stones, the smelting of metals, and the technology of jewels accordingly. Hiuen-Tsang also mentioned that brass, gold, and silver were produced in abundance. The Mehrauli iron pillar (of Gupta period) is the best example of metal workmanships. The seals, gold, and silver coins of this period also reflect the advance stage of the metal industry. The ship building industry was also well developed in Gupta period that facilitated trade and communication activities. Smritis described in detail the laws of partnership, contract, right and duties of the individual members of the guild, and structure of guild that corroborated by contemporary literature and inscriptions. The seals and inscriptions mention about the legends Sreshthi-kulika-nigama and Sreshthisarthavaha-kulika-nigama. These permanent endowments reveal the function of the guilds in the capacity of banks as well as confirm their stable position in terms of business stability. Public works were undertaken and executed by the state as well as by the guilds.The repairs of Sudarshana lake dam and the connected irrigation canal in the province of Saurashtra were carried out by provincial governor Parnadatta and his son Chakrapalita during the rule of Skandagupta. Trade and Commerce During Guptas ● Trade was carried on both through the land as well as the coastal routes. India had trade relations with both the eastern and the western countries. ● India maintained regular maritime relations with Sri Lanka, Persia, Arabia, Byzantine Empire, Africa, and even further west. India also developed commercial relations with China, Burma, and South East Asia. ● The important trade items were silk, spices of various kind, textiles, metals, ivory, sea produce, etc. Some important sea ports of the Gupta period were: 1. Tamralipti 2. Arikamedu 3. Kaveripattnam 4. Barbaricum 5. Muziris 6. Pratishthana 7. Sopara and 8. Brighukachchha. ● All these ports (enumerated above) were well connected through inland routes from all parts of India. ● According to Fa-Hien, people of the 'Middle Kingdom' were prosperous and happy in the beginning of the 5th century, and he also mentions the similar account of prosperity and peace in India.People were maintaining a high standard of living and were enjoying the luxury of the town life. ● The land grants were given to Brahmans, temples, viharas, mathas to run the educational institutions and other social welfare activities. The tradition of land grants for the charitable purposes continued into the medieval period as well. These were known as Madad-i-mash, Suyarghal, etc. Science and Technology During Gupta Period ● India had much advanced knowledge in the fields of mathematics, astronomy, and medicine during this period in comparison to any other country in the world. ● Arabs borrowed Indian knowledge of science and technology then it was taken by the western world from them. ● The mathematics and astronomy originated in Vedic period itself.Aryabhata, a great mathematics, wrote the book ‘Aryabhatiya’ in Kusumpura (Pataliputra) at the age of 23 years. ● Aryabhatiya is divided into four parts and the most important features of Aryabhata's Gupta and Post-Gupta Age 69 ● ● ● ● ● mathematical system was the unique system of notation. It is based on the decimal placevalue system unknown to other ancient people. Aryabhata explained various principals of geometry, an area of a triangle, the area of circle and the theorem relating to rectangles. Brahmagupta was also a famous mathematician. He wrote ‘Brahmsiddhanta’ in AD 628. He developed rules for operating with negative qualities and with zero. He began to apply Algebra to astronomical problems. Jyotisa was an ancient term used for astronomy and astrology. Varahamihira wrote ‘Panchasiddhantika’ in AD 505. He was á popular person in the court of Chandragupta II. Panchasiddhantika consisted five works (siddhantas), which is popular as Paitamaha, Romaka, Paulisa, Vasishtha, and Surya. The Suryasiddhanta is the most important and complete work on the astronomy works of the period. Varahamihira wrote Brihatsamhita. This is considered as an encyclopedic work on astrology.Varahamihira's son, Prithuyashas also wrote a book on astronomy in about AD 600, named as Harashatpanchashika. Advances in Medicine ● Ayurveda, literally means ‘science of longevity.’ This is the name of Indian medical sciences. It originated during the Vedic period. ● Vedic literature, particularly, Atharvanaveda consisted of more than seven hundred hymns on the topics related to Ayurveda. ● Hastayurveda is a guide book that describes (elaborately) the ‘animal diseases’ particularly about elephants. ● Asvasastra was written by sage Salihotra. It is a treatise on the horse. Practice of Metallurgy ● Chemistry was another science that developed along with the medicine that helped in the development of metallurgy. ● Nagarjuna, the great Mahayanist, was also genus in chemistry. ● The Mehrauli iron pillar is a living memorial of this period. It portrays the progress in metallurgy achieved 1,500 years ago by the Indians. It has been surviving without rusting since its establishment (i.e. for over 1,500 years). Art and Architecture During Guptas ● The economic prosperity of the country during the Gupta period led to all-round development in the field of sculptural art, architecture, and painting. ● In the Deccan, rock-cut caves were excavated. There are nine caves at Udaygiri near Vidisha. These are partly rock-cut and partly stone-built. ● Ajanta caves were built on the new line of architecture by the great beauty of their pillars of varied design and size and the fine paintings with which the inner wall and ceiling are decorated. ● Ellora’s rock-cut monasteries and chaitya halls are other piece of architecture. The Brahmanical, Buddhist, and Jain caves portray the final phase of development. ● Monasteries and stupas were also built during this period. These Monasteries were also the famous centers of education. ● The famous education centres were at Bodhgaya, Sarnatha, Kusinagara, Srayasti, Kanchi, and Nalanda. ● The Nalanda University grew into the most prestigious establishment during the 5th century AD. ● Hiuen-Tsang mentioned in detail about the great temples, monasteries, and library buildings of Nalanda mahavihara. ● Dharmarajaratha at Mamallapuram is the earliest examples of the rock-cut temples of Dravidian styles. ● The structural temples at Kanchi, known as Kailasanatha and Vaikuntha Perumal were all built by the Allava Kings. ● Kailash temple is a magnificent monolithic temple with a spacious hall and finely carved pillars. It was carved into a block of hill. ● The seven monolithic temples and number of pillared halls at Mamallapuram were carved by the Pallava kings Mahendravarman and Narasimhavarman in the 7th century AD. ● These monolithic temples were popularly called as ‘Rathas.’ These massive structural temples were completely cut outs of rock. 70 Master Series : Ancient India Styles of Architecture, North and South ● Style – a second storey (Vimana - South Indian style ) ● Nagara Style – Shikhara (North Indian style) ● Vesara Style – Mixed North and South Indian style. Society and Religion During Guptas ● The societal structure was basically the same as mentioned in the Hindu Dharmashastra. The period marked the revival of Hinduism under the patronage of the Gupta rulers. ● Brahmins were given land as in charity or kind known as Agrahar or brahmadeya which weakened the position of later Gupta rulers. ● Vaisyas community was most productive but had to pay most of the taxes. ● Remarkable impact of Ahimsa and vegetarianism on society. ● Shudras were mostly engaged in labour and crafts as well as agriculture. ● Even below shudras there were people who were untouchables and outcasts. ● Women were accorded lower status and their equality was greater inequalty. Polygamy was widely prevalent. ● Widow Remarriage was banned. Basic education was also denied to them. Sati system came into existence as information obtained from “Eran Inscription” of MP in 510 AD. ● Devadasi systemwas also in vogue during this period. Post Gupta Age The decline of Gupta dynasty after AD 550 triggered the process of political fragmentation in Indian subcontinent. Feudatories and other smaller kingdoms start detaching themselves from the main and powerful Gupta Empire. Due to all this, a competition and rivalry had gained momentum for supremacy and from the decline of Gupta’s and the rise of Harsha four major kingdoms flourished in North India. 1. Guptas of Magadha 2. Maukharis of Kanauj 3. Maitrakas of Valabhi (Saurashtra) and 4. Pushyabhutis of Thaneswar. The above four kingdoms (enlisted above) were in copetition with each other to succeed to the past glory of the Guptas. Guptas of Magadha ● The Guptas of Magadha were different from the main imperial Gupta dynasty. It was a minor dynasty of Magadha. It could not be determined whether they were connected in any way with the imperial Guptas. But some of the kings of this Gupta family were very powerful and ruled up to as far as the Brahmaputra River. Maukharis ● The Maukharis occupied the region of western Uttar Pradesh around Kanauj. They captured a part of Magadha. Isanavarman and his son Sarvavarman were powerful Maukhari kings. They have adopted the title of “Maharajadhiraja.” Isanavarman successfully restrained the Hunas who had once again attempted to move towards the heart of India. Maitraka ● The Maitraka clan founded a kingdom in Saurashtra in the west. They made their capital at Valabhi. Valabhi developed as a seat of learning and culture along with a centre of trade and commerce. The Maitrakas survived the longest, and ruled until the middle of the 8th century. However, they were defeated by the Arabs. Pushyabhutis ● The Pushyabhutis of Thaneswar was the fourth Kingdom. It was destined to play a distinguished part in Indian history.The Pushyabhuti family became known after the Huna invasion. Prabhakarvardhana became a powerful king of this kingdom. He played an important role in the history of India. Prabhakarvardhana assumed the title of ‘Paramabhattaraka Maharajadhiraja.’ Banabhatta described Prabhakarvardhana as “a lion to the Huna deer, a burning fever to the king of Sindhu, a troubler of sleep of Gurjara king, a bilious fever to that scent-elephant, the lord of Gandhara, a destroyer of the skill of the Latas, an axe to the creeper, which is the goddess of fortune of Malwa." Gupta and Post-Gupta Age 71 ● Prabhakarvardhana’s sovereign kingdom was extended to the whole of Punjab in the northwest and part of Malwa in the south.There was a Huna invasion in the last phase of Prabhakarvardhana’s rule. Prabhakarvardhana had two sons, Rajyavardhana and Harshavardhana and a daughter Rajyasri. He married his daughter to the Maukhari king Grahavarman. ● Prabhakaravardhana had been rapidly extending the boundaries of his kingdom towards the west and south. During this period, two powerful kingdoms were established in Bengal and Assam. Gaudas ● In about AD 525, one independent kingdom was established in Bengal. Gauda kingdom comprise western and northern parts of Bengal. They declared their independence; however, the Maukharis defeated them.Sasanka became the king of Gauda kingdom about half a century later. He founded his capital at Karnasuvarna (near Murshidabad). He occupied the whole of Bengal. He captured Orissa and then advanced towards Kanauj in the west against the Maukharis. ● The Maukhari king Grahavarman was married to Rajyasri, daughter of Prabhakaravardhana. This marriage alliance strengthened the position of the two families. Sasanka (Gauda), with the help of Malwa king, invaded Kanauj after the death of Prabhakaravardhana. The King Grahavarman of Kanauj, was killed and the queen Rajyasri was thrown into prison. ● Hearing the news of Kanauj defeat, Rajyavardhana (brother of Harsha) started campaign to suppress the kings of Gauda and Malwa. But he was deceitfully killed by Sasanka.Rajyavardhana was killed by Gauda king Sasanka. Harshavardhana (younger brother of Rajyavardhana) was ascended the Pushyabhuti throne in AD. 606 at the age of sixteen. He was also known as ‘Siladitya.’ He ruled for forty-one years.After Grahavarman's death, the Councilors of Maukhari state offered the throne to Harsha. Harsha ● History of the Harsha period is welldocumented by Banabhatta. He was a poet and he had written ‘Harshacharita.’ It is a detailed account of the events of the reign of Harsha. ● Hiuen Tsang (the Chinese pilgrim) also had written in great detail about Harsha and India (of Harsha's time). ● Harsha proceeded towards the east against Sasanka with a view to avenge the death of his brother, Rajyavardhana and brother-inlaw, Grahavarman. (Refer Fig. 5.2) ● Harsha did not get success in his first expedition against Gauda. But after the death of Sasanka, in his second expedition, he conquered Magadha and Sasanka's empire. Gauda kingdom was divided between Harsha and Bhaskaravarman. Bhaskaravarman was the king of Kamarupa. He was an ally of Harsha against Gauda Kingdom. ● Harsh was successful in his military enterprise, and conquered a large part of the northern India. Harsha also launched a campaign to extend his empire beyond the Narmada, but he failed to do so.Aihole inscription mentions that Harsha was defeated by Pulakesin-II (Pulakesin-II was a Chalukya king of Badami). Hiuen-Tsang also mentioned that Harsha could not defeat the Chalukya king. ● Harsha's empire was extended from the Punjab to northern Orissa and from Himalayas to the banks of Narmada. Harsh made military coalition with Dhruvabhatta II, the Maitraka king of Valabhi and Bhaskaravarman, the king of kings, Kamarupa.Harsha earned an undying reputation in the history of India for his peaceful activities as described by HiuenTsang and by his biographer Banabhatta. ● Harsha, as a great emperor, was a great patron of learning. He was himself a talented author. He wrote three Sanskrit plays, namely Nagananda, Ratnavali, and Priyadarsika. Banabhatta had written Harshacharita and Kadambari. He was a learned poet. ● Harsha was an efficient administrator. He personally looked into the affairs of the state, and constantly travelled over different parts of his empire to see things with his own eyes. He was also a tolerant king. He was a Saiva by faith; however, he give equal respect to other religious sects as well. Hiuen Tsang describes him as a liberal Buddhist who also honoured gods of others sects. 72 Master Series : Ancient India Fig. 5.2. The Harsha Period ● Harsh’s charitable acts benefitted all the communities, sects, and religions. Harsha built rest houses, hospitals, and endowed numerous Brahmanical, Buddhist, and Jain establishments. ● The two most celebrated events of Harsha's reign were the assemblies at Kanauj and at Prayaga. The Kanauj assembly was held in honor of Hiuen-Tsang for whom he had great affection and regard.Kanauj assembly was attended by 24,000 Buddhist monks, and about 3,000 Jains and Brahmans. ● After the ceremony at Kanuaj, Harsha along with Hiuen-Tsang went to Prayaga (Allahabad), at the confluence of the rivers Ganga, Yamuna, and Saraswati. Here he used to celebrate religious festivals at the end of every five years. ● Harsha performed the ceremony of ‘dana’ (donation), which lasted for about three months. During these three months, he donated all his accumulated wealth of five years. He even gave his clothes and jewelry and once begged from his sister an ordinary garment to put on. ● Harsha attended six such assemblies at Prayaga in his life time and donated all he had. In AD 641, Harsha sent an embassy with Hiuen-Tsang to the Chinese emperor and received the Chinese embassy in return. Harsha did not have any heir to his throne. Therefore, after his death in AD 647, his empire was grabbed by his minister. Gupta and Post-Gupta Age 73 Limitations of Harsha ● Harsha failed to wipeout proto feudal forces because of this these centrifugal elements emerged with much greater strength immediately after Harsha’s death in AD 647. ● Harsha failed to reverse the ongoing process of economic decline. The process of De-Urbanization gained momentum during Harsha’s reign and he could do nothing to stop it. The literary references and archaeological evidences have confirmed that cities like Kaushambi were abandoned in 7th Century AD. ● The socio-cultural life was also marked by downhill trend. The feudal values were becoming dominant; evils like child marriage and sati were wide-spread. The status of Vaishyas and women declined sharply. South India Kingdom ● The Satavahana’s rule ended in the first half of the 3rd century AD from Deccan and south India. In the second half of the 3rd century AD, the Vakatakas came into power. However, much is not known about the founder of the Vakatakas dynasty. ● Pravarasena was the (known) founder of the Vakataka Empire in western and central India. Vindhyasakti was the father of Pravarasena. He played an important role in establishing Vakataka Empire. ● Pravarasena is the only Vakataka ruler to whom the title ‘Samrat’ was accorded. He performed ‘Vajapeya’ and four ‘Ashvamedhayajnas.’ ● The successors of Pravarsena divided the Vakataka Empire into two parts. The main branch was known as Vatsagulma branch. ● Chandragupta II raised the importance of the Vakatakas as a political power in western and central Deccan. He married his daughter Prabhavati Gupta into the Vakataka family. ● After this matrimonial alliance, the Vakatakas and the Guptas remained friendly for a longtime. Kingdoms of Eastern, Central and South India After the Vakatakas, three major kingdoms (listed below) dominated the Deccan and south India for about 300 years. Fig. 5.3. The Western and Southern Kingdoms 74 Master Series : Ancient India 1. Chalukyas of Badami, 2. Pallavas of Kanchipuram, and 3. Pandyas of Madurai. ● The Vakatakas in the Deccan were followed by the Chalukyas of Badami. The Chalukyas develop their bases at Vatapi or Badami and Aihole. They moved northwards and captured the areas around Nasik and the upper Godavari region. ● Pulakesin II was the greatest king of ‘Chalukya dynasty.’ He ruled from AD 610 to 642. Pulakesin II was the contemporary of Harshavardhana of Kanauj.The Aihole inscription mentioned the detailed account of Pulakesin II‘s victories as well as early history of the Chalukyas. This inscription was composed by Ravikirti. ● Vishnuvardhan, son of Pulakesin II, founded the eastern branch of the Chalukyas with its capital first at Pishtapuri. Later Vengi developed as a capital of the east Chalukyas kingdom.This branch remained independent of the main western branch and exercised uninterrupted authority over the kingdom up to the 12th century. ● The Rashtrakutas succeeded the Chalukyas of Badami and built a vast empire in the Deccan. Dantidurga I was the first known ruler of the Rashtrakuta dynasty. He defeated the Chalukyas and conquered Badami in AD 752. The Chalukyas and the Pallavas were contemporaries of the Gangas and the Kadambas in the Deccan. ● The Western Gangas were distinguished from the eastern Gangas of Kalinga. The Chalukyas and the Pallavas were ruled over a large part of modern Mysore.This region was called after them as Gangavadi. ● Konkanivarman Dharmamahadhiraja was the founder. He ruled in the second half of the 4th century AD and had his capital at Kolar. He ruled independently from AD 350-550. Durvinita was a prominent Ganga king. He was a scholar of Kannada and Sanskrit literature. ● Sripurusha was another important ruler of (western Ganga) dynasty. He shifted his capital to Manyapura (Manne near Bangalore). His kingdom was known as Srirajya on account of its prosperity. Kadamba Dynasty ● Mayurasharma established the Kadamba dynasty. He was a learned Brahman. It is said that Mayurasharma came to receive education at Kanchi, but he was insulted by some Pallava officials. To avenge his insult, he took up a military profession, defeated Pallava officials and then Pallavas recognized the independence of Mayursharma. ● The Mayurasharma ruled from Banavasi from A.D. 345 to 365. Kakusthavarman (A.D. 435-455) was the most powerful king and administrator of the Kadamba dynasty. Kakusthavarman established matrimonial relations with the Gangas and the Guptas (dynasties). He also extended his territory. (Refer Fig. 5.4) ● After the death of Kakusthavarman, the Kadamba family split into two branches. One of the branches continued to rule from Banavasi and the other branch ruled from Triparvata.Krishnavarma-I, the ruler from Triparvata, united the family. But around AD 540, the Chalukyas of Badami defeated the Kadambas and captured their kingdom. ● In the southern Peninsula, three dynasties namely the Pallavas, Pandyas, and the Cholas were the major powers during this period. Pallavas ● The Pallavas became prominent after the fall of Satavahanas from the 3rd century until the rise of Cholas in the 9th century AD. However, the origin of Pallava is under debate.The Pallava kings were divided into two groups namely the early Pallavas and greater Pallavas. ● The Tamil and Sanskrit inscriptions tell about the early Pallavas. It is mentioned that they performed sacrifices and ruled over a wellorganized territory that covered the northern part of the peninsula extending from the eastern sea to the western sea. Simhavishnu Gupta and Post-Gupta Age 75 Fig. 5.4. The Kadamba Dynasty was the famous Pallava king ruling in the 6th century A.D. He increased the influence and prestige of his family. ● Simhavishnu’s son and successor Mahendravarman I (AD 600-630) was a versatile genius. He was both a poet and a singer. Mahendravarman I composed a play ‘Mattavilas Prahasana’ (the Delight of the Drunkards) in Sanskrit. During this period, the practice of scooping entire temples out of solid rock was introduced. ● The ‘Rathas’ of Mahabalipuram are fine examples of rock cutting temple. Mahendravarman I was the contemporary of the Chalukya king, Pulakesin II and Harshavardhan of Kanauj. During this period, Pulakesin II had struggled with Harsha on the one hand and with Mahendravarman-I on the other. In both Pulakesin II emerged victorious. ● Pulakesin II captured the northern provinces of Pallava’s kingdom after defeating Mahendravarman I. Later on, Pulakesin II was defeated by Narsimhavarman. He was son and successor of Mahendravarman I. Narasimhavarman ● ● ● ● conquered Badami and adopted the title of ‘Vatapikonda.’ Narasimhavarman had also defeated the Cholas, the Cheras, the Pandyas, and the Kalabhas. Narasimhavarman gave political refuge to a Ceylonese prince Manavarman and sent two naval expeditions to Ceylon to help him to secure the throne again. Narasimhavarman was one of the most powerful rulers of south India and raised the power and prestige of the Pallavas as far as Ceylon and South East Asia.Narasimhavarman-II ruled peacefully during the AD 695-722. During this period, a particular style of temple architecture was developed. This is popularly known as the ‘Dravidian’ style of temple architecture. Pallavas faced attacks from the Chalukya king Vikramaditya II (AD 733-745) during the first half of the 8th century. He is said to have overrun Kanchi thrice.The Pallavas had also been condemned of Pandyas and Rashtrakutas during the reign of Dantivarman (around AD 796-840). 76 Master Series : Ancient India ● Because of the continuous struggles, the power of the Pallavas began to decline.The Pallavas were succeeded by the Cholas. They also developed as the greatest imperial power in the south. They had influence over Ceylon and the South East Asian countries. Kamarupa ● The modern Assam was known as Kamarupa and Pragjotish during the ancient times. Pragjotish was the capital of Kamarupa. The Allahabad inscription of Samudragupta mentioned about the Davaka kingdom as the border state along with Kamarupa in this region. The kingdom of Kamarupa was extended up to northern and western Bengal, and bordering lands of China as well as Davaka. This region was ruled by a single dynasty from the time of Mahabharata up to the middle of the 7th century, till Bhaskaravarma. (Refer Fig. 5.5) ● The Kamarupa dynasty claims its descent from the Asura Naraka. This Kamarupa dynasty is also known as ‘Bhauma’ (i. e. the son of Bhumi). Asura Naraka had a son namely Bhagadatta who had taken part in the Mahabharata War. ● The inscriptions of the dynasty proved that the king Bhagadatta and his successors ruled for about 3,000 years in Kamarupa prior to king Pushyavarma. The king Pushyavarma was a contemporary of Samudragupta. The 8th king, Bhutivarma had ruled in the middle of the 6th century is known for his own records.The time period of the first king Pushyavarma had been fixed A.D. 350 approximately. He had acknowledged the supremacy of Samudragupta. Pushyavarma assumed the title of ‘Maharajadhiraja’ and the ‘lord of Pragjotish’ as mentioned in the Nalanda seal. ● The 7th king, Narayanavarma, performed horse sacrifices, which shows that he become independent of the Gupta Empire during the first half of the 6th century.The 8th king Bhutivarma or Mahabhutivarma was a powerful king. He ruled in the middle of the 6th century AD. Kamarupa became a powerful kingdom during the reign of Bhutivarma. ● During Bhutivarma’s reign Kamrupa included the whole of the Brahmaputra valley and Sylhet and extended upto the Karatoya River in the west. It remained to be the traditional boundary of Kamarupa for a long time. Fig. 5.5. The Kamarupa Dynasty Gupta and Post-Gupta Age 77 ● Chandramukhavarma, son of Bhutivarma, was not so known. However, his son Sthitavarma (grandson of Bhutivarma) had performed a horse sacrifice. The king Susthitavarma mentioned in the Aphsada inscription of the later Gupta King Adityasen. Mahasenagupta had defeated Susthitavarma on the banks of river Lauhitya (Brahmaputra). ● Sasanka may be identified with the same Gauda king who defeated and imprisoned Supratisthitavarma and Bhaskaravarma soon after the death of their father Susthitavarma. Supratishthitavarma had not yet ascended the throne. Both of them managed to escape from the prison of the Gauda king and Supratishthitavarma ruled for a short period. His brother, Bhaskaravarma, succeeded him. Bhaskaravarma Bhaskaravarma had been described in Harshacharita of Banabhatta. He was an ally of the king Harshavardhana.Bhaskaravarma sent his ambassador Hamsavega with presents to have a coalition with Harsha. ● The king of Kamarupa had been earlier defeated and imprisoned along with his elder brother by the king of Gauda. Therefore, this coalition was a good diplomatic move by the king of Kamarupa. ● Rajyavardhana, the elder brother of Harsh was killed deceitfully by the same king of Gauda and Harsha had declared to destroy them. Therefore, this was a coalition between the two kings against their common enemy. ● Banabhatta’s account has disturbed the chronological sequence of the events and therefore some confusion has cropped up about the history of the time. The coalition force of Harsha and Bhaskaravarma defeated the Sasanka, king of Bengal and as a result of this Bhaskaravarma succeeded in occupying a large portion of Bengal. ● Hiuen-Tsang mentioned in his account that Bhaskaravarma had great influence over the Buddhist monastery of Nalanda. Hiuen-Tsang mentioned that King Bhaskaravarma sent a messenger to Silabhadra, the head of Nalanda monastery, to send the 'great pilgrim from China' to him. But this request was compiled only after a threat. ● On the invitation, Hiuen-Tsang visited Kamarupa and stayed there for about a month. Thereafter, Harsha demanded from the king of Kamarupa to send back the Chinese pilgrim to his court. This also complied after a threat to Bhaskaravarma. ● Bhaskaravarma met Harsha in person along with Hiuen-Tsang at Kajangala. Bhaskaravarma also attended the great religious assembly called by Harsha at Kanauj and Prayaga. Hiuen-Tsang’s account shows that Bhaskaravarma had control over north Bengal and also had influence over Nalanda in Bihar. After the death of Bhaskaravarma, this ancient dynasty came to an end. ● Later on, the Kamarupa kingdom was occupied by a Mlechchha ruler named Salastambha. Names of a few successors of Salastambha are known, but no details are available about them. India after Harsha Harsha died in the mid of 7th century AD (AD 647). Delhi Sultanate founded in the 12th century AD. The intervening period span was of 600 years and evidenced an array events. Major Events of 600 Years After Harsha 1. The rise of important kingdoms in eastern, central, and southern India. 2. The cultural traditions of these kingdoms remained stable even though they often fought among themselves. 3. The economy, social structure, ideas, and beliefs were hardly changed rather followed the previous system. The changes in these fields had taken place more gradually than the changes in political structure. 4. The spread of Muslim rule over the major part of northern India at the end of 12th century. 78 Master Series : Ancient India Yashovarman ● Kanauj became the seat of power in north India since the days of Maukharis equally as Pataliputra (Patna) enjoyed before. HiuenTsang described Kanauj as a prosperous center of Buddhism along with Hinduism. Kanauj was a well-fortified city extending about four miles on the bank of the Ganges. ● Kanauj lost its status as the capital city after the death of Harsha. But during Yashovarman time (i.e. in the beginning of the 8th century AD) Kanauj became a centre of power again in north India. ● Yashovarman ruled over a huge empire, which included almost the whole of northern India. Gaudavaho written by Vakpatiraja, is a kavya literature, which describes the victory of king Yashovarman over Bengal. Yashovarman sent an embassy to China in AD 731. Famous dramatist Bhavabhuti and famous poet Vakpatiraja adorned his court. Malati-Madhava, Uttara Rama-charita, and Mahavira-charita all were written by Bhavabhuti. Yashovarman ruled till about AD 740. ● Kanauj, from the 6th century AD till the period of Mohammad Ghori, in 1194 AD, played an important role in the history of the north India. Gurjara Pratiharas ● The early history of Gurjara Pratiharas is not known. Historians believe that after the Gupta period, Gurjara Pratiharas came to India from the central Asian region and settled in Rajasthan. Gradually, they gained political importance. ● The bardic tradition of Rajasthan claims that the Gurjara Pratiharas, Chalukyas, Parmaras, and Chahmanas were born out of a yajna done at Mount Abu. Therefore, these four dynasties are also known as agnikulas (fire-clans). ● The four dynasties of Rajputs were created for the protection of the country from external aggressions. The literary meaning of Pratihara is ‘door keeper.’ It is believed that their ancestor Lakshmana served as a door keeper to his brother Rama. Therefore, they were called as Pratihara. The geographical name of Gujarat is supposed to be derived from Gurjara. Rulers of Gurjara Pratiharas ● The Gwalior inscription mentioned the early history of the family. The inscription was founded by King Bhoja in the 7th century. He was the most famous king of the Gurjara Pratiharas dynasty. ● Nagabhatta I was the real founder of the fame of family. He defeated the Muslim forces from the Arabs. ● During AD 775-800, Vatsaraja followed an aggressive imperial policy. He defeated Pala king Dharmapala of Bengal. The Rashtrakuta king Dhruva defeated Vatsaraja and took away the political benefit of the defeat of Pala king. Dharmapala took advantage of the defeat of Vatsaraja and installed his own nominee Chakrayudba on the throne of Kanauj. ● Vatsaraja’s son, Nagabhatta II (AD 815) made an alliance with Andhra, Vidharbha, and Kalinga. He made extensive preparation to fight against his rivals. Nagabhatta II first defeated Chakrayudha and captured Kanauj. Then he defeated Dharmapala and fought with Govinda III, the Rashtrakuta king. Nagabhatta also defeated Sultan Vega who was the son of the governor of Sind under the Caliph l Mamun. Nagabhatta II was succeeded by his son Ramabhadra. Ramabhadra was succeeded by his son Bhoja I about AD 836. ● Bhoja I restored the falling prosperities and reputation of his dynasty. A golden opportunity to the king Bhoja I was provided by the death of Devapala of Bengal and Rashtrakuta's invasion of Bengal thereafter. The Rashtrakuta king, Krishna II was involved in the struggle with the Eastern Chalukyas. Bhoja I defeated Krishna II and captured the region of Malwa and Gujarat. After victory over two great rivals, Bhoja I founded his sovereignty over the Punjab, Avadh, and other territories of north India and consolidated his empire. Gupta and Post-Gupta Age 79 ● Bhoja I was a devotee of Vishnu, and adopted the title of ‘Adivaraha.’ It has been inscribed in some of his coins. He is also known by other names as 'Mihir', 'Prabhasa,' etc.Bhoja-I was succeeded by his son Mahendrapala-I about AD 885. ● Mahendrapala-I also extended the boundaries of his empire. During his reign, the Pratihara Empire stretched almost from the Himalayas in the north to the Vindhyas in the south and from Bengal in the east to Gujarat in the west.Mahendrapala I was also known as 'Mahendrayudha', and 'Nirbhayanarendra.' He was a liberal patron of learned men. ● Rajashehara was learned man of his court. He had written Karpuramanjari, BalaRamayana, Bala Bharata, Kavyamimansa, Bhuvana Kosha, and Haravilasa. The Pratiharas dynasty dominated north India for over two hundred years from the 8th century to the 10th century AD. ● Arab scholar, Al-Masudi, visited India in AD 915-916. Al-Masudi mentioned about the great powers and prestige of the Pratihara rulers and the vastness of their empire. Al-Masudi says that empire of AI-Juzr (Gurjara) had 1,800,000 villages, the cities and rural areas were about 2,000 km in length and 2,000 km in breadth. ● The Rashtrakuta king, Indra II again attacked Kanauj between AD 915 and AD 918 and completely destroyed it. This weakened the Pratihara Empire. ● Krishna III was other Rashtrakuta ruler invaded north India in about AD 963. He defeated the Pratihara rulers. This led to decline of Pratihara Empire. ● The Pratiharas were patrons of learning and literature.Rajashekhar (Sanskrit poet) lived at the court of Mahendrapala I. The Pratihara kings were followers of Hinduism. They build with many fine buildings and temples at Kanauj. ● The epigraphic records show that the building of temples and the educational institutions attached with them, formed community projects, in which the entire village community participated. ● Many Indian scholars went to the court of the Caliph at Baghdad along with embassies. However, the names of the Indian kings are not known who sent these embassies. This interaction between India and Arab led to the spread of Indian culture, literature, and science, especially mathematics, algebra, and medicine to the Arab world from where these were further transmitted to Europe. ● Although the Pratiharas were well known for their aggression to the Arab rulers of Sindh. Despite all this, the movement of scholars and trade between India and west Asia remained uninterrupted. Palas ● After the death of Harsha and up to the rise of the Palas, the history of Bengal is not clear. During this time, West Bengal was known as Gauda and East Bengal as Vanga. Bengal was subject to internal disorder, which has been termed as Matsyanyaya. ● Gopala was the elected king by the people in a revolution to end the Matsyanyaya. The history of Gopala’s early life is not known. Gopala introduced peace in the kingdom and laid the foundation for the Pala dynasty. ● Dharmapala became ruler after Gopala in about AD 780. He undertakes the expansion of his empire. Dharmapala defeated Indrayudha, the king of Kanauj and installed his nominee Chakrayudha to the throne of Kanauj.Dharmapala held a grand darbar at Kanauj, which was attended by several kings. However, he could not consolidate his position. ● Rashtrakuta king, Dhruva defeated Dharmapala near Monghyr (Bihar) in a battle. Meanwhile Nagabhatta II, Pratihara king became more powerful. After Dharmapala, his son Devapala became the ruler. He was the mightiest Pala king. He conquered – Pragjotishpur (Assam) and Utkala (Orissa). ● The Palas dynasty ruled over Bihar, Bengal, and parts of Orissa and Assam with many ups and downs for over four centuries. Arab merchant Sulaiman testifies their power. He calls 80 Master Series : Ancient India the Pala kingdom Ruhma (or Dharma), short for Dharmapala. Sulaiman mentioned that the Pala rulers were at war with their neighbors – the Pratiharas and the Rashtrakutas, but his troops were more in number than his adversaries. Sulaiman also mentioned that ‘it was usual for the Pala king to be accompanied by a force of 50,000 elephants.’ ● The Tibetan chronicles also provide detailed information about the Palas dynasties. According to Tibetan historians, Pala rulers were great patrons of Buddhist learning and religion. Dharmapala founded the famous Buddhist monastery at Vikramashila. It became eminent as Nalanda (in fame). During Pala reign, Nalanda University became famous all over the world. During the Pala’s reign, Nalanda had more than 10,000 students and teachers coming not only from different parts of India, but also from central Asia, China, South East Asia, and Sri Lanka. ● Nalanda University was considered as one of the biggest educational institutions of its time. It imparted education in various branches of knowledge. Dharmapala donated the royal income from two hundred surrounding villages to meet the expenses of Nalanda University. Devapala also donated income from five villages. ● The king of Suvarnadvipa (modern Malaya Peninsula, Java and Sumatra), Maharaja Balaputradeva erected a monastery in Nalanda and requested Devapala to donate five villages for the maintenance of that monastery. ● The Pala kings patronized Hinduism as well. Vinayakapala built one thousand temples in honour of the Lord Saiva. They also gave donations to Brahmans to settle in their country and run gurukuls. The powerful Sailendra dynasty of South East Asia sent many embassies to the Pala kings. They ruled over Malaya, Java, Sumatra, and neighboring islands. ● The Palas had close trade contacts and cultural links with South East Asia and China. The trade with South East Asia and China was very profitable and added greatly to the prosperity of the Pala Empire. Rashtrakutas ● The Pala kings ruled in the eastern India, the Pratiharas ruled in the north India, and Rashtrakutas ruled in the Deccan.The term ‘Rashtrakuts’ literarily means officers in-charge of territorial divisions (known as Rashtras). The Rashtrakuts were the officers of Rashtra (province) under the early Chalukyas of Badami. ● Dantivarman or Dantidurga was the founder of the Rashtrakuts dynasty. He made his capital at Manyakhet or Malkhed near modern Sholapur. Dantivarman was succeeded by his uncle Krishna I about AD 758. Krishna I extended his kingdom from Maharashtra to Karnataka. ● Dhruva became king in about AD 779. It was the opening of a new era in the history of Rashtrakutas. Dhruva was the first Rashtrakuta ruler from Deccan who had intervene in the tripartite struggle of supremacy in north India. He had defeated two powers of the North India i.e the Pratihara king Vatsaraja and the Pala king Dharmapala of Bengal. Dhruva added the emblem of Ganga and Yamuna to his imperial emblem after his successful campaigns in north India. ● Dhruva was succeeded by Govinda III (AD 793-813). Govinda III also made invasions into north India and fought successfully against the Pala king Dharmapala and Chakrayudha the ruler of Kanauj. Govinda III shattered the union of the Ganga, Chera, Pandya, and Pallava rulers in south India. ● Govind III was succeeded by his son Amoghavarsha I (AD 814-878). Amoghavarsha I had been ruled for 60 years. He is better known for his leanings towards religion and literature. Amoghavarsha supported Jainism. He was a patron of literature and patronized as the men of letter. Amoghavarsha wrote Kavirajamarga. It was earliest Kannada work on poetics. Amoghavarsha was a great builder. He built the capital city Manyakhet. ● The successor of Amoghavarsha were Indra III (AD 915-927) and Krishna III (939- 965). Both were the great Rashtrakuta rulers. Indra Gupta and Post-Gupta Age 81 III had defeated the Pratihara king Mahipala I and ransacked his capital Kanauj.Arab traveler, Al-Masudi, calls the Rashtrakuta king as the greatest king of India. ● Krishna III was the last famous king of Rashtrakuta. He struggled against the Paramaras of Malwa and eastern Chalukya of Vengi.Krishna III also struggled against the Chola ruler of Tanjore. He reached up to Rameshwaram and built a pillar of victory and a temple there. ● The dominance of the Rashtrakutas in the Deccan is the remarkable period in the history of India. Rashtrakuta ruled more than three hundred years. They patronized Saivism and Vaishnavism. In addition, they also protected Jainism, Buddhism, and Islam.The Rashtrakuta rulers permitted the Muslim merchants to settle in their kingdom, build mosques, and preach their religion. Rashtrakuta rulers equally support Sanskrit, Prakrit, and Kannada along with Apabhramsa languages. Rock-cut cave temples excavated at Ellora are the symbols of Rashtrakuta’s religious toleration. They are one of the splendors of Indian arts.The Kailash temple was built by the Rashtrakuta king Krishna I. It is a supreme piece of art. The Tripartite Struggle There were three great powers in India in the early phase of 8th century AD, namely 1. The Gurjara Pratihara in the north, 2. The Palas in the east, and 3. The Rasthrakutas in the Deccan. Fig. 5.6. The Tripartite Struggle 82 Master Series : Ancient India ● The tripartite struggle for the supremacy between the Palas, the Gurjara Pratiharas, and the Rashtrakutas was the important event of these centuries. The main cause of this struggle was the desire to possess the city of Kanauj, which was then a symbol of sovereignty. And, some other cause of this struggle was to have control over the intermediate fertile regions. ● The shifting of the power among these three was determined both by the internal strength of the respective region and the inability of the rulers to extend their control beyond their respective regions for a longer duration.All of the three dynasties (enlisted above) were having more or less same military equipment, administrative machinery, and the strategic concepts.The Arab travelers also affirmed that these three powers were equal in strength. ● Because of the balance of power, there was a great political stability within the regions, which nurtured the development of culture and education. ● The first encounter took place among the Pratihara king Vatsaraja, the Pala king Dharmapala, and Rashtrakuta king Dhruva.Rashtrakutas achieved a complete victory in the first phase. But the unfortunate death of Dhruva was a great set back to Rashtrakutas. ● Pala king Devapala (AD 821-860) was the most prominent in the second phase because his contemporary Pratihara and Rashtrakuta kings were weak rulers. ● Pratihara kings Bhoja (AD 836-885) and Mahendrapala (AD 885-910) proved to be more powerful in the third phase (during the 9th century). ● Each of the three kingdoms Pratiharas, Pala, and Rashtrakutas declined almost simultaneously around the end of the 10th century AD. The end of these three dynasties marked the end of the glorious era of more than 300 years. Literature of the period post–Harsha ● Sanskrit remained the main language of the literature. Pali and Prakrit were used for writing the Buddhist and Jain religious literature. ● Vakapati's Gaudavaho was the biography of Yashovarman of Kanauj. It was the last major work in the older tradition of Prakrit. Apabhramsha represented the last stage of Prakrit languages. This was considered as an important development in the field of literature because the modern languages, such as Hindi, Gujarati, Marathi, and Bangla have all evolved from it.A number of kavyas with great significance constitutes a special feature of this period. ● The Ramacharita of Sandhyakara Nandi written during the reign of king Mahipal of the Pala kingdom, represents both the story of Rama and the life of king Ramapala of Bengal. The Raghavaphandavija of Dhananjaya Shrutokriti describes the stories of the Ramayana and the Mahabharata at the same time. The marriage of Siva and Parvati; and Krishna and Rukmini are described in the Parvati-Rukminiya written by Vidyamadhava. Vidyamadhava was the court poet of the Chalukya king Somadeva. ● Hemachandra composed a work entitled as Saptasandhana (having seven alternative interpretations). The style of writing in the intricate patterns of double, triple or even more meanings is found in the literature of this period. Shatarthakavya written by Somaprabhacharya, is an example of literary climax in which every verse was meant for being interpreted in a hundred ways. Jaina Literature A large number of Jaina narratives dealing with the lives of Jain teachers were composed during the period. The significant of them are 1. Adinathacharita by Vardhamana 2. Shantinathacharita by Devachandra 3. Prithvichandracharita by Shantisuri 4. Parshvanathacharita by Devabhadra 5. Kuarapalacharita and Neminathacharita by Hemachandra 6. Sukumalachariu by Shrihara 7. Neminathacharita by Haribhadra Gupta and Post-Gupta Age 83 Other Literary Works of the Period ● The Neminathacharita by Haribhadra and Sukumalachariu by Shrihara have been entirely written in Apabhramsa. ● Rajatarangini, written by Kalhana, is the most remarkable historical texts in the kavya form. It is the only known attempt to write history in the modern sense. ● Rajendra Karnapura is a eulogy of king Harsha of Kashmir written by Shambu. Other literary works of this category are: 1. Prithviraja Vijay of Jayanka 2. Dvayashraya Mahakavya by Hemachandra 3. Kirtikaumndi by Someshvara 4. Vikramankadevacharita of Bilhana 5. Navasahasankacharita of Padmagupta 6. Kirti Kaumudi by Somadeva The most important among the treatises were the poetic works. Some such works are: 1. Kavyamimamsa by Rajashekhara 2. Dasharupa by Dhananjaya 3. Saraswati Kanthabharana by Bhoja 4. Kavyanushasana of Hemachandra 5. Kavikanthabharana by Kshemendra The famous work in the field of prose literature are: 1. Brihatkathamanjari by Kshemendra 2. Kathasaritasagara by Somadeva 3. Kathakoshaprakarana by Jineshvara Suri The famous dramas are: 1. Lalitavigraharaja nataka by Somadeva, 2. Harikeli nataka by Visaladeva 3. Prasannaraghava by Jayadeva 4. Karnasundari by Bilhana 5. Abhidhana Chintamani, Deshinamamala, Anekarthasamgraha, Nighantushesha, all written by Hemachandra. ● The famous mathematician Bhaskaracharya also belonged to the 12th century AD. Siddhanta-Shiromani, comprises in four parts, namely Lilavati, Vijaganita, Grahaganita, and Gola. Gola deals with astronomy. Siddhanta Shiromani propounded the principle of ‘Perpetual Motion.’ It was transmitted by Islam about AD 1200 to Europe. This led to the development of the concept of power technology. ● Rajmariganka is the work on astronomy written by King Bhoja of Paramara dynasty. ● Madhava wrote several works on medicine. Nidana or Riguimshchana is his best known work on Pathalogy. It was translated into Arabic under the guidance of Harunal Rashid. Chikitsa Kutamudgara and Yogavyakhya were also written by Madhava. ● Chikitsakalika or Yoga-mala written by Vagabhata II's son Tisata. Yogaratnasamuchchhaya was written by Chandratha. He was the son of Tisata. Brinda of Bengal wrote his Siddhayoga between AD 975 and 1,000. Some commentaries compiled during this period are: 1. Krityakalpataru written by Lakshmidhara 2. Chaturvarga Chintamani written by Hemadri 3. Mitakasara written by Vijnaneshvara 4. Dayabhaga (Law of inheritance) written by Jimutavahana 5. Vyavaharamatrika and Kalaviveka Manuvritti by Govindaraja 6. Smrityarthasara written by Shridhara 7. A commentary on the Yajnavalkyasmriti written by Apararka 8. A commentary on the Yajnavalkyasmriti was also written by Vijnaneshvara 9. Smritichandrika written by Devanna Bhatta are other outstanding creations of this period. Important works on polity are: 1. Nitishastra written by Mathara 2. Nitisara written by Kamandaka 3. Nitivakyamrita by Somadeva suri Society During Post–Harsha Period Two important trends continuing in society since the 7th century AD and onwards were: 1. The continuity of the assimilation of foreign elements, and 2. The segregation of jati system. 84 Master Series : Ancient India The Caste System ● There were four original Varnas with several jatis, which were further subdivided into numerous subsections.Law of this period accepted birth, profession, and residence as the deciding factor in the determination of jati system. ● By the time, Brahmans came to be identified by their gotra, ancestor, and branch of Vedic learning, original home, and village. The Kshatriyas also multiplied as a result of the assimilation of foreigners and other local people. Two important factors that raise the number of mixed jatis were: 1. Transformation of a specific profession into jati, and 2. Increasing phenomenon of hypergamous unions between different jatis. ● Jatis were also formed on the basis of religious sects such as Lingayats, Virasaivas, Svetambaras, and Digambaras, etc. ● Chandalas were the most important representatives of Antyajatis, which were the lowest of all Jatis. ● The traditional professions related to four ‘Varnas’ were not rigorously followed during this period. ● There were Brahmans, who did not habitually confine their activity to studying, teaching, worshipping, and the performance of priestly functions. Vaisya Brahman lived by engaging himself in agriculture and trade.Sudra Brahman sells lac, salt, milk, ghee, honey etc. ● The Kshatriyas, Vaisyas, and Sudras deviated from their traditional professions and formed several mixed castes. ● Kayasthas was an important class emerged as a jati during this period. Kayasthas were engaged as clerks of the administration, they were responsible for writing documents and maintaining records.Kayasthas emerges from the Mauryan period itself, but by the 7th century, they came to be regarded as distinct jati. ● The marriages were often arranged by parents or other guardians of the parties and sometimes girls chose their husbands. But generally, in marriage old rules as mentioned in the Smritis were followed. ● New ideas and practices regarding the remarriages were also seen. The words like ‘punarbhu’ and ‘didhishu’ were frequently used in the literature. This means, remarriage of a woman was permitted. ● The women's right to inherit property was accepted by the authorities. The widow was entitled to succeed to the whole estate of her issueless and/or deceased husband. Economy During Post–Harsha Period ● The literary and inscriptional evidences of the post–Harsha period illustrate the advanced state of agriculture, trade, and economy. Agriculture ● Medhatithi (who was is one of the oldest and most famous commentators on the Manusmriti) included a group of seventeen articles in the category of grain (dhanya). ● Abhidhanaratnamala mentioned the scientific knowledge of agriculture. A large variety of cereals and other food grains with their synonyms are mentioned. ● Classification of soil as fertile, barren, fallow desert, excellent as well as those green with grass or abounding in needs are also mentioned along with the types of soil such as black or yellow soil. ● Different kinds of fields were selected for different classes of crops.Irrigation by the arahata (Persian wheel) and by leather buckets is mentioned.The inscriptions show that the Persian wheel was present in India much prior to the arrival of Muslim rulers. ● It is mentioned by Medhatithi that the agriculturist should be expected to know about what seed was to be sown thickly and what sparsely, what soil was fit for a particular kind of seed and what soil was not so fit, and what harvest was expected from a special variety of seed. Textile During Post-Harsha Period ● Textile was the oldest industry. The progress of Gupta period continued during this period. A number of variety and qualities of textiles Gupta and Post-Gupta Age 85 such as woolen and hempen yarns, garments made of silk, deer's hair, and sheep and goats’ wool are find mentioned in the contemporary literature. ● The contemporary literature of this period also mentioned about the professions of weavers, dyers, and the tailors. Metal Industry – Use of Metals ● Various metals namely copper, brass, iron, lead, tin, silver, and gold were used during this period. Some centers of metal industry were developed, for example, Saurashtra for bell industry and Vanga for the tin industry were known. Trade and Commerce ● Indian, Chinese, and Arab sources mentioned the flow of trade between east and west through India. ● The Arab traveler, Ibn Khordadbah in the end of the 9th century, mentioned about Indian exports consisting of diverse products including sandal wood, camphor, and camphor water, nutmeg, clove pink, coconut, precious, and semiprecious stones, pearls, fisheries, textiles of cotton, and silk and variety of metal products. ● The best breeds of horses were imported from central and western Asia. Foreign merchants were gradually settled in India. They were attracted by the prosperity of coastal towns of Gujarat, Malabar, and Tamil. ● Arab geographers mentioned some of the India ports located on the west coast namely Debal (in Indus delta), Cambay Jhana, Sopara, and Quilon. The Arab travellers gave descriptive details about the prosperity of Sailendra kings. He established political, cultural, and economic relations with Indian kings. ● The guilds continued to play an important part as in the previous centuries. Medhatithi mentions about both the industrial and mercantile guilds. Guilds consisted of people following common profession such as tradesmen, artisans, money lenders, etc. ● South Indian inscriptions mention about the working of two famous trading corporations. Manigramam was the first trading corporations. It was known since the 9th century to the 13th century. It carried on in the coastal as well as inland towns of south India. Art and Architecture During Post– Harsh Period ● This phase was undoubtedly a fruitful age for the art and architecture, which are apparent from the numerous temples standing for the 1,200 years. These temples are among the most beautiful structures of that era and famous for their styles of architecture. ● Bhubaneshwar temple of Orissa is an excellent example of the Nagar style or north Indian style. ● The great Lingaraja temple of Bhubaneshwar and Sun temple of Konark are the monumental examples of architecture. Fig. 5.7 Lingaraja Temple of Bhubaneshwar ● Khajuraho temples in Bundelkhand are excellent Nagar style temples built by the Chandelas. They were built on raised plinth and known for their carving and erotic sculptures. Fi.g. 5.8. Khajuraho temples in Bundelkhand ● Kandarya Mahadeva temple is another example of excellent architecture. ● The Sun temple in Kashmir, also called as the Martanda temple was built by Lalitaditya Muktapida around the 8th century AD, It is the best example of Kashmir style of architecture. 86 Master Series : Ancient India ● The Jains temples generally have the octagonal dome and are decorated with subjects drawn from the Jain mythology. ● The famous temples of Dilwara (Mt. Abu) and Satrunjaya (Palitana) are the best examples of Jain architecture. These temples are famous for their elegant carvings and rich design. ● 57 feet high Jainis sculpture of Gommatesvara at Sravanabelagola in Hasan, Mysore is one of the largest free standing images in the world. ● In the Deccan, the temples of Vatapi (Badami) and Pattadakal (Bijapur) are stylistically different. Further, Hoysalesvara temples (Halebid), though are incomplete, but distinct for its structural and decorative features. ● Pallavas built several temples in south India. Important among them are Dalavanur temple at (Arcot district) Pallavaram, Vallam (in Chinglepeet district), and Rathas. ● The Kailash temple at Ellora is an example of solid rock temple, dedicated to Siva. It was excavated during the reign of Krishna I of the Rashtrakuta dynasty. It is one of the architectural marvels of this period. Fig.5.9. Kailash Temple, Ellora ● Meenakshi temple of Madurai is the specimen of the Dravidian style of temples. Fig. 5.10. Meenakshi temple of Madurai ● The older tradition of wall painting continued to be used to decorate the walls of temples and palaces. Religious Activities Harsha Period During Post– ● The fundamental features of religion characterized during the previous period continued during this period. Buddhism and Jainism developed some similarity with Saivism and Vaishnavism on theistic tendencies. ● Buddhism witnessed deprivity of pure Hinayana and Mahayana Buddhism during this period. Buddha's teachings, which were earlier free from rituals gradually gave way to new ethical and devotional attitude in which Buddha had begun to be worshiped as a god.This worship became more elaborate with devotional songs accompanied by rites and ceremonies. ● Vajrayana Buddhism (the vehicle of thunderbolt) shows the influence of Tantric ideas on Buddhism. Kanchi was the great center of Buddhism in south India. The Chola kings also gave donations to Buddhists. ● During this period, Buddhism began to decline because: 1. It did not get the royal patronage; 2. Attacks on monasteries and killing of monks resulted in migration of Buddhists from eastern India; and 3. The coming of Islam ● Jainism gained popularity among the trading classes in north and west India.It received extensive royal patronage in south India. It was honored by the Gangas, Chalukyas, and by Rastrakuta rulers in the Deccan. Jain doctrines of the four gi fts (learning, food, medicine, and shelter) helped to make Jainism popular among the people. ● Hinduism became popular in the forms of Saivism and Vaishnavism. In Vaishnavism, the incarnation of Vishnu became more popular. The most popular incarnation was Krishna. Krishna and Radha were worshiped and their love was interpreted as attachment of the human soul for the universal soul. Gupta and Post-Gupta Age 87 ● Alvars, in the south, represented the emotional side of Tamilian Vaishnavism. Acharyas represented the intellectual and philosophical sides of Vaishnavism. ● Saivism attained a dominant position in the society. The main principles remained the same, though there were local variations and consequent doctrinal differences. ● The bhakti movement became popular during the 9th and 10th century AD. The bhakti movement led by Nayanars (Saiva saint) and Alvars (Vaishnav saint) spread all over the country. Lingayats or Virasaivas were another popular movement spread in south India during this time. Tantricism ● Tantricism had originated in the 6th century, but became popular from the 8th century onwards. It was very popular in north eastern India and Tibet. Some of its rituals came from the Tibetan practices. ● Tantricism was open to all castes as well as to women. It is propagated that Tantricism is the simplification of the Vedic worships.Tantric practice centered on prayers, mystical formulae, magical diagrams, and symbols and the worship of a particular deity. ● Mother image was accorded great worship, as the life is created in the mother's womb. In this way, it is connected with the Sakti worships.The guru had the highest place in Tantricism. Philosophical Ideas of Post–Harsha Period ● Sankara was the greatest intellectuals and philosophers of this period. He was also known as Adi-Sankaracharya. Sankara took ● ● ● ● birth in the family of Yajurvedin Brahman in Kerala around AD 788. His father Shivaguru died when he was only three years old. At the early age of 8 years, Sankara chose an ascetic life. He studied at Kasi and he died at the early age of 32. The philosophy of Sankara is known as ‘Advaita’ meaning 'non-dual'. He believed that absolute reality is called Brahma is nondual. Sankara upheld the Vedas as the source of true knowledge and written many works, for example 1. Brahmasutra-bhashya, 2. Commentaries on the Upanishads, and 3. Commentaries on Bhagavad-Gita Sankara organized the ten branches of Advaita school of Saivism known as Dashanamis.Sankara founded four mathas in the four corners of the country for the purpose of better interaction, namely 1. Badrinath in the north; 2. Sharadapitha at Dvaravati (Dwaraka) in the west; 3. Govardhanamatha at Puri in the east; and 4. Shringeriinatha in the south Each matha had presiding deities called ‘Gotra’. Ramanuja, who was a Tamil Brahman, was a great philosopher and intellectual. He was born at Tirupati around AD 1017. Ramanuja disagreed with Sankara on the idea of knowledge being the primary means of salvation. He assimilates Bhakti to the custom of Vedas.Ramanuja tried to build a bridge between the bhakti and the knowledge of Vedas. 88 Master Series : Ancient India Ancient India Master Exercise 5 MCQs for Preliminary Examination 1. 2. A majority of the Gupta emperors patronised: 3. Which of the following is the most appropriate statement about the Gupta period? (a) The internal trade expanded around India. The Gupta period stands at the centre of Indian history. Discuss the development of arts and literature in Gupta period in the light of this statement. 4. Discuss the salient features of the Gupta art and how it differs from the Mauryan art. (b) The position of King was elevated. 5. (c) The position of women of all classes deteriorated. How far it is correct to say that Harsha was a Great Ruler? 6. Harsha was himself great but he has been made greatest by the writings of Hiuen Tsang and Bana Bhatta. Critically Examine this statement. 7. Harsha is described as lord of whole of North India. Determine extent of his empire and discuss his political relations with Shashank, Bhaskarvarman and Pulkesin II. 8. Harsha combined in himself the qualities of both Ashoka and Samudragupta. Do you think so? Why? 9. Trace the development of religion in the PostGupta Age. (a) Buddhism (b) Jainism (c) Vaishnavism (d) Shaivism (d) The number of people with claims on a single piece of land increased. 3. Which of the following is not truly matched? (a) Varahamihira – Brihatsamhita (b) Aryabhata – Suryasiddhanta (c) Kalidasa – Raghuvansha (d) Bhartrihari – Malavikagnimitram 4. 5. Which of the Universities flourished during the time of Guptas? (a) Takshila (b) Nalanda (c) Both (d) None Which of the following are reasons for the decline of Gupta Empire? 1. Attacks of Huns 2. The decline in revenues 3. The reaction against Brahmanical excesses 4. Subinfeudation Choose the correct answer from the codes given below. (a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1, 3 and 4 (c) 1, 2 and 4 (d) 2, 3 and 4 Subjective type questions for Main Examination 1. Discuss the factors responsible for the rise and fall of Gupta Empire. 2. Describe the expansion of the Gupta Empire under Samudragupta with the help of the Prayag Prashasti. 10. Trace the development of Art and Architecture in the Post-Gupta Age. 11. The battle for Kanauj invariably weakened India. How far do you agree with the statement? 12. Trace the development of Kamrupa Dynasty. 13. How far the Pallava Art and Architecture were different from the Rashtrakutas? 14. Was Gupta period a really golden age in Indian history? Substatiate your answer. 15. The Gupta Empire could never reach the level of centralisation attained by the Mauryan Empire. Elucidate. 16. The Gupta period was the time when the Modern Hindu religion started taking its shape. Examine. 17. Examine the policies of the Gupta state which led to the disintegration of the Kingdom. Answers to MCQs 1. (c) 2. (d) 3. (d) 4. (b) 5. (c) Rise of Heterodox Sects 89 ANCIENT INDIA MASTER SERIES UNIT 6 Rise of Heterodox Sects JAINISM AND BUDDHISM “The Era of Intellectual Revolution” Sixth century BC was the age of intellectual revolution in Indian history, during this period 62 heterodox sects emerged,prominent amongst them are Buddhism and Jainism. The emergence of these sects marked the beginning of new phase in Indian socio cultural history. These heterodox sects were response and reaction to the limitation of Brahmanical order, because by 6th century BC the simple, liberal and progressive Vedic socio-religious system had got replaced by a complex and rigid Brahmanical order, which were characterized by costly, complex and elaborate rituals and ceremonies. Reasons for the emergence of Heterodox Sects 1. The Brahmanical religious system was characterized by complex, costly rituals and ceremonies was very much demanding, and the wasteful expenditure of resources, whereas groups involved in secondary economic activities wanted to invest their resources for economic progress. This contradiction between Brahmanical ideas and needs of people forced the masses to look for new religion, free from rituals and ceremonies.This urge played an important role in the rise of heterodox sects like Buddhism and Jainism. 2. Brahmanical order was against the practice of Usury (lending money at high rate), but it was a necessity for new economy emerging in 6th century BC. 3. The Brahmanical religion was emphasizing on killing animals in rituals and ceremonies, whereas peasants wanted to use their Bull in agriculture activities. By this time agriculture expansion had taken place and hence animal power required to pull the plough and carts, etc. 4. Sixth Century BC was the age of 2nd urbanization but Brahmins were against community (group eating houses). Without such facilities urban life can’t sustain and because of this, growing urban population was looking for new religion that could appreciate their needs. 5. The progress in secondary economic activities had resulted in economically rich class of merchants, traders, artisans and craftsmen. This class was aspiring for higher status in the society. By 6th century BC there was hardly any social mobility because in Brahmanical system the status of individual was based on Birth. These dis-satisfied groups had started looking for new socio-religious systems in which they could have higher status. Rise of Various Heterodox Sects (600-300 BC) A. Niyativada ● It was established by Nanda Vachcha, second religious chief was Kisa Sankichcha and third chief was Makhaki Gosala (Real founder who popularized it). The followers of the sect were known as Ajivikas/Sudra Sanyasins. The philosophy of the sect is based on Niyati (Destiny) which means everything in this world is pre-determined. It denied the theory of Karma – did not believe in human efforts. It held that all creatures were helpless against destiny. 90 Master Series : Ancient India ● Makhali Gosala was a companion of Mahavira and the sect had lot in common with Jainism. It practiced complete nudity and rigorous practices. It flourished during the Mauryan age and prospered till AD 1400 in parts of eastern Mysore and Madras. B. Materialism ● It was established by Brihaspati or Charvakas. The followers were known as Lokyatas or Charvakas. The word ‘Charvaka’ means one who believes in ‘eat, drink and make merry’. They are also known as Nastika Shiromani. ● They believed that nothing existed which could not be understood by five senses, and the earth, water, fire and air are the only elements. They believed that the death was ultimate and everything ended after death. There was no soul, no god, no rebirth, and no Karma. They believed in Pratyaksha, i.e; perceptions was the only means of valid knowledge and enjoyment should be the only aim of the life, by whatever means possible. It rejected the authority of Vedas and the only existing text of this philosophy is Tattvopapilavasimha of Layarshi Bhatt. C. Akriyavad/Antinomism ● The founder was Purana Kasyapa (Brahmin of Kasyapa gotra). They believed that soul was distinct from body, unaffected by anything that happened to the body-doctrine of nonaction. It believed that action did not lead to either merit or demerit. It merged with the Ajivikas. Sankhya school of philosophy emerged from it. D. Akrittavada/Asasvatavad/Anunada ● The founder was Pakuda Katyayana. The sect believed in the existence of seven Nikayas (elements) viz., earth, water, air, light, sorrow, happiness and life-these elements could not be created nor be destroyed. Life as per them was born out of these elements and would dissolve with these seven elements. Out of these seven elements, the four viz., earth, water, air and light were primary elements to which Katyayana added three more, viz. happiness, sorrow and life. It was merged with the Ajivikas. Vaisheshika School of philosophy emerged out of it. E. Anichchitvada ● The founder was Sanjay Veitiputta. The sect believed in the doctrine of ‘Not approval and nor denial’ of the existence of anything. It believed in the theory of uncertainty. F. Uchchedvada/Jarvada/ Annihilationism ● It was founded by Ajita Keshakamblin (Hairs like blanket). The sect believed in materialistic philosophy. He was the earliest propounder of materialism. He believed that all ended with death and there was no sin in doing anything and believed in the pleasure of the world. Charvaka/Lokyata Schools emerged from it. Six Systems of Philosophy A. Sankhya It is the oldest school of philosophy and was founded by Kapila. The earliest text is Sankhyakarika of Isavarakrsna (AD 400). It has been mentioned in Gita, and is atheistic in nature. It believed that the world was created by Prakriti (nature) and salvation was possible through real knowledge and isolation of soul from matter. Knowledge could be gained through perception, inference and hearing. It was dualistic in nature – admitted two entities, namely, matter and soul. It also believed in three constituents causing Sattva (virtue), Rajas (passion), and Yomas (dullness). B. Nyaya The founder was Akhapada Gautama and it was School of logic and analysis. As per the philosophy of the School, salvation could be attained through older thinking and logic. It recognized four sources of true knowledge – Pratayksha, Anumana, Upmana and Sabda. It does not mention God and basic texts related to School is Nyayasutra of Gautama. Kusumanjali of Udayancharya developed the philosophical principles of this school in AD 1200. Rise of Heterodox Sects 91 C. Yoga The founder was Patanjali and the main text is Yogasutras of Patanjali. It gave the concept of God as ‘exalted soul’. Salvation could be attained through meditation and physical training. The course of training is divided into eight stages. Bhagvad Gita is called as Yogasastra. Various forms of Yoga are – Rajyoga (Royal Yoga), Mantrayoga (Spells), Hathayoga (Force), and Layayoga (Dissolution). D. Vaisheshika The founder was Uluka Kannada (eater of atoms). Its doctrine was of atomism material objects are made up of atoms. It gave importance to Dravya (material elements). It believed that atoms were different from soul – a dualistic approach. Salvation depended on fully recognizing the atomic nature of the universe and its difference from the soul. It marks the beginning of Physics. It believed that the world originated from Anu, Parmanu, and Kana. ● ● E. Mimamsa Literally, it means art of reasoning and interpretation. The main text associated with it is Sutras of Jamini. It provides explanation of the Vedas and as per the philosophy, salvation is possible through performance of rituals. According to it, the Vedas are the eternal truth, and it advocates the ritual authority of the Brahamanas and the social hierarchy based on Brahmanism. Famous philosophers associated with the School are Sabaravamin and Kumarila Bhatt. ● ● F. Vedanta Literally, it means the end of the Vedas. Basic text associated with it is Brahmasutra of Badaryana (200 BC). It is associated with the philosophy of Upanishads and advocates the concept of Brahma as the only reality and views the whole world as unreal. It believed in the theory of Karma and Rebirth. Two lengthy commentaries have been written on it by Shankaracharya and Ramanuja. Vivekanand, Aurbindo Ghosh and S Radhakrishnan were Vedantists. It is also known as Uttar Mimasa. Buddhism Life of Buddha ● Siddhartha was born in 563 BC in a Shakya Kshatriya family in Lumbini near ● ● Kapilvastu (Nepal). He belonged to Shakya clan hence called “Shakyamuni” which means sage of Shakya clan. His father name was Shuddhodhana who was the chief of the Shakya clan. His mother name was Mahamaya or Mayadevi who was a princess of Koshlan dynasty; she died after seven days of his birth. Then he was raised by his foster mother Prajapati Gautami. Hence, he was known as Gautam Buddha. He was married to Yashodhara (Koliyan dynasty) and son Rahul was born to them. Despite having all luxuries he was in the search of complete bliss. Once while travelling, he witnessed four events: Old man, Sick man, Corpse and Ascetic. Hence noticed ascetic to be happier one and decided to leave all comforts and luxuries. At the age of 29 he left his home secretly in the middle of night with horse (kanthak) and charioteer (channa). This event of renouncing his palace in the middle of night is to known as “Mahabhinishkarman.” He wandered in the region of Magadha for 6 years and learned the meditation from Alara Kalma. At the age of 35 he got enlightenment at Bodhgaya under Pipal/Banyaan tree on the bank Niranjana River. Hence, he was called Buddha, who has got enlightenment. He delivered his first sermon at Deer Park in Sarnath. This event is called Dharamchakraprivartana which means setting in motion the wheel of law. His five disciples were Assaji, Moglana, sarriputta, Anada, Upali. He delivered most of his sermons at Shravasti. Four important events in the life of Buddha were Mahabhinishkarman, Nirvana, Chakra parivartana, Mahaparinirvana. He passed away at the age of 80 years in 483 BC at Kusinagar (UP). He died of food poisoning after having pork at the house of Chunda. After cremation his ashes were distributed among eight tribes. These ashes were kept in caskets and stupas were built over them, example: the Sanchi Stupa. 92 Master Series : Ancient India Teachings of Buddhism Budhhism teaches the Middle Path renouncing extreme step like indulgence and strict abstinence. The fundamental principles of Buddha’s teachings are represented by four noble truths: 1. The world is full of sorrow. 2. Desire is the root cause of all sorrow. 3. Sorrow can be conquered by conquering desire. 4. Desire can be conquered by following the eight-fold paths (Ashtangirka Marga). These eight-fold paths are as follows: 1. Right understanding 2. Right resolve 3. Right speech 4. Right action 5. Right living 6. Right efforts 7. Right thought 8. Right self-concentration. The Tri Ratnas of Buddhism also called as three jewels are: Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha. ● Buddha: The highest spiritual potential in every one. ● Dhamma: The teachings of Buddha (Pali for Sanskrit Dharma or righteousness) ● Sangha: Order of monks who follow Buddhism. Buddha did not believe in god or soul. He stressed on Karma and Ahimsa. He was against the Varna system. Buddha taught in Pali because that was the language of common masses. Buddhism spread to several countries outside India. China adopted Buddhism in the 1st century AD. Philosophy of Buddhism ● Doctrine of Karma is the essential part of the teachings of Buddha and Nirvana is the ultimate goal of life. He emphasized on the moral life of an individual and did not believed in the existence of the soul. He also emphasized on Ahimsa and advocated the observance of middle path, and to avoid luxurious life. He opposed the caste system, the Vedas and the Vedic rituals, as well as condemned sacrifices. ● He did not acknowledge a permanent existence of anything or an immortal soul. He believed in the philosophy of Paticca Samuppada, according to it there is chain of twelve causes and one produces the another – the first being ignorance and the twelfth being cycle of birth and death. The root cause of all desire is Anjana (ignorance). It is a religion without God and Soul–every object of the creation is mortal and short-lived. ● Nirvana is the ultimate goal of life – it is a state of supreme bliss, neither of being nor of annihilation – can be attained even when, still in body. As per him, the world is full of sorrow and man is unhappy – suffering is due to desire/craving – end of desire leads to Nirvana – band this can be achieved by following Eight-fold path. Provisions of the Membership of Buddhist Sect ● There was no caste restriction. Slaves, soldiers, debtors and other persons under obligation were not entitled to enter it without the permission of their superior. In a way, it protected the interests of the business class and shrenis (guilds). Criminals, lepers and persons affected by infectious diseases were not given admission into it. Novices were given entry from the age of eight, but, qualified for full membership at the minimum age of twenty. ● Buddha’s foster-mother Gautami became the first women to join the Sangha. On the repeated requests of the Chief disciple Ananda, she was admitted into the Sangha. ● During four months of the rainy season, the monks took up a fixed abode and meditated. The Sangha also promoted education among the people. It was governed by democratic principles and was empowered to enforce discipline among its members. It had powers to punish the erring members. The rites of admission were: 1. Putting on the three yellow or orange robes. 2. Ceremonial shaving of the head. 3. Pronouncing the Three Jewels and the Ten Precepts. Rise of Heterodox Sects 93 The 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Ten Precepts of Buddhism were: Not to harm living beings Not to take, what is not given Abstain from false speech Abstain from evil behavior Abstain from alcoholic drinks Abstain from eating at forbidden times Abstain from dancing/singing/music/dramatic performances 8. Abstain from use of jewellery/perfumes/ garlands 9. Abstain from receiving gold/silver 10. Abstain from use of high or broad bed Buddhist Literature ● Buddhist scriptures are Pitakas, which were written in Pali language, hence it is also called Pali Literature – Sutta Pitaka, Vinay Pittaka, Abhidhamma Pitaka are known as Tripitakas (three baskets) of Buddhism. These are the most important holy books of Buddhism. ● Sutta Pitaka consists of sermons and teachings of Buddha, Vinay Pitaka is the collection of rules governing the Sangha and monks (this book is also called as discipline book) and Abhidhamma Pitaka deals with philosophy and doctrine of Buddhism. ● Sutta Pitaka is divided into five groups (Nikayas). These are: (a) Digha (long) Nikaya: It is a collection of long sermons ascribed to Buddha with accounts of the circumstances in which he preached them. (b) Majjhima (medium) Nikaya: Shorter sermons (c) Samyutta (connected) Nikaya: Collection of brief pronouncements (d) Anguttar (graduated) Nikaya: Collection of over 2,000 brief statements arranged in eleven sections (e) Khuddaka (minor) Nikaya: Contains miscellaneous works in prose and verse. It contents are associated with Dhammapada (verses on virtues) – it contains the summary of Buddha’s Universal teachings, ● ● ● ● Theragatha (Hymns of the elder monks), Therigatha (Hymns of the elder Nuns) and Jatakas. Jataka Stories deals with the previous birth of Buddha, there are around 550 stories. It is in poem form and many of these poems about Buddha is in Animal form. Mahavamsa and Dipavamsa are the Ceylonese books. Ashoka sent his son and daughter to Sri Lanka to spread Buddhism. These books were written over there. Milindpanho is basically a question answer book, in which Bactrian King Menander asks questions and Buddhist monk Nagasena replied his queries. Buddha Charita is an epic style work by Ashvaghosa. Sects of Buddhism ● Sarvastivadin: It believed in the philosophy of constituent of phenomenon, i.e; phenomenon are not completely short-lived but exist forever in latent form. It was strong in the region of Mathura and the Kashmir. In Fourth Council, Sarvastivadin doctrines were codified in a summary- Mahavibhasa. Later, they were known as Vaibhashikas. ● Hinayana (Lesser Vehicle): It was an orthodox group which followed Buddha and his teachings strictly. It emphasized on the individual salvation. They worshipped Buddha through symbols, idol worship was not allowed. It became popular in Ceylon, Burma, Thailand, Combodia, Laos and in other countries, but lost popularity in India. Its minor sects include Sautantrikas and Sammittiya. It is associated with the concept of Sravakayana, Arhatayana and Pratyeka-Budhayana. This sect does not believe in soul and god. Salvation can be attained through self-discipline and meditation. Meditation puts emphasis on monastic and spiritual life. It adopted Pali as the language for teaching and texts. ● Mahayana (Greater Vehicle): It was a group with the broader outlook and followed the spirit of Buddha. They emphasized on the group salvation. They believed in semi divine identity called Boddhisattvas. They 94 Master Series : Ancient India started worshipping Buddha through idols. Kanishka was the patron of Mahayana sect of Buddhism. It had two chief philosophical Schools – Madhyamika and Yogacharya. It became popular in many parts of India and spread to Central Asia, China and Japan. It arose out of Mahasanghikas. It gave prominent place to Boddhisattavas, who were being of great kindness and helped the humanity through their own suffering. Sukhavati is considered as the Mahayana Heaven. It is also associated with concept of divine Buddha – Amitabha or Amida or Amitayas. Sanskrit became the official language of the sect. Buddhist scholars such as Asvaghosha, Asanga and Vashubandhu were Mahayanists. ● Vajrayana (Vehicle of Thunderbolt): It believed in super human powers, they had faith in miracles and tantras. It became popular in eastern India by 10th century AD. Palas were the last patrons of Vajrayana sect of Buddhism. As per the Sect beliefs, salvation could be attained by acquiring magical powers and the chief divinities were Taras, wives of Buddhas and Bodhisattavas. There were also a number of lesser divinities called by the names of demons, such as Matangis, Pisachis, Yoginis and Dakinis. Basically, it was Yogic and magical in character. ● Yogacharya/Vijnanavadin: It was founded by Maitreyanath around AD 400. The greatest exponents were Asanga and Vasubandhu besides Dignaga and Dharmkirti. It looks upon the world as an illusion – this illusion is the product of mind or consciousness – the entire world originates from a kind of cosmic consciousness. The only reality is Tathata/ Suchness/Thusness or Dharmadhatu which is equivalent to Sunyata of Madhyamika School. An important text is Sutralankara by Asanga. ● Madhyamika: It was founded by Nagarjuna/ Nagasena around AD 150. Aryadeva, the disciple of Nagarjuna was a great exponent of this School. It believed in the philosophy of Sunyavada/Sunyata/Void/Emptiness, as per it, everything around us is emptiness and whatever we perceive is just illusion. It is associated with the theory of Relativity, as per it, Samsara does not exist and Nirvana too is not real. ● Samitiyas: It rejected the doctrine of Soullessness and postulated existence of a kind of soul in the pudgalaor person, i.e; the soul passes from life to life. Buddhist Architecture (a) Stupas These are the semi dominical structure built by simply collecting the earth. Ashoka constructed the most important stupa at Sanchi (MP). (b) Chaityas These were the Buddhist temples constructed inside the caves, simply by cutting the cave. Example is Chaitya’s at Karle near Nasik (Maharashtra). (c) Vihara These are the buildings constructed where monks and nuns use to live. The first Vihara was erected by Kumargupta I at Nalanda, which was called Nalanda Mahavihar. Buddhist Councils ™ First Buddhist Council–5th century BC ● 483 BC, it was held right after the death of Buddha. ● First Buddhist council was held at Sattaparni caves Rajgriha. ● It was under the patronage of King Ajatashatru ● 1st Buddhist Council was presided by Monk Mahakasyapa. ● Purpose was to compile the Buddhist Scriptures. ● Sutta Piataka and Vinay Pitaka were compiled. Vinaya Pitaka was established under the leadership of Upali, while Sutta Pitaka was settled under the leadership of Ananda. ™ Second Buddhist Council–383 BC ● The second Buddhist council was held at Vaishali ● It was under the patronage of Kalasoka Rise of Heterodox Sects 95 ● 2nd Buddhist Council was presided by Sabakami ● The Motive of second Buddhist council was to settle the disagreements of different subdivisions, between the monks of Vaishali and Patliputra and monks of Kaushambi and Avatika regarding the code of discipline ● The Council failed to bring about a compromise between the two opposing groups and it ended in a permanent split of the Buddhist order into Sthaviravadins and Mahasangikas. ™ Third Buddhist Council–251 BC ● The third Buddhist council was held at Patliputra. ● It was under the patronage of Ashoka. ● 3rd Buddhist Council was presided by Moggaliputta Tissa. ● The Agenda of third Buddhist council was to analyze the different schools of Buddhism and to purify them. Ashoka sent several groups to different parts of country and around the world to spread Buddhism. ● It resulted in the collection of philosophical interpretation of the doctrine of Buddha in the form of third Pitaka – Abhidhamma Pitaka and heretical monks numbering sixty thousands were expelled from the order. ™ Fourth Buddhist Council–78 AD ● The fourth Buddhist council was held at Kundalvan (Kashmir). ● It was under the patronage of Kanishka (Kushan King). ● 4th Buddhist Council was presided by Vasumitra and Asvaghosha. ● The Agenda of fourth Buddhist council was to reserve and remedy various conflicts. In this council Buddhism got divided into Hinayana and Mahayana. Jainism ● Jainas believed that origin of Jainism goes back to very ancient times. They believe in 24 Tirthankars (great teachers or leaders of their religion), among them Rishabhdeva is considered to be the first Tirthankar. He is also known as Adinath. He was born in Ayodhya. His symbol was Bull (Vrishaba). ● 23rd Tirthankar credit goes to Parsavnath, born in Varanasi, his symbol was snake. Rishabdev and Arishtnemi are mentioned in Rigveda. Vayu Purana and Bhagwat Purana mention Rishabhdeva as the incarnation of Naryan. ● Vardhman Mahavir was the 24thTirthankar.All the Tirthankaras were Kshatriyas by birth. Life of Mahavira ● He is considered as the last Tirthankara. He was born at Kundagrama near Vaishali in 540 BC. ● His parents were Kshatriyas. Father – Siddhartha (Head of Jnatrika Clan); Mother – Trishala (Sister of Lichchhavi chief Chetaka). (Later Chetaka’s daughter married Haryanka King Bimbisara). He was married to Yasoda and had a daughter Anojja or Priyadarsana. His son in law was Jamali. Jamali became his first disciple. His brother was Nandi Vardhan. ● At the age of 30, Vardhaman renounced his home after taking permission from his brother and became a wandering ascetic. He also observed self-mortification. ● After 13 years of penance, he attained the highest spiritual knowledge called Kaivalya, i.e., the supreme knowledge and final deliverance from the bonds of pleasure and pain. Hence he was called Kevalin. He attained this at the age of 42 at Jimbhika Grama village near Vaishali under a sal tree on the bank of Rijupalika River. Thereafter, he was called Mahavira, Jina, Jitendriya (one who conquered his senses), Nigrantha (free from all bonds) and Kevalin.He preached his teachings for 30 years and died at Pavapuri (near Rajagriha) aged 72. Teachings of Jainism ● Mahavira rejected Vedic principles and Brahmanical customs and beliefs. He did not believe in God’s existence. According to him, the universe is a product of the 96 Master Series : Ancient India ● ● ● ● natural phenomenon of cause and effect. He believed in Karma and transmigration of the soul. The body dies but soul does not. He believed that soul is ubiquitous, even in stones. According to him, one will be punished or rewarded as per one’s karma. He advocated a life of austerity and non-violence. Mahavira stressed on equality, but did not reject the caste system unlike Buddhism. But he also said that man may be ‘good’ or ‘bad’ as per his actions, and not birth. Asceticism was taken to a great length. Starvation, nudity and self-mortification were expounded. As per Mahavira, there are two elements of the world: Jiva (conscious), and Atma (unconscious). Triratnas of Jainism ● Right faith ● Right knowledge ● Right conduct (observance of five vows) ● Cardinal Principles of Jainism ● Ahimsa (non-violence) ● Satya (truth) ● Asteya (no stealing) ● Aparigraha (no acquiring property) ● Brahmacharya (abstinence) The last principle was added by Mahavira whereas former four principles were advocated by Parsavnath (23rd Tirthankar). Jainism believe in theory of may be, which is called as Syadvad. They consider their Tirthankars are supreme. Philosophy of Jainism ● It rejected the authority of the Vedas and the Vedic rituals and advocated an austre and simple life. It did not believe in the existence of the God. In fact, it believed in Karma and the transmigration of the soul. It opposed the caste system and Gods were considered lower than the Jinas. ● According to its philosophy, world was not created, maintained and destroyed by a personal God, but it was done by Universal law. The cycle of births and deaths was due to Karma and there was an atomic layer on the soul because of the past actions. The annihilation of Karma could be achieved by practicing extreme asceticism and prevention of influx and fixation of Karma by disciplined conduct. Soul, thus liberated, rises to the top of the universe and stays in bliss. ● As per the philosophy, monastic life is essential for salvation and they practiced extreme non-violence. The basic philosophy are: (a) Anekantwad: The doctrine which suggests that an object of knowledge is of infinite characteristics. (b) Nyayavada: The philosophy which postulates that an individual understands an object of knowledge through a particular point of view. (c) Saptbhangi Nyaya: According to it there are seven point of view to understand an object of knowledge. These seven Nayayas are: Aasti-exists, Nasti-exists not, Astica Nastica-exists & exists not, Avaktvyam–cannot be described, Nastica Avaktvyam–exists not and cannot be described, Astica Nastica Avaktvyam-exists and exists not and cannot be described. (d) Syadvada: According to it, understanding of an object of knowledge is conditional and true in a way, so, one should be cautious and use Syad before any statement. Sects in Jainism ● After the death of Mahavira, severe famine broke out in Magadh which lasted for 12 years. Chandragupta Maurya was the king and Bhadrabahu was the chief of Jaina community that time. Chandragupta and Bhadrabahu along with their followers went to South India to get some relief, leaving behind Sthulbhadra as the head of Jaina community. Sthulabahadra changed the code of conduct resulting in the schism of Jainism. (a) Swetambaras: The founder was Sthulbhadra and the followers were known as Yati, Sadhu, and Acharya. They accepted Rise of Heterodox Sects 97 clothes and wore white clothes, they did not consider clothes as an impediment in salvation. They believed that women could attain salvation in this birth. They accepted 12 Angas, Upangas etc and considered 19th Tirthankar (Mallinath) as woman and Mahavira as married. They also believed that an ideal Monk can take meal after the attainment of salvation. (b) Digambaras: It was founded by Bhadrabahu and its followers were known as Kshullak, Aillak and Nigranathas. They discarded clothes (sky clad). Clothes were considered as an impediment in attainment of salvation. They believed that women could not attain salvation in this birth and accepted 14 Purvas. They did not accept Angas, Upangas etc. They considered the 19th Tirthankar as Man and considered Mahavira maintained Brahmacharya. They also believed that an ideal monk should not take meal after the attainment of salvation. (c) Yapaniya: It emerged out of Swetambaras in about AD 200 and consolidated in about 5th Century AD, mainly in the northern regions of Karanataka. It was Tantric in character and accorded high status to women. It finds mention in inscription of Vikramaditya VI (Chalukyas of Kalyani). It declined in 13-14th century AD. (d) Dravida Sangh: It was an off-shoot of Mula Sangh and gained prominence in Tamil Nadu areas. It was Tantric in character. Jaina Literature ● Jaina literature was first written in Prakrit and later in Sanskrit. Purvas literature is almost lost, later literature consists of Angas, Upangas, Prakirnas. ● Kalpa Sutra was written by Bhadrabahu. It contains the biographies of the Jain Tirthankaras, most notably Parshvanath and Mahavira, including the latter’s Nirvana. Since, Bhadrabahu was a teacher of Chandragupta Maurya, we can say that it was compiled in Mauryan Era. ● 14 Purvas: Text-Book of old Jaina scriptures. ● 12 Angas: Jaina doctrines/rules of conducts and history of Mahavira. ● 12 Upangas: Associated with each Angas, myths and dogmas. ● 10 Prakirnas: Doctrinal matters in verse form. ● 6 Chedasutras: Rules for monks/nuns. ● 4 Mulsutras: Valuable rules on the basis of maxims/dialouges/parables. ● Niryuktis: Commentaries on Angas prepared in AD 100. ● Kalpasutra: History of Jainism from its birth, written by Bhadrabahu. ● Acharang Sutras: Oldest Jaina text containing monastic rules. Jaina Councils ™ The First Council ● Held at Pataliputra in the 3rd century BC. ● Presided by Sthulabahadra. ● Resulted in the compilation of the sacred teachings of Mahavira into 12 Angas to replace the lost 14 Purvasa. ™ The Second Council ● Held at Vallabhi in Gujarat in the 5th century AD. ● Presided over by Devardi Kshemasharmana. ● The purpose of the Council was to collect the sacred texts and write them down systematically. ● 12 Angas compiled in the First Council was lost, and all the remaining Angas were written in Ardhamagadhi. Jaina Architecture ● Rock-cut caves at Badami: It has the images of Jaina Tirthankars, which belong to early Chalukya period. ● Rock-cut caves at Aihole: This cave too contains the images of Jain Tirthankars which belong to ealy Chalukya period. ● Hathigumpha cave of Kharvel. ● Khandagiri caves of Odisha. ● Udaigiri caves of Odisha. ● Shravanabelagola in Karnataka: It contains the huge statue of Bahubali called Gomatesvara. 98 Master Series : Ancient India ● ● ● ● ● ● Temple at Ranakpur in Rajasthan. Dilwara Temples at Mount Abu (Rajasthan). Jaina Tower in the fort of Chittor. Karakal Temple in South India. Moodbidri Temple in South India. Palithana Temple of Gujarat. Believed in rigorous Discarded it asceticism. Approved of self- Condemned by it mortification. Atheistic – God was lower Agnostic in nature than the Jina. Differences between Jainism & Buddhism Similarities between Buddhism and Jainism Jainism Method of attaining salvation was extreme. Gave prominence to lay followers. Confined to India 1. Both gave no importance to God. 2. Protested against some of Vedic rituals of Brahmanism. 3. Opposed the Caste System. 4. Accepted the doctrine of Karma and Rebirth. 5. The founders belonged to the Kshatriya class. 6. Both preached their religion in the common language of the people. 7. Emphasised on making efforts to attain salvation. Buddhism It was moderate and based on middle path. Relied mainly on the Sangha & its monks. Spread rapidly to foreign lands, but died in India. Nirvana was escape from Escape from existence the body. Conti... Rise of Heterodox Sects 99 Ancient India Master Exercise 6 MCQs for Preliminary Examination 1. Which of the following factors were responsible for the rise of different religious sects during the 6th century BC? 2. Jain religious literature was written in Ardhamagadhi 3. Mahavira admitted women into the order of his followers. 1. The domineering attitude of the brahmanas towards the common people. Which of these statements is/are correct? 2. Growth of untouchability and rigidity of the caste system. (a) 1, 2 and 3 3. The people from the lower strata were becoming influential. (b) 1 and 2 4. The indiscriminate killing of cattle was ruining the concept of new agriculture. (d) 2 and 3 Choose the correct answer from the codes given below: (c) Only 3 5. Match the following. A. Fourth Buddhist Council 1. Vasumitra B. Third Buddhist Council (a) 1 and 2 (b) 1 and 3 2. 3. (c) 1, 2 and 4 C. Second Buddhist Council 3. Sabakami (d) 2 and 3 D. First Buddhist Council The meaning of 'Buddha' is: Below options are given in A B C D order. (a) anything beyond God (a) 1 2 3 4 (b) life after death (b) 2 1 4 3 (c) the Enlightened one (c) 1 2 4 3 (d) the ultimate Path for moksha (d) 3 2 4 1 Consider the following statements: 1. Parshvanatha preached the Jin ideas of Satya, Ahimsa, Asateya and Aparigraha. 2. Mahavira introduced brahmacharya. 3. Mahavira's teachings were first collected in the third century BC. Which of these statements are correct? 6. 4. Mahakassapa Which of the following features are common to both Jainism and Buddhism? 1. Denial of the authority of Vedas 2. Condemnation of animal sacrifice 3. Pursuing severe ascetism 4. Existence of a soul (a) 1 and 2 5. Rejection of existence of God (b) 1 and 3 Choose the correct answer from the codes given below. (c) 2 and 3 4. 2. Moggaliputa Tissa (d) 1, 2 and 3 (a) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 Consider the following statements. (b) 1 and 2 1. Jainism in ancient India condemned the varna system. (c) 1, 2, 3 and 4 (d) 1, 4 and 5 100 Master Series : Ancient India 7. Buddha has been described as 'an ocean of wisdom and compassion' in: (b) Kanishka (a) Jataka tales (d) Chandragupta Vikramaditya (b) Amarakosa (c) Buddhacharita 8. 14. During the time of Harshavardhana, a great Buddhist assembly was held at: (d) The Light of Asia (a) Patliputra The crux of early Buddhism was: (b) Nalanda (a) renunciation of desire (c) Prayag (b) rigorous penance (d) Purushapura (c) belief in fatalism (d) idol worship 9. (c) Harshavardhana 15. The introduction of Buddhism into China is traditionally attributed to: Buddhism split up into the Hinayana and Mahayana sects of the Buddhism Council held during the reign of: (a) Nagarjuna (a) Harsha (d) None of these (b) Kanishka (c) Ashoka (d) Chandragupta Maurya 10. Jainism was divided into two sects known as: (b) Samprati (c) Kashyapa Matanga 16. Which one of the following is the most fundamental difference between Mahayana Buddhism and Hinyana Buddhism? (a) Emphasis on ahimsa (a) Kapalika and Kalamukha (b) Casteless society (b) Mahayana and Hinayana (c) Worship of gods and goddesses (c) Ajivika nad Nyaya Vaisesika (d) Worship of Stupa (d) Svetambara and Digambara 11. Ashoka was much influenced by a Buddhist monk called: (a) Upagupta 17. Which of the following statements about Mahavira is/are correct? 1. Mahavira's doctrines include observance of continence. (c) Asvaghosha 2. The division of Jainism into Svetambara and digambara sects took place during Mahavira's time. (d) Ambhi 3. Mahavira condemned the Varna system. (b) Vasubandhu 12. The Fourth Buddhist Council was held by: (a) Ashoka Choose the correct answer from the codes given below: (b) Kanishka (a) 1 and 2 (c) Chandragupta (b) 1 and 3 (d) Bindusara (c) 2 and 3 13. Who among the following rulers held a religious assembly at Prayag every five years? (a) Ashoka (d) Only 1 18. Who, according to Jains, was the founder of Jainism? Rise of Heterodox Sects 101 (a) Rishaba Subjective type questions for Main (b) Mahavira Examination (c) Arishtanemi 1. Critically analyze the Upanishadic, Buddhist and Jaina Philosophy. 2. Discuss the various factors responsible for the rise and decline of Buddhism. 3. Write a short note on Buddhist teachings and literature. 4. The 6th century BC witnessed a sudden spurt in the rise of heterodox sects. Analyze and explain the reasons for it. 5. 6th century BC was a period of amalgamation of religions across India and the world. Various religions thrived and spread on the principles of non-violence in the era. In the light of above statement, explain the present circumstances India is facing and suggest ways to overcome it. (d) Parsavanatha 19. Buddha did not recognize: 1. Idol worship 2. Existence of soul after death 3. Sacrifice Choose the correct answer from the codes given below: (a) 1 and 3 (b) 1 only (c) 2 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3 20. With which religion is kaivvalay associated? Answers to MCQs (a) Buddhism (b) Jainism (c) Hinduism (d) Sikhism 1. 6. 11. 16. (c) (b) (a) (c) 2. 7. 12. 17. (c) (b) (b) (d) 3. 8. 13. 18. (d) (a) (c) (a) 4. 9. 14. 19. (d) (b) (c) (d) 5. 10. 15. 20. (a) (d) (c) (b) 102 Master Series : Ancient India ANCIENT INDIA MASTER SERIES UNIT 7 Southern Kingdoms During ANCIENT INDIA “The History of South India” The History of South spreads over 5000 years.Various cultures in archaeological perspectives have confirmed of the Megalithic phase, have been discovered, which provide an insight into history of southern India. Asoka Empire Inscription describes about three powerful dynasty down south (Chera, Chola, and Pandya). We even have the evidence of South India, trading with the Roman Emperor Augustus as early as 300 BC. Until AD 1000 Tamil and Tamil emperors dominated the South. Early History of The South ● During the 1,000 BC, the present states of Tamil Nadu and Kerala (in southern India) were inhabited by the megalithic people. ● The important phase of the ancient history of south India is from the Megalithic period to about AD 300. ● Megalithic Phase ● The literary meaning of the term megaliths is ‘big stones’ i.e., ‘mega’ means big and ‘lith’ means stones. But, the big stones are not associated with the megalith culture. ● The megalithic culture is known for its burials. ● The abundance of iron tools and a Blackand-Red pottery with the burials is the main identifying features of the megalithic culture. ● The megalithic culture suggests that there was an abrupt change from the Neolithic stage into the Iron Age. And, they did not experience the intermediate Chalcolithic or Bronze Age. Types of Megalithic Burials The following are the major types of Megalithic burial: (Refer Fig. 7.1) ● Pit Circle Graves: In this type of burial, the body was first excoriated and then buried. ● ● ● ● Pots and iron artifacts were placed in a grave. A stone circle is erected around the pit. Cists: These graves have a variety of forms. Cists which is stone coffin were made out of granite slabs with one or more capstones, with or without portholes. Cists are fully buried, half buried, or even on the bare rocks. They may contain single or multiple burials. A single or multiple stone circles erected around the cists. Laterite Chambers: In Malabar region, the grave-chambers excavated into laterite instead of granite slabs. Alignments: It is a different kind of burial in which a large number of standing stones called ‘Menhirs’ were arranged in squares or diagonals shape. They have been found in Gulbarga district, and in south of Hyderabad. However, in Kashmir, Menhirs have been found arranged in a semi-circle. Sacrophagi: These were legged urns of terracotta sometimes have animal heads and are not very common. Urns: The practice of burying excoriated bones in urns seems to be taken from the Neolithic past. They are marked by capstones or stone circles, found mainly on the eastern coast. Southern Kingdoms During Ancient India 103 Dolmen Ground Plan of Dolmen Forms of Stonehenge Ground Plan of Different Stonehenge Cromlech Ground Plan of Cromlech Ground Plan of Menhir A Few Menhir Clustered Together Fig. 7.1. Types of Megalithic Burials 104 Master Series : Ancient India Megalithic Tools ● Undoubtedly, there was a wide range of variety in Megalithic construction, but the typical identity was a Black-and-Red ware and distinctive iron tools. They have uniformity all over the peninsula. ● The pottery shapes include conical or looped lids, carinated vases, pedestalled bowls, spouted dishes, etc. ● The iron tool includes axes with crossed straps, sickles, tripods, tridents, spearheads, swords, lamp hangers, arrowheads, and lamps. ● Horse-harness bits and bells are also the common finds. ● Iron Age, in the history of India, is a period when the use of iron for tools and weapons became quite common, but during this time, the dated literature also began to be written. Therefore, the period of Megalithics marked a point in time where prehistory ends, and the history begins. ● The builders of these Megalithics remain unknown to northern people because no reference to these monuments has been traced in Sanskrit or Prakrit literature, though the early Tamil literature does contain descriptions of these burial practices. Sources of Megalithic Period The earliest account about the people and kingdoms of the era are preserved in three forms. 1. Ashokan inscriptions; 2. Sangam literature; and 3. Megasthenese's accounts. ● The Rock Edict II and XIII of Ashoka described the southern kingdoms of Chola, Pandya, Satyaputra, Keralaputra, and Tambapanni. ● Ashoka's kindness to these neighboring states has been very much proved by the fact that he made provisions for medicines and food items etc. for animals and humans of these kingdoms. ● In the Hathigumpha inscription of Kharvela, it has been found that Ashoka was credited for defeating a confederacy of Tamil states. Sangam Place of Organisation Chairman Thenmadurai Agastya First Second Kapatapuram Third Madurai Sangam Period ● The Sangam Age in the South is a landmark in Indian history. The word sangam is the Tamil form of the Sanskrit word Sangha which means a group of persons or an association. The Tamil Sangam was an academy of poets and bards who flourished in three different periods and in different places under the patronage of the Pandyan kings. It is believed that the first Sangam was attended by gods and legendary sages, and its seat was Ten Madurai. All the works of the first Sangam have perished. ● The seat of the second Sangam was Kapatpuram, another capital of the Pandyas. It was attended by several poets and produced a large mass of literature, but only Tolkappiyam (the early Tamil grammar) has survived. ● The seat of the third Sangam was the present Madurai. It has also produced a vast literature, but only a fraction of it has survived. It is this fraction which constitutes the extant body of Sangam literature. The Age of the Sangam is the age to which the Sangam literature belonged. The Sangam literature constitutes a mine of information on conditions of life around the beginning of the Christian era. ● A detailed description of south Indian states is found in Sangam literature belonging to the first four centuries of the Christian era.The period 1st century BC to 2nd century AD is known as the Sangam age. The first detailed description about the south Indian dynasties found in the Sangam Literature. ● The Tamil language is the oldest amongst the spoken and literary languages of the south. Sangam literature was written in this language. Sangam literature consisted the collection of verses, lyrics, and idylls, which were composed by poets and scholars.Sangam literature preserves folk memory about the society and life in the South. Kingdom Books Pandiya No books survived Earlier- Agastya Later- Pandiya Tolkappiyar (a disciple of Agastaya) Nakkirar Pandiya Tolkappiyam (author - Tolkappiyar) covers entire corpus of Sangam Literature Southern Kingdoms During Ancient India 105 The Sangam Administration ● The king was the very centre and embodiment of administration. He was called Ko, Mannam, Vendan, Korravan or Iraivan. Though hereditary monarchy was the prevailing form of government, disputed successions and civil wars were not unknown. The court of the crowned monarch was called avai. ● The ideal of the ‘conquering king’ (Vijigishu) was accepted and acted upon. The King’s birthday (Perunal) was celebrated every year. Kings assumed several titles. For example, the Pandyas were known as Minavar, Kavuriyar, Panchavar, Tennar, Seliyar, Marar, Valudi. etc the Cholas called themselves Sennis, Sembiyas, Valavan and Killi, and the Cheras had titles like Vanavar, Villavar, Kudavar, Kuttuvar, Poraiyar and so on. ● The royal emblem of the Pandyas was the carp (fish), the bow of the Cheras and of the Cholas was the tiger. The Sabha or Manram of the king in the capital was the highest court of justice. The king was assisted by a large body of officials, who were divided into five assemblies. 1. Amaichchar or ministers, 2. Purohitas or priests, 3. Senapati or military commanders, 4. Dutar or envoys and 5. Arrar or spies. Provincial and Local Administration During ‘Sangam’ ● The entire kingdom was called Mandalam. The Chola Mandalam, Pandya Mandalam and the Chera Mandalam were the original major Mandalam. Below the Mandalam was a major division, Nadu (province). The ur was a town which was variously described as a big village (Perar), a small village (Sirur) or an old village (Mudur). Pattinam was the name for a coastal town and Puharwas the harbour area. ● The administration of nadus was generally carried on by the hereditary chiefs. The village was the fundamental unit of administration which was administered by local assemblies called Manrams. Revenue Administration During ‘Sangam’ ● The widely prevalent and possibly the largest source of revenue was land-tax called Karai, but the share of the agricultural produce, claimed and collected by the king,is not specified. The Ma and Veli were the measures of land and Kalam as measure of grain. A well-known unit of territory yielding tax was a Variyam (Vari meant tax) and an officer in-charge of collecting the tax from that unit of land was called a Variyar. ● Tributes paid by the feudatories and war booty (Irai) constituted a considerable part of royal resources. Trade local and longdistance, constituted a very important source of royal revenue. Tolls and custom duties were Ulgu or Sungum. The duties to be paid to the king were generally known as Kadamai or Paduvadu. Military Administration During ‘Sangam’ ● Perhaps out of the taxes collected from the peasantry, the state maintained a rudimentary army which comprised of chariots drawn by oxen, of elephants, cavalry and infantry. Elephants played an important part in war. Horses were imported by sea into the Pandyan kingdom. ● The institution of virakkal or nadukul (herostone), a practice of erecting monuments for the dead soldiers and worshiping them, was prevalent during the Sangam time. The institution of Kavalmaram or Kadimaram was also there. Under it, each ruler had a great tree in his palace as a symbol of his majestic power. Sangam Economy ● The Sangam economy was simple and mostly of self-sufficient type. Agriculture was the main occupation of people and the chief crops were rice, cotton, ragi, sugarcane pepper, ginger, turmeric, cardamom, cinnamon etc. Weaving, ship-building, metal working, carpentry, rope-making, ornament-making, making of ivory products, tanning etc. were some of the handicrafts, which were common. 106 Master Series : Ancient India ● The name of market place was Avanam. Sangam period also witnessed the emergence of various towns such as Puhar, Uraiyur, Vanji, Tondi, Muzuris, Madurai, Kanchi, etc. Industry and crafts got a fillip by a rising demand in the foreign markets. ● Commerce and trade, both inland and foreign, was well organised and briskly carried our throughout the period. Internal trade was brisk, caravans of merchants with carts and pack-animals carried their merchandise from place to place, Barter played a large part in all transactions and salt was an important commodity of trade. The Sangam period witnessed the rise of great maritime activity. ● External trading activities were carried out between the South and Hellenistic kingdom of Egypt and Arabia as well as the Malay Archipelago. The author of the Periplus of the Erythrean Sea (AD 75) gives the most valuable information about the trade between India and the Roman Empire. He mentions the ports of Naura (Cannanore), Tyndis (Tondi), Muzuris (Musiri, Cranganore), and Nelcynda as the leading ones on the western coast. ● Other popular ports of the South were Balita (Varkalai), Comari, Colchi, Puhar (Khaberis of Ptolemy), Saliyur, Poduca (Arikamedu) and Sopatma (Markanam). A milestone in the development of communications was the discovery of the monsoon winds by the Greek sailor Hippalus in around AD 46-47. ● The discovery of monsoon led to the increase in volume of trade. Large vessels made up of single logs called Sangara and very large vessels, called Colondia made routine voyages. The Periplus of the Erythraen Sea, written by an anonymous Greek navigator, gives details of Indian exports to the Roman Empire. The main exports were: pepper, pearls, ivory, silk, spike-nard, malabathrum, diamonds, saffron, precious stone and tortoise shell. It also mentions Argaru (Uraiyur) as the place to which were sent all the pearls gathered on the coast and from which were exported muslins called Agraritic. Silk, which was supplied by Indian merchants to the Roman Empire, was considered so important that the Roman emperor Aurelian declared it to be worth its weight in gold. ● The Roman demand for spices could not be met entirely by local supply; this brought Indian traders into contact with south-east Asia. In return for her exports, India imported from the Roman empire like commodities as topaz, tin cloth, linen, antimony, crude glass, copper, tin, lead, wine, orpiment and wheat. The Romans also exported to India wine amphorae and red glazed Arretine ware which have been found at Arikamedu near Puducherry. They also sent to India a large number of gold and silver coins. ● Connected with the phenomenon of trade was the growth of money economy in the early centuries. The imported coins were mostly used as bullions. The large quantities of gold and silver coins struck by all the Roman emperors beginning from the reign of Augustus (and that of Tiberius) down to Nero (AD 54-58) found in the interior of Tamil land, testify to the extent of the trade and the presence of Roman settlers in the Tamil country. Sangam Society and Religion ● The society in the southern kingdoms chiefly consisted of agriculturists or those who depended indirectly on the land. Besides, the peasants, there were landless labourers, carpenters, gold-smiths, hunters and fishermen. ● The Brahmanas came there much later from the north. But in the ancient times, they followed neither the Varna system nor the Ashram system. Broadly speaking, there were chiefly two classes of people in the early Tamil society – those who tilled the land themselves and those who got it tilled by others. The latter were wealthier and this very fact introduced inequalities in the social system. Gradually, the Varna System also started. ● The people lived chiefly in villages. Mostly, they were poor who lived in huts and humbler structures. The forest tribals were very poor. The rich lived in houses of bricks and mortar. The town-people were generally rich and they led a very happy and prosperous life. The Southern Kingdoms During Ancient India 107 towns were surrounded by a wall for protection from invaders. Forts were also built. ● The women in the Tamil society were free. Polygamy was practiced, though on a limited scale. Prostitutes and dancing girls lived in towns. Dhoti and turban were the chief attire. Women were fond of ornaments. The chief diet consisted of meat and rice. They also drank wine. ● In the beginning, Brahamanism grew popular in these kingdoms, though its influence was limited. The kings performed Vedic Yajnas and the Brahmanas held discourses with the Jain and the Buddhist scholars. The four chief deities worshipped by them were Shiva, Vishnu, Balram and Krishna. Marugan was the local God. ● During Chandragupta’s reign, Jainism spread in the South. In this period, the Buddhism was on the decline. The growing popularity of Shaivism and Vaishnavism, however, caused a setback to Jainism. The people were tolerant and the followers of the various religions lived together peacefully. The practice of cremating the dead had started. Sangam Literature The Sangam literature can be roughly divided into two groups i.e., Narrative and Didactic. Sangam was the assembly of Tamil poets held under royal patronage. We do not have exact data on number of Sangams and their period for which they were held. Available Sangam literature which was produced by these assemblies, was probably compiled in AD 300-600. ● Sangam literature is divided into Melkannakku (Narrative) – eighteen major works, and Kelkanakku (Didactic) – eighteen minor works. to public and social activity like government, war charity, trade, worship, agriculture, etc. Contributions in Sangam Age Among the poets and thinkers of the Sangam age Tolkappiyar, Tiruvalluvar, lllango Adigal, Sittalai Sattanar, Nakkirar, Kapilar, Paranar, Auvaiyar, Mangudi Marudanar and a few others are outstanding. Sangam literature consists of the earliest Tamil works (such as the Tolkappiyam), the ten poems (Pattupattu), the eight anthologies (Ettutogai) and the eighteen minor works (Padinenkilkanakku), and the three epics. The chief merits of the sangam works is their absolute devotion to standards and adherence to literary conventions. The Earliest Tamil Work Tolkappiyam is the oldest extant Tamil grammar written by Tokkappiyar (one of the 12 disciples of Saint Agastya.) It is divided into three major parts, each consisting of nine iyals (sub-parts) and has a total of 1612 sutras. Other earliest Tamil works were the Agattiyam (a work on grammar of letters and life) by Saint Agattiyar, Pannirupadalam and the Kakkipadiniyam. ™ Ten Poems (Pattupattu) ● Murugarruppadai (by Nakkirar), Sirupanarruppadai (by Nattattanar), Perumbanarruppadai, Maduraikkanji (by Mangudi Marudam), Pattinappalai (by Kannan), and other works, fall in this category. ● The poetry in the Pattupattu was divided into two main groups: Aham (deals with matters strictly limited to one aspect of subjective experience viz., love) and Puram (deals with matters capable of externalization or objectification). ™ Eight Anthologies (Ettutogai) Tolkkapiyam 1. Aingurunuru, compiled by Gudalur Kilar, consists of 500 erotic poems. Tolkkapiyam is the earliest surviving Tamil literature work, written by Tolkappiyar. It’s a Tamil grammar text. Tolkkapiyam 2. Agananuru, compiled by Rudrasarman, consists of love poems. Tirukkural 4. Kurunttogai has 400 love poems. Most important of the Tamil literatureis Tirukkural by Tiruvalluvara.It is called as Bible of Tamil Land. It deals with secular matter relating 5. Purananuru consists of 400 poems in praise of kings. The Nandas and Mauryas are referred in one of the poems. 3. Narrinai comprises 400 short poems on love. 108 Master Series : Ancient India 6. Kalittogaicomprises love poems. 7. Paripadal has 24 poems in praise of gods. 8. Padirrupattu is a short collection of 8 poems in praise of the Chera Kings. ● The eight anthologies (Ettutogai) also are in two groups, the Aham and the Puram. Eighteen Minor Works (Padinenkilkanakku) These works are called ‘minor works’ because the poems in these are shorter in form than those in the Ettutogai and Pattuppattu. The most important among these are the Tirukkural by Tiruvalluvar, it is a compound of the Dharmasastra, the Arthasastra and the Kamasutra), the Naladiyar, the Palamoliby Munnururai Araiyar, and the Acharakkovai etc. ™ The Epics ● The epics Silappadikaram (The Jewelled Anklet) and Manimekalai belong to the early centuries of the Christian era. ● Silappadikaram was written by Mango Adigal (grandson of Karikala, the great Chola King) in the second century AD. It is a tragic story of a merchant, Kovalan of Puhar who falls in love with a dancer Madhavi, neglecting his own wife, Kannagi, who in the end revenges the death of her husband at the hands of the Pandyan King and becomes a goddess. ● It marks the beginning of Kannagi cult or Pattini cult that is worship of Kannagi as the ideal wife. There is also a reference to the Ceylonese king Gajabahu being present on the occasion of the installation of a Kannagi temple, the Goddess of Chastity, by Chera king Senguttuvan. ● Manimekalai was written by poet Sattanar. It is the story of Manimekalai, the daughter of Kovalan, and Madhavi of the earlier epic. The main aim of this epic seems to be to expound the excellence of the Buddhist religion through the medium of the travails of Manimekalai, consequent on the loss of the city of Puhar when the sea eroded into the coast. This epic is the only important ancient work which gives glimpse of the development of the fine arts in the Sangam age. ● In both these epics, a good deal of social and historical information is found. ● Sivaga Sindamani, written by Tiruttakkadevar a Jaina ascetic, is the story of Sivaga or Jivaka. Sangam Polity ● From the earliest times Tamilham had known only three major kingdoms – the Cheras, the Cholas and the Pandyas. The Pandyas were first mentioned by Megasthenes, who says that their kingdom was celebrated for pearls. ● Megasthenes also speaks of its being ruled by a woman, which may suggest some matriarchal influence in the Pandya society. In the Major Rock Edict II Asoka mentions of the three kingdoms – Pandyas, Cholas and Cheras as neighbours. ● The Hathigumpha inscription of Kharavelea contains the early epigraphic reference to the kingdoms of the Tamil country, where he is said to have destroyed a confederacy of Tamil states – Tramiradesa Sanghatam. However, the chief source for the Sangam period is the Sangam literature. Cholas ● The Cholas have occupied the region of Kaveri delta and its adjoining area. The region of Kanchi was also part of the Cholas kingdom. ● The Kingdom was situated towards the northeast of Pandya kingdom, and it was also called as Chola Mandalam in early medieval times. ● In the beginning, its capital was Uraiyur in Tiruchirapalli, but subsequently shifted to Kaveripattanam. It was called as ‘Puhar’ at that time. Puhar was also the main seaport. Tiger was their symbol. ● A Chola king, known as Elara, conquered Sri Lanka and ruled over it for about 50 years during the middle of the 2nd century BC. ● Karikala was a famous Chola king of the ancient period. He was credited because of his two achievements: 1. He had defeated the joint forces of Chera and Pandya kings, and 2. He successfully invaded Sri Lanka and ruled there. Southern Kingdoms During Ancient India 109 ● Karikala was defeated in a great battle at Venni near Tanjore by a confederacy of (about) a dozen rulers headed by Chera and Pandya kings. ● Karikala maintained a powerful navy and conquered Sri Lanka. Karikala built big irrigation channels and embankment about a 160 km along the river Kaveri. Karikala fortified the town and the famous seaport of Puhar at the mouth of the Kaveri. Karikala was a great patron of literature and education. He was a follower of Vedic religion and performed many Vedic sacrifices. ● The successors of Karikala were quite weak and family members squabbled for power and position, therefore the Chola kingdom faced confusion and chaos after Karikala. ● Illanjetcenni was the only king after Karikala who is known now. He had captured two fortresses from the Cheras. However, after Karikala, the Chola Empire declined and the Cheras and Pandyas extended their territories. ● The Cholas were reduced to a small ruling family from about the 4th to the 9th century AD. Ultimately, Cholas suffered a defeat from Pallavas of Kanchipuram. Fig. 7.2. The Chola Kingdom Pandyas ● The Pandya kingdom was the second important kingdom in south during sangam period. It occupied the region of modern districts of Tirunelveli, Ramnad, and Madurai in Tamil Nadu. ● The capital of Pandya kingdom was Madurai. Fish was on their emblem. The Pandyan ● ● ● ● ● ● kingdom was very wealthy and prosperous. The Sangam literature gives information and names of a few kings. Nedunjeliyan was a great Pandya king. He defeated the combined forces of Chera, Chola, and five other minor states in a war against him at Madurai. The Pandyan kings assembled literary assemblies called as ‘Sangam’. Nedunjeliyan had performed several Vedic sacrifices. He may be taken to have ruled around AD 210. The capital Madurai and the port city Korkai were the great centres of trade and commerce during the Pandyas’ reign. The traders profited from trade with the Roman Empire. Pandya kings even sent embassies to the Roman emperor Augustus and Trojan. Pandya Kingdom was first mentioned by Megasthenese, the ambassador of Selucus Nicator, former mentioned that Pandya kingdom was famous for pearls. Chera The Cheras were also known as ‘Keralaputras’ in the history. The Chera kingdom occupied the region of a narrow strip between the sea and the mountains of Konkan range. ● The Chera rulers also occupied high position in the history of south India. Nedunjeral Adan was a famous Chera king. He conquered Kadambas with his capital at Vanavasi (near Goa). He also defeated the Yavanas. Muziris was the main seaport. Bow and Arrow on their emblem. Romans setup two regiments at Muziris in Chera country to protect their interests. Romans also built temple of Augustus at Muziris. ● Nedunjeral Adan had a good relation with the Greeks and Romans who came in large numbers as traders and set up large colonies in south India. Nedunjeral Adan fought a battle with the father of the Chola king Karikala. In this battle, both the kings were killed. ● Nedunjeral Adan was called as Imayavaramban. The literary meaning of the term Imayavaramban is “one who had 110 Master Series : Ancient India the Himalaya Mountains as the boundary of his kingdom.” However, it seems to be mere exaggeration. ● Senguttuvan was the greatest king of the Chera dynasty as mentioned in the Chera tradition. He had defeated the Chola and the Pandya kings. Senguttuvan also known as Red Chera. Senguttuvan was also the founder of famous Pattini Cult, related to worship of Kannagi as the ideal wife. He was the first king to send ambassador to China from South India. ● The Chera power declined at the end of the 3rd century AD. They again acquired power in the 8th century AD. The important facts about the three early kingdoms of south India are: 1. They constantly fought with each other; 2. They made new alliances against the ones who became powerful; and 3. They also fought regularly with Sri Lanka and ruled there at some point of time. Fig. 7.3. The Chera Kingdom Age of Smaller Dynasties ● Apart from some important dynasties ruling in the post-Mauryan period in north India, there were a number of republics ruling smaller states. The information about these small dynasties is extracted from their coins on which their names were written. Following are some of the important small dynasties. 1. Arjunayanas, 2. Malavas, 3. Audumbaras, 4. Kunindas, 5. Yaudheyas, etc. ● Most of these dynasties (enumerated above), later on, became tributaries of the Gupta Dynasty and vanished altogether after the fourth century AD. Satavahanas of Deccan ● Before the emergence of the Satavahanas in Maharashtra and Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas dynasties ruled the southern, the region was settled by megalithic people. ● The Satavahanas, also known as ‘Andhras’ (in Deccan region) covering the parts of Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra was the powerful dynasty.The Andhras were ancient people and were mentioned in the Aitareya Brahmana also. ● The Greek writer Pliny mentions that the Andhras were powerful people who possessed a large number of villages and thirty towns, an army of one lakh infantry, two thousand cavalries and one thousand elephants. ● During the Mauryan age, they were part of the Mauryan Empire, but it appears that immediately after the fall of the dynasty, the Andhras declared themselves free. ● Simuka dynasty ruled from 235 BC to 213 BC and established Simuka dynasty. Simuka was succeeded by his brother Krishna. ● Satakarni I was the third king. He made extensive conquests and performed two Ashvamedhayajna. The Nanaghat inscription described his achievements in details. He conquered western Malwa, Vidarbha, and Anupa (Narmada Valley). He is also referred to as the lord of ‘Dakshinapatha.’ ● Satakarni-I’s name also occurs on one of the gateways of Sanchi stupa because substantial donations were made by the Satavahanas for the renovation and decoration of Sanchi stupas and monasteries. ● Satakarni II ruled for about 56 years. Gautamiputra Satakarni gained Malwa from the Sungas. Nahapana had conquered the part of Satavahana territory after Satakarni II. A large number of coins of Nahapana has been found in Nasik area. Southern Kingdoms During Ancient India 111 ● The Satavahanas became powerful again during the reign of Gautamiputra Satakarni. His achievements are recorded in glowing terms in the Nasik inscription of Queen-mother, Gautami Balasri. This inscription was engraved after his death and in the nineteenth year of the reign of his son and successor Pulmavi II. ● In Nasik inscription, Gautamiputra Satakarni has been described as one who destroyed the Sakas, Yavanas, and Pahlavas. He overthrew Nahapana and restricted a large number of his silver coins. He also recovered northern Maharashtra, Konkan, Vidarbha, Saurashtra, and Malwa from the Sakas. ● Satakarni dedicated a cave in Nasik in the eighteenth year of his reign and granted some land to ascetics in the twenty-fourth year. Gautamiputra Satakarni is the first king bearing matronymic and this practice was followed by nearly all his successors. ● Gautamiputra was succeeded by his son Vasisthiputra Sri Pulmavi in about AD 130 and ruled for about twenty-four years.The coins and inscription of Pulmavi have been found in Andhra Pradesh. This shows that Andhra was the part of Satavahana Empire in the second century AD. Perhaps, in order to save the Satavahana Empire from the onslaught of the Sakas, Pulmavi married the daughter of Saka ruler Rudradaman. But this Saka king defeated the next Satavahana ruler twice. ● Sri Yajna Satakarni (AD 165-195) was perhaps the last of the great Satavahana rulers. His inscriptions have been found in Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Madhya Pradesh. From the distribution of his coins, it appears that he ruled over a large kingdom extending from the Bay of Bengal in the east to the Arabian Sea in the west. Thus, he regained the land that the Sakas had conquered from his predecessors. ● Maritime trade and activities during his reign had been proved by the depiction of ship with a fish on his coins. The successors of Yajna were weak and unworthy to govern such a large empire. Hence, the Satavahana Empire collapsed especially when Abhiras seized Maharashtra and Ikshvakus and Pallavas appropriated the eastern provinces. Fig. 7.4. The Satavahana Period Literature of Satavahana Period ● There was political instability between the era of 500 years after the fall of the Mauryan Empire and before the rise of the Gupta Empire. This period had been marked as the development of Dravidian languages and literature in the South India. ● The Sanskrit language and various forms of Prakrit language developed and some distinctive literature was written in these languages. ● The two great Epics, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, were compiled. Besides, some of the Dharmasastra were also composed in this period. Smritis ● The Smritis have continued to play a very important role in Hindu life as it were playing since the last two thousand years.The Smritis explained the religious duties, usage, laws, and social customs. ● The Smritis are the expanded version of the Dharmasutras, which covered the period from (about) sixth century to third century BC. The Smritis compiled almost in the period of eight hundred years or even more. ● Manusmriti is the oldest among all. It was composed in about the 1st century BC. Other important Smritis are: 1. Naradasmriti, 2. Vishnusmriti, 112 Master Series : Ancient India 3. Yajnavalkyasmriti, 4. Brihaspatismriti, and 5. Katyayanasmriti. ● These Smritis (discussed above) are very important sources of law and social customs of the contemporary society and hence, declared to be of divine origin. ● Mahabhasya, written by Patanjali, was the most outstanding work in the field of grammar during the period of 2nd century BC. The center of Sanskrit grammar learning shifted to the Deccan after Patanjali. ● In Deccan, the Katantra School developed in the first century AD. Sarvavarman composed the grammar of Katantra. He was a great scholar in the court of Hala (Satavahana King). Katantra’s grammar was short and handy to help the learning of Sanskrit in about six months.Hala, the King of Satavahana wrote a great poetical work, namely ‘Gathasaptasati’ in Prakrit language. ● Asvaghosha was an important literary figure of this period. He was a great Buddhist philosopher. He had written many poetry, plays, etc. Important of them are − Saundarananda, Buddhacharita,Vajrasuchi, etc. ● ‘Buddhacharita’ was written in the form of Mahakavya. It is a complete life of Buddha. It has been translated into many languages of the world. Remains of Asvaghosha’s plays have been recovered from Turfan (in central Asia). ● ‘Svapnavasavadatta’ was written by Bhasa. It is famous Sanskrit play of the period. ● The art of dance and drama had already been codified by Panini's time and mentioned by Kautilya and Patanjali. ● Natyashastra was written by Bharata in the same period. ● ‘Milindapanho’ was written in Pali language. It explains the Buddhist doctrines in the form of a dialogue between Milinda and his teacher (the great Buddhist philosopher Nagasena). Milinda is generally identified with the Indo-Greek king Menander. Administration of Satvahanas ● The district was called as Ahara. The officials were known as Amatyas and Mahamatyas. The administration of rural areas was placed in the handa of Gaulmika. The term Kataka and Skandhavaras were used for their military camps. They started the practice of granting tax free villages to Brahamanas and Buddhist monks. Religion of Satvahanas ● They were the followers of Brahaminism and they worshipped vaishnava gods. The famous Chaityas of Karle near Nashik was constructed during Satvahanas. They built Amravati Stupa which is full of sculptures, which depict scenes about the life of Buddha. They supported both Buddhism and Brahaminism. Society of Satavahana Period ● Major system of society of Satavahana and other contemporary dynasties is largely followed from its predecessors. Social Classes ● Varna and Ashrama systems continued to govern the society. The society consisted of four Varnas, namely − Brahman, Kshatriya, Vaishya, and Sudra. Dharmasastras described the duties, status, and occupations of all the four Varnas. ● Over a period of time, there was great increase in the number of mixed Jatis (castes). Manusmriti defines the origin of the numerous mixed (sankara) Varnas. Anuloma was the marriage between the male of higher Varna and the female of lower Varna.Pratiloma was the marriage between the male of lower Varna and the female of higher Varna.The social status of a person born of Anuloma was higher than Partiloma and they followed their father's occupation. ● According to the Buddhist texts, mixed castes resulted from organizations like guilds of people following different arts and crafts. The Buddhist texts described that a Kshatriya working successively as a potter, basketmaker, reed-worker, garland-maker, and Southern Kingdoms During Ancient India 113 cook. Setthi (Vaisya) working as a tailor and a potter without loss of prestige in both cases. ● Kshatriyas of the Sakya and Koliya clans cultivated their fields. The Vasettha Sutta refers to Brahmans working as cultivators, craftsmen, messengers, and landlords.The Jatakas mentioned that Brahman pursuing tillage, tending cattle, trade, hunting, carpentry, weaving, policing of caravans, archery, driving of carriages, and even snake charming. Jatakas story tells that a Brahman peasant as a supremely pious man and even a Bodhisattva. ● The gradual absorption of foreigners like Indo-Greek, Sakas, Yavanas, Kushanas, and Parthians into the Indian society was the most important development of this period. The life of an individual man was divided into four stages. The stages are called as Ashramas. ● ● Stages of Life The four stages of an individual life as mentioned in Dharmasutras are: 1. Brahmacharya: In this ashrama, a person lives a celibate life as a student at the home of his teacher. ● 2. Grihastha: After learning the Vedas, a student returns back to his home, gets married, and becomes a Grihastha (householder). Grihastha has manifold duties broadly marked out as (i) yajna (ii) adhyayana (iii) dana 3. Vanaprastha: In the middle age, after seeing his grandchildren; he leaves home for the forest to become a hermit. ● 4. Sanyas: Sanyas ashrama is the time meditation and penance; one frees his soul from material things. He leaves hermitage and becomes a homeless wanderer and thus, earthly ties are broken. Family Life ● The joint family system was the main characteristics of the society.The family was considered as the unit of the social system and not the individual.Obedience to parents and elders was held as the highest duty for the children. ● Marriage between the same Jatis was also preferred though intermarriage between different Jatis was prevalent.The marriage in the same ‘gotra’ and ‘pravara’ is restricted. Dharmasastras explained eight forms of marriage, namely ● 1. Brahma Vivah, 2. Daiva Vivah, 3. Arsha Vivah, 4. Prajapatya Vivah, 5. Asura Vivah, 6. Gandharva Vivah, 7. Rakshasa Vivah, and 8. Paisacha Vivah. Among all these eight (as discussed above), Paisacha Vivah is condemned by all the Dharmasatras. Ideal marriage is one in which the father and guardian of the girls selected the bridegroom on an account of his qualifications. The women hold an honorable position in the society and household. Two classes of women students are mentioned as: 1. Brahmavadin or lifelong students of sacred texts and 2. Sadyodvaha who pursued their studies till their marriage. Women not only attained good education, but also received training in fine arts like music, dancing, and painting. Dharmasastras described that in the family property, all the sons had equal share, but a large number of Dharmasastras rejected the right of women to inherit. Yajnavalkya lays down a list of priority in inheritance, which places the sequences as son, wife, and daughter. The right of a wife to inherit if no sons were living, has been accepted by most of the ancient Indian authorities. Women were allowed to have some personal property known as Stree-dhana in the form of jewelry, clothing, etc. The Arthashastra mentioned that a woman can own money up to 2,000 silver panas and amount above this could be held by her husband in trust on her behalf. Economy of Satavahana Period Major economic system of Satavahana and other contemporary dynasties was well organized and systematic. There was allround development in the field of agriculture, industry, and trade during this period. 114 Master Series : Ancient India ● Agriculture was the main occupation of a large section of the people. The land was held by the individuals as well as by the state.The gramakshetra was protected area by fences and field-watchmen against pests like birds and beasts. ● Usually, the land holdings were small enough that could be cultivated by the individual family. But sometimes, the land holdings were big enough consisting of up to 1,000 acres. ● The land outside the village is called arable land.Beyond the arable land of the village lay its pastures, which were common for the grazing of cattle. The arid land also belonged to the state.The forest was located on the boundary of the village.Kautilya gives a complete scheme of village plan. Land Classification ● According to Kautilya, the land of the village was divided into − Cultivated land, uncultivated land, grove, Forest, pastures, etc. ● The main crops were rice of different varieties, coarse grains, sesame, saffron, pulses, wheat, linseed, sugarcane, and mustard. Besides, a large number of vegetables and fruits were also grown. ● Every village had artisans like carpenter, potter, blacksmith, barber, rope maker, washer man, etc. Major Guilds ● Eighteen types of ‘guilds’ were mentioned in the literature.Guilds became an important institution in the economy. ● The guilds implemented and defined rules of work and controlled the quality of the finished product and its prices to safeguard both the artisans and the customers.The disputes of the guild members were resolved through a guild court. ● Guilds also acted as a banker, financier, and a trustee. Such functions were carried out by a different category of merchants known as ‘Sresthies’ in north India and ‘Chettis’ in south. ● Loans were given on security of gold and other things. Money was lent for interest on promising rates to be renewed every year. Nasik cave inscription mentioned that the interest rates on money deposited to guilds. The common rate of interest was between 12% and 15% per annum ● Both internal and external trade was practiced in most of the parts of India since Mauryan period.All the internal cities and ports were interconnected with a well-knit road system. ● A large number of modern national highways were developed during this period including Grand Trunk road. The same road was further maintained and developed by Sher Shah Suri. ● The discovery of monsoon winds in the first century facilitated foreign trade with Egypt as it reduced the distance between the western ports of India to the ports of Alexanderia in Egypt. Now the whole distance could be covered in forty days. ● India's trade with Rome also increased enormously by sea as well as by land route, which is generally known as the silk route. The account of the author of Periplus of Erythean Sea and Roman historians like Pliny and Ptolemy mentioned about the trading commodities. ● Indian literature, both in Tamil and Sanskrit mentioned common items of trade were Indian spices, sandalwood, and other variety of woods, pearls, textiles of various types, sea products, metals, semi-precious stones, and animals. ● Arikamedu was an important Roman settlement and trading station. It was located close to a port, which was excavated in 1945.Romans paid for the goods mainly in gold currency. A number of hordes of Roman coins found in the Deccan and south India indicates the volume of this trade (which was in favor of India). Pliny, Roman historian mentioned that Indian trade was a serious drain on the wealth of Rome. ● The technological advancement (in terms of art & architecture as well as science & technology) of Satavahana period was pretty advanced. Southern Kingdoms During Ancient India 115 Ancient India Master Exercise 7 MCQs for Preliminary Examination 1. Which of the following Pandya king is mentioned in Silappadikaram? 8. (a) Mandara (a) Nedujeliyan (b) Kochi (b) Karikala (c) Mahabalipuram (c) Vasishthiputra Pulumayi (d) Sivaga Sindamani 2. Which of the following is a Tamil text and the earliest surviving Tamil literature work? (d) Kanchipuram 9. (a) Silappadikaram (b) Tolkkappiyam (c) Aitareya Brahmana (d) Gatha Saptashati 3. 4. 5. Which of the following dynasty issued maximum number of lead coins? (a) Pandays (b) Cheras (c) Satavahanas (d) Chalukyas (b) Tolkkappiyam (c) Tolkkappiyam (d) Tirukkural (b) Tolkappiyar (c) Tiruvalluvara (d) Yajna Satakarni (b) Kirtivarman II (c) Pulakeshin I (d) Pulakeshin II Subjective type questions for Main Who was the first Chalukyan king? Examination (a) Pulakeshini-II 1. (c) Vasishthiputra Pulumayi (d) None of the above 2. 3. Who was the founder of Pallava dynasty? (a) Mahendravarman I 4. (b) Simhavishnu (c) Aparjit (d) Aditya Chola 7. (a) Dandin (a) Mahendravarman I Which Tamil text is called Bible of Tamil land? (a) Silappadikaram Which of the following scholar who was court poet of Narsimhavarman I wrote Dasakumaracharitam in Sanskrit? 10. Who among the following Chalukyas of Badami king was killed Dantidurga (founder of Rashtrakutas dynasty)? (b) Narsimhavarman I 6. Where is the Vaikuntha Perumal temple location? 5. 6. Who among the following Pallava ruler assumed the title of Rajsimha? Answers to MCQs (a) Mahendravarman I (b) Narasimhavarman I (c) Narasimhavarman II (d) Aparjit Discuss the major stages in the evolution of architecture during the ancient period. Discuss about the socio cultural life during Sangam age. Trace the journey from rock cut temples to stone carved temples. Discuss the pros and consequences of Aryanisation of South India, which commenced during the Sangam Age. Discuss the administration of Sangam Age. Discuss the Narratives and Didactic Sangam Literature. 1. 6. (a) 2. (b) 7. (b) 3. (c) 8. (c) 4. (d) 9. (d) 5. (a) (a) 10. (b) Part - B Medieval History Introduction to Constitution & Preamble | 1 MEDIEVAL INDIA MASTER SERIES UNIT 1 Early Medieval INDIA ● Medieval period is an important period in the history of India because of the developments in the field of art and languages, culture and religion. Also the period has witnessed the impact of other religions on the Indian culture. Beginning of Medieval period is marked by the rise of the Rajput clan. ● This period is also referred to as Post-classical Era. Medieval period lasted from the 8th to the 18th century CE with early medieval period from the 8th to the 13th century and the late medieval period from the 13th to the 18th century. ● Early Medieval period witnessed wars among regional kingdoms from North and South India whereas late medieval period saw the number of Muslim invasions by Mughals, Afghans and Turks. ● By the end of the fifteenth century, European traders started doing trade and around mideighteenth century they became a political force in India marking the end of medieval period. But some scholars believe that start of Mughal Empire is the end of medieval period in India. ● For a period that has come to be so strongly associated with the Islamic influence and rule in India, Medieval Indian history went for almost three whole centuries under the so-called indigenous rulers, that included the Chalukyas, the Pallavas, the Pandyas, the Rashtrakutas, the Muslims rulers and finally the Mughal Empire. The most important dynasty to emerge in the middle of the 9th century was that of the Cholas. ● In northern India, the post-Gupta age largely comprised of an age of various small kingdoms. However, among these small kingdoms, there were three big kingdoms (between A.D. 750 and 1,000), namely − 1. Rashtrakutas, 2. Pratiharas, and 3. Palas ● All these kingdoms recurrently fought with each other and tried to gain control over northern India; however, none of them succeeded for any length of time. Struggle for Kannauj ● Kannauj was the capital of Harsha and was an important city; hence, many of the campaigns in northern India were fought over the city of Kannauj. ● Kannauj was geographically located in the northern plain; a strategic point from where it was easy to control the Ganga valley. ● Three major kingdoms were involved in this struggle to control Kannauj; Modern Historians prefer to call them ‘tripartite (i.e. three parties) struggle for Kannauj.’ The three kingdoms were the Rashtrakutas, the Pratiharas, and the Palas. Palas ● After the death of Harsha and up to the rise of the Palas, the history of Bengal is not clear. During this time, West Bengal was known as Gauda and East Bengal as Vanga. Bengal was subject to internal disorder, which has been termed as Matsyanyaya. 2 Master Series : Medieval India ● Gopala was the elected king by the people in a revolution to end the Matsyanyaya. The history of Gopala’s early life is not known. Gopala introduced peace in the kingdom and laid the foundation for the Pala dynasty. ● Dharmapala became ruler after Gopala in about A.D. 780. He undertakes the expansion of his empire. Dharmapala defeated Indrayudha, the king of Kanauj and installed his nominee Chakrayudha to the throne of Kanauj. Dharmapala held a grand darbar at Kanauj, which was attended by several kings. However, he could not consolidate his position. ● Rashtrakuta king, Dhruva defeated Dharmapala near Monghyr (Bihar) in a battle. Meanwhile Nagabhatta II, Pratihara king became more powerful. ● After Dharmapala, his son Devapala became the ruler. He was the mightiest Pala king. He conquered–Pragjotishpur (Assam) and Utkala (Orissa). ● The kings Palas dynasty ruled over Bihar, Bengal, and parts of Orissa and Assam with many ups and downs for over four centuries. Arab merchant Sulaiman testifies their power. He calls the Pala kingdom Ruhma (or Dharma), short for Dharmapala. Sulaiman mentioned that the Pala rulers were at war with their neighbors – the Pratiharas and the Rashtrakutas, but his troops were more in number than his adversaries. Sulaiman also mentioned that ‘it was usual for the Pala king to be accompanied by a force of 50,000 elephants.’ ● The Tibetan chronicles also provide detailed information about the Palas dynasties. According to Tibetan historians, Pala rulers were great patrons of Buddhist learning and religion. Dharmapala founded the famous Buddhist monastery at Vikramashila. It became eminent as Nalanda (in fame). During Pala reign, Nalanda University became famous all over the world. ● During this period, Nalanda had more than ● ● ● ● 10,000 students and teachers coming not only from different parts of India, but also from central Asia, China, South East Asia, and Sri Lanka. Nalanda University was considered as one of the biggest educational institutions of its time. It imparted education in various branches of knowledge. Dharmapala donated the royal income from two hundred surrounding villages to meet the expenses of Nalanda University. Devapala also donated income from five villages. The king of Suvarnadvipa (modern Malaya Peninsula, Java and Sumatra), Maharaja Balaputradeva erected a monastery in Nalanda and requested Devapala to donate five villages for the maintenance of that monastery. The Pala kings patronized Hinduism as well. Vinayakapala built one thousand temples in honor of the Lord Saiva. They also gave donations to Brahmans to settle in their country and run gurukuls. The powerful Sailendra dynasty of South East Asia sent many embassies to the Pala kings. They ruled over Malaya, Java, Sumatra, and neighboring islands. The Palas had close trade contacts and cultural links with South East Asia and China. The trade with South East Asia and China was very profitable and added greatly to the prosperity of the Pala Empire. Gurjara Pratiharas ● The early history of Gurjara Pratiharas is not known. Historians believe that after the Gupta period, Gurjara Pratiharas came to India from the central Asian region and settled in Rajasthan. Gradually, they gained political importance. Rulers of Gurjara Pratiharas ● The Gwalior inscription mentioned the early history of the family. The inscription was founded by King Bhoja in the 7th century. He was the most famous king of the Gurjara Pratiharas dynasty. Early Medieval India 3 ● Nagabhatta-I was the real founder of the fame of family. He defeated the Muslim forces from the Arabs. ● During A.D. 775-800, Vatsaraja followed an aggressive imperial policy. He defeated Pala King Dharmapala of Bengal. The Rashtrakuta King Dhruva defeated Vatsaraja and took away the political benefit of the defeat of Pala king. Dharmapala took advantage of the defeat of Vatsaraja and installed his own nominee Chakrayudba on the throne of Kanauj. ● Vatsaraja’s son, Nagabhatta II (A.D.815) made an alliance with Andhra, Vidharbha, and Kalinga. He made extensive preparation to fight against his rivals. Nagabhatta II first defeated Chakrayudha and captured Kanauj. Then he defeated Dharmapala and fought with Govinda-III, the Rashtrakuta king. Nagabhatta also defeated Sultan Vega who was the son of the governor of Sind under the Caliph-l Mamun. Nagabhatta-II was succeeded by his son Ramabhadra. Ramabhadra was succeeded by his son Bhoja-I about A.D. 836. ● Bhoja-I restored the falling prosperities and reputation of his dynasty. A golden opportunity to the King Bhoja-I was provided by the death of Devapala of Bengal and Rashtrakuta’s invasion of Bengal thereafter. The Rashtrakuta King, Krishna II was involved in the struggle with the Eastern Chalukyas. Bhoja-I defeated Krishna-II and captured the region of Malwa and Gujarat. After victory over two great rivals, Bhoja-I founded his sovereignty over the Punjab, Avadh, and other territories of north India and consolidated his empire. ● Bhoja-I was a devotee of Vishnu, and adopted the title of ‘Adivaraha.’ It has been inscribed in some of his coins. He is also known by other names as ‘Mihir’, ‘Prabhasa,’ etc. Bhoja-I was succeeded by his son Mahendrapala-I about A.D. 885. ● Mahendrapala-I also extended the boundaries of his empire. During his reign, the Pratihara Empire stretched almost from the Himalayas in the north to the Vindhyas in the south and from Bengal in the east to Gujarat in the west. Mahendrapala-I was also known as ‘Mahendrayudha’, and ‘Nirbhayanarendra.’ He was a liberal patron of learned men. ● Arab scholar, Al-Masudi, visited India in A.D. 915-916.Al-Masudi mentioned about the great powers and prestige of the Pratihara rulers and the vastness of their empire. Al-Masudi says that empire of AI-Juzr (Gurjara) had 1,800,000 villages, the cities and rural areas were about 2,000 km in length and 2,000 km in breadth. ● The Rashtrakuta king, Indra-II again attacked Kanauj between A.D. 915 and A.D. 918 and completely destroyed it. This weakened the Pratihara Empire. ● Krishna-III was other Rashtrakuta ruler invaded north India in about A.D. 963. He defeated the Pratihara rulers. This led to decline of Pratihara Empire. Rashtrakutas ● The Pala kings ruled in the eastern India, the Pratiharas ruled in the north India, and Rashtrakutas ruled in the Deccan. The term ‘Rashtrakuts’ literarily means officers in-charge of territorial divisions (known as Rashtras). The Rashtrakutas were the officers of Rashtra (province) under the early Chalukyas of Badami. ● Dantivarman or Dantidurga was the founder of the Rashtrakutas dynasty. He made his capital at Manyakhet or Malkhed near modern Sholapur. Dantivarman was succeeded by his uncle Krishna I about A.D. 758. Krishna-I extended his kingdom from Maharashtra to Karnataka. ● Dhruva became king in about A.D. 779. It was the opening of a new era in the history of Rashtrakutas. Dhruva was the first Rashtrakuta ruler from Deccan who had intervene in the tripartite struggle of supremacy in north India. He had defeated two powers of the North India i.e. the Pratihara king Vatsaraja and the Pala king Dharmapala of Bengal. ● Dhruva added the emblem of Ganga and Yamuna to his imperial emblem after his successful campaigns in north India. 4 Master Series : Medieval India ● Dhruva was succeeded by Govinda-III (A.D. 793-813). Govinda-III also made invasions into north India and fought successfully against the Pala king Dharmapala and Chakrayudha the ruler of Kanauj. Govinda-III shattered the union of the Ganga, Chera, Pandya, and Pallava rulers in south India. ● Govind-III was succeeded by his son Amoghavarsha-I (A.D. 814-878). Amoghavarsha-I had been ruled for 60 years. He is better known for his leanings towards religion and literature. Amoghavarsha supported Jainism. He was a patron of literature and patronized as the men of letter. Amoghavarsha wrote Kavirajamarga. It was earliest Kannada work on poetics. Amoghavarsha was a great builder. He built the capital city Manyakhet. ● The successor of Amoghavarsha were Indra-III (A.D. 915-927) and Krishna-III (939- 965). Both were the great Rashtrakuta rulers. Indra-III had defeated the Pratihara king Mahipala-I and ransacked his capital Kanauj. Arab traveler, Al-Masudi, calls the Rashtrakuta king as the greatest king of India. ● Krishna-III was the last famous king of Rashtrakuta. He struggled against the Paramaras of Malwa and eastern Chalukya of Vengi.Krishna-III also struggled against the Chola ruler of Tanjore. He reached up to Rameshwaram and built a pillar of victory and a temple there. ● The dominance of the Rashtrakutas in the Deccan is the remarkable period in the history of India.Rashtrakuta ruled more than three hundred years. They patronized Saivism and Vaishnavism. In addition, they also protected Jainism, Buddhism, and Islam. The Rashtrakuta rulers permitted the Muslim merchants to settle in their kingdom, build mosques, and preach their religion.Rashtrakuta rulers equally support Sanskrit, Prakrit, and Kannada along with Apabhramsa languages. ● Rock-cut cave temples excavated at Ellora are the symbols of Rashtrakuta’s religious toleration. They are one of the splendors of Indian arts. The Kailash temple was built by the Rashtrakuta king Krishna-I. It is a supreme piece of art. Impact of Tripartite Struggle ● This struggle exhausted all the energy and resources of the parties who involved into it. As a result a situation of vacuum developed in north India, which facilitated for the success of Turkish invasions. ● Tripartite struggle was responsible for decline of Pala’s and Rashtrakuta’s. ● No Central Authority could develop in North India for long time, so when Turks starts attacking India, there was no strong challenger and regional entities were defeated by Turks without much effort. ● An atmosphere of mutual animosity was created by Tripartite struggle among Indian rulers and they couldn’t come together even against foreign invaders. ● This struggle resulted in immense loss of men and material which adversely affected the process of socio cultural advancement. The Rajputs ● The Rajputs always insisted that they were of the Kshatriya caste and they were divided into clans.The Rajput kings belonged to ordered family, which connected them with either Early Medieval India 5 the sun-family (Suryavanshi) or the moonfamily (Chandravanshi) of ancient Indian kings. However, there were four clans who claimed that they had not descended from either of these two families, but rather from the fire-family (Agnikula). Agnikula Theory ● The poet Chand Bardai in his poetical work ‘Prithviraj Raso’ has recorded a legend that the Rajputs of Parmar, Chauhan, Pratihara and Chalukya clans sprang from Vasishta’s sacrificial fire pit at Mount Abu. This is known as the theory of Agnikula origin. Some Rajputs firmly advocate even now their ‘Agnikula origin’. Theory of Kshatriya Origin of the Rajputs ● Ethnology and tradition point to Aryan origin of the Rajputs. Although there are some similarities in the manners and customs of the Rajputs with that of the Sakas and other foreigners, these are not conclusive proofs of their foreign origin. The Asvamedha sacrifice, the practice of Sati, and the worship of Sun practice by the Rajputs are not clear marks of foreign heritage. These practices were ingrained in Hindu society. The theory of Kshatriya origin of Rajput clan has more acceptability. Theory of Foreign Origin of the Rajputs ● Some historians have suggested that the Rajputs were descendants of the Sakas, Huns, Kushanas and the Gurjaras, who became hinduized. Smith has further suggested that the invasion of the Huns and other associate foreign tribes in the fifth and sixth centuries shook the Indian society in the North to its foundation. It brought about a rearrangement of castes and ruling families. When the equilibrium was reached it was found that people belonging to many diverse races were lumped together and were called Rajputs. However, the theory of foreign origin of the Rajputs has less acceptability. Rajput Clans ● The four clans, namely − 1. Pratiharas, (or Pariharas), 2. Chauhans (or Chahamanas), 3. Solankis (or Chaulukyas), and 4. Pawars (or Paramaras). ● These four agni-kula clans established their power in western India and parts of central India. 1. The Pratiharas ruled in the region of Kanauj; 2. The Chauhans were strong in central Rajasthan; 3. Solanki power rose in the region of Kathiawar and the surrounding areas, and 4. The Pawars established themselves in the region of Malwa with their capital at Dhar near Indore. ● Rajput dynasty 1. Tomaras (early 12th century – 1165) 2. Ananga Pala (1130–1145) 3. Chauchans (1165–1192) 4. Prithviraj Chauhan (1175–1192) Principal Rajput Kingdoms ● At the time of Muslim invasions the whole of Northern India was divided into a large number of Rajput Kingdoms. The major Rajput Kingdoms were Delhi, Mewar, Kanauj, Ajmer, Bihar, Bengal, Bundelkhand, Malwa and Chedi. These Kingdoms have been discussed below in brief. Rajput Kingdom of Delhi ● At the time of Muslim invasion of India, Delhi was under the domination of the Chauhan Dynasty of the Rajputs. Formerly this state was under the rule of the Tomar dynasty, but in about 1163 A.D. the Chauhan ruler Vigraharaja conquered it from the Tomar chief. Under Vigraharaja’s successor, i.e., Prithviraj Chauhan, this state of Delhi made a rapid progress. However, in 1192 A.D. this state was conquered by Muhammad Ghori when he defeated Prithviraj Chauhan, in the Second Battle of Tarain. Mewar Kingdom ● Mewar was under the domination of the Sisodia dynasty, which continued to rule over this territory up to 1647 A.D. Its capital was Chittor. The founder of this dynasty was Bappa Rawal. However, under Rana Kumbha and his grandson Rana Sanga, Mewar made 6 Master Series : Medieval India a great progress. The former defeated the Muslim rulers of Malwa and to commemorate this conquest he built a splendid tower, known as “Vijaya Stambha” at Chittor. He was also a great scholar, musician and mighty builder. He is said to have built a large number of forts in Mewar. His grandson Rana Sanga, and Maharana Pratap (Rana Sanga’s grandson) gave a tough fight to the Mughals and taught them wisdom. Kannauj Kingdom ● In the beginning of the 9th century A.D. Kannauj came under the domination of the Pratiharas. The most important ruler of this dynasty was Mihir Bhoja (840-90 A.D.) under whose able administration Kanauj became the premier city of India. This dynasty of the Pratiharas received a great setback when Mahmud Ghaznavi attacked their empire and conquered Kanauj in 1018-19, A.D. After the retreat of the invader the Pratiharas no doubt, reoccupied Kanauj, but much of their name and fame vanished away. In about 1090 the Rathore Rajputs conquered Kanauj and thus disappeared the great Rajput dynasty of the Pratiharas. ● For about a century (1090-1194) the Rathors ruled over this great city of Kanauj. The last great ruler of this dynasty was Jai Chand Rathore who had a great enmity with his neighbour Prithviraj Chauhan of Ajmer. Their enmity gave a long sought opportunity to Muhammad Ghori to invade India. In 1191 Muhammad Ghori was defeated, but the very next year he defeated and killed Prithvi Raj Chauhan. In none of these two battles Jai Chand extended a helping hand to Prithviraj Chauhan. But he was not spared. Two years later (in 1194 A.D.) Muhammad Ghori attacked him and killed him in a battle. Thus, Jai Chand paid for his treachery. Kingdom of Ajmer ● Ajmer was under the domination of the famous Chauhan dynasty of the Rajputs. The most famous ruler of this dynasty was Prithvi Raj Chauhan, who greatly extended the boundaries of his small kingdom by his conquests. From the powerful Chandellas he conquered the territory of Bundelkhand and annexed it to his empire. His military exploits are graphically described by his court-poet, Chand Bardai in his famous book “Prithvi Raj Raso.” ● Prithvi Raj Chauhan was a very powerful and brave ruler. It is because of his chivalry and great merit that Sanyukta, the daughter of his rival Jaichand, the ruler of Kanauj, began to love him. In 1911 A.D., when Muhammad Ghori invaded India, Prithvi Raj gave him a crushing defeat at the battle of Tarain and forced him to take to his heels. Next year another battle was fought on the same battle field but this time the Rajput army was completely routed and its leader Prithviraj was captured and murdered. First Battle of Tarain ● The First Battle of Tarain (Taraori) was fought between Sultan Mohammad Ghori and Prithviraj Chauhan in 1191 near the town of Tarain in Haryana. The army of Mohammad Ghori was defeated by the Rajput army of Chauhan. ● The Western Punjab was already annexed by Mohammad Ghori. The provinces of Eastern Punjab were within the control of Prithviraj Chauhan. As an initial step, Mohammad Ghori stormed the strategic fortress of Bathinda, which was situated within the dominion of Prithviraj Chauhan. ● The fall of the fortress of Bathinda awakened Prithviraj to the gravity of the strong Mohammad’s invasion. He promised revenge and set out with an army against Mohammad. The Rajput army completely dominated the battle. In the first battle of Tarain in 1191 A.D, Prithviraj routed the Ghorid army by the prowess of his arms. ● Mohammad Ghori was badly injured and fled from the battleground. The victory at Tarain was the last flicker of the extinguishing lamp of Hindu valor. Prithviraj followed up his success by taking possession of the fort of Bathinda from the invaders. Early Medieval India 7 Second Battle of Tarain ● The Second Battle of Tarian (Taraori) was again fought between Ghurid army of Mohammad Ghori and Rajput army of Prithviraj Chauhan. The battle took place in 1192 A.D near Tarain. In this battle, Prithviraj Chauhan was defeated by Mohammad Ghori. ● In the First Battle of Tarian, Mohammad Ghori had lost the battle. After the defeat, Mohammad Ghori further prepared to strengthen his position. He reappeared in 1192 A.D. in Punjab at the head of an army of one hundred and twenty thousand men, for the conquest of Hindustan. ● This time, Mohammad Ghori had prepared his plans and strategy in advance. Mohammad recaptured Bathinda and reached the field of Tarain without meeting any serious opposition on the way. Meanwhile, Prithviraj formed a confederacy of several Hindu kings. He was aware that this time his Turkish adversary came well prepared to win victory. ● Prithviraj Chauhan blocked the passage of Mohammad Ghori in the field of Tarain. Skanda, the veteran general of Prithviraj and the hero of the first battle of Tarain was engaged in warfare elsewhere and failed to lend support to his master. In the battle that followed, Mohammad entirely routed the Hindu army by his superior generalship and tactics. ● Prithviraj Chauhan was imprisoned and executed.The Second Battle of Tarain 1192 A.D. destroyed the imperial power of the Chauhan Dynasty. The subsequent attempts of the Hindu kings to resist the Muslim tide proved futile. Muslim power was strongly founded in Northern India after the battle. Thus the Second battle of Tarain 1192 A.D. may be regarded as a turning point in India’s history. Kingdoms of Bihar and Bengal ● At the time of Muhammedan invasion of India, Bihar was ruled by the Pala dynasty, while Bengal was under the rule of the Senas. Earlier, both Bihar and Bengal were under the domination of the Pala dynasty but in the beginning of the 12th century (in about 1119 A.D.) the Senas under their ruler Vijayasena declared themselves independent in Bengal. The Pala rulers were Buddhist in their faith while the, Sena kings were orthodox Hindus. Towards the end of the 12th century A.D. (1199 A.D.) one of the generals of Muhammad Ghori, Muhammad Bin Baktiyar Khilji invaded Bengal and Bihar and annexed them to the Muslim empire. Bundelkhand Kingdom ● The Chendella dynasty of the Rajputs ruled over Bundelkhand, which was situated between the Jamuna and the Narbada. Its capital was Mahoba, while Kalinjar was its important fort. Kirtivarman was one of the greatest rulers of this dynasty. The last ruler of the Chandellas submitted to Prithviraj Chauhan and then (1203 A.D.) to Muhammad Ghori. Malwa Kingdom ● Malwa was under the rule of the Parmara dynasty of the Rajputs. Its capital was Dhara and important ruler of this dynasty was Munja (974-95 A.D.) who was a great patron of learning and was himself a poet of the highest order. But the most famous ruler of this dynasty was Bhoja (1018-60), who is up to this time remembered as the famous Raja Bhoja of Dhara. He was a great scholar and writer of many books on poetry, architecture and astronomy. He is said to have constructed a beautiful lake near Bhopal and founded a famous Sanskrit-college in his capital, Dhara. He is a great-figure both in history arid in fables. With his death the greatness of the Paramaras was also gone. Chedi (Chedi Dynasty) ● The state of Chedi was situated between the Narmada and Godavari rivers, and was ruled by the Kalachuri dynasty. The capital of this state was Tripuri, near modern Jubbulpore. Like the Chandellas, the Kalachuris were formerly subordinate to the Pratiharas but about the middle of the 10th century A.D. they asserted their independence. Towards the 8 Master Series : Medieval India beginning of the 12th century A.D. the Chedi possessions were lost to the rising dynasties of the Ganpatis of Warangal, the Yadavas of Devagiri and the Vaghela Rajputs. Feudalism in Early Medievel India ● Feudalism became an important feature of the political system of North India between 750 and 1200 AD. This was because the authority of the rulers had been limited in many ways. The ministers were appointed on the hereditary basis and became all powerful. There were numerous feudal chiefs who had ties with ruling class. ● In the local and central government these feudal chiefs had special privileges and powers which no ruler could ignore. This also led to the limited authority of the kings. The rulers were under the obligation to rule according to holy Sastras and Smirtis could not enact or amend the laws at will. Thus, rulers of this period were basically feudal lords with limited overall power. ● The basis of the sovereignty during this period was a mixture of Divine Right theory and contract theory. On the one hand the authors of treaties on polity regarded the ruler as an incarnation of Lord Vishnu. On the other hand they also held that it the people who conferred sovereignty on the ruler. So the natural duty of the ruler was to rule in the interests of the people while the duty of the people was to be loyal to him. ● A king was usually succeeded by his elder son. If a king dies without an heir the kingdom passed to the head of next in king to the ruling dynasty. There was little scope for disputed succession in this period. The powers of the king were limited in practice due to privileges and prerogatives of the feudal lords. Since he had the theoretical ownership of all the lands, the feudal lords needed his recognition but then this prerogative of the kings was limited as the feudal lords had hereditary rights. ● The king was helped in the administration by a council of ministers besides crown prince. The chief priest and the court astrologer were recruited from Brahmin while all over posts were held by feudal lords. They usually belonged to Kshatriya caste.Shudras or lower caste had no place in the political set up of the king. Administration ● The kingdom was divided into a central region directly ruled by the king and many areas or fiefs were governed by feudal lords. The central region was divided into Bhuktis or Rashtras which were under Viceroys, Vishayas under Vishayapatis and finally villages under Gramapatis. The village selfgovernment weakened during this period due to the domination of the feudal chiefs while at the same time it was best under the Cholas in the south India. ● The army consisted of royal retainers or the personal army of the king and the contingents supplied by feudal lords. This was the main reason for the lack of unity in the armies of the rulers of this period. The military service became the monopoly of Rajputs. Taxation during this period was heavier compared to earlier times. This was mainly due to heavy expenditure over the royal household and the court. There was also fighting all around for suzerainty. The burden was laid on the general public. ● There was no clear instructions for maintain justice. In the Bhuktis there was a Dandanayaka who was in charge of justice, police and prison. There is no mention of any other officer. It is likely that most of the cases were settled by caste and village panchayats. ● Some feudal chiefs were government officers who were increasingly paid not in cash but by assigning to them revenue-bearing villages. Others were defeated kings and their supporters who continued to enjoy the revenues of limited areas. Some were tribal chiefs. ● Some of them were village chiefs who had dominated the entire region. There was a definite hierarchy among these chiefs. They constantly fought against each other for supremacy. Early Medieval India 9 Medieval India Master Exercise MCQs 1. for Preliminary Examination Which empire lasted the longest among the following? (a) The Palas (c) Parantaka I (d) Govinda III 7. (b) The Pratiharas Who founded the Rashtrakuta dynasty? (a) Dantidurga (c) The Rashtrakutas (b) Dhruva (d) The Senas 2. 1 (c) Govinda III Who founded the Pala empire? (d) Indira III (a) Devapala 3. (b) Dharmapala Subjectve type questions for (c) Dhruva Main Examination (d) Gopala 1. How far it is correct to say that during the period from 500 A.D to 750 A.D, the strength and vigor of India lay behind Vindhya’s? 2. Why tripartite struggle was fought and assess its impact on the Indian history? 3. Write a short note on: Who founded the Vikramashila University? (a) Devapala (b) Dharmapala (c) Dhruva (d) Gopala 4. (a) Kannauj Who was the founder of the Sena dynasty? (b)Origin of the Rajputs (a) Ballal Sena Answers to MCQs (b) Hemanta Sen (c) Lakshman Sen (d) Vijay Sen 5. Who laid the foundations of the Pratihara empire? 1. 6. (b) 4. (b) 5. (a) 2. The Pala Empire originated from 8th to 12th century. It was a dynasty which controlled Bihar and Bengal regions of South Asia. Gopala ruled from 750-770 AD. 3. Vikramashila University was one of the two most important centres of Buddhist learning in Who defeated the Pratihara empire? (b) Krishna III 3. The Rashtrakutas (755-975 AD) were of Kannada origin and Kannada language was their mother tongue. (d) Krishna III (a) Aditya I (d) (a) 1. (b) Mahendrapala 6. 2. 7. Hints: (a) Bhoja (c) Mahipala (c) (b) 10 Master Series : Medieval India India during the Pala empire, along with Nalanda University. 4. Hemanta Sen titled himself king in 1095 AD. 5. The Pratiharas was also known as GurjaraPratiharas. Bhoja was a king of medieval India, who ruled the kingdom of Malwa in central India. 6. The Pratihara empire declined after Mahipala who was the grandson of Bhoja. This empire was defeated by the Rashtrakuta King Krishna III in 915 AD. 7. Dantidurga was the founder of the Rashtrakuta Empire of Manyakheta. His capital was based in Gulbarga region of Karnataka. Introduction to Constitution & Preamble | 11 MEDIEVAL INDIA MASTER SERIES UNIT 2 Delhi SULTANATE ● The real founder of the Muslim Empire in India was Shihabuddin Muhmmad Ghori or Muhammad of Ghur. It is true that Muhammad Bin Qasim was the first Muslim invader of India but he failed to carve out a Muslim empire in India on account of his premature death. Mahmud of Ghazni also failed to set up a Muslim Empire in India and the only permanent effect of his invasion was the annexation of the Punjab. It was left to Muhammad Ghori to build up a Muslim empire in India on a secure footing. Mahmud of Ghazni ● In 998 AD, the Turkish conqueror, Mahmud of Ghazni, succeeded his father, and established a huge empire in Central Asia, with capital at Ghazni, the present-day South Kabul in Afghanistan. For 17 times, he attacked India during the period between 1000 and 1027 AD, a significant event in the history of India. ● Mahmud of Ghazni had started his invasions in India during the period when the Rajput power had declined. The main reason that led to the conquest of India by Mahmud Ghazni was, to accumulate the vast amount of wealth that existed in India. ● In 1001 Mahmud defeated Jayapala, a Hindushahi king who ruled from Peshawar and in 1008-09 Mahmud defeated Anandapala, son of Jayapala in Battle of Waihind. In 1027 AD, he invaded the Somnath temple of Gujarat, on the coast of Saurashtra or Kathiwar. This was supposed to be his biggest invasion as he had looted all treasures and precious items of the fortified temple. He had completely destroyed the Somnath temple. ● Though Mahmud was destructor for the Indians, but in his own country, he was a builder of a beautiful mosque and a large library. Al-Baruni accompanied Mahmud to India with his army and Firdausi was a poet in the court of Mahmud. Al-Baruni wrote Kitab-ul-hind and Firdausi wrote Shahnama. Mahmud Ghazni died in 1030 A.D. Mohammad Ghori ● His real name was Muizuddin Mohammad bin Sam. In 1173, he ascended the throne at Ghazni and started moving towards India around 1175. He entered into India through Gomal pass and conquered Multan and Uchch. ● Ghori was more ambitious than Mahmud, as he was not only interested in robbing wealth of India, but also intended in conquering northern India and adding it to his kingdom. ● In 1191 A.D Mohammad Ghori met Prithvi Raj Chauhan III in the first battle of Tarain. Mohammad Ghori was severely wounded and outnumbered. He was defeated and left the battlefield. In the very next year in 1192 AD both the armies met again at Tarain. This time Mohammad defeated Prithvi Raj Chauhan. ● According to some sources then Prithvi Raj Chauhan III ruled as subordinate ruler over Ajmer for some time but after some time executed in conspiracy charge. In 1194 A.D Mohammad Ghori defeated Jaichand, ruler of Kannauj in Battle of Chandawar and killed 12 Master Series : Medieval India him. He deputed Qutub-ud-din Aibak as in-charge of Indian possessions’. Mohammad Ghori died in 1206AD. The Slave Sultans (AD. 1206-1290) ● After Muhammad Ghori’s death, Slave Sultans were ruled India. Mamluks were the earliest rulers of the Delhi Sultanate. They are also known as the Slave Kings because many of them were either slaves or were the sons of slaves and became Sultans. It is wrong to call the dynasty as slave because out of the nine rulers of this dynasty only three Qutubuddin Aibak, Iltutmish and Balban had governed long before assuming sovereign powers. The term Mameluq signifies a slave born of free parents but the connotation of slavery, nevertheless persists. They all belonged to except Qutubuddin Aibak belonged to the Ilbari tribe of Turks. Qutb-ud-din Aibak (1206-1210) ● The first of the slave kings was Qutb-ud-din Aibak, who was the general of Muhammad Ghori. After the death of Ghori, Qutb-ud-din stayed in India and established his kingdom. Fig. 2.1. Slave Dynasty ● Qutubbudin began his reign with the modest title Malik and Siphasalar that had been conferred upon him by Muhammad Ghori. During his brief reign of 4 years he did not make any fresh conquests because his entire attention was devoted to the establishment of law and order and strengthening of his army of occupation. Aibak died in 1210 AD.He earned the title of Lakh Baksh. Iltutmish (1210-1236) ● Real founder of Delhi Sultanate Iltutmish was the greatest of the slave kings. He was the real founder of the Sultanate. At the time of Qutubbudin’s death he was the governor of Badaun. He made Delhi the capital of his empire. He devoted the first 10 years of his reign to securing his throne from rivals. He defeated other nobles in 1216-17 AD and thus made his position secure. ● The reign of Iltutmish saw the decline of Lahore and the rise of Delhi. Delhi gradually became the greatest centre of learning and culture in India. ● The Delhi Sultanate owes the outlines of its administrative system to Iltutmish. He organized the Revenue and Finance departments. He got completed the famous Qutub Minar near Mehrauli in Delhi in the year 1231-32 AD. A magnificent mosque was also built by the orders of the Sultan. Although Iltutmish had many sons but all of them were incompetent. He appointed his daughter Raziya as his successor. ● In 1221, he saved Delhi Sultanate from the wrath of Mongol leader Changez Khan, by refusing shelter to Khwarizm Shah, whom Changez Khan was chasing. Iltutmish was the first sultan of Delhi to get a Letter of Investiture (Mansur) from the Abassid Caliph of Baghdad, the significance of this letter was quite big i.e. the region is ruled by Caliph himself and no one is authorized to attack. ● He completed the construction of Qutub Minar and issued silver Tanka and copper Jittal coins. He devised Iqtadari sysyem and head of Iqta was Muqti. He patronized Minhaj-us-siraj, the author of Tabaqat-iNasiri. Iltutmish deviated from the normal Delhi Sultanate 13 practice of choosing his eldest surviving son as successor and declared Raziya as the next Sultan of Delhi. Raziya (1236-1240) ● Raziya is the first and the last woman ruler of medieval India. She assumed the title of sultan and did her best to play the part of a man. Her reign lasted for 3 years and six months. She aimed at removing the uncalled for interference and influence of Turkish chiefs on administration. She discarded Purdah and began to adorn the attire of the male. Raziya tried to concentrate power in her own hands and succeeded. This provoked serious opposition that took the shape of a protest against her. ● Alauddin Masud Shah also met the same fate of Bahram Shah who succeeded Raziya’s successor. Bahram Shah was weak and incompetent ruler and was overthrown by the nobles after a brief reign of 2 years. ● In 1246 AD Nasiruddin Mahmud the grandson of Iltutmish ascended the throne. He owed his throne to the Turkish aristocracy and the latter was bound to have tremendous influence in the administration. He placed all his powers in the hands of Prime Minister Balban and In 1249, he conferred Balban the title of Ulugkhan. In 1266 Nasiruddin Mahmud died. Ghiyasuddin Balban (1266-1287) ● Balban sat on the throne of Delhi in 1266 AD and adopted the name of Ghiyasuddin Balban. With his accession the line of rulers of the family of Iltutmish ended. He started the era of strong centralized government. He increased the power and position of sultan. He introduced Persian ceremonies and etiquettes in his court and allowed no manner of levity here. ● Balban fought against the local rulers who troubled him. His biggest problem was the nobles who had become very powerful and were threatening the position of the Sultan. Slowly but firmly, Balban broke their power and finally the position of the Sultan became all-important. Balban’s success was integrated into his strategic administrative policy. He successfully changed the organization of the army and curbed the revolt of the nobles. Kingship Theory of Balban ● The main elements of this theory include: 1. He broke the power of Chahalgani and restored the prestige of crown. 2. He organized the spy system and created a strong centralized army to deal with internal as well as external disturbances. 3. He laid the great stress on genealogy and claiming himself as the descendent of mythical Turkish hero Afrasiyab. 4. He assumed the title of Zill-i-illahi (shadow of god) and Niyabat-i-Khudai (god’s vice regent on earth. 5. He introduced the Persian etiquettes like Sijda (prostration before the monarch) and Paibos (Kissing the feet of king). Sijdah, horrified the orthodox Muslims. According to Muslims belief, “all men are equal, and therefore, no one should do the sijdah before anyone else except God”. 6. He established the military department Diwan-i-Arz. 7. He also started the Nauroj (Persian New Year) festival and became the first Indian ruler to do so. ● Balban did not try to extend his empire although he had a strong army. He instead concentrated on consolidating the territory already in possession. He suppressed the revolts in the Doab and Oudh and tracked down elements in Rohilkhand.The Mongols invaded again in 1279 and 1285 but were defeated and driven away. In 1286 the Mongols reappeared and this time Prince Muhammad was killed. Balban could not recover from this tragedy and died in 1286 AD. Muiz-ud-din Qaiqabad ● He was succeeded by his grandson Qaiqabad. He was inefficient and incapable. Jalaluddin Khilji placed himself at the head of a powerful 14 Master Series : Medieval India faction and routed the Turkish amirs. He eventually murdered him and seized the throne. ● During the Sultanate period, there was the problem of the local Indian rulers who had been conquered. Sultans had taken territories of some rulers and some others were allowed to keep it.The rulers who were allowed to keep their territories paid a sum of money as a tribute and agreed to help the Sultan with military support when required. ● Sultanate had also problems from the northwest, for example, the rulers of Afghanistan were quiet, but the Mongol people of Central Asia, led by Chenghiz Khan, made fresh conquests. Khalji Dynasty (1290-1320) Jalal-ud-din Khalji (1290-1296) coming of the Khaljis to power was more than a dynastic change. Their ascendency is known as the Khalji Imperialism/Revolution because with the accession of Jalaluddin Khalji on the throne of Delhi the supremacy of the Turks ended in India. ● Rise of Khalji is known as Khalji Revolution. Revolution refers to large scale sudden changes often accompanied with violence i.e. violent changes. Khalji were considered to be low origin people, they came to power in 1290 by killing descendants of Balban, so situation was violent. Principle of aristocracy established by Balban shattered, idea of Divine origin was no more. Khalji said that crown must be based on ability not by descendancy. ● Jalaluddin ascended the throne at the age of 70 years and the weakness of the old age affected his attitude and activities. He was lenient in his treatment of rebels. He even adopted a conciliatory policy towards the Mongols. He allowed some of the Mongols to settle in India. ● Jalaluddin’s ambitious nephew Alauddin who succeeded Malik Chajju at Kara began to establish an independent kingdom for himself. In 1292 AD he attacked Bhilsa and Malwa. On his return he was made the governor of Avadh in addition to that of Kara. In 1294 AD he defeated Ram Chandra Deva the ruler of Devagiri. He invited Jalaluddin to Kara where he was murdered by Alauddin Khalji. Alauddin Khalji (1296-1316) Fig. 2.2. Khalji Dynasty ● Jalal-ud-din Khalji was the founder of the Khalji Dynasty. He came to power after the over throw of the Slave dynasty. Thus, the ● In 1296 AD, Alauddin was proclaimed sultan in his camp. He marched to Delhi from Kara and assumed power at Delhi. His first task after assuming power at Delhi was the elimination of the surviving members of the former sultan’s family including his son Arkhali Khan. He also exterminated the old Balbani and Jalali nobles. ● He was the first Turkish sultan of Delhi who separated religion from politics. His theory was known as “Kingship knows no Kinship”. Jalaluddin policies were benevolent and basesd on non-expansionist, so many provincial rulers freed themselves. Delhi Sultanate 15 ● Thus, it became important for Alauddin to win those areas back. In Deccan Alauddin army was led by his slave Malik Kafur and defeated Yadva’s of Devagiri, Kakitya’s of Warangal and Pandya’s of Madurai during 1306-1311 AD. Somnath temple was again ransacked by Alauddin Khalji. ● He was the only sultan who went into the causes of revolts and rebellion such as: 1. The inefficiency of Spy system. 2. General practice of consumption of liquor. 3. Matrimonial alliances among the nobles. 4. Excess of wealth in the hands of people. ● So, to curb all these and make administration system efficient, he gave certain directions/ ordinances: He believed that defense, expansion and consolidation could all go together. ● By the end of 1305 AD the whole of northern India fell into the hands of Alauddin and he directed his energies to the conquest of Deccan. Between 1307 and 1312 he began the southward expansion of his empire. He invaded Devagiri in 1306-07. The immediate causes for this was unduly long delay in sending the annual tribute. ● In 1309 the Kakatiya kingdom was attacked. The next expedition was against Vira Ballala III the Hoysala ruler in 1311. Alauddin had to face more than dozen invasions. These invasions started from the end of 1296 AD and continued up to 1308 AD. 3. Prohibition on alcohol consumption. ● The Mongols threatened Punjab, Multan and Sindh but also the Ganga Yamuna Doab. This grave crisis compelled him to take strong measures for the protection of the northwest frontier. The twenty years rule of Alauddin came to an end with his death in 1316 AD. 4. Nobles should not have social gathering and they will not inter marry without Sultan’s assent. ● He was the first Sultan of Delhi to have a central standing army. He introduced the practice of Huliya (description of the soldiers) and Dagh (branding of horses). He established the market control department under a minister Diwan-i-Riyasat. He fixed the prices of grains, clothes and common commodities much below the market rate. The markets were looked individually by Shahana-i-Mandi. ● Hindu’s were required to pay Jizya. He introduced the measurement of land with a view to ascertaining the amount of land in possession of each cultivator. He declared himself as Sikande-i-Sani, second Alexander. The reign of Alauddin Khalji marks the zenith of the power of the Delhi Sultanate. Since the death of Iltutmish no serious attempts had been made to annex new territories to the Sultanate. He broke this tradition and inaugurated a whirlwind period of conquests. ● On the death of Alauddin Khalji his general Malik Kafur (1315 AD) set aside the claims of the heir apparent Khizr Khan and crowned the infant son of late Sultan Shihabuddin Umar (1316 AD) and himself became his regent. Soon another son of the sultan murdered Kafur and ascended the throne as Qutubuddin Mubarak Shah Khalji (13161320 AD). He tried to win the goodwill of the people after ascending the throne. He repealed Alauddin’s economic regulations. The lands that were confiscated were given back to their legitimate owners. Taxes were lowered. He was murdered by his Wazir Khusro. Khusro (1320 AD) ascended the throne in 1320 and took the title of Nasiruddin Khusro Shah. He was killed by Ghazikhan, governor of Dipalpur. Thus, Khalji dynasty came to an end. 1. Confiscation of the religious endowments and land free from grants. 2. Re-organisation of the spy system. ● Amir Khusrau and Amir Hasan resided in his court. Amir Khusrau is also known as parrot of India. He constructed the Alai Darwaza, Siri fort and Hazar situn (palace of thousand pillars). 16 Master Series : Medieval India Tughlaq Dynasty (1320-1414) Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq (1320-1324) ● Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq laid the foundation of the Tughlaq dynasty. The Tughlaq was the personal name of the Ghiyasuddin. According to some scholars the Tughlaqs belonged to the race of Qarauna Turks. for the assessment of land revenue. He attempted to improve the finances of the state and pursued a policy to encourage agriculture. His twin object was to increase land under cultivation and improve economic condition of the cultivators. He took keen interest in the construction of canal for irrigation and formulated famine policy to provide relief to peasants in time of drought. The state demand of revenue was fixed between 1/5th and 1/3rd of the produce. He further instructed that the land revenue should not be enhanced more than 1/11th of the estimated produce. ● He put down revolts of Hindus in the Doab and in the neighborhood of Delhi while those who had offered opposition to Khusru were taken in the state service and granted jagirs. In 1321 he dispatched crowned prince Jauna Khan to re-establish Sultan’s authority in the south. In 1325 when Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq was returning after concluding his military campaign in Bengal, Prince Jauna Khan raised a wooden pavilion at Afghanpur village near Delhi to welcome the Sultan. The pavilion, under which the sultan was received, collapsed suddenly crushing the sultan under its debris. Muhammad Bin Tughlaq (1324-1351) Fig. 2.3. Tughlaq Dynasty ● Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq had to face numerous problems as the sultan. There were riots in various parts of the empire and the royal treasury was empty. He pursued a policy of reconciliation with the nobles and the people who were severely restricted under Alauddin. He liberalized administration in certain respects. He attempted to improve the finances of the state and perused a policy to encourage agriculture. ● He liberalized administration in certain respects. He gave up the practice of physical torture in case of economic offences and recovery of debts. He also discarded Alauddin’s system of measurement of land ● Jauna Khan ascended the throne in 1325 with the title of Muhammad Bin Tughlaq. He ruled up to 1351.He was the most remarkable sultans of Delhi. He was a profound scholar of Persian, a critic, a litterateur of repute and master of rhetoric. ● He preferred to depend on his own intellect rather than on traditional interpretation of the Ullema. Thus he offended the orthodox Muslim ullema by curbing their political influence. Different Scholars have divergent estimates of his character. ● During Muhammad Bin Tughlaq reign rebellions, famines and epidemics followed in such intermittent succession as they conformed to a pre-determined plan to subject him to trial and ultimate failure. ● To promote public welfare he sought to introduce many reforms. But some of them Delhi Sultanate 17 were so novel and revolutionary in character that the people failed to realize their significance so that instead of helping them to make them success they offered a determined opposition. ● He imparted new orientation to state system through his ideas, innovations and reforms. Monarchical despotism reached its climax, nobody dare to challenge the Sultan. State assumed secular nature under his rule, even Holi celebrated in his court. Nobles were appointed on the basis of merit not by descendancy. Infact, potpourri nobility was created by him for the first time. ● He was the most learned Sultan of Delhi, but he lacked practical judgments. He created agricultural department called Diwan-i-Kohi. He initiated a number of reforms and some projects undertaken by him are as follows: 1. Transfer of Capital in 1327-28 from Delhi to Daultabad, according to Ibn Batuta (Moroccan Traveller) Sultan wanted to punish people of Delhi because they use to write him offensive letters, Capital was retransferred to Delhi in 1335-36. The transfer was attempted primarily due to two reasons -for its central location and secondly its close proximity to the south which was a newly conquered region. The transfer of capital involved the shifting of the army, officials, servants, tradesmen, court and shift of population. There was a widespread resentment against the Sultan who decided to retransfer the capital to Delhi. The order of going back to the old capital caused much distress to the people. 2. Introduction of Token Currency in 1329, this project failed because design of coins was simple and duplicate coins start emerging.The main reason for this measure was the scarcity of silver. This measure proved useful in the beginning but later on it caused serious problems. People soon began to manufacture counterfeits of bronze in large numbers. There was a surfeit of coins in circulation. This naturally led to its depreciation and most people began to prefer copper tankas for payments and silver or gold issues for receipts. The Sultan was compelled to withdraw the token currency. He offered to exchange all the token coins for the silver coins resulting in huge losses to the treasury. 3. Abandoning Khurasan Expedition in 1332-1333. He raised an army of 3,70,000 soldiers and gave it a whole year’s salary in advance. But the army did not leave for the expedition and was disbanded. The scheme was abandoned when the Sultan learnt that the conditions in Iraq had improved and was not conducive to an expedition. 4. Qarachil Expedition in the next year, it was successful campaign, but soldiers while returning to Delhi, died due to many reasons. 5. Taxation was increased in doab region upto 50% of the produce in 1333-1334. He decided to enhance the land tax in the doab because of richness of its soil. Doab was facing total famine which was followed by plague. The Sultan raised the tax from 5 to 10%. Therefore the peasants instead of paying the taxes abandoned their lands and adopted highway robbery. The tax collectors continued to collect taxes by oppression. It resulted in extensive revolts. ● He issued maximum number of coins among the Delhi Sultans, so called as Prince of Moneyers. He faced maximum number of rebellions among Delhi sultans, out of them two are important which led to the formation of Vijayanagar Kingdom (1336) and Bahamani Kingdom (1349). ● Muhammad Bin Tughlaq had to face a number of revolts. The first rebellion took place in 1326 and by 1351when the Sultan died in pursuit of a rebel he had to deal with as many as 34 rebellions, 27 of them in the south alone. The areas affected ranged from Multan in the northwest to Bengal in the 18 Master Series : Medieval India east and Malabar in the south. While going to Thatta in Sindh to punish Taghi the rebel, Muhammad Bin Tughlaq died in 1351. Firoz Shah Tughlaq (1351-1388) ● Firoz Shah Tughlaq succeeded Muhammad Bin Tughlaq. He lacked the temperament and courage of a successful ruler. He failed to recover the areas that had been lost to the sultanate. He started his reign with liberal ideas. He tried to please the nobles and set to ameliorate the distress caused to the people during the long and troubled reign of Muhammad Bin Tughlaq. Therefore, Firoz first established a friendly relation with them and made them happy by giving them, grants or revenue. ● Firoz extended the principal of heredity to the army. Soldiers were allowed to rest in peace and to send in their place their sons. The soldiers were not paid in cash but by assignments on land revenue of villages. This novel technique of payment led to many abuses. He declared that whenever a Noble dies, his son should be allowed to succeed. ● Firoz, further, allowed the orthodox ulema to influence state policy in certain matters. Thus, Firoz improved his relationship with the powerful groups at the court; however, in spite of all these, the power of the Sultan decreased. ● He tried to ban practices with the orthodox theologians considered un-Islamic. Thus, he prohibited the practice of Muslim women going out to the tombs.He tried to win over the theologians proclaiming that he was a true Muslim king and the state under him was truly Islamic.He imposed Jizya on Brahmans for the first time. ● He erected canals for the irrigartion purpose. He established employment as well as charity bureau. He createdDiwan-i-Khairat (Department for poor and needy people) and Diwan-i-Bundagan (Department of slaves). Firoz was interested in improving the general welfare of his subjects. ● He improved parts of the kingdom by starting new irrigation schemes. The Yamuna Canal ● ● ● ● was one of his schemes. Firoz also established a few new towns, such as Ferozpur, Ferozabad, Hissar-Firoza, and Jaunpur. Firoz also constructed many educational centers and hospitals. He was interested in the ancient culture of India. Firoz order to translate a number of Sanskrit books into Persian and Arabic languages.Firoz also owned two of the pillars of the emperor Ashoka and one of them was placed on the roof of his palace.He wrote his autobiography Futuhut-i-Firojshahi. In September 1388, Firoz died, after which there was a civil war among his descendants. Because of the political instability, the governors of many provinces became independent kings and finally only a small area around Delhi remained in the hands of the Tughluq Sultans. He led two campaigns into Bengal but was unsuccessful in both. Bengal was thus lost to the Sultanate. He also led a campaign against the ruler of Jajnagar in Orissa. He also dealt with rebellions in Gujarat and Thatta. Although the rebellions were crushed the army suffered great hardship due to losing its way in the Rann of Kutch. But, his reign was a period of peace and quiet development. When Firoz Tughlaq died in 1388 a civil war broke out among his successors. His grandson took up the title of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq II succeeding Firoz Tughlaq. Within a year he fell victim to intrigue and beheaded in 1389.For next five years 3 sultans Abu Bakr, Muhammad Shah and Alauddin Sikander ruled. In 1390 Nasiruddin enthroned himself. He was the last sultan of the dynasty and ruled from 1390 to 1412.During his reign Timur the great Mongol leader of Central Asia invaded India. Timur’s invasion dealt a fatal blow to the Tughlaq dynasty and the Sultanate of Delhi. Nasiruddin died in 1412. Sayyid Dynasty (1414-1451) ● By 1413, the Tughlaq dynasty ended completely and local governor occupied Delhi Delhi Sultanate 19 and given way to Sayyid Dynasty.In 1398, Timur, the Turkish chief invaded India and robbed Indian wealth. While returning back, he appointed Khizr Khan as the governor of Delhi. Khizr Khan (1414-1421) ● Khizr Khan had taken Delhi from Daulat Khan Lodhi and founded Sayyid dynasty in 1414. Sayyid dynasty ruled Delhi until 1451. He claimed himself as the descendent of Prophet Muhammad. Mubarrak Khan ● In 1421, Khizr Khan died, hence, his son Mubarrak Khan succeeded. Mubarrak Khan represented himself as ‘Muizz-ud-Din Mubarak Shah’ on his coins.Mubarak Shah crushed the local chiefs of the Doab region and the Khokhars. He is first Sultan ruler to appoint Hindu nobles in the court of Delhi. He constructed “Mubarakbad” City on the banks of the river Jamuna. ● Mubarrak Khan ruled till 1434 and he was succeeded by his nephew Muhammad Shah. Muhammad Shah ruled till 1445. He conferred Bahlul Lodhi with the title Khan-i-Khanan for helping in defeating the ruler of Malwa. ● Muhammad succeeded by Ala-ud-din Alam Sham, who ruled till 1451. In 1451, Bahlul Lodhi became the Sultan and founded the Lodhi dynasty. Lodhi Dynasty (1451-1526) Bahlul Lodhi (1451-1489) ● Bahlul Lodhi was the founder of Lodhi Dynasty.The Lodhi Dynasty is the last ruling dynasties of the Sultanate period.He was a wise statesman who knew his limits.He took various measures to gratify his nobles. ● He conquered Etawa, Gwalior, Mewat, Sakit, and Samthal. He died in 1489 A.D.Bahlul Lodhi was a wise ruler, he never sat on the throne and he used to sit on the carpet in front of the throne with his nobles to gain their recognition and support. Fig. 2.4. Lodhi Dynasty Sikandar Lodhi ● Sikandar Lodhi (1489-1517 AD) was the son of Bahlul Lodhi. He swore the title Sikandar Shah and ascended the throne. He set up a well-organized spy system. He developed agriculture and industry. ● It was Sikandar Lodhi who founded Agra city in 1504 and moved capital from Delhi to Agra. Sikandar Lodhi, further, abolished the corn duties and patronized trade and commerce in his kingdom. ● He was an orthodox Muslim. He put severe restrictions on the Hindus. Sikandar Shah enjoyed “Shehnai” Music. A work on music names “Lahjati-Sikandar Shahi” was created during his reign. Ibrahim Lodhi ● Ibrahim Lodhi succeeded Sikandar Lodhi. He was an intolerant and adamant ruler. He had humiliated many nobles and killed some nobles cruelly. He also treated his son Dilwar Khan Lodhi cruelly. ● Daulat Khan, the most powerful noble of Punjab, who was discontented with Ibrahim Lodhi, invited Babur the ruler of Kabul to 20 Master Series : Medieval India invade India.Babur invaded India and defeated Ibrahim Lodhi in the first battle of Panipat in 1526 A.D. The Sultanate Administration ● Administration was based on Islamic laws. A Theocratic and a Military State. The government established by the Turks was a compromise between Islamic political ideas and institutions on the one hand and the existing Rajput system of government on the other. Consequently many elements of the Rajput political system with or without changes became part and parcel of the Turkish administration in India. Most of the Sultans kept up the pretense of regarding the caliph as the legal sovereign while they themselves were the caliph’s representatives. ● Most of them included the name of the caliph in the Khutba and the Sikka and adopted titles indicative of their subordination to the caliph. Three rulers emphasised their own importance. Balban used to say that after the Prophet the most important office was that of the sovereign and called himself the Shadow of God. ● Muhmmad bin Tughlaq assumed this style during the early years of his reign and although Balban had retained the name of the caliph in the Khutba and Sikka, he made no mention of caliph anywhere. Despite all this neither of them had the power to call himself the caliph. ● The only person who had done this was Qutubuddin Mubarak Khalji. Only three Sultans sought and secured a mansur or letter of investiture from the caliph. The first among them was Iltutmish. Next Muhmmad bin Tughlaq tried to pacify the ulema by securing an investiture from the Abbasid Caliph in Egypt. ● After him Firoz also sought and secured it twice. According to Islamic ideals essential attributes of a sovereign required that he should be a male adult suffering from no physical disability, a freeborn Muslim having faith in Islam and acquainted with its doctrines and he should be elected by the people. ● There were several violations of the prescribed criteria as Raziya was raised to throne despite her being a woman. Minority proved no bar in the case of Mohammad bin Tughluq. Alauddin Khalji admitted his ignorance of the Sharia but nobody questioned him. In the framing of new rules and regulations the authority of the Sultan was circumscribed and every ruler could not govern the kingdom in complete disregard of the advice of the ulema or theologians as Alauddin Khalji and Muhammad Tughluq had been able to do. ● The power of the nobility also blunted their authority to some extent. When there was a weak ruler on the throne the nobles and the ulema particularly dominated him but during the reign of Balban, Alauddin Khalji and Muhammad Tughluq these checks proved ineffective. The sultans were not powerful enough to rule the land in complete disregard of the sentiments of the Hindus. ● Local Administration: The village was the smallest unit of administration.The village administration was carried out by local hereditary officers and the Panchayats. The Panchayat looked after education, sanitation, justice, revenue etc.The Central Government did not interfere in the village administration. ● Revenue Administration: Land revenue was the main source of income. The Wazir was the most important minister in Sultanate administration, initially he dealt with the finance matters only but later he became in-charge of every branch of administration. Turks after conquering the country divided it into number of tracts called Iqtas, which were given to nobles. The holders of the office were called Walis. It were these which later became province or Subas. Sultanate of Delhi charged many taxes, some of the important are as follows: 1. Zakat: The religious taxes were collectively called as Zakat. Muslims were charged1/40th of one’s property. 2. Jizya: This was the tax levied on Non- Muslims in return for the protection of their life and property. Delhi Sultanate 21 3. Kharaj: It was the land tax levied from NonMuslims. ● Judicial Administration: The Sultan was the highest judicial authority.Qazi-ul-quzar – the Chief Judicial officer.A Quazi was appointed in every town.Criminals were punished severely. Diwan-i-risalat was presided by chief qazi and it dealt with religious matters. ● Military Administration: The Sultan was the Commander of the army. Amir was the in-charge of royal guards of sultan and commander of army.Arz-i-Mamalik was the head of military department.Barids were the intelligence agents appointed by rulers in different parts of empire to keep themselves aware about each and every activity. The four divisions of the army were: 1. The Royal army 2. Provincial or Governor’s army 3. Feudal army and 4. War Time army ● Province were followed by the Shiqs and below them were the Pargan. It was headed by Amil, most important people of village were called as Muqaddam. Nobles ● During the sultanate period, the nobles played a powerful role. Sometimes, they even influenced state policy and sometimes (as governors), they revolted and became independent rulers or else usurped the throne of Delhi. ● Many of these nobles were Turkish or Afghani, who had settled in India. Some of the nobles were men who came to India only in search of their fortune and worked for the Sultan. ● After Ala-ud-din Khilji, Indian Muslims and Hindus were also appointed as officers (nobles). The Sultan followed the earlier system of granting the revenue from a piece of land or a village to the (noble) officer instead of paying them salary. Society ● The caste system formed the basis of the society as in earlier periods but now the kshatriyas and the Brahmins were given more privileges while more and more social and religious disabilities were placed on the sudras and other lower castes. ● A large number of sub castes such as potters, weavers, goldsmiths, musicians etc proliferated. They were classified as jatis now. Most of the workers were classified as untouchables. ● Women continued to be denied the right to education. The age of marriage for girls was further lowered. They were kept in seclusion and their lives were regulated by the male relations –fathers, brothers and husbands. The practice of sati seems to have spread widely and was made even obligatory at some places. The custom of sati was widespread in the higher castes. ● The attitude of higher classes became very rigid. They tended to isolate themselves from all scientific thought. Buddhism almost disappeared from the land of its origin. There was a marked revival and expansion of Hindusim. ● There was a growing popularity of Shiva and Vishnu cults. A number of popular movements arose around the worship of these gods. In the eastern India, a new form of worship arose. This was the worship of Sakti or female creator of the universe. Economy ● A very important development of the period was the rise of a self-sufficient village economy where production was according to the local requirements with little attempts at producing a surplus to be used for trade or exchange. ● This existing system led to accepting the standard of minimum production since the incentive to improve production was absent. As a result pressure on peasantry was increased and production remained at a subsistence level only. 22 Master Series : Medieval India ● The subsistence economy of the village led to decline in trade. Trade was further hampered by the emergence of wide range of local weights and measures making long distance trade more difficult. The unstable political conditions and internal fighting in India only helped this process of decline in trade. ● This decline in trade affected the growth of towns. In coastal areas and Bengal towns however prospered because they continued to trade with West Asia and South East Asia. The only prosperous class in north India during this period was feudal lords. But the surplus wealth was not invested in trade or craft production. It was on the other hand used for conspicuous consumption. The huge amounts were given to temples also thus attracting outsiders. ● The people were mainly involved in agriculture and industry. Textile industry was the primary industry. Paper Industry, metal work, pearl diving, ivory and sandal works, stone cutting, Sugar industry were the other industries of this period. Indian textiles were in great demand in foreign countries. Bengal and Gujarat were famous for their quality fabrics. Cotton, woollen and silk of different varieties was produced in large quantities. The clothes had gold, diamonds, pearls, silver and stone works. Architecture under the Sultanate ● The Turkish rulers utilized the services of the local designers and craftsmen who were among the most skilful in the world. The new fusion that started to take place avoided the extreme simplicity of the Islamic architecture and the lavish decoration of the earlier Indian architecture. ● Among the first buildings to be erected were the mosques at Delhi and Ajmer by Qutbddin Aibak. The mosque built in Delhi was called the Quwwatul Islam mosque (Refer Fig 2.5 (a)). It measured about 70x30 meters. The central arch of this mosque which is decorated with beautiful sculptured ● ● ● ● calligraphy still stands and is about 17 meters high and about 7 metres wide. The successor of Qutbuddin, Iltutmish was a great builder. He extended the mosque. He also completed the building of the Qutb Minar (Refer Fig 2.5 (b)) which had been started by Qutbuddin and now stood in the extended courtyard of the mosque.This is a tower rising to a height of about 70 meters and is one of the most renowned monuments of India. The next important buildings belong to the reign of Alauddin Khalji. He enlarged the Quwwatul Islam mosque still further and built a gateway to the enclosure of the mosque, the Alai Darwaza. Decorative element was introduced to beautify the building. He also started building a minar which was designed to be double the height of Qutb Minar but the project remained unfulfilled. The Tughlaqs concentrated on the building of new cities in Delhi like Tughlaqabad, Jahanpanah and Ferozabad. A number of buildings was erected which differed in their style from the earlier buildings. Massive and strong structures like the Tomb of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq and the walls of Tughlaqabad were built. The buildings of the Tughlaq period were significant from the point of view of the development of architecture. They were not beautiful but massive and very impressive. Delhi Sultans had a great taste for architecture. Architectures were a blend of Indian and Islamic styles. The three well developed styles were: 1. Delhi or Imperial Style 2. Provincial Style 3. Hindu architectural style (a) Cont... Delhi Sultanate 23 by Mahmud of Ghazni. He learnt Sanskrit and translated two Sanskrit works into Arabic. He was impressed by the Upanishads and Bhagavat Gita. In his work Tarikh-ulHind, he had mentioned the socio-economic conditions of India. Amir Khusrau (b) Fig. 2.5. (a) Quwwatul Islam mosque (b) Qutb Minar Literature ● The Sultanate of Delhi period witnessed some great scholars and some are:Alberuni, Amir Khusrau, Zia-ul-Barani, etc. ● Many Sanskrit works were translated into Arabic and Urdu language originated during the Sultanate period. Alberuni ● An Arabic and Persian Scholar patronized ● He was a great Persian poet. He is said to have written four lakh couplets. He was a great singer and was given the title ‘Parrot of India’. Impact of Turkish Conquest ● The Turkish conquest of India had its impact on various fields. It paved way to a centralized political organization.It re-established relations with the rest of Asia and parts of Africa. A permanent army was established. ● Trade was established due to the uniform legal system, tariff regulations and currency. Persian became the court language and brought uniformity in the administration. 24 Master Series : Medieval India Key Terms in Medieval Indian History Term Amils Bargir Dam Dhimmis Din Diwan Diwan-i-Arz Diwan-i-Insha Diwan-i-Kul Meaning Revenue Cavalrymen Coin Non-Muslims people Religion Function of finance Ministry of Military affairs Ministry of Royal correspondence Wazir or Chief imperial fiscal minister Diwan-i-Risalat Religious Affairs Diwan-i-Wizarat Department of Finance Faujdar In charge of Sarkar Ganj A grain market Gomashta Commercial agent Hun A gold coin Hundis Bills of Exchange Ibadat Khana House of Worship Khalisa Land revenue directly for imperial treasury Khots Village head Khums Tax on plunder Khutba A sermon made in Friday mosque Madad-i-Massh Tax free grants of land Malfuzat Saying of Sufi saint Mamluk White slaves Mir Bhakshi Military department Mir Saman Supply department Misl Sikh regions Term Muquaddam Nagaram Nankar Pargana Qanungos Sabha Sadr Us Sadur Sarkar Shaikhzadas Sharia Shiqdar Sondhar Subhas Tankah Umara Ummah Ur Vimans Waqf Watandar Wilayat Wujuhat Zabt Zawabit Meaning Village head Assembly of Merchants in Chola Period Portion of revenue given to Zamindar Around hundred village Caretaker of revenue records Assembly of Brahmins in Chola period Ecclesiastical affairs Administrative unit or Units of Paragana Indian Muslims nobility Muslim law Head of Administrative unit Loans Provinces Silver coin Collective term of nobility Muslim believer Common village assembly in Chola Period Towers of Temple Grants to Muslim religious establishments Desais and Deskmukh Spiritual territory of a Sufi Taxes on cattle Revenue based on land measurement Non-Shariat State laws Delhi Sultanate 25 Medieval India Master Exercise MCQs 1. for Preliminary Examination Consider the following statements: 4. 1. Qutub-ud-Din Aibak was the first Sultan and Ibrahim Lodhi, the last Sultan. (b) It was a religious tax on Muslims for their development. (c) It was an agriculture tax on Peasants. Which of the above statements are/is correct? (a) Only 1 (d) None of these 5. Consider the following features: (b) Only 2 1. Feudal state; (c) Both 1 and 2 2. Military state; (d) Neither 1 nor 2 3. Islamic laws; Consider the following match: Which of the above are features of Delhi sultanate administration? 1. Diwan-i-Bandagan 2. Diwan-i-Kohi 3. Diwan-i-Insha Department of slaves Department of agriculture Department of correspondence Which of the above match are correct? (a) Only1 (a) 1 and 2 (b) 1 and 3 (c) 2 and 3 (d) All of these Subjectve type questions for Main Examination (b) Only 2 (c) 1 and 3 1. Discuss the features of Politico administration system during Turko-Afghan period. 2. What were the problems faced by Balban and how far did he succeed in solving them with his Theory of Kingship? 3. Present a critical and comparative account of nature of Kingship under Sultan Balban and Alauddin Khalji. 4. Alauddin Khalji was a typical despot. Discuss. 5. Mohammad Bin Tughlaq contradictory qualities were beyond the knowledge grasp and common sense. Evaluate the significance of his administrative measures and policies in light of this statement. (d) All of the above 3. What is meant by Jaziyah in Medieval times? (a) It was a religious tax on Non-Muslims. 2. The Sultans of Delhi ruled over India from 1206 A.D. to 1526 A.D. 2. 2 Consider the following match: 1. Diwan-i-bandagan 2. Diwan-imustakharaj 3. Diwan- i-kohi Firuz shah Tughluq Alauddin Khiiji Muhammad bin Tughluq Which of the above match are correct? (a) Only1 (b) Only 2 (c) 1 and 3 (d) All of the above 26 Master Series : Medieval India 6. Discuss the features administration. of Delhi 7. How far can you say that Delhi Sultanate was centralized authority? Throw the light on its departments. 8. Discuss Delhi administration. Sultanates Sultanate 9. How was the administration of Delhi Sultanate organised? 10. Examine the features of Provincial administration of Delhi Sultanate. Answers to MCQs local 1. (c) 2. (d) 3. (d) 4. (a) 5. (d) Introduction to Constitution & Preamble | 27 MEDIEVAL INDIA MASTER SERIES UNIT 3 Mughal DYNASTY ● Mughal is deformed version of Mongol; these were the Mongol’s who later became Mughal’s. Mughals belonged to a branch of the Turks called Chaghtai, which is named after the second son of Chingez Khan, the famous Mongol Leader. intentions, he wanted to become Badshah of India. ● Muslim dynasty of Turkic-Mongol origin ruled most of northern India from the early 16th to the mid-18th century and it continued to exist as a considerably reduced and powerless entity until the mid-19th century. ● The Mughal dynasty was known for its more than two centuries of effective rule over much of India, for the ability of its rulers, who through seven generations maintained a record of unusual talent, and for its administrative organization. Another notable work of Mughal’s is their attempt to integrate Hindus and Muslims into a united Indian state. ● The dynasty was founded by Babur after his victory over Lodi’s in the first Battle of Panipat. Babur feel proud in calling himself a Turk, than Mongol because Turkish culture was far superior and better in many ways than Mongol culture. He claimed himself as the descendent of Timur from his father’s side and Changez Khan from his mother’s side. Babur (1526-1530) ● He was the founder of Mughal dynasty in India. He was invited to attack India by Daulat Khan Lodi (Subedar of Punjab), Ibrahim Lodi’s Uncle Alam Khan Lodi and Rana Sanga of Mewar but he had some other Fig. 3.1. Area under Babur ● He attacked India and defeated Ibrahim Lodi in First Battle of Panipat on April 21, 1526. He was the first one to entitle himself as ‘Padshah’. He took keen interest in development of gardens. He wrote Tuzuk-iBabri or Babarnama in Turkish, later it was translated into Persian during Akbar’s reign by Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan. ● He died in 1530 first buried in Arambagh at Agra, roughly nine years later his body was taken to Kabul and buried there simultaneously. ● Babur fought four battles: 1. First Battle of Panipat in 21 April 1526, in which Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi. 28 Master Series : Medieval India 2. Battle of Khanwa in 1527, in which Babur defeated Rana Sanga of Mewar. 3. Battle of Chanderi in 1528, in which Babur defeated Medini Rai. 4. Battle of Ghaghra in 1529, in which Babur defeated joint forces of Afghans and Sultan of Bengal. (a) First Battle of Panipat ● On 20th April 1526, the First Battle of Panipat, was fought between Babur and the Ibrahim Lodi Empire (ruler of Delhi). The battle took place in north India (Panipat) and marked as the beginning of the Mughal Empire. ● The first battle of Panipat was one of the earliest battles in which gunpowder firearms and field artillery were used. However, Babur said that he used it for the first time in his attack on the Bhira fortress. Ibrahim Lodi met Babur at Panipat with the force estimated at 100,000 men and 1,000 elephants. ● Babur had crossed the Indus with a force of merely 12,000; however, in India, a large number of Hindustani nobles and soldiers joined Babur in Punjab. In spite of Indian army support, Babur’s army was numerically inferior. ● Babur made a master plan and strengthened his position. He ordered one of his army wings to rest in the city of Panipat, which had a large number of houses. Further, he protected another wing by means of a ditch filled with branches of trees. ● On the front side, Babur lashed with a large number of cans, to act as a defending wall. Between two carts, breastworks were erected so that soldiers could rest their guns and fire. Babur used the Ottoman (Rumi) device technique, which had been used by the Ottomans in their well-known battle against Shah Ismail of Iran. ● Babur had also invited two Ottoman mastergunners namely Ustad Ali and Mustafa. Ibrahim Lodi, however, with huge army men, could not assume the strongly defended position of Babur. Ibrahim Lodi had apparently expected Babur to fight a mobile mode of warfare, which was common with the Central Asians. Babur’s gunners used their guns strategically with good effect from the front; however, Babur gave a large part of the credit of his victory to his bowmen. ● After the seven or eight days fight, Ibrahim Lodi realized Babur’s strong position. Further, Lodi’s forces were also hesitant to fight with Babur’s modern technological warfare. Ibrahim Lodi battled to the last with a group of 5,000 to 6,000 forces, but he (Lodi) had been killed in the battle field. It is estimated that more than 15,000 men (of Lodi kingdom) were killed in the first battle of Panipat. (b) Battle of Khanwa ● On March 17, 1527, the Battle of Khanwa was fought near the village of Khanwa (about 60 km west of Agra). It was fought between the first Mughal Emperor Babur and Rajput ruler Rana Sanga. The Rajput ruler, Rana Sanga, was the great threat for Babur to establish a strong Mughal empire in the Indo-Gangetic Valley, as Sanga planned to expel Babur from India or else confined him at Punjab. ● Babur had an authentic reason to accuse Rana Sanga i.e. of breach of an agreement. In fact, Sanga invited him (Babur) to India with a promise to fight with him against Ibrahim Lodi, but he (Rana) refused. The battle of Khanwa was aggressively fought. As Babur reported, Sanga had more than 200,000 men including 10,000 Afghan cavalrymen, supported with an equal force fielded by Hasan Khan Mewati. ● Babur’s strategy, in the battle ground, was highly technical; he ordered his soldiers (who had been sheltering behind their tripods) to attack in the center. Thus, Sanga’s forces were hemmed in, and finally defeated. Rana Sanga escaped from the battle field. Later he (Rana) wanted to renew the conflict with Babur, but he was poisoned by his own nobles. Mughal Dynasty 29 ● The Battle of Khanwa strengthened Babur’s position in the Delhi-Agra region. Later, Babur conquered the chain of forts including Gwalior, Dholpur, east of Agra, etc. Babur also conquered Alwar from Hasan Khan Mewati and Chanderi (Malwa) from Medini Rai. Chanderi was captured after killing almost all the Rajput defenders men and their women performed jauhar (it was the custom of self-immolation of queens and royal female of the Rajput kingdoms). (c) Battle of Ghaghra ● Eastern Uttar Pradesh, which was under the domination of the Afghan chiefs had submitted their allegiance to Babur, but internally planned to throw it off at any time. ● Nusrat Shah, the ruler of Bengal, who had married a daughter of Ibrahim Lodi, had supported the Afghan sardars. ● The Afghans had ousted the Mughal officials in eastern Uttar Pradesh and reached up to Kanauj many times, but their major weakness was the lack of a competent leader. ● Afghan leaders invited Mahmud Lodi. He (Mahmud Lodi) was a brother of Ibrahim Lodi and also had fought against Babur at Khanwa. The Afghan leaders welcomed him as their ruler, and congregated strength under his leadership. ● The Afghans, under Mahmud Lodi’s leadership, was a great threat for Babur, which he (Babur) could not ignore. At the beginning of 1529, Babur left Agra for the east and he faced the combined forces of the Afghans and Nusrat Shah of Bengal at the crossing of the Ghagra River. ● While Babur was fighting with the Afghans (in the east), he received a message i.e. crisis situation in Central Asia. Thus Babur decided to conclude the war with an agreement with the Afghans. He made a vague claim for the suzerainty over Bihar, and left the large parts in the Afghan’s hands. ● On 26 December, 1530, when Babur was returning to Kabul (Afghanistan) died near Lahore. Significance of Babur’s Conquest The significance of Babur’s advent into India are as follows: (a) Geo-strategic Significance ● Kabul and Qandhar had always acted as staging places for an invasion in India, Babur’s advent made Kabul and Qandhar the integral parts of an empire comprising north India. Babur and his successors strengthen the India security from an external invasion, which were persistent from the last 200 years. (b) Economic Significance ● Geographically Kabul and Qandhar positioned in the trade route; therefore, the control of these two regions strengthened India’s foreign trade. Babar attempted to re-establish the prestige of the Crown, which had been eroded after the death of Firuz Tughlaq. Reasons of India Conquest ● Abul Fazl, the contemporary historian said that “Babur ruled over Badakhshan, Qandhar, and Kabul which did not yield sufficient income for the requirements of his army; in fact, in some of the border territories, the expense on controlling the armies and administration was greater than the income”. ● Babur was also always remained apprehensive about an Uzbek attack on his territory Kabul, and hence, considered India to be a safe place of refuge, as well as a suitable base for operations against the Uzbeks. ● Babur was a great statesman and a man of solid achievements. He was also a great scholar in Arabic and Persian languages. Turki was his mother tongue. He wrote his memoirs, Tuzuk-i-Baburi in Turki language. ● Babur groomed himself to his begs by his personal qualities. He was always prepared to share the hardships with his soldiers. Babur was fond of wine and good company and was a good and cheerful companion. At the same time, he was a strict disciplinarian and a hard taskmaster. ● Babur took good care of his army and other employees, and was prepared to excuse many of their faults as long as they were not disloyal. Cont... 30 Master Series : Medieval India ● ● ● ● Though Babur was an orthodox Sunni, but he was not prejudiced or led by the religious divines. Once, there was a bitter sectarian conflict between the Shias and the Sunnis in Iran and Turan; however, in such a condition, Babur’s court was free from theological and sectarian conflicts. Though Babur declared the battle against Rana Sanga a jihad and assumed the title of ‘ghazi’ after the victory, but the reasons were noticeably political. Babur was master of Persian and Arabic languages, and is regarded as one of the most famous writers in the Turkish language (which was his mother tongue). Babur’s famous memoirs, the Tuzuk-i-Baburi is considered as one of the classics of world literature. His other popular works are Masnavi and the Turkish translation of a well-known Sufi work. Babur was a keen naturalist, as he described the flora and fauna of India in considerable details. Babur introduced a new concept of the state, which was to be based on − 1. The strength and prestige of the Crown; 2. The absence of religious and sectarian bigotry; and 3. The careful fostering of culture and the fine arts. ● Babur, with all these three features (discussed above), provided a precedent and a direction for his successors. Humayun (1530-1540 and 1555-1556) ● Humayun succeeded his father Zahir-ud-din Mohammad Babur, but as per the Timurid tradition he was forced to share power with his brothers. Thus, Sulaiman was given to Badakshan, Qamran inherited Kandhar and Kabul while Askari received Sindh. At the age of 23, Humayun was an inexperienced ruler when he came to power. ● Humayun faced a formidable opponent Sher Shah Suri and lost the Mughal territories to this Pashtun Noble, after having the taste of two defeats, in Battle of Chausa in 1539 and in Battle of Bilgram(Kannauj) in 1540. ● Defeat at Kannauj compelled Humayun to leave India. He fled to the refuge of Safavid Empire in Persia, where Persian King Shah Tahmasp welcomed him and treated him like a royal visitor. After the death of Sher Shah Suri in 1545, Humayun conquered Qandhar and re-established his control over Kabul with the help of Shah Tahmasp. ● He defeated the forces of Sikander Sur and occupied Agra and Delhi in 1555. Thus, Humayun regained his Empire 15 years later with Safavid aid. Humayun’s return from Persia was accompanied by a large number of Persian noblemen and signaled an important change in Mughal court administration, art and culture. ● The Central Asian dynasty, hence was largely overshadowed by the influences of Persian art, architecture, language and literature. There are many stone carvings and thousands of Persian manuscripts in India dating from the time of Humayun. Humayun constructed a citadel at Delhi, named Din-Panah. ● His sister Gulbadan Bano Begum wrote his biography Humayun-nama. His wife Hamida Banu Begum built his tomb at Delhi, which is known as Humayun tomb after his death in 1556. He fell from the stairs of his library (Sher mandal) and succumbed to injuries. It is double arched tomb, inner arch to provide strength to structure and outer arched to provide aesthetic look. Sur Dynasty (1540-1555) ● Sher Shah was the founder of Sur Dynasty. His original name was Farid. He was the son of Hasan Khan, a Jagirdar of Sasaram in Bihar. He was given the title Sher Khan for his bravery under the Afghan Rule of Bihar. Sher Shah Sur (1540-1545) ● Sher Shah spent his childhood with his father and remained actively involved in the affairs of his father’s Jagir. Because of this, he learned rich administrative knowledge and experience. ● Sher Shah was very intelligent, as he never let any opportunity to go in vain. The Mughal Dynasty 31 defeat and death of Ibrahim Lodi and the misunderstanding in Afghan affairs let Sher Shah emerge as the most important Afghan sardars (of that time). ● In the course of the conflict, the Maldeo was killed after a courageous resistance. His sons, Kalyan Das and Bhim, took shelter at the court of Sher Shah. ● In 1544, the Rajput and Afghan forces clashed at Samel (located between Ajmer and Jodhpur). While invading different Jagirs of Rajasthan, Sher Shah had taken the great precautions; at every step, he would throw up entrenchments to guard against a surprise attack. After the battle of Samel, Sher Shah besieged and conquered Ajmer and Jodhpur, forced Maldeo into the desert. ● Merely in 10 months of ruling period, Sher Shah overran almost the entire Rajasthan. His last campaign was against Kalinjar; it was a strong fort and the key to Bundelkhand. ● During the Kalinjar campaign (1545), a gun burst and severely injured Sher Shah; the incident took, Sher Shah’s life. Sher Shah was succeeded by Islam Shah (his second son), who ruled till 1553. Fig. 3.2. Sher Shah Suri Empire ● Because of his smart skill set and administrative quality, Sher Shah became as the right hand of the ruler of Bihar. After killing a tiger, the patron of Sher Shah adorned him the title of ‘Sher Khan.’ ● As a ruler, Sher Shah ruled the mightiest empire, which had come into existence (in north India) since the time of Muhammad bin Tughlaq. Sher Shah’s empire was extended from Bengal to the Indus River (excluding Kashmir). In the west, he conquered Malwa, and almost the entire Rajasthan. ● Maldeo, the ruler of Marwar, ascended the gaddi (kingdom) in 1532, and in a short span of time, took the control of whole of western and northern Rajasthan. He further expanded his territories during Humayun’s conflict with Sher Shah. ● Islam Shah was a competent ruler and general, but most of his energies were lost in controlling the rebels raised by his brothers. Besides, rebels of tribal feuds also pulled Islam Shah’s attention. ● Islam Shah’s death (November 1554) led to a civil war among his successors. The civil war created a vacuum that ultimately provided an opportunity to Humayun to recover empire of India. In 1555, Humayun defeated the Afghans, and recovered Delhi and Agra. ● Sher Shah Sur’s conquests include Bundelkhand, Malwa, Multan, Punjab, and Sind. His empire occupied the whole of North India except Assam, Gujarat, Kashmir, and Nepal. Administrative Works ● Sher Shah re-established law and order across the length and breadth of his empire. Sher Shah placed considerable emphasis on justice, as he used to say, “Justice is the most excellent of religious rites, and it is 32 Master Series : Medieval India approved alike by the king of infidels and of the faithful”. ● Sher Shah did not spare oppressors whether they were high nobles, men of his own tribe or near relations. Qazis were appointed at different places for justice, but as before, the village panchayats and zamindars also dealt with civil and criminal cases at the local level. ● Sher Shah dealt strictly with robbers and dacoits. Sher Shah was very strict with zamindars who refused to pay land revenue or disobeyed the orders of the government. Economic and Development Works ● Shah borrowed many ideas like the branding of horses from Alauddin Khalji. Sher Shah had also developed the communications by laying four important highways: 1. Sonargaon to Sind 2. Agra to Burhampur 3. Jodhpur to Chittor 4. Lahore to Multan ● Sher Shah paid great attention for the promotion of trade and commerce and also the improvement of communications in his kingdom. He reinstated the old imperial road known as the Grand Trunk Road, from the river Indus in the west to Sonargaon in Bengal. ● He also built a road from Agra to Jodhpur and Chittoor, noticeably linking up with the road to the Gujarat seaports. He built a separate road from Lahore to Multan. At that time, Multan was one of the central points for the caravans going to West and Central Asia. For the convenience of travelers, Sher Shah built a number of sarai at a distance of every two kos (about eight km) on all the major roads. ● The sarai was a fortified lodging or inn where travelers could pass the night and also keep their goods in safe custody. Facility of separate lodgings for Hindus and Muslims were provided in the sarai. Brahmanas were appointed for providing bed and food to the Hindu travelers, and grains for their horses. ● Abbas Khan Sarwani (who had written ‘Tarikh-i-Sher Shahi’ or history of Sher Shah) says, “It was a rule in the sarai that whoever entered there, received provision suitable to his rank, and food and litter for his cattle, from the government.” ● Sher Shah also made efforts to settle down villages around the sarai, and the land was set apart in these villages for the expenses of the sarai. Sher Shah built about 1,700 sarai; some of them are still existing, which reflect how strong these sarai were. Over a period of time, many of the sarai developed into qasbas (market-towns) where peasants flocked to sell their produce. Sher Shah’s roads and sarai have been called as “the arteries of the empire.” These development works strengthened and fasten the trade and commerce in the country. ● In Sher Shah’s entire empire, customs duty was paid only at two places: the goods produced in Bengal or imported from outside paid customs duty at the border of Bengal and Bihar at Sikrigali and goods coming, from West and Central Asia paid custom duty at the Indus. No one was allowed to levy custom duty at roads, ferries, or town. The duty was paid a second time at the time of sale. ● Sher Shah instructed his governors to compel the people to treat merchants and travelers well and not to harm them in any way. If a merchant died, no one to seize his goods. ● Depending on the territoriality, Sher Shah made the local village headmen and zamindars responsible for any loss that the merchant suffered on the roads. If the goods of a merchant were stolen, the headmen and/ or the zamindars had to produce them, or to trace the haunts of the thieves or highway robbers, failing which they had to undergo the punishment meant for the thieves and robbers. ● Sher Shah’s currency reforms also promoted the growth of commerce and handicrafts. For the trade and commerce purpose, Sher Shah made an attempt to fix standard weights and measures across his empire. Mughal Dynasty 33 Administrative Division Though his rule lasted for only 5 years, he has organized an excellent administrative system. The king was aided by four important ministers: 1. Diwan –i- Wizarat or Wazir – in charge of Revenue and Finance 2. Diwan-i-Ariz – in charge of Army 3. Diwan-i-Rasalat – Foreign Minister 4. Diwan-i-Insha – Minister for Communications ● Sher Shah’s empire was divided into forty seven Sarkars. Each Sarkars was further divided into various Parganas and in charge of various officers. 1. Shiqdar – Military Officer 2. Amin – Land Revenue 3. Fotedar – Treasurer 4. Karkuns – Accountants ● ● ● ● ● 5. Iqtas – various administrative units Under Sher Shah, the land revenue administration was well organized.Land survey was sensibly done. All cultivable lands were classified into three classes – good, middle and bad. The state’s share was one third of the average produce and it was paid in cash or crop. Sher Shah introduced new silver coins called “Dam” and they were in circulation till 1835. Police was competently restructured and crime was less during his regime. A number of villages comprised a Pargana. The Pargana was under the charge of the Shiqdar, who looked after law and order and general administration, and the Munsif or Amil looked after the collection of Land revenue. Above the Pargana, there was the Shiq or Sarkar under the charge of the Shiqdar-iShiqdran and a Munsif-i-Munsifan. Accounts were maintained both in the Persian and the local languages (Hindavi).Sher Shah apparently continued the central machinery of administration, which had been developed during the Sultanate period. Most likely, Sher Shah did not favor leaving too much authority in the hands of ministers. ● Sher Shah worked exceptionally hard, devoting himself to the affairs of the state from early morning to late at night. He also toured the country regularly to know the condition of the people. ● Sher Shah’s excessive centralization of authority, in his hands, has later become a source of weakness, and its harmful effects became apparent when a masterful sovereign (like him) ceased to sit on the throne. ● The produce of land was no longer to be based on the guess work, or by dividing the crops in the fields, or on the threshing floor rather Sher Shah insisted on measurement of the sown land. ● Schedule of rates (called ray) was drawn up, laying down the state’s share of the different types of crops. This could then be converted into cash on the basis of the prevailing market rates in different areas. Normally, the share of the state was one-third of the produce. ● Sher Shah’s measurement system let peasants to know how much they had to pay to the state only after sowing the crops. ● The extent of area sown, the type of crops cultivated, and the amount each peasant had to pay was written down on a paper called patta and each peasant was informed of it. ● No one was permitted to charge from the peasants anything extra. The rates which the members of the measuring party were to get for their work were laid down. ● In order to guard against famine and other natural calamities, a cess at the rate of two and half seers per bigha was also levied. ● Sher Shah was very solicitous for the welfare of the peasantry, as he used to say, “The cultivators are blameless, they submit to those in power, and if I oppress them they will abandon their villages, and the country will be ruined and deserted, and it will be a long time before it again becomes prosperous”. ● Sher Shah developed a strong army in order to administer his vast empire. He dispensed with tribal levies under tribal chiefs, and recruited soldiers directly after verifying their character. 34 Master Series : Medieval India ● The strength of Sher Shah’s personal army was recorded as: 1. 150,000 cavalry; Akbar married Hira Kunwari, who was a Kachhwaha princess, later she took the name Jodha Bai. 2. 25,000 infantry armed with matchlocks or bows; 3. 5,000 elephants; and 4. A park of artillery. ● Sher Shah set up cantonments in different parts of his empire; besides, a strong garrison was posted in each of them. ● Sher Shah also developed a new city on the bank of the Yamuna River near Delhi. The sole survivor of this city is the Old Fort (Purana Qila) and the fine mosque within it. ● One of the finest nobles, Malik Muhammad Jaisi (who had written Padmavat in Hindi) was the patron of Sher Shah’s reign. Religious View ● Sher Shah did not, however, initiate any new liberal policies. Jizyah continued to be collected from the Hindus. Sher Shah’s nobility was drawn exclusively from the Afghans. Sher Shah remained a pious Muslim and generally tolerant towards other religions.He also employed Hindus in important offices.The old fort called Purana Qila and its mosque was built during his period. He also built a Mausoleum at Sasaram, which is considered as one of the master pieces of Indian architecture.The famous Hindi work Padmavat by Malik Muhammad Jayasi was written during his reign. In 1545, Sher Shah died and his successors ruled till 1555 later which Humayun reconquered India. Akbar (1556-1605) ● Jalal-ud-din Muhamad Akbar popularly known as Akbar was the third Mughal Emperor who ruled from 1556 to 1605. He was crowned at the age of 14 at Kalanaur(Punjab) in 1556. He ruled for the next 4 years under regent Bairam Khan, who helped the young emperor to expand and consolidate Mughal domains in India. ● He defeated the Hemu, wazir of Adil Shah Suri in Second Battle of Panipat in 1556. Fig. 3.3. Area under Akbar ● Akbar sent Raja Man Singh of Amber to confront Maharana Pratap of Mewar in historic Battle of Haldighati in 1576, in which Akbar was victorious. At the time of Akbar there were five leading states of Deccan i.e. Khandesh, Bijapur, Golconda,Bidar, Berar. He faced rebellion in Gujarat in 1572, which was crushed. ● He built Buland Darwaza in Fatehpur Sikri, in memory of victory over Gujarat. His last campaign was against Asirgarh (Khandesh). Second Battle of Panipat ● Hemu first seized Agra, and with an army of 50,000 cavalry, 500 elephants and a strong park of artillery marched towards Delhi.In a well-contested battle, Hemu defeated the Mughals near Delhi and captured the city. But Bairam Khan took an energetic and smart step to meet the critical situation. Bairam Khan strengthened his army marched towards Delhi before Hemu could have time to consolidate his position again. Mughal Dynasty 35 ● On 5 November, 1556, the battle between the Mughals (led by Bairam Khan) and the Afghan forces (led by Hemu), took place once again at Panipat. Though Hemu’s artillery had been captured by a Mughal force, the tide of battle was in favor of Hemu. Meanwhile, an arrow hit in the eye of Hemu and he fainted. Hemu was arrested and executed. Akbar had virtually reconquered his empire. Bairam Khan’s Regency ● Bairam Khan remained at the helm of affairs of the Mughal Empire for almost next four years and during this period, he kept the nobility fully under control. The territories of the Mughal Empire were extended from Kabul (in the north) to Jaunpur (in the east) and Ajmer (in the west). Mughal forces captured Gwalior and vigorous efforts were made to conquer Ranthambhor and Malwa. ● Over a period of time, Akbar was approaching the age of maturity. On the other hand, Bairam Khan became arrogant and had offended many powerful persons and nobles of Mughal court (as he held supreme power). Many of the nobles complained to Akbar that Bairam Khan was a Shia, and that he was appointing his own supporters and Shias to high offices, while neglecting the old nobles. ● The charges against Bairam Khan were not much serious in themselves, but he (Bairam Khan) became egoistical, and hence failed to realize that Akbar was growing up. In fact, there was friction on a petty matter, which made Akbar realize that he could not leave the state affairs in someone else’s hands for any more. ● To control Bairam Khan, Akbar played his cards cleverly. He left Agra on the pretext of hunting, and came Delhi. From Delhi, Akbar issued a farman (summon) dismissed Bairam Khan from his office, and ordered all the nobles to come and submit to him personally. ● The farman made Bairam Khan realize that Akbar wanted to take power in his own hands; so, he was prepared to submit, but his opponents were keen to ruin him. They heaped humiliation upon him until he was goaded to rebel. ● The rebellion distracted the empire for almost six months. Finally, Bairam Khan was forced to submit in Akbar’s court; Akbar received him cordially, and gave him the option of serving at the court (anywhere), or retiring to Mecca. Bairam Khan chose to retire to Mecca. On his way to Mecca, he was assassinated at Patan near Ahmadabad by an Afghan who bore him a personal grudge. ● Bairam Khan’s wife and a young child were brought to Akbar at Agra. Akbar married Bairam Khan’s widow (who was also his cousin), and brought up the child as his own son. Bairam Khan’s child later became popular as Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan and held some of the most significant offices and commands in the Mughal Empire. Akbar’s Theory of Kingship ● Divine origin of monarchy was the important element of Akbar’s theory of kingship. The Emperor was considered as the representative of God on earth. He adopted the title Zill-iillahi to emphasize the same. ● Monarchial despotism of very high order was also an important feature. The power and prestige of crown was so high that no one could dare to challenge the authority of King. ● Hereditary succession was emphasized by Akbar, and this practice was established to such a level that even during weak rulers, no noble could dare to sit on the throne. ● The doctrine of Sulh-i-Kul was another feature. It has been interpreted as the ideas of universal peace and tolerance. ● Impartial justice to all without any discrimination. Every section of population was treated equally. ● Welfare outlook of state and progress of people was considered as important responsibility of State by Akbar. ● Secular State System was another feature under Akbar’s reign. 36 Master Series : Medieval India Akbar’s Administrative System ● Though Akbar adopted Sher Shah’s administrative system, he did not find it that much beneficial hence he had started his own administrative system.In 1573, just after returning from Gujarat expedition, Akbar paid personal attention to the land revenue system. Officials called as ‘Karoris’ were appointed throughout the north India. Karoris were responsible for the collection of a crore of dams (i.e. Rs. 250,000). ● In 1580, Akbar instituted a new system called the Dahsala; under this system, the average produce of different crops along with the average prices prevailing over the last ten (dah) years were calculated. However, the state demand was stated in cash. This was done by converting the state share into money on the basis of a schedule of average prices over the past ten years. ● Akbar introduced a new land measurement system (known as the Zabti system) covering from Lahore to Allahabad, including Malwa and Gujarat. Under the Zabti system, the shown area was measured by means of the bamboos attached with iron rings. The Zabtisystem, originally, is associated with Raja Todar Mal (one of the nobles of Akbar), therefore, sometimes, it is called as Todar Mal’s Bandobast. Todar Mal was a brilliant revenue officer of his time. He first served on Sher Shah’s court, but later joined Akbar. Besides Zabti system, a number of other systems of assessment were also introduced by Akbar. The most common and, perhaps the oldest one was ‘Batai’ or ‘Ghalla-Bakshi.’ ● Under Batai system, the produce was divided between the peasants and the state in a fixed proportion. The peasants were allowed to choose between Zabti and Batai under certain conditions. However, such a choice was given when the crops had been ruined by natural calamity. Under Batai system, the peasants were given the choice of paying in cash or in kind, though the state preferred cash. ● ● ● ● In the case of crops such as cotton, indigo, oilseeds, sugarcane, etc., the state demand was customarily in cash. Therefore, these crops were called as cash-crops. The third type of system, which was widely used (particularly in Bengal) in Akbar’s time was Nasaq. Most likely (but not confirmed), under the Nasaq system, a rough calculation was made on the basis of the past revenue receipts paid by the peasants. This system required no actual measurement, however, the area was ascertained from the records. The land which remained under cultivation almost every year was called ‘Polaj’. When the land left uncultivated, it was called ‘Parati’ (fallow). Cess on Parati land was at the full (polaj) rate when it was cultivated. The land which had been fallow for two to three years was called ‘Chachar,’ and if longer than that, it was known as ‘Banjar.’ The land was also classified as good, middling, and bad. Though one-third of the average produce was the state demand, it varied according to the productivity of the land, the method of assessment, etc. Akbar was deeply interested in the development and extension of cultivation; therefore, he offered Taccavi (loans) to the peasants for seeds, equipment, animals, etc. Akbar made policy to recover the loans in easy installments. Administrative Units ● Akbar followed the system of the Subhah, the Pargana, and the Sarkar as his major administrative units. Subhah was the top most administrative unit, which was further sub-divided into Sarkar. Sarkar (equivalent to district) was constituted of certain number of Parganas and Pargana was the collective administrative unit of a few villages. ● The chief officer of Subhah was Subedar. The chief officers of the Sarkar were the Faujdar and the Amalguzar. The Faujdar was in-charge of law and order, and the amalguzar was responsible for the assessment and collection of the land revenue. Mughal Dynasty 37 ● The territories of the empire were classified into Jagir, Khalisa and Inam. Income from Khalisa villages went directly to the royal exchequer. The Inam lands were those property, which were given to learned and religious men. The Jagir lands were allotted to the nobles and members of the Royal family including the queens. ● The Amalguzar was assigned to exercise a general supervision over all types of lands for the purpose of imperial rules and regulations and the assessment and collection of land revenue uniformly. ● Akbar reorganized the central machinery of administration on the basis of the division of power among various departments. During the Sultanate period, the role of wazir, the chief adviser of the ruler, was very important, but Akbar reduced the responsibilities of wazir by creating separate departments. ● Akbar assigned Wazir as head of the revenue department. Thus, he was no longer the principal adviser to the ruler, but an expert in revenue affairs (only). However, to emphasize on Wazir’s importance, Akbar generally used the title of Diwan or Diwan-iala (in preference to the title Wazir). ● The Diwan was held responsible for all income and expenditure, and held control over Khalisa, Jagir and Inam lands. ● The head of the military department was known as the Mir Bakshi. It was the Mir Bakshi (and not the Diwan) who was considered as the head of the nobility. Recommendations for the appointments to Mansabs or for the promotions, etc., were made to the emperor through the Mir Bakshi. The Mir Bakshi was also the head of the intelligence and information agencies of the empire. Intelligence officers and news reporters (Waqia-Navis) were posted in all regions of the empire and their reports were presented to the emperor’s court through the Mir Bakshi. ● The Mir Samanwas the third important officer of Mughal Empire. He was in-charge of the imperial household, including the supply of all the provisions and articles for the use of the inmates of the harem or the female apartments. ● The judicial department was headed by the chief Qazi. This post was sometimes clubbed with that of the chief Sadr who was responsible for all charitable and religious endowments. ● To make himself accessible to the people as well as to the ministers, Akbar judiciously divided his time. The day started with the emperor’s appearance at the jharoka of the palace where large numbers of people used to assemble daily to have a glimpse of the ruler, and to present petitions to him if required so. Akbar’s Provinces ● In 1580, Akbar classified his empire into twelve subas (provinces) namely: 1. Bengal 2. Bihar 3. Allahabad 4. Awadh 5. Agra 6. Delhi 7. Lahore 8. Multan 9. Kabul 10. Ajmer 11. Malwa and 12. Gujarat ● Each of these subah consisted of a governor (subadar), a Diwan, a bakhshi, a sadr, a qazi, and a Waqia-Navis. Relation with Rajputs ● When Humayun conquered India, for the second time, he embarked upon a deliberate and diplomatic policy to win over these elements. Abul Fazl has written in his work as “to soothe the minds of the zamindars, he (Humayun) entered into matrimonial relations with them.” ● When Jamal Khan Mewati (one of the greatest zamindars of India), submitted to Humayun, he married one of his (Humayun’s) 38 Master Series : Medieval India beautiful daughters and married his younger sister to Bairam Khan. Over a period of a time, Akbar also followed this policy. ● Before the Akbar period, the girl once married, normally, was lost to her family, and never came back after her marriage. But, Akbar abandoned this policy. He gave religious freedom to his Hindu wives and gave an honored place to their parents and relations in the nobility. (a) Relation with Amber State ● Bhara Mal, the ruler of Amber cemented the alliance (with Akbar) by marrying his younger daughter, Harka Bai, to Akbar. Bhara Mal was given a high dignitary. His son, Bhagwan Das, rose to the rank of 5,000 and his grandson, Man Singh, to the rank of 7,000, which was accorded by Akbar to only one other noble, namely Aziz Khan Kuka (his foster-brother). ● In 1572, when Akbar went on Gujarat expedition, Bhara Mal was placed as the in-charge of Agra where all the royal ladies were residing; it was a signal honor usually given only to nobles who were either relations or close confidants of the emperor. ● Akbar had abolished the pilgrim-tax, and the practice of forcible conversion of prisoners of war. In 1564, Akbar also abolished the jizyah, which was (sometimes) used by the ulama to humiliate non-Muslims. (b) Relation with Mewar State ● Mewar was the only state which had stubbornly refused to accept Mughal suzerainty. In 1572, Rana Pratap succeeded Rana Udai Singh to the ‘gaddi’ (throne) of Chittoor. Akbar sent a series of embassies to Rana Pratap asking to accept Mughal suzerainty and to do personal homage. All these embassies, including the one led by Man Singh, were courteously received by Rana Pratap. In return, Rana Pratap also sent Amar Singh (his son) with Bhagwan Das to do homage to Akbar and accept his service. But Rana never accepted or made any final agreement. Rana Pratap ● In 1576, Akbar went Ajmer, and deputed Raja Man Singh with a force of 5,000 to lead a campaign against Rana. In anticipation of this campaign, Rana had devastated the entire territory up to Chittoor so that the Mughal forces might get no food or fodder and fortified all the passes in the hills. The battle between Rana Pratap and Mughal force (led by Man Singh) was fought at Haldighati in June 1576. Battle of Haldighati ● The powerful attack by the Rajputs, which was supported by the Afghans threw the Mughal force into disarray. However, because of the fresh reinforcements in Mughal’s forces, the tide of battle turned against the Rajputs. The Mughal forces were advanced through the pass and occupied Gogunda, a strong point which had been evacuated by the Rana earlier. Rana Pratap somehow managed to escape from the battle field. ● The Battle of Haldighati was the last battle that Rana engaged in a pitched battle with the Mughals; afterward, he relied upon the methods of guerilla warfare. ● In 1585, Akbar moved to Lahore to observe the situation in the north-west which had become dangerous by that time. Because of the critical situation, he (Akbar) remained there for the next 12 years. Therefore, after 1585, no Mughal expedition was sent against Rana Pratap. ● Akbar’s absence gave an opportunity to Rana Pratap and hence, he recovered many of his territories, including Kumbhalgarh and the areas nearby Chittoor. Rana Pratap built a new capital, namely Chavand, near modern Dungarpur. ● In 1597, Rana Pratap died at the age of 51, due to an internal injury incurred (by himself) while trying to draw a stiff bow. (c) Relation with Marwar State ● In 1562, after the death of Maldeo of Marwar, there was a dispute between his sons for Mughal Dynasty 39 succession. However, the younger son of Maldeo, Chandrasen, (son of the favorite queen of Maldeo), succeeded to the gaddi (throne). ● Chandrasen opposed the Akbar’s policy; hence, Akbar took Marwar under direct Mughal administration. Chandrasen fought bravely and also waged a guerilla warfare, but after some time, he forced to escape. In 1581, Chandrasen died. (d) Relation with Jodhpur State ● Akbar conferred Jodhpur to Udai Singh, the elder brother of Chandrasen. To strengthen his position, Udai Singh married his daughter, Jagat Gosain or Jodha Bai with Akbar. Jodha Bai is the mother of Akbar’s eldest son Salim (Jahangir). ● In 1593, when the son-in-law of Rai Singh of Bikaner died due to a fall from his palki, Akbar went to the raja’s house to console him, and discouraged his daughter from performing sati (self-immolation) as her children were young. ● Akbar’s policy towards Rajput was continued by his successions, Jahangir and Shah Jahan. Jahangir, whose mother was a Rajput princess (Jodha Bai), had married with a Kachhawaha princess as well as a Jodhpur princess. ● The Rana Pratap’s son, Karan Singh, who was deputed to proceed to Jahangir’s court was diplomatically received. Jahangir got up from the throne, embraced him in darbar and gave him gifts. Prince Karan Singh was accorded the rank of 5,000, which had been earlier accorded to the rulers of ‘Jodhpur, Bikaner, and Amber. Social Reforms ● Akbar introduced a number of social and educational reforms. He stopped Sati (the burning of a widow), unless she herself, of her own free will, determinedly desired it. Further, Akbar made a strict rule that widows of tender age who had not shared the bed with their husbands were not to be burnt at all. Akbar also legalized Widow Remarriage. ● Akbar was not in favor of second marriage (having two wives at the same time) unless the first wife was barren. Akbar raised the marriage age, 14 for girls and 16 for boys. Akbar restricted the sale of wines and spirits. ● Akbar revised the educational syllabus, emphasizing more on moral education and mathematics, and on secular subjects including agriculture, geometry, astronomy, rules of government, logic, history, etc. ● Akbar gave patronage to artists, poets, painters, and musicians, as his court was infused with famous and scholar people, more popularly known as the ‘navaratna.’ ● Akbar’s empire (as many historians claim) was essentially secular, liberal, and a promoter of cultural integration. It was enlightened with social and cultural matters. Foreign Power ● Akbar was apprehensive because of the growing power of the Portuguese, as they had been interfering the pilgrim traffic (to Mecca), not sparing even the royal ladies. ● In their territories, Portuguese were practicing the proselytizing activities, which Akbar disliked. Akbar apparently felt that the coordination and pooling of the resources of the Deccani states under Mughal supervision would check, if not eliminate, the Portuguese danger. Akbar’s Deccan Policy ● Till 1591 he completed his conquest of Northern Indian states, then he look towards Deccan and sent his representatives to Deccan. Only Khandesh accepted over lordship of Mughal Empire. ● Akbar was a pragmatic ruler, he was aware of geo-political challenges which were prevailing in Deccan. So he targeted them one by one. ● After elaborate preparations a military campaign was launched against Ahmednagar in 1593. Hence, in 1596 Ahmednagar accepted suzerainty. Akbar’s Religious Policies ● Akbar was a pious Muslim but after marrying Jodha Bai of Amber. He allowed his Hindu wives to worship their own gods. 40 Master Series : Medieval India ● He built an Ibadat Khana (House of Worship) at Fatehpur Sikri in 1575 to discuss religious matters of faith. Scholars invited in Ibadat Khana included Brahmin, Jain, Christians, Zoroastrians etc. ● He abolished the pilgrimage tax on Hindus in 1563 and Jizya in 1579. ● He adopted title of Imam-i-Adil (supreme priest of Adil) and Mujtahid (final interpreter of Islamic law).He started leading Friday Prayers himself, Ulema’s was pushed aside. He did not like the intrusion of the Muslim Ulemas in political matters. In 1579, he delivered the “Infallibility Decree” and proclaimed his religious powers. ● In 1581 a new religion, Din-i-Ilahi was issued by Akbar. It combined good elements of different religions.In 1603 he allowed Christian Missionaries to convert even the members of royal family. Din-i- Ilahi ● ● ● ● ● The new religion believed in one God. It had all the good points of every religion. Its foundation was balanced. It didn’t endorse any philosophy. It aimed at bridging the gap that separated different religions. ● The new religion had only 15 followers including Birbal. ● Akbar did not compel anyone to join his new religion. ● However, the new religion proved to be a failure, after Akbar’s death. Jahangir (1605-1627) ● Like Akbar, Jahangir also realized that the conquest could be lasting on the basis not of force, but rather of winning the goodwill of the people. He, therefore, treated the defeated Afghan chief and their followers with great sympathy. ● Jahangir, by following his diplomatic policy and released many of the princes and zamindars of Bengal who were detained at the court and allowed to return to Bengal. Musa Khan was released and his estates were restored. ● To continue the policy, the Afghans also began to be welcomed into the Mughal nobility. The leading Afghan noble under Jahangir was Khan-i-Jahan Lodi who served the distinguished service in the Deccan. ● Jahangir, however, had to begin a long era of peace, but the situation was changed radically by two incidents: 1. The Persian conquest of Qandhar, which was a misfortune to Mughal prestige and 2. Deteriorating health of Jahangir. ● These two incidents unleashed the latent struggle for the succession among the princes as well as among the nobles (who were also competing for power). Further, the deteriorating health of Jahangir also introduced Nur Jahan into the political affairs. Nur Jahan ● Nur Jahan first married to an Iranian, Sher Afghan, and after his death (in a clash with the Mughal governor of Bengal), she married to Jahangir in 1611. After marrying with Nur Jahan, Jahangir appointed her father Itimadud daula as joint diwan and later he had been promoted to chief diwan. Besides, other members of her (Nur Jahan) family also benefited. ● In ten years of his service, Itimaduddaula proved his loyalty, competency, and acumen. He made a considerable influence in the affairs of the state until his death. ● Asaf Khan, Nur Jahan’s brother, was also a learned and deserving man. He was appointed as the ‘khan-i-saman;’ it was the post reserved for the highly trustworthy nobles.Asaf Khan married his daughter with Khurram (later Shah Jahan). Khurram was favorite of Jahangir particularly after the rebellion and imprisonment of Khusrau. ● Over a period of time, Nur Jahan became ambitious and tried to dominate, which resulted in a breach between her and Shah Jahan, and that this drove Shah Jahan into rebellion against his father in 1622. It was the time when Shah Jahan felt that Jahangir was completely under Nur Jahan’s influence. Mughal Dynasty 41 However, some other historians are not agreed with this view. Shah Jahan’s Rebel ● Khusrau (elder brother) was the potential contender of Shah Jahan; therefore, as long as he (Khusrau) was alive, he was a great hurdle (for Shah Jahan). In 1621, Shah Jahan killed Khusrau (who had been kept in his custody) and spread the news that he died due to colic (abdomen pain). ● Shahriyar, a younger brother of Shah Jahan, married to Nur Jahan’s daughter (from her former husband) and taken an important command that mentally disturbed Shah Jahan; hence, he (Shah Jahan) rebelled. ● The immediate cause of Shah Jahan’s rebel was the order that given to him to proceed Qandhar, which had been besieged by the Persians, but he refused.Shah Jahan was afraid that the Qandhar campaign would be a long and difficult one and that might intrigue against him (i.e. during his absence from the court). Hence, he demanded full authority such as full command of the army, which included the veterans of the Deccan, complete control over Punjab, control over a number of important forts, etc. ● Jahangir was enraged because of strange demands of Shah Jahan. Further, Jahangir had been also convinced that the prince was meditating rebellion; hence, he wrote harsh letters and took punitive steps, which only made the situation worse and resulted in an open breach. ● From Mandu (where he was stationed), Shah Jahan moved to attack Agra in order to capture the treasures lodged there.The Mughal commander, posted at Agra, was vigilant and he foiled Shah Jahan’s move. After failing at Agra, Shah Jahan moved to Delhi; by the time, Jahangir had assembled a large army under the command of Mahabat Khan. ● Mahabat Khan was ordered to move on to Mandu (Malwa), Prince Parvez appointed the nominal commander of the army. Another army was sent to Gujarat.Shah Jahan was ● ● ● ● ● forced out of the Mughal territories and compelled to take shelter nearby the Deccani rulers, his erstwhile enemies. Further, he crossed the Deccan into Orissa, controlled the governor by surprise, and then he also took the control of Bengal and Bihar. Mahabat Khan was again deputed against Shah Jahan and he successfully forced Shah Jahan to retreat to the Deccan again. This time, Shah Jahan made an alliance with Malik Amber who was once again at war with the Mughals. But the by time, Shah Jahan failed to success in his expedition and hence he wrote a humble letter his father Jahangir. Jahangir realized that time came to pardon and conciliate his brightest and most energetic son. However, in 1626, as part of the agreement, two of Shah Jahan’s sons, namely Dara and Aurangzeb, were sent to the Jahangir’s court as a hostage, and II tract in the Deccan was assigned for Shah Jahan’s expenses. Jahangir’s health was gradually deteriorating, however, he was still mentally alert, and did allow to make any decisions without his consensus.Jahangir’s illness increased the vulnerability that an ambitious noble might try to use the situation to take supreme power in his hands.Mahabat Khan who had played a leading role in controlling Shah Jahan’s rebellion, had been feeling disgruntled because certain elements at the court were eager to clip his wings after the end of the prince’s rebellion. Mahabat Khan’s alliance with Prince Parvez was also a threat. Summoned by the court to render accounts, Mababat Khan came with a trusted body of Rajput and seized the emperor at an appropriate moment when the royal camp was crossing the river Jhelum on its way to Kabul. Nur Jahan, who had not been apprehended, escaped. Nur Jahan played a trick and hence, she surrendered herself to Mahabat Khan in order to be close to Jahangir, and tried to pause the suspicions of Mahabat Khan; however, she was secretly trying her best to weaken his (Mahabat Khan) position. 42 Master Series : Medieval India ● Over a period of time, Nur Jahan took advantage of the mistakes and weakness of Mahabat Khan (who was actually a soldier, and not a diplomat or an administrator), she managed to wean away most of the nobles from Mahabat Khan’s side. Further, Rajput soldiers were also not in support of Mahabat Khan. ● Soon Mahabat Khan realized his precarious position, and hence, he fled from the Jahangir’s court. Later, he joined Shah Jahan. Nur Jahan’s victory over Mahabat Khan was her greatest victory and a true reflection of her cool courage and sagacity. However, she could not enjoy her victory for long, as Jahangir died (in 1627). ● After Jahangir’s death, Asaf Khan, supported by the divan, the chief nobles, and the army, arrested Nur Jahan and sent an urgent summons to Shah Jahan. In the meantime, Asaf Khan appointed Khusrau’s son as puppet emperor. ● Shah Jahan’s younger brother, Shahriyar, made a feeble effort for the throne, but he was easily defeated and thrown into prison (and blinded). Shah Jahan’s reign effectively from 1628 to 1658), which was full of distinct activities (as discussed above). ● Jahangir wrote Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri in Persian. Sir Thomas Roe and John Hawkins’s came to Jahangir court. Jahangir died in 1627 in Kashmir and was buried to Lahore. Conquest of Jahangir ● In 1615, the Rana of Mewar was forced to submit to the Emperor. Jahangir followed a conciliatory policy. ● Jahangir was trying to establish direct and good relations between the Mughal’s and the East India Company, and he succeeded to make the relation. ● He obtained for the English merchants the privileges to trade in Gujarat including the right to set up factories at Agra and Ahmadabad. Art and Architecture ● He had adroitness in painting. He prided himself, and his quote was that he could ● ● ● ● ● ● plainly identify, who painted the paintings from the joint labors of some artists. It was the great talent of him. He was interested in the architecture, and he took part for contributing his art to develop the painting interest. Several buildings erected by him. e.g; Akbar’s Tomb at Sikandra. He makes the great design and partly rebuilt it. Itimad-ud-Daulah was the finest building, which constructed under the direction of Nur Jahan. This tomb is located near Agra. In the Lahore, the grand mosque constructed under the Jahangir, he was quite good in the field of art and architecture Jahangir painting was also famous for the gardens, and his paintings shows the gardens of Kashmir and Lahore. He also tried to make the currency with little calligraphic designs, and he beautifully made medals and coins with his portraits stamp. Shah Jahan (1628-1658) ● Shah Jahan took the charge of the Mughal Empire after the death of his father in 1628. It is said that kingdom was founded by Babur, nurtured by Akbar, consolidated by Jahangir and reached to apex during the reign of Shah Jahan. ● The first thing Shah Jahan had to face was the revolts in Bundelkhand and Deccan. In 1612 he married to Arzumand Banu Begum who became famous as Mumtaz Mahal. ● In 1632 he defeated Portuguese and annexed Ahmadnagar in 1636. He sent his armies to Balkhan and Badakshan in Central Asia in order to secure the defence of NorthWest India. Shah Jahan who had recovered Kandhar from Iranians in 1638 again lost in 1649, despite of three campaigns under the leadership of Prince Murad, Aurangzeb and Dara respectively. ● His Deccan policy was more successful. He defeated the forces of Ahmadnagar and seized it. Both Bijapur and Golkonda signed a treaty Mughal Dynasty 43 with the emperor. Shah Jahan engraved four Mughal provinces in the Deccan – Khandesh, Berar, Telungana and Daulatabad. ● Shah Jahan built Moti Masjid (Agra), Red Fort (Delhi), Jama Masjid (Delhi) and Taj Mahal (Agra). The Taj Mahal is the masterpiece of his reign and was erected in memory of the favourite of his three queens, Mumtaz Mahal (the mother of Aurangzeb). ● After the sickness of Shah Jahan in 1657, war of succession begun for the crown. In 1657 Shah Jahan’s eldest son Dara was with him at Agra. Suja was governor in Bengal, Aurangzeb was viceroy in Deccan and youngest son Murad was governor in Gujarat. During war of succession Shah Jahan’s two daughters Jahan Ara and Roshan Ara supported his two sons Dara and Aurangzeb respectively. Aurangzeb defeated the Mughal forces lead by Dara in the Battle at Samugarh near Agra. ● War of Succession Battles and outcomes: 1. Battle of Dharmat - Aurangzeb defeated Dara’s Army. 2. Battle of Samugarh - Aurangzeb defeated Dara Shikoh. 3. Battle of Rupnagar- Aurangzed defeated Murad. 4. Battle of Khajwa - Aurangzeb defeated the Shuja. 5. Battle of Devrai – Aurangzeb finally defeated Dara Shikoh. ● Till 1661 Aurangzeb either killed or executed his all brothers. Shah Jahan spent his remaining life till 1666 in the captivity of Aurangzeb. French traveler Bernier and Tavernier and the Italian traveler Manucci visited during Shah Jahan’s reign. Aurangzeb (1658-1707) ● Aurangzeb crowned himself as emperor at Delhi in 1658 and took the title of Alamgir, but his second and formal coronation took place when he defeated Dara in 1659. Aurangzeb was one of the ablest kings of the Mughal. He assumed the title Alamgir, World Conqueror. ● Aurangzeb was an orthodox Sunni Muslim. In his private life, Aurangzeb was diligent and disciplined.He was very simple in food and dress. He earned money for his personal expenses by copying Quran and selling those copies. He did not consume wine. ● He was proficient in Arabic and Persian languages. He was devoted to his religion and conducted prayers five times a day. He strictly observed the Ramzan fasting. He misunderstood the true nature of the Maratha movement and provoked them. ● Also, he failed to solve the Maratha problem and left an open sore. His policy towards Shia Deccan Sultanates also proved to be wrong. His antagonistic policies towards non-Muslims did not help him to rally the Muslims to his side and strengthened political enemies of the Mughal Empire. ● In his first ten years of reign, his military campaigns were a great success.But in the latter part of his reign, he faced serious difficulties. The Jats and Satnamis and also the Sikhs revolted against him due to his harsh religious policy. ● Inscription of Kalma seen on the coins of Aurangzeb. He re-imposed Jizya in 1679. He ended the celebration of Nauroj festival. He prohibited intoxicating drugs and he destroyed the Vishwanath temple of Varanasi. ● He appointed Muhtasibs (moral conduct regulator) to censor the public morals as per Quranic law. He forbade music in his court. He ended the Jharokha darshan and weighing the emperor on his birthday was also abolished by him. Guru Teg Bahadur, ninth Sikh guru was besieged and taken to Delhi where he was beheaded in 1679. ● According to the treaty of Purandar between Shivaji and Jai Singh (Viceroy of Agra) in 1666. Shivaji ceded some forts to Mughals and agreed to pay a visit to Mughal court at Agra. But, when Shivaji went to Agra he was dis-satisfied with the reception and he secretly escaped from Agra. In 1689 Sambhaji, eldest son of Shivaji was captured and beheaded by Aurangzeb. He destroyed several Hindu 44 Master Series : Medieval India temples e.g. Keshav Rai temple built by Raja Bir Singh in Mathura, Vishwanath temple built by Raja Man Singh in Banaras. ● Aurangzeb died in 1707 in Ahmadnagar and was buried near Daultabad. During his reign Mughal Empire reached to the territorial climax. ● Aurangzeb’s Rajput Policy ● Jahangir continued Akbar’s policy of giving favors to the leading Rajput rajas and of entering into matrimonial relations with them. ● Shah Jahan also maintained the alliance with the Rajputs, but he did not appoint any Rajput raja as the governor of a province, and no further matrimonial relations were made with the leading Rajput rajas. In spite of the fact that he (Shah Jahan) himself was the son of a Rajput princess. ● Perhaps, the alliances with the Rajputs had become so consolidated, that it was felt that matrimonial relations with the leading rajas were no longer necessary. However, Shah Jahan accorded high honor to the heads of the two leading Rajput houses, namely Jodhpur and Amber. ● Raja Jaswant Singh, the ruler of Marwar, was in Shah Jahan’s favor. Both he and Jai Singh held the ranks of 7000/7000 at the time of Aurangzeb’s accession. Aurangzeb secured the active support of the Maharana of Mewar and raised his mansab from 5000/5000 to 6000/6000. ● Jaswant Singh who had been deputed to look after the affairs of the Afghans in the northwest died by the end of 1678. In November 1679, Aurangzeb attacked Mewar. A strong Mughal detachment reached Udaipur and raided the camp of the Rana who had retreated deep into the hills to conduct a harassing warfare against the Mughals. ● The war Between the Mughals and Rajputs soon reached at a stalemate as the Mughals could neither penetrate the hills, nor deal with the guerilla tactics of the Rajputs. Over a period of time, the war became highly ● ● ● ● unpopular. Prince Akbar, the eldest son of Aurangzeb, tried to take advantage of the situation and he went against his father. In January, 1681, Prince Akbar, in alliance with Durgadas, the Rathor chief, marched towards Ajmer where Aurangzeb was helpless, as all his best troops were being engaged elsewhere.Prince Akbar, however, delayed and Aurangzeb was able to stir up dissensions in his camp by false letters. Resultantly, Prince Akbar had to flee to Maharashtra. Aurangzeb patched up a treaty with Rana Jagat Singh (the successor of Rana Raj Singh).The new Rana was forced to surrender some of his parganas in lieu of iazyah and was granted a mansab of 5,000 on a promise of loyalty and not supporting Ajit Singh, but it did not benefit much. Aurangzeb’s policy towards Marwar and Mewar was clumsy and blundering, which brought no advantage of any kind to the Mughals. On the other hand, Mughal failure against these Rajput states damaged Mughal military prestige. The breach with Marwar and Mewar weakened the Mughal alliance with the Rajputs at a crucial period. First phase (1658-1667): During this phase Mughal –Rajput relations represented the continuation from period of Akbar to Shah Jahan. Important responsibilities were given to Rajput nobles, Jaisingh was the Mughal commander in fight with Marathas. Rajput’s continued to serve Mughal Empire with full commitment as was the case under Aurangzeb’s predecessors. Second phase (1667-1678): During this phase relation between duo lost their warmth to some extent. This was the outcome of some incidents that took place during previous phase. In 1660 Rana Raj Singh of Mewar attacked his neighbor state Kishangarh, this high handed behavior of Rana Raj Singh was disliked by Aurangzeb. ● In 1666 Shivaji escaped from Mughal captivity at Agra, Kunwar Ram Singh was responsible for security of Shivaji. Aurangzeb felt that Mughal Dynasty 45 Ram Singh deliberately turned his face away, so that Shivaji could escape. Aurangzeb was the person of suspicious mindset, he never trusted even his family members. In this phase relation between them did not witnessed much changed. ● Third phase (1679-1707): During this phase suspicion and distrust within heart and mind of Aurangzeb came out in open, Mughal Empire had to face open rebellion from Mewar and Marwar. In this phase MughalRajput relations were at nadir. Aurangzeb’s Deccan Policy threatened with extinction. Golconda had to pay a huge indemnity, and Bijapur had to agree to the surrender of the Nizam Shah’ territories granted in 1636. ● After becoming emperor, Aurangzeb had to face two problems viz − 1. The rising power of Shivaji, and ● ● ● The Deccan policy of the Mughals started from the reign of Akbar. Aurangzeb, as governor of Deccan, followed a belligerent Deccan policy. He concentrated on the northwest frontier in his first 25 years as the Mughal emperor ● ● In the same time, Shivaji, the Maratha Ruler carved out an independent Maratha kingdom in the territories of north and south Konkan. Aurangzeb decided to invade Bijapur and Golkonda to hold the spread of the Marathas. He defeated Sikandar Shah of Bijapur and seized his kingdom. ● ● Relations of Aurangzeb with the Deccani states can be categorized into three phase as − 1. The First Phase between 1658 and 1668; ● 2. The Second Phase between 1668 and 1681; 3. The Third Phase between 1681 and 1687; and ● 4. The Fourth Phase (between 1687 and 1707). First Phase (1658–68) ● The treaty of 1636, by which Shah Jahan had given one-third of the territories of Ahmednagar state as a bribe for withdrawing support to the Marathas, and promised that the Mughals would “never never” conquer Bijapur and Golconda, had been abandoned by Shah Jahan himself. ● In 1657-58, Golconda and Bijapur were ● 2. Persuading Bijapur to part with the territories ceded to it by the treaty of 1636. In 1657, Kalyani and Bider had been secured. Parenda was secured by bribe in 1660. Angered by Adil Shah’s attitude of noncooperation, Aurangzeb ordered Jai Singh to punish both Shivaji and Adil Shah. Jai Singh was an astute politician. He told Aurangzeb, “It would be unwise to attack both these fools at the same time”.Jai Singh had suggested that the Maratha problem could not be solved without a forward policy in the Deccan — a conclusion to which Aurangzeb finally came 20 years later. The campaign for the conquest of the Deccan would be long and arduous and would need the presence of the emperor himself with large armies. But as long as Shah Jahan was alive, Aurangzeb couldn’t afford to go away on a distant campaign. With his limited resources, in 1665, Jai Singh’s Bijapur campaign was bound to fail. The campaign recreated the united front of the Deccani states against the Mughals, for the Qutb Shah sent a large force to aid Bijapur. The Deccanis adopted guerilla tactics, luring Jat Singh on to Bijapur while devastating the countryside so that the Mughals could get no supplies. Jai Singh found that he had no means to assault the city, since he had not brought siege guns, and to invest the city was impossible. In the Deccani campaign, no additional territory was gained by Jai Singh. The disappointment of failure and the censures of Aurangzeb hastened Jai Singh’s death and he died in 1667.In 1668, the Mughals secured the surrender of Sholapur by bribery. 46 Master Series : Medieval India Second Phase (1668–81) ● During the period of 1668 to 1676, the power of Madanna and Akhanna (two brothers of Golconda) had increased. They had virtually ruled Golconda from 1672 to almost till the extinction of the state in 1687. ● The brothers had attempted to establish a policy of tripartite alliance among Golconda, Bijapur, and Shivaji. However, this policy was periodically disturbed by faction fights at the Bijapur court, and by the over-weening ambition of Shivaji. ● In 1676, Mughals attacked Bijapur and overthrown the Khawas Khan (the regent of Bijapur).Aurangzeb, further, invited Bahadur Khan and Diler Khan who had good relations with the Afghan faction in Bijapur was placed in command. Diler Khan persuaded the Afghan leader Bahlol Khan to join in an expedition against Golconda. ● In 1677, the failure of the Mughal-Bijapur attack was in no small measure due to the firm leadership of Madanna and Akhanna.In 1679-80, Diler Khan again attempted to seize Bijapur, but failed; probably, because of lack of equipment and forces to fight against the united forces of the Deccani states. Third Phase (1681–87) ● In 1681, when Aurangzeb went Deccan in pursuit of his rebel son, Prince Akbar, he first ordered his forces to fight against Sambhaji (the son and successor of Shivaji), meanwhile making renewed efforts to separate Bijapur and Golconda from the side of the Marathas. ● Aurangzeb’s dividing policy could not bring any beneficial result. The Marathas were the only shield against the Mughals, and the Deccani states were not prepared to throw it away. ● Failure of Aurangzeb made him anxious and he decided to force the issue. He invited Adil Shah and asked to supply a vassal to the imperial army and facilitate the Mughal army a free passage through his territory and also to supply a contingent of 5,000 to 6,000 cavalry for the war against the Marathas. ● Adil Shah, on the other hand, appealed for help from both Golconda and Sambhaji, which was promptly given. However, even the combined forces of the Deccani states could not withstand against the full strength of the Mughal army, particularly when commanded by the Mughal emperor or an energetic prince, as had been demonstrated earlier. In spite of being the presence of Emperor Aurangzeb and prince, it took 18 months to siege. ● The success of Mughals, provided replenishing justification for the earlier failure of Jai Singh (1665), and Diler Khan (1679-80).Following the downfall of Bijapur, a campaign against Golconda was inevitable. ● In 1685, despite stiff resistance, the Mughals had occupied Golconda. The emperor had agreed to pardon Qutb Shah in return of a huge subsidy, the ceding of some areas, and the ousting of two brothers Madanna and Akhanna. ● In 1688, Qutb Shah accepted Mughals conditions and subsequently, Madanna and Akhanna were dragged out on the streets and murdered. In spite of this acceptance, Qutb Shah could not protect his monarchy. ● Aurangzeb had triumphed but he soon found that the extinction of Bijapur and Golconda was only the beginning of his difficulties. The last and the most difficult phase of Aurangzeb’s life began now. Fourth Phase (1687–1707) ● After the downfall of Bijapur and Golconda, Aurangzeb was able to concentrate all his forces against the Marathas.Apart from invading Burhanpur and Aurangabad, the new Maratha king, Sambhaji (son of Shivaji) had thrown a challenge to Aurangzeb by giving shelter to his rebel son, Prince Akbar. ● Sambhaji took a peculiarly passive attitude towards Prince Akbar, spending his energies in a futile war with the Sidis on the coast and with the Portuguese.In 1686, prince dashed into the Mughal territory, but repulsed. Discouraged, Prince Akbar escaped by sea to Iran, and sought shelter with the Iranian king. Mughal Dynasty 47 ● In 1689, Sambhaji was surprised at his secret hideout at Sangameshwar by a Mughal force. He was paraded before Aurangzeb and executed as a rebel and an infidel.As historians observed that this was undoubtedly a major political mistake on the part of Aurangzeb. He could have set a seal on his conquest of Bijapur and Golconda by coming to terms with the Marathas. ● By executing Sambhaji, he not only threw away this chance, but provided the Marathas a cause. In the absence of a single rallying point, the Maratha sardars were left free to plunder the Mughal territories. ● Rajaram, the younger brother of Sambhaji, was crowned as king, but he had to escape when the Mughals attacked his capital.Rajaram sought shelter at Jinji on the east coast and continued the fight against the Mughals from there. Likewise, Maratha resistance spread from the west to the east coast. ● Aurangzeb, after 1690, concentrated on annexing to the empire of the rich and extensive Karnataka tract.During the period between 1690 and 1703, Aurangzeb stubbornly refused to negotiate with the Marathas. Rajaram was besieged at Jinji, but the siege proved to be long drawn out. ● Jinji fell in 1698, but the chief prince, Rajaram, escaped. Maratha resistance grew and the Mughals suffered a number of serious reverses. The Marathas recaptured many of their forts and Rajaram also managed to come back to Satara. ● From 1700 to 1705, Aurangzeb dragged his exhausted and ailing body from the siege of one fort to another. On the other hand, floods, disease, and the Maratha rambling bands took fearful toll of the Mughal army. All these gradually lead to apathy and disaffection among the nobles and the army. ● Many of the jagirdars made secret pacts with the Marathas and agreed to pay chauth if the Marathas did not disturb their jagirs.In 1703, Aurangzeb opened negotiations with the Marathas. He was prepared to release Shahu (the son of Sambhaji), who had been captured at Satara along with his mother. ● Aurangzeb was prepared to grant Shivaji’s swarajya to Shahu and the right of sardeshmukhi over the Deccan, thus recognizing his special position.Over 70 Maratha sardars actually assembled to receive Shahu. However, Aurangzeb cancelled the arrangements at the last minute, as he was uncertain about the intentions of the Maratha. ● By 1706, Aurangzeb was convinced of the futility of his effort to capture all the Maratha forts. He slowly retreated to Aurangabad while as exulting Maratha army hovered around and attacked the stragglers. ● In 1707, when Aurangzeb breathed his last at Aurangabad, he left behind an empire, which was deeply distracted, and in which all the various internal problems of the empire were coming to a head; later led to decline of the Mughal Empire. Aurangzeb Religious Policy ● Aurangzeb entirely reversed the policy of religious tolerance followed by Akbar during his reign and it resulted in serious revolts among the Hindus. He was fully awareof the dangerous path he was pursuing, and well aware against every Hindu sentiments. ● It is generally accepted that Aurangzeb was a fanatic Sunni Muslim. His main aim was to convert India (the country of Kafirs) to Darul-Islam (country of Islam). He was intolerant towards other faiths, especially Hindus. He was also against Shia Muslims too. ● His policy had two aspects1. To promote the tenets of Islam and to ensure that the people led their lives accordingly. 2. To adopt anti-Hindu measures like destruction of temples and idols reimposition of Jizya. ● While taking his stand on the Hanafi school of Muslim law, which had been traditionally followed in India, Aurangzeb did not hesitate in issuing secular decrees, called ‘zawabit.’ A 48 Master Series : Medieval India ● ● ● ● ● ● ● collection of his decrees had been collected in a work known as Zawabit-i-Alamgiri. The religious fanaticism of Aurangzeb overshadowed his virtues. His reversal of Akbar’s policy of religious toleration resulted in weakening the entire structure of the Mughal Empire. It led to several conflicts and wars in different parts of the country like conflict with the Jats, Satnamis, Sikhs, Rajputs, and Marathas. At the beginning of his reign, Aurangzeb prohibited the kalma being inscribed on coins, as it trampled underfoot or be defiled while passing from one hand to another. Aurangzeb banned the festival of Nauroz, as it was considered as Zoroastrian practice favored by the Safavid rulers of Iran. Aurangzeb appointed Muhtasibs in all the provinces. Their major work was to see that people lived their lives in accordance with the shara. Muhtasibs were responsible for ensuring that the things, which were forbidden (such as intoxicants and gambling dens, etc) by the shara and the zawabits (secular decrees) were, as far as possible, not disobeyed openly. While appointing Muhtasibs, though, Aurangzeb emphasized that the state was also responsible for the moral welfare of the citizens. But these officials were instructed not to interfere in the private lives of citizens. In 1669, Aurangzeb took a number of measures, which have been called puritanical, but many of them were of an economic and social character, and against superstitious beliefs. Likewise, he prohibited singing in the court and the official musicians were pensioned off. The instrumental music and naubat (the royal band) were, however, continued. Singing also continued to be patronized by the ladies in the harem, and also by individual nobles. It is interesting to note that the largest number of Persian works on classical Indian music were written during Aurangzeb’s reign. Aurangzeb himself was proficient in playing the Veena. Aurangzeb withdrawn the practice of jharoka darshan or showing himself to the public ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● from the balcony (initiated by Akbar). He considered it a superstitious practice and against Islam. Aurangzeb banned the ceremony of weighing the emperor against gold and silver and other articles on his birthdays. However, because of majority of social demand, Aurangzeb had to permit this ceremony for his sons when they recovered from illness. Aurangzeb prohibited astrologers from preparing almanacs. But the order was disobeyed by everybody including members of the royal family. To promote trade among the Muslims who depended (almost) exclusively on state support, Aurangzeb exempted Muslim traders from the payment of cess. However, Aurangzeb found that the Muslim traders were taking undue advantages of this and cheating the state; therefore, he reinstated it, but kept it at half of what was charged from others. Some evidences suggest that Aurangzeb wanted to have the clergy on his side, as the clergy exercised a powerful hold on the minds of men. Aurangzeb restated the position of the shara regarding the temples, synagogues, churches, etc., that “long standing temple should not be demolished but no new temples allowed to be built.” He also allowed that the old places of worship could be repaired “since buildings cannot last forever.” When he was governor of Gujarat, Aurangzeb, ordered a number of temples in Gujarat to be destroyed, which often meant merely breaking the enrages and closing down the temples at the outset of his reign. However, Aurangzeb found that images of these temples had been restored and idol-worship had been resumed. In 1665, Aurangzeb again ordered to destroy these temples. The famous temple of Somnath, which he ordered to be destroyed, was earlier in his reign. Aurangzeb encountered political opposition from a number of quarters, such as the Marathas, Jats, etc., as they had adopted a new stance. Therefore, while dealing with the Mughal Dynasty 49 ● ● ● ● ● ● ● conflicts (with the local elements), Aurangzeb considered it legitimate to destroy even long standing Hindu temples as a major punishment and as a warning. Aurangzeb looked upon temples as the centers of spreading rebellious ideas, i.e. ideas which were not acceptable to the orthodox elements. Therefore, in 1669, he took strict action especially when he learnt that in some of the temples in Thatta, Multan and especially at Banaras, both Hindus and Muslims used to come from great distances to learn from the Brahmans. Aurangzeb issued orders to the governors of all provinces to prohibit such practices and to destroy all those temples where such practices took place. As a result of these orders, a number of temples such as the famous temples of Vishwanath at Banaras and the temple of Keshava Rai at Mathura built by Bir Singh Deo Bundela during the reign of Jahangir were destroyed and a mosque; erected in their place. Mustaid Khan, author of the Maasir-iAlamgiri mentioned that with reference to the destruction of the temple of Keshava Rai at Mathura, “On seeing this instance of the strength of the Emperor’s faith and the grandeur of his devotion to God, the proud rajas were subdued, and in amazement they stood like images facing the wall.” Thereupon, many temples built in Orissa during the last ten to twelve years were also destroyed. During 1679-80, when there was a state of hostility with the Rathors of Marwar and the Rana of Udaipur, many temples of old standing were destroyed at Jodhpur and its parganas, and at Udaipur. After 1679, it seems that Aurangzeb’s zeal to destroy temples decreased, as after this, there was no evidence of any large-scale destruction of temples in the south (between 1681 and his death in 1707). Aurangzeb again introduced the jizyah (or the poll tax) (it was abolished by Akbar). According to the shara, in a Muslim state, the payment of jizyah was obligatory, for the non-Muslims. ● Aurangzeb, in fact, did not try to change the nature of the state, but reasserted its fundamentally Islamic character. Aurangzeb’s religious beliefs cannot be considered as the basis of his political policies. ● Aurangzeb’s religious ideas and beliefs on the one hand, and his political or public policies on the other, however, clashed on many occasions and he faced difficult choices. Sometimes this led him to adopt contradictory policies which damaged the empire. Popular Revolts and Movements ● During his reign, Aurangzeb had to deal with a number of political issues, such as − 1. The Marathas in the Deccan, 2. The Jats and Rajputs in north India, 3. The Afghans and Sikhs in the north-west. ● The nature of these problems was different from each other, for example − 1. In the case of the Rajputs, it was basically a problem of succession. 2. In the case of the Marathas, it was the issue of independence. 3. In the case of Jats, it was the clash of peasant-agrarian background. 4. In the case of Afghans, it was a tribal issue. ● The only movement in which religion played a role was the Sikh movement. However, later, the Jat and the Sikh movements concluded in attempts to set up the independent regional states.It has been sometimes argued that all these movements, excluding the Afghan one, represented a Hindu reaction against Aurangzeb’s narrow religious policies. (a) Jats ● The first section to come into conflict with the Mughal Empire was the Jats of the AgraDelhi region who were living on both sides of the river Yamuna. The Jats were mostly peasant cultivators, only a few of them being zamindars. With a strong sense of brotherhood 50 Master Series : Medieval India ● ● ● ● ● and justice, the Jats had often come into conflict with the Mughals. The conflict with the Jats had taken place during the reigns of Jahangir and Shah Jahan on the issue of collection of land revenue. All the imperial road to the Deccan and the western seaports passed through Jats’ area; therefore, the Mughals had to take a serious action against the Jat rebellions. In 1669, under the leadership of local Zamindar Gokla, the Jats (of Mathura) were rebelled, which spread rapidly among the peasants of the area. This rebel compelled Aurangzeb to take serious action in person. Resultantly, the Jats were defeated and Gokla was captured and executed. In 1685, under the leadership of Rajaram, there was a second rebel of the Jats. This time, Jats were better organized and adopted the methods of guerilla warfare, combining it with plunder. The rebels were continued to 1691, when their leader Rajaram and his successor, Churaman, were compelled to surrender. In spite of this, unrest among the Jat peasants were remained persistent and their plundering activities made the Delhi-Agra road unsafe for travelers. During the 18th century, taking advantage of Mughal civil wars and weakness Churaman carved out a separate Jat principality in the area and to oust the Rajput zamindars. (b) Satnamis ● In 1672, at Narnaul (nearby Mathura), another armed conflict occurred between the peasants and the Mughals. This time, the conflict was with a religious body known as ‘Satnamis.’ ● The Satnamis were mostly peasants, artisans, and lower caste people, such as Goldsmiths, Carpenters, Sweepers, Tanners, and other ignoble beings. (c) Afghans ● The conflicts with Afghans (who lived in mountain region) were continued and most of the Mughal Emperors fought with Afghans. Akbar fought against the Afghans and in the war, he lost the life of his close friend and very intelligent and loyal noble, Raja Birbal. ● The conflicts with Afghans were partly economic and partly political and religious in character. To clear the Khyber Pass and crush the uprising, Aurangzeb deputed the Chief Bakhshi, Amir Khan. After the hard battles, the Afghan resistance was broken. ● In 1672, there was a second Afghan uprising. Akmal Khan was the leader, who proclaimed himself king and struck khutba and sikka in his name. Near Khyber Pass, the Afghans suffered a disastrous defeat; however, Khan managed to escape. ● In 1674, Shujaat Khan, a Mughal noble suffered a disastrous defeat in the Khyber. However, he was rescued by a heroic band of Rathors sent by Jaswant Singh. In the middle of 1674, Aurangzeb himself went to Peshawar and stayed there till the end of 1675. Slowly, by force and diplomacy, the Afghan united front was broken, and peace was restored. (d) Sikhs ● The Sikhs were the last to come into military conflict with Aurangzeb; however, the reasons for the conflict were political and personal rather than religious. The Gurus had started living in style, with an armed following, and assumed the title of sachha padshah (the true sovereign). ● There was no conflict with the Sikh Guru and Aurangzeb, upto 1675 until Guru Tegh Bahadur was arrested along with his five followers, brought to Delhi, and executed. The cause of Tegh Bahadur’s execution was not clear. Some Persian accounted that Tegh Bahadur had joined hands with Hafiz Adam (a Pathan) and created nuisance in Punjab. On the other hand, according to Sikh tradition, the execution was due to intrigues (against the Guru) by some members of his family who disputed his succession. ● Some of the historians had written that Aurangzeb was annoyed because of the Tegh Bahadur’s act of converting a few Muslims into Sikh and raised a protest against religious Mughal Dynasty 51 ● ● ● ● ● persecution in Kashmir by the local governor. Whatever the reasons, Aurangzeb’s action was unjustified from any point of view and betrayed a narrow approach. Further, the execution of Guru Tegh Bahadur compelled the Sikhs to go back to the Punjab hills. It also led to the Sikh movement (led by Guru Govind Sindh) gradually turning into a military brotherhood. Guru Govind Singh had a considerable organizational ability. By using his skill, in 1699, he founded the military brotherhood popularly known as the “Khalsa.” Guru Govind Singh had made his headquarters at Makhowal or Anandpur located in the foothills of the Punjab. In given period of time, the Guru became too powerful. Guru Govind fought a series of wars against the hill rajas and won. The organization of the khalsa further strengthened the hands of the Guru in this conflict. In 1704, an open breach between the Guru and the hill rajas took place, as the combined forces of a number of hill rajas attacked the Guru at Anandpur. The rajas had again to retreat and forced the Mughal government to intervene against the Guru on their behalf. Aurangzeb was concerned with the growing power of the Guru and had asked the Mughal faujdar to punish the Guru. The Mughal forces attacked at Anandpur, but the Sikhs fought bravely and beat off all assaults and they were taken shelter inside the fort. The Mughals and their allies now captured the fort closely that closed all sorts of movements. Resultantly, starvation began inside the fort and the Guru was forced to open the gate apparently on a promise of safe conduct by Wazir Khan. But when the forces of the Guru were crossing a swollen stream, Wazir Khan’s forces suddenly attacked. Two of the Guru’s sons were captured, and on their refusal to embrace Islam, they were beheaded at Sirhind. Further, the Guru lost two of his remaining sons in another battle. After this, the Guru retired to Talwandi. (e) North-East India ● After becoming emperor officially, Aurangzeb embarked upon an era of strong rule. In some regions, such as the north-east and the Deccan, the imperial frontier was advanced. Aurangzeb’s first attempt immediately after his succession was to restate imperial authority and prestige, which included recovery of the regions, which had been lost during the war of succession and to which the Mughals felt that they had the legal claim. (f) Assam ● The kingdom of Kamata (Kamrup) declined by the end of the fifteenth century and was replaced by the kingdom of Kuch (Cooch Bihar), which dominated north Bengal and western Assam and continued the policy of conflict with the Ahoms. ● In 1612, the Mughals defeated and occupied the western Assam valley up to Bar Nadi with the help of Kuch armies. The Kuch ruler became a Mughal vassal. Likewise, he Mughals came into contact with the Ahoms who ruled eastern Assam across the Bar Nadi. ● After a long war with the Ahoms who had harbored a prince of the defeated dynasty, in 1638, a treaty was made with them, which fixed the Bar Nadi as the boundary between them and the Mughals. Thus Gauhati (Assam) came under Mughal control. ● Mir Jumla, who had been appointed as the governor of Bengal by Aurangzeb, wanted to bring Cooch Bihar and the entire Assam under Mughal control.Mir Jumla first attacked Cooch Bihar (which had rejected Mughal suzerainty) and annexed the entire kingdom to the Mughal empire. Next Jumla invaded on the Ahom kingdom and occupied its capital Garhgaon. Likewise, the Mughal boundary was extended from the Bar Nadi to the Bharali River. ● Mir Jumla died soon after his victory. Later, the Ahom regained its power, which had not been broken, and also it was beyond the Mughal power to enforce the treaty. In 1667, the Ahoms renewed the contest. They not only 52 Master Series : Medieval India ● ● ● ● recovered the areas ceded to the Mughals, but also occupied Gauhati (Assam). Over a period of time, the Mughal forces had also been expelled from Cooch Bihar. Likewise, all the won territories of Mir Jumla were rapidly lost. But later the shock of the Mughal invasion and the subsequent warfare damaged the strength of the Ahom kingdom and led to the decline and disintegration of the Ahom Empire. Shaista Khan succeeded Mir Jumla as the governor of Bengal after his death. He gave personal attention to the problem of south Bengal, where the Magh (Arakanese) pirates, in conjunction with Portuguese pirates, had been terrorizing the area up to Dacca (capital of Bengal) from their headquarters at Chittagong. The land up to Dacca had become deserted and trade and industry had suffered a setback. Shaista Khan strategically built up a flotilla to meet the Arakanese pirates and captured the island of Sondip as a base of operations against Chittagong. The Arakan navy near Chittagong was routed out and many of the ships captured. In 1666, Shaista Khan attacked Chittagong and captured. The destruction of Arakanese navy opened the seas for free trade and commerce. ● Aurangzeb was not interested in philosophical debates or in mysticism; however, he did not prohibit his sons from experimenting in Sufism. Apart from being an orthodox Muslim, Aurangzeb was also a ruler. He could hardly forget the political reality that the overwhelming population of India was Hindu, and that they were deeply attached to their faith. Mughals’ Foreign Policy ● Because of being responsible for the expulsion of Babur and the other Timurid princes from Samarkand and the adjoining area (including Khorasan), the Uzbeks were the natural enemies of the Mughals. ● The Khorasanian plateau linked Iran with Central Asia, and was an important trade route to China and India. The Uzbeks clashed with the rising power of the Safavids who claimed Khorasan. The Uzbeks tried to exploit the sectarian differences with the Safavid rulers of Iran who had ruthlessly persecuted the Sunnis. By considering an ambitious attitude of the Uzbeks, it was natural for the Safavids and the Mughals to ally (against the Uzbek). The Ottoman (Turkish Sultan) threat from the west, compelled the Persians to be friend with the Mughals, particularly when they had to face an aggressive Uzbek power in the east. Akbar and Uzbeks Estimate of Aurangzeb ● Aurangzeb ruled for almost 50 years. During his long reign period, the Mughal Empire reached its territorial climax. Aurangzeb stretched his territory from Kashmir (in the north) to Jinji (in the south), and from the Hindukush (in the west) to Chittagong (in the east). ● Aurangzeb letters reflected the close attention that he paid to all affairs of the state and governance. He was a strict disciplinarian who did not spare even his own sons. In 1686, Aurangzeb imprisoned prince Muazzam on a charge of intriguing with the ruler of Golconda, and kept him in prison for 12 long years. His other sons also had to face his wrath on various occasions. ● Aurangzeb’s personal life was marked by simplicity. He had the reputation of being orthodox, God fearing Muslim. In a course of time, he began to be regarded as a zinda pir, or “a living saint.” Cont... ● In 1511, when Safavids defeated Shaibani Khan (the Uzbek chief), Babur had regained Samarkand; however, it was only for the short period. Further, Babur had to leave the city, as the Uzbeks had defeated the Persians. ● Later, Shah Tahmasp, the Safavids monarch also helped Humayun, when he (Humayun) had defeated and ousted from India by Sher Shah. The territorial power of the Uzbeks grew rapidly in the seventies under Abdullah Khan Uzbek. ● In 1572-73, Abdullah Khan Uzbek seized Balkh which, along with Badakhshan, had served as a kind of buffer between the Mughals and the Uzbeks. After the death of Shah Tahmasp (in 1576), there was political instability in Iran; hence, by understanding the Mughal Dynasty 53 ● ● ● ● ● ● situation, in 1577, Abdullah Khan II (Uzbek ruler) sent an embassy to Akbar proposing partition of Iran. Akbar ignored this appeal (because of sectarian narrowness). A strong Iran was essential to keep the restless Uzbeks in their place. At the same time, Akbar had no desire to get embroiled with the Uzbeks, unless they directly threatened Kabul or the Indian possessions, which was the key to Akbar’s foreign policy. Akbar sent a return embassy to Abdullah Uzbek in which he asserted that differences in law and religion could not be considered as sufficient ground for conquest. Abul Fazl mentioned that the Khyber Pass was built in such a way that a wheeled traffic can also pass through. It was done due to fear of the Mughals, the gates were usually kept closed. Speculating an invasion from Badakhshan, Abdullah Uzbek created trouble among the tribesmen of the north-west frontier, which was executed by one of his trustworthy agents, Jalala who was a religious fanatic. Because of Abdullah Uzbek’s action, the situation became very serious; therefore, Akbar had to action. It was during this expedition, Akbar lost one of his best friends, Raja Birbal. In 1585, Abdullah Uzbek suddenly conquered Badakhshan; both Mirza Hakim (his half-brother) and his grandson sought refuge at Akbar’s court and were given suitable mansabs. Immediately after the Uzbek’s attack, Mirza Hakim died and then Akbar annexed Kabul and made his dominion. Abdullah Khan Uzbek sent another embassy to the Akbar’s court; however, at this time, Akbar was at Attock (on the river Indus). Abdullah Khan revived the earlier proposal for a joint campaign against the Safavid power, and for opening the way for pilgrims to Mecca. The Ottoman (Turkish) sultan had invaded northern Iran, and the Uzbeks were threatening Herat in Khorasan. Akbar sent a long letter in reply to Abdullah Uzbek’s proposal. He disapproved the Turkish action, and proposed to dispatch an army to Iran led by one of the royal princes to help. ● Akbar, however, made no serious preparations to support the threat of a campaign in Iran. Abdullah Uzbek had invaded Khorasan even before Akbar’s letter reached him and captured most of the areas be claimed. ● Most likely, an agreement was made that defined the Hindukush as the boundary. Further, the Mughals gave their interest in Badakhshan and Balkh, which had been ruled by Timurid princes till 1585. After conquering Qandhar in 1595, Akbar accomplished his objective of establishing a scientific defensible frontier. ● Akbar remained in Lahore until 1598, and left for Agra only after the death of Abdullah Khan Uzbek. After the death of Abdullah, the Uzbeks broke up into contending principalities, and ceased to be a threat to the Mughals for a considerable time. Mughal-Persian Relations ● In 1649, the setback in Balkh region led to a revival of Uzbek hostility in the Kabul region and Afghan tribal unrest in the Khyber-Ghazni region emboldened the Persians to attack and conquer Qandhar. Collectively, all these were great threat for Shah Jahan; therefore, he launched three major campaigns, led by princes (of blood) to recover Qandhar. ● The first attack was launched by Aurangzeb (popular as the hero of Balkh), with an army of 50,000. Though the Mughals defeated the Persians outside the fort, they could not conquer it in the face of determined Persian opposition. ● After three years, Aurangzeb made another attempt, but again failed. However, in 1653, the most grandiloquent effort was made by Dara Shikoh, the favorite son of Shah Jahan. Dara Shikoh had made a great attempt and even maintained his strong position, but ultimately, it was of no avail. ● Because of the repeated attacks and subsequent failures, Mughals lost much more than the 54 Master Series : Medieval India loss of Qandhar as a whole. Failure also stained Mughals’ prestige. ● In 1680, the proud Ottoman (Turkish) sultan sent an embassy to Aurangzeb’s court and asked for support. This time, Aurangzeb decided not to repeat the futile contest on Qandhar issue, and hence, agreed for the diplomatic relations with Iran. ● The basic foreign policy of Mughals was based on the defence of India, which was further strengthened by the diplomatic means. In spite of the fact that there were (temporary) obstructions over the question of Qandhar; friendship with Persia was Mughals’ keynote. ● Further, the Mughals had also emphasized on relations of equality with leading Asian nations with both − 1. The Safavids, who claimed a special position by virtue of their relationship with the Prophet and 2. The Ottoman sultans who had assumed the title of Padshah-i-Islam and claimed to be the successors of the Caliph of Baghdad. ● The Mughals also used their diplomatic foreign policy to promote India’s commercial interests. Kabul and Qandhar were the twin gateways of India’s trade with Central Asia. ● From the discussion above given, it is clear that the Mughals succeeded in maintaining a controlled frontier in the north-west, based on the Hindukush, on the one side, and the Kabul-Ghazni line, on the other. However, Qandhar remained as its outer bastion. Conquest of South by Mughals ● In 1591, Akbar sent embassies to all the Deccani states inviting them to accept Mughal suzerainty. None of the states accepted this. The Mughal invasion on Ahmednagar was led by prince Murad, who was the governor of Gujarat (at that time), and reinforced by Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan. ● Chand Bibi shut herself up in the fort (of Ahmednagar) with the boy-king, Bahadur. After a close siege of four months in which Chand Bibi played a heroic role, the two sides (Mughals and Ahmednagar) agreed for an agreement and in 1596, Mughal suzerainty was accepted. ● The Mughal annexation of Berar alarmed other Deccani states a combined force of Bijapur, Golconda, and Ahmednagar led by a Bijapur commander invaded Berar. In 1597, the Mughals defeated the Deccani forces. As a result of this defeat, the Bijapur and Golconda forces withdrew and left Chand Bibi to meet the situation alone. Likewise, Mughal had sieged Ahmednagar, for the second time. ● In the absence of any external help from outside, Chand Bibi had agreed for the negotiations with the Mughals, but she was accused of treachery by a hostile faction and hence was killed. The Mughals now assaulted and captured Ahmednagar and the boy-king, Bahadur, was sent to the fortress of Gwalior. ● In 1601, Khandesh was unified in the Mughal Empire. After the capture of Asirgarh, Akbar returned to the north to deal with the rebellion of his son, Salim. Akbar was conscious that no lasting solution to the Deccan problem could be arrived without an agreement with Bijapur. To assure himself, Akbar sent the messages to Ibrahim Adil Shah II; as a result of which he (Adil Shah II) married his daughter to prince Daniyal (the youngest son of Akbar). ● In 1602 prince Daniyal (immediately after his marriage) died because of excessive drinking. Thus the situation in the Deccan remained vague. Rise of Malik Amber ● Malik Ambar was an Abyssinian (born in Ethiopia). There is little known about his early life; however, probably, he was from a poor family and his parents sold him in a slave market in Baghdad. Later, he was purchased by a merchant who treated him well and brought him to the Deccan. ● When the Mughals invaded Ahmednagar, Ambar at first went to Bijapur to try his luck Mughal Dynasty 55 ● ● ● ● ● ● ● there. But he soon returned back and joined himself in the powerful Habshi (Abyssinian) party, which was opposed to Chand Bibi. After the fall of Ahmednagar, Malik Ambar with the implied support of the ruler of Bijapur, received the title of Peshwa (a title which had been common in Ahmednagar those days). Malik Ambar gathered around him a large band of Maratha troopers (or bargis). The Marathas were adept in rapid movements, and in plundering and cutting off the supplies of the enemy troops. Abdul Rahim Khan-e-Khana was the Mughal commander in the Deccan; he was a shrewd and wily politician and an intelligent soldier. In 1601, he (Abdul Rahim) inflicted a crushing defeat on Ambar at a place called Nander (in Telangana). However, the war ended with a friendship agreement between Abdul Rahim and Amber. In October 1605, Akbar died. After his death, there were differences among the Mughal commanders in Deccan regions; this situation gave an opportunity to Amber and hence he unleashed an aggressive campaign to expel the Mughals from Berar, Balaghat, and Ahmednagar. Amber’s campaign was actively supported by Ibrahim Adil Shah (the ruler of Bijapur). Adil Shah considered it essential because he thought that the Nizam Shahi state should continue as a buffer between Bijapur and the Mughals. Adil Shah gave Amber the powerful fort of Qandhar in Telangana for the residence of his family and stowing treasures, provisions, etc. Father, Adil Shah also sent 10,000 horsemen to support Amber. In 1609, the treaty was cemented by a marriage alliance between the daughters of one of the leading Ethiopian nobles of Bijapur with Malik Ambar. Adil Shah gave a handsome dowry to the bride and spent about Rs. 80,000 on fireworks. Likewise, by 1610, most of the territories (in south) won by Akbar were lost. Jahangir ● Jahangir sent prince Parvez with a large army to conquest Deccan, but he could not meet the challenges posed by Malik Ambar. Lastly, Ahmednagar was also lost, and Parvez had to conclude with a disgraceful peace agreement with Ambar. ● Over a period of time, Malik Ambar became arrogant and separated his allies. The Khan-i-Khana, who had been posted as the Mughal viceroy of the Deccan once again, took advantage of the situation and won over to his side a number of Habshis as well as Maratha nobles, including Jagdev Rai, Babaji Kate, Udaji Ram, etc. ● In 1616, with the help of the Maratha sardars, Khan-i-Khana defeated the combined forces of Ahmednagar, Bijapur, and Golconda. This defeat shook the Deccani alliance against the Mughals. However, Ambar did not relax his efforts. ● Jahangir, however, was not interested to extend Mughal commitments in the Deccan, or even become too deeply involved in its affairs. He had belief that his moderation would enable the Deccani states to settle down, and live in peace with the Mughals. ● Despite Jahangir’s diplomatic policy, Ambar continued to lead the Deccan’ resistance against the Mughals. After two years, the combined Deccani forces were again defeated by the Mughals. The credit for these victories was given to Prince Shah Jahan. ● After the defeat, the Deccani states had to pay an indemnity of Rs. 5,000,000. Later, Amber conducted a series of campaigns against Bijapur for the recovery of Sholapur, which was a bone of contention between the two states. ● Ambar had shown a remarkable military skill, energy, and determination. His achievements were short-lived due to his inability or reluctance to accept Mughal’s terms and conditions. ● Malik Ambar attempted to improve the administrative system of Nizam Shahi state 56 Master Series : Medieval India by introducing Todar mal’s land revenue system. He abolished the old system of giving land on contract. ● After 1622, in a situation, when Deccan was in turmoil due to the rebellion of Prince Shah Jahan against his father Jahangir, Malik Ambar once again managed to recover many of the old territories, which had been ceded by the Mughals. However, he could not live much long after this and died in 1626 at the age of 80. Shah Jahan ● Shah Jahan ascended the throne in 1627. At the same time, Ahmednagar lost badly and Bijapur and Golconda accepted the Mughal Suzerainty. ● Shah Jahan came to a conclusion that there could be no peace for the Mughals in the Deccan as long as Ahmednagar continued as an independent state. This conclusion was a major departure from the policy, which had been followed by Akbar and Jahangir. ● Shah Jahan was not much interested to extend Mughal territories in the Deccan beyond what was necessary. He, therefore, sent a message to Bijapur ruler and offered to cede to him roughly one-third of the Ahmednagar state. ● The demand of one-third territory from Ahmednagar was a shrewd move on the part of Shah Jahan with the intent to isolate Ahmednagar diplomatically and militarily. Jahangir also offered services to the various Maratha sardars. Adil Shah ● Adil Shah also was anxious because of Malik Ambar’s humiliation and the annexation of Sholapur. He, therefore, accepted Shah Jahan’s proposal, and deputed an army at the Nizam Shahi border to cooperate with the Mughals. ● In 1629, Shah Jahan strategically deputed a large army against Ahmednagar; one group sent to operate in the Balaghat region (in the west), and the other in the Telangana region (in the east). ● The Mughals, on their part, had refused to hand over to the Adil Shah the areas allotted to him under the agreement. As a result of this, Adil decided to help Nizam Shah who agreed to surrender Sholapur to him. ● Adil Shah sent a large army under Randaula Khan (Bijapur General) and Murari Pandit for the surrender of Daulatabad and for provisioning its garrison. ● Shahji Bhonsle also was joined in Bijapur’s service to harass the Mughals and cut off their supplies. But the combined operations of the Bijapuri forces and Shahji’s forces were failed. ● In 1633, Mahabat Khan (Mughal general) was closely interested in Daulatabad, and forced the garrison to surrender.After the defeat, Nizam Shah was sent to prison in Gwalior (Madhya Pradesh). This war marked as the end of the Nizam Shahi dynasty. ● By following the path of Malik Ambar, Shahji nurtured a Nizam Shahi prince, and raised him up as ruler.Adil Shah sent a force of seven to eight thousand horsemen to support Shahji, and encouraged many of the Nizam Shahi nobles to surrender their forts to Shahji. ● Many scattered Nizam Shahi soldiers joined Shahji whose force swelled to 20,000 horse. With these, he harassed the Mughals and took control of large portions of the Ahmednagar state. By understanding the critical situation, Shah Jahan deputed a large army to invade Bijapur. Further, the policy of carrot and stick and the advance of Shah Jahan to the Deccan changed the Bijapur politics. ● The leaders of the anti-Mughal group including Murari Pandit were displaced and killed and a new agreement was made with Shah Jahan. According to this treaty, Adil Shah agreed to − 1. Recognize Mughal suzerainty, 2. Pay an indemnity of twenty lakhs of rupees, and 3. Not to interfere in the affairs of Golconda, which was brought under Mughal protection. Mughal Dynasty 57 ● Adil Shah also agreed to operate with the Mughals for reducing Shahji to submission, and if he agreed to join Bijapuri service, to depute him in the south, away from the Mughal frontier.Shah Jahan also sent to Adil Shah a solemn Farman (summon) impressed with the mark of the emperor’s palm that the terms of this treaty would never be violated. ● A peace agreement with the Mughals enabled the Deccani states to expand their territories towards the further south and to strengthen their power and prosperity. ● Soon after the treaties of 1636, Bijapur and Golconda overran the rich and fertile Karnataka area from the river Krishna to Tanjore and beyond. A series of campaigns were conducted by Bijapur and Golconda against the southern states. ● Over a period of time, rapid expansion weakened internal cohesion of these southern states. Ambitious nobles such as Shahji, and his son Shivaji in Bijapur, and Mir Jumla, the leading noble of Golconda, started carving out spheres of influence for themselves. ● In the south, however, the development came to an end in 1656 after the death of Muhammad Adil Shah, and arrival of Aurangzeb as the Mughal viceroy of the Deccan. Deccan’s Cultural Contribution ● Adil Shah II was very fond of music; he composed a book namely Kitab-e-Navras (Book of Nine Rasas). In this book, he set various musical modes or togas. In his songs, he freely prayed the goddess of music and learning, Saraswati. Due to his broad approach, he came to be called as Jagat Guru. ● Adil Shah II, further, built a new capital, Nauraspur; where he invited a large number of musicians (to settle). He offered patronage to all, including Hindu saints and temples. This included grants to Pandharpur, the center of the worship of Vithoba, which became the center of the Bhakti movement in Maharashtra. ● Qutb Shah employed both Hindus and Muslims people in his military, administrative, and diplomatic departments. ● Golconda was the popular intellectual resort for the literary men. Sultan Muhammad Qutb Shah (who was a contemporary of Akbar) was very fond of both literature and architecture. ● Sultan Muhammad Qutb Shah wrote in Dakhini Urdu, Persian, and Telugu and left an extensive collection. He was the first who introduced a secular note in poetry. ● Qutb Shah not only wrote about God and the Prophet (their praise), but he also wrote about nature, love, and the social life of his time. ● The Deccani states had a number of cultural contributions to their credit. Adil Shah was very fond of organizing discussions with Hindu and Muslim saints. ● The successors of Qutb Shah and many other poets and writers of his time adopted Urdu as a literary language. In addition to Urdu language, Persian, Hindi, and Telugu were also significant for the idioms and vocabulary. ● Adil Shah invited Catholic missionaries to his court, much before Akbar had done so. He had an excellent library to which he appointed the well-known Sanskrit scholar, Vaman pandit. Patronage of Sanskrit and Marathi was continued by his successors. ● Urdu gradually percolate to north India from the Deccan by the eighteenth century. In 1591-92, Quli Qutb Shah founded the city Hyderabad, he also constructed many buildings, the most famous of which is the Char Minar. ● Ibrahim Adil Shah II (1580-1627), the successor of Adil Shah, ascended the throne (of Bijapur) at the age of nine. He was very attentive of the poor, and had the title of abla baba, or Friend of the Poor. ● The Gol Gumbaz (the mausoleum of Mohammed Adil Shah, Sultan of Bijapur) which was built in 1656 has the largest single dome ever constructed. The architect of Gol Gumbaz was Yaqut of Dabul. 58 Master Series : Medieval India Adarsh Smarak Yojana The Ministry of Culture has launched Adarsh Smarak Yojana and chosen Hampi, Bellary among 25 monuments in the country to be granted ‘Adarsha Smaraks’ tag. The Union government has awarded the tag to monuments which record the highest number of tourists. They would be given special attention to boost international tourism under the Adarsh Smarak Yojana by ASI in form of – wash rooms, drinking water, cafeteria, audio-visual centres, interpretation centres, Wi-Fi connectivity, audio guide facility, land scaping, parking, e-ticketing illumination, Braille signage, facilities for people with disabilities. Virupaksha Temple at Pattadkal in Karnataka will be covered in the scheme. Krishnadevaraya, one of the famous kings of the Vijayanagara Empire was a major patron of this temple. The Virupaksha Temple (for Lord Shiva), which existed prior to the Vijayanagar empire and is considered as the ‘Kashi of the South’. Hampi is also a world heritage site. The Vittala Temple complex has stone chariot and musical pillars among other monuments are considered as “architectural marvel of human genius” having “outstanding universal values”. Mansabdari System ● Akbar had developed a new administrative machinery and revenue system, which were maintained by the subsequent Mughal Emperors (with minor modifications).The Mansabdari System, as it developed under the Mughals, was a distinctive and unique system. ● The origins of the Mansabdari system, however, can be traced back to Changez Khan. Changez Khan organized his army on a decimal basis, the lowest unit of his army was ten, and the highest ten thousand (toman) whose commander was known as ‘Khan.’ ● There is, however, a controversy regarding the Mansabdari system i.e. when it started precisely. From the available evidence, it appears that this system had been initiated by Akbar (in 1577). Along with Mansabdari system, Akbar also reformed the revenue system and introduced two new concepts namely ‘Zat’ and ‘Sawar.’ ● The Zat rank signified the personal status of an individual in the imperial hierarchy. Zat had fixed salary. Features of Mansabdan System ● Characteristic features of Mansabdari System were1. It was based on merit because meritorious candidates were given this rank. 2. It was centralized in nature because all appointments were made by king himself 3. This system was secular in nature because Muslims as well as non-Muslims were given ranks. 4. The system was non-hereditary because ranks were conferred to a person only for lifetime. 5. Transferring of Mansabdar’s was the important feature. Classification of Mansab ● There were sixty-six grades or Mansabs from ten to ten thousand. However, ranks above five thousand were reserved for princes. ● Persons holding ranks below 500 Zat were called ‘Mansabdars;’ ● Persons holding ranks somewhere between 500 and 2,500 were known as ‘Amirs:’ and ● Persons holding ranks of 2,500 and above were known as ‘Amir-i-umda’ or ‘Amir-iazam.’ ● A person with a rank of 5,000 could have under him a Mansabdar up to a rank of 500 Zat and one with a rank of 4,000 could have a Mansabdar up to a rank of 400 Zat, and so on. ● The categories, however, were not rigid; persons were generally appointed at a low mansab, but gradually (because of his skills and loyalty) promoted. A person could also be demoted if he became incompetent or disloyal (as a mark of punishment). ● All employees of these ranks were expected to maintain a stipulated quota of horses, elephants, beasts of burden (camels and mules), and carts from their own salary. ● A Mansabdar holding the rank of 5,000 Zat had to maintain 340 horses, 100 elephants, Mughal Dynasty 59 400 camels, 100 mules, and 160 carts. Over a period of time, these were maintained centrally; however, the expenses still were taken from the salary of respective Mansabdar. ● Depending upon the quality, the horses were classified into six categories and the elephants were categorized into five categories. It was practiced because horses and elephants of high breed were greatly prized and were considered indispensable for an efficient military machine. ● For meeting the financial requirements of all levels of Mansabdars, they were paid very handsomely: 1. A Mansabdar with a rank of 5,000 could get a salary of Rs. 30,000/month; 2. A Mansabdar with a rank of 3,000 received Rs. 17,000/month; and 3. A Mansabdar with a rank of 1,000, received Rs. 8,200/month. ● A Mansabdar was allowed to retain 5% of the total salary of the sawars in order to meet various contingent expenses. In addition to this, he (a Mansabdar) had been given two rupees for every sawar that he maintained. This amount had been given to compensate him for his efforts and the larger responsibility (integrated into this work). ● By the end of Akbar’s reign, the highest rank a noble could attain was raised from 5,000 to 7,000, which had been given to Mirza Aziz Koka and Raja Man Singh. ● A number of other modifications were, however, carried out, but the Mansabdari system was maintained until the end of Aurangzeb’s reign. ● Depending upon the situation, Mughals also practiced to reduce salaries. For example, the average salary paid to a sawar was reduced by Jahangir.Jahangir also introduced a system whereby the selected nobles could be allowed to maintain a larger quota of troopers, without raising their Zat rank. The system was popular as ‘du-aspah’ (a trooper with two horses) or ‘sihaspah’ (a trooper with three horses) system. ● The salaries of the Mansabdars were given in rupees, but over a period of time, they were normally not paid in cash, but rather by assigning them a ‘jagir.’Mansabdars also preferred a jagir because cash payments were likely to be delayed and sometimes even entailed a lot of harassment. ● The salaries of the Mansabdars were put on a month scale i.e. 10 months, 8 months, 6 months or even less than that. Besides, their obligations for the maintenance of a quota of sawars were also brought down accordingly. ● Most of the Marathas who were employed in the Mughal service, were assigned Mansabs on a 5 monthly basis or even less than that. Likewise, they were given a high rank in the hierarchy, but the actual number of horses and effective sawars was much lower – according to their rank (as discussed above). ● Under the Shah Jahan’s administration, the Mansabdari system worked properly, as he had paid personal and meticulous attention to administration. Mughal Army ● The cavalry was the principal arm of the Mughal army and the ‘Mansabdars’ provided the overwhelming proportion of it. In addition to the mansabdars, the Mughal emperors had also employed individual troopers, namely ‘Ahadis.’ ● The Ahadis had been more popular as gentlemen-troopers and received much higher salaries than other troopers of the same rank. ● The Ahadis were a highly trustworthy corps, and they were directly recruited by the emperors. An Ahadi mustered up to five horses; however, sometimes two of them shared one horse. The duties of Ahadis were of miscellaneous type such as clerical jobs of the imperial offices, the painters of the court, the foremen in the royal karkhanas (factories), etc. ● During the Shah Jahan’s reign, Ahadis were numbered about 7,000 and were well distributed over the different parts of the army. 60 Master Series : Medieval India Many of them worked as skilled musketeers (baraq-andaz) and bowmen (tir-andaz). ● In addition to the Ahadis, the emperors had also maintained a crop of royal bodyguards (wala-shuhis) and armed palace guards. They were actually cavalrymen, but served on foot in the citadel and the palace. ● There were a large number of the footmen (piyadgan). Many of them consisted of matchlock-bearers (banduqchi). Their salaries were ranging between three and seven rupees a month. ● The foot-soldiers also included porters, servants, news-runners, swordsmen, wrestlers, and slaves. ● The Mughal emperors had a large stable of war elephants, and also a well-organized park of artillery. ● The artillery was comprised of two sections − 1. Heavy guns, which were used for defending or assaulting forts; these were often clumsy and difficult to move and 2. The light artillery, which was highly mobile and moved with the emperors whenever needed. ● Under the Shah Jahan reign, the Mughal army consisted of about 200,000, excluding the men working in the districts and with faujdars. However, this number increased to 240,000 during the Aurangzeb period. Social Life under the Mughals ● The economic, social, and cultural conditions during the first half of the seventeenth century were flourishing like anything. ● Ralph Fitch (a British traveler) had written about Patna (Bihar) as, “Here the women bedecked with silver and copper that it is strange to see, they use no shoes by reason of the rings of silver and copper they wear on their toes.” ● The houses of the mass of the people were made up of mud (which still can be seen in many remote parts of the country). ● Regarding the food, rice, millets, and pulses were the staple diet; besides, fish in Bengal and in the coastal regions, and meat in the south of the peninsula were also common. ● Ghee and oil were much cheaper than the staple food grains and hence were a staple part of the poor man’s food. However, salt and sugar were more expensive. ● The village artisans were paid for their services by means of commodities, which were fixed by custom. ● In spite of having so much prosperity, some historians also mentioned that there were inequality and disparity, especially in the villages. The peasant who did not have his own ploughs and bullocks often tilled the land of zamindars or the upper castes, and could make out a bare existence. These peasants were popular as ‘pahis.’ ● Whenever there was a famine (which was frequent in those days), it was the lower class Peasants and the village artisans who suffered the most. Tulsidas, the sixteenth century Hindi poet, had said (about these people) that this type of cultivation was a source of misery. ● The peasants who owned the land tilled their own land were known as “Khudkasht.” These peasants had to pay their land revenue at customary rates. ● It has been estimated that the population in India at the beginning of the seventeenth century was about 125 million. Hence, there was an abundance of cultivable land. ● All classes of the peasants probably had more fuel at their disposal because of the abundance of forests. ● During this time, a peasant cannot be dispossessed off from his land until he had been paying the land revenue. Secondly, a peasant can also sell his land. Children of a peasant had the right to inherit his father’s land (after his death). ● Cities were largely comprised of the poor i.e. the artisans, the servants, and slaves, the soldiers, petty shopkeepers, etc. ● The salary of the lowest grade servant (as per the record of the European travelers), was Mughal Dynasty 61 less than two rupees a month. The bulk of the menials and foot soldiers were given less than three rupees a month. ● During this period, it has been calculated that a man could maintain his family and other personal requirements merely in two rupees (for a whole month). ● Nobles ● The nobles, along with the zamindars, formed the ruling class in medieval India. Socially and economically, the Mughal nobility was the privileged class. ● Ideally, the doors of the Mughal nobility were open to everyone, but in practice, the persons who were related to aristocratic families (irrespective of their background – either they were Indians or foreigners), had been given privilege. ● To begin with, the bulk of the Mughal nobles were invited from the homeland of the Mughals, i.e. Turan, and from its neighboring areas, such as Tajikistan, Khorasan, Iran, etc. ● Indian Muslims who were popular as Shaikhzadas or Hindustanis were also given service in the Mughal court. ● Akbar initiated a new trend, as he began to recruit Hindus into the noble category on a regular basis. The largest section among them was the Rajputs. Among the Rajputs, the Kachhwahas were outweighed. ● In 1594, the proportion of Hindus in the nobility under Akbar, was about 16 percent. Raja Man Singh and Raja Birbal, both were the personal friends of Akbar, while in the sphere of revenue administration, Raja Todar Mal had a place of great influence and honor. ● The Rajputs who were recruited to the nobility, either belonged to hereditary rajas or to the aristocratic families. In addition to this, the nobility did provide an opportunity of promotion and distinction to many persons for humble origin. ● The nobility attained a considerable measure of stability under the Mughal emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan and they paid personal and careful attention to the organization of the ● ● ● ● ● ● nobility (the Mansabdari system), orderly promotions, discipline, and the recruitment of competent people into the imperial service. The Mughal nobles, as we have seen, received salaries which were extremely high by any standards. This, as well as the liberal policy of the Mughal emperors in matters of faith, and the stable political conditions in India attracted many talented persons from foreign lands to the Mughal court. Bernier, the French traveler, once said that the “Mughal nobility consisted of foreigners who enticed each other to the court.” However, the modern research has shown this statement to be fallacious. Under the reign of Jahangir and Shah Jahan, most of the nobles were those who born in India. At the same time, the proportion of Afghans, Indian Muslims (Hindustanis), and Hindus in the nobility continued to rise. Jahangir was the first Mughal Emperor who realized that the Marathas were “the hub of affairs” in the Deccan, and hence made effort convinced them. This policy was continued by his son Shah Jahan. Among the Maratha Sardars who served Shah Jahan was Shahaji, the father of Shivaji; however, soon he deserted. Later, Aurangzeb gave an opportunity to many Marathas and Deccan Muslims. The Hindus that formed roughly about 24 percent of the nobility during the reign of Shah Jahan; later (under the reign of Aurangzeb), they accounted about 33 percent of the nobles. Among the Hindu nobles, the Marathas formed more than half. The Mughal nobles received extremely high salaries; at the same time, their expenses were also very high. Each noble maintained : 1. A large number attendants; of servants and 2. A large stable of horses, elephants, etc.; and 3. Transport of all types. ● Many of the nobles also maintained a big harem (of women), which was normal for a man of higher status at that time. 62 Master Series : Medieval India ● Besides varieties of fruits, about 40 dishes used to be prepared for each meal for Akbar. Ice, which was an item of luxury at that time, was used the year around by the privileged classes. ● The expensive jewels and ornaments, which were worn both by men and women were common among the higher status people. ● Jahangir introduced a new fashion for men wearing costly jewels in their ears after piercing them. To some extent jewelry was also meant to be a reserve to be used in an emergency. ● There is a controversy that the Mughal nobles had little interest in saving because, after their death, all their properties reverted to the emperor. The idea behind that was everything flowed from him, therefore, at last, everything flowed to him. ● Many historians refuted this idea (i.e. returning to the nobles’ property back to emperor); the Mughal emperors did not claim the property of their nobles. Nevertheless, when a noble died, a careful inventory of his property and estate was made because, usually, the noble owed considerable sums of money to the central treasury. Therefore, his debts first be adjusted before the property could were handed over to his heirs. ● The emperor reserved the right of settling the property of a noble among his heirs (or/and according to his choice), and not on the basis as laid down by the Islamic law. Secondly, daughters did not receive a share of their father’s properties. ● The procedure of dispensing properties of deceased noble sometimes led to considerable delays and harassment to the dependents (especially of the detested noble). ● Aurangzeb made a rule that the properties of a noble who did not owe money to the state were not to be attached and that, in any case, a certain part of the property of a deceased noble should be made available immediately to his dependents. ● Members of the royal family, including princes and queen mothers, took keen interest in foreign trade. Akbar’s widow and the mother of Jahangir, owned ships, which run between Surat and the Red Sea ports. Zamindars ● The right of ownership regarding the land depended mainly on succession.The people who settle a new village or who brought wastelands under cultivation, belong to the respective villages. These villagers became the owners of these lands. ● The considerable section of the zamindars had the hereditary right of collecting land revenue from their respective villages. This was called his ‘talluqa’ or his ‘zamindari.’ ● For collecting the land revenue, the zamindars received a share of the land revenue which could go up to 25 percent.The zamindars, not necessarily “owner” of all the lands over which he collected the land revenue. ● The peasants who actually cultivated the land could not be dispossessed as long as they paid the land revenue. Thus the zamindars and the peasants, both had their own hereditary rights in land. ● The zamindars had their own armed forces (to collect the land revenue), and generally resided in the forts or garhis which were both a place of refuge and a symbol of status. ● The zamindars generally had, close connections with the caste, clan, or tribal basis and also with the peasants settled in their zamindaris. ● In addition to these zamindars, there was a large class of religious divines and learned men who in return for their services, were granted tracts of land for their maintenance. In Mughal terminology, such grants were popular as ‘milk’ or ‘madad-i-maash’ and in Rajasthani terminology, it was popular as ‘shasan.’ Trade and Commerce ● In the medieval period, the middle classes masses had been largely belonged to Mughal Dynasty 63 ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● merchants and other professional classes such as vaidyas and hakims (Ayurvedic doctors) and other officials. Among the merchant classes, some specialized in wholesale trade, and others in the retail trade. The wholesale traders were known as ‘seth’ or ‘bohra’ and the retail traders were known as ‘beoparis’ or ‘banik.’ In south India, the community ‘chettis’ formed the trading class. Besides, there was a special class, ‘banjaras,’ who specialized in the trading. The banjaras used to move from one place to another place, sometimes with thousands of oxen, laden with food grains, salt, ghee, and other daily use stuff. The ‘sarrafs’ (shroff) are specialized in changing money, keeping money in deposit or lending it, or transmitting it from one part of the country to the other by means of ‘hundi.’ The ‘hundi’ was a letter of credit payable after a certain period. The use of hundis made it easier to move goods or to transmit money from one part of the country to another. When needed, the hundis were cashed at a discount rate, which sometimes included insurance so that the cost of goods lost or destroyed in transit could be recovered. Taking the advantage of these facilities, the Indian merchants could easily ship goods to countries of West Asia as well where there were Indian banking houses. English and Dutch traders who came to India during the seventeenth century found that the Indian financial system was highly developed, and the Indian merchants were very active and alert. The trading community of medieval time in India was considerably large in number and included some of the richest merchants of the world. For example, Virji Vohra had a large fleet of ships and he dominated Surat trade for several decades; Malaya Chetti dominated the Coromandel Coast; Abdul Ghaffoor Bohra was much popular trader who left 85 lakhs of rupees in cash and goods at the time of his death in 1718. ● Merchants and traders lived in lofty houses with colored tiles, wore fine clothes, and had people carrying flags and banners before them when they moved out in public. ● The French traveler, Bernier, however, written: “the merchants tried to look poor because they were afraid that they might be squeezed of their wealth.” Bernier’s observation might be wrong because the emperors right from the time of Sher Shah passed many laws to protect the property of the merchants. ● The laws made (for the traders) by Sher Shah were very strict. Secondly, Mughal Emperor Jahangir made a provision that “if anyone, whether nonbeliever or Musalman should die, his property and other belongings should be left for his heirs, and no one should interfere with them.” ● In a case where the respective (rich) person had no heir, an inspector should be appointed and also there would be separate guardians to guard the property, so that its value might be expended in a lawful and social expenditure, such as the building of mosques and sarais, repair of broken bridges, and the digging of tanks and wells.” Organization of Trade & Commerce ● The Mughals paid attention to roads and sarais, which made communication easier. A uniform tax was levied on goods at the point of their entry into the empire. Rahdari (a transit duty, a toll) or Road ceases was declared illegal, though it continued to be collected by some of the local rajas (kings). ● The Mughals introduced silver rupees of high purity, which became a standard coin in India and abroad and that helped in the growth of India’s trade as well. ● Mughals also made the policies that helped the commercialization of the economy and the growth of a money economy. ● During the Mughals period, salaries of the standing army as well as many of the administrative personnel (excluding the 64 Master Series : Medieval India nobles) were paid in cash. Besides, under the zabti system, the land revenue was assessed and required to be paid in cash. ● The growth of the rural grain markets led to the rise of small townships (or qasbas). The demand for all types of luxury goods by the nobles led to the expansion of handicraft production as well as the growth of towns. ● Ralph Fitch, who came India during the Akbar’s reign said that Agra and Fatehpur Sikri were each larger than London.Monserrate said that Lahore was second to none of the cities in Europe or Asia. Bernier says that Delhi was not much less than Paris and that Agra was larger than Delhi. ● Ahmadabad was also a large town, being as large as London and its suburbs. Dacca, Rajmahal, Multan, and Burhanpur were large towns, while Patna in Bihar had a population of 2 lakhs. Role of European Trading Companies ● In the beginning of seventeenth century, the arrival of Dutch and English traders also helped in the growth of India’s trade.The Indian traders welcomed the foreign traders and they helped to break the Portuguese monopoly of sea trade, and in a course of time, helped to establish a direct link between India and the European markets. ● Over a period of time, like the Portuguese, the Dutch and the English traders were also intended to establish a monopoly and made fortified establishments so that they could confront the local rulers.The Portuguese power had begun to decline during the second half of the sixteenth century, as was demonstrated by the defeat of the Spanish Armada by England in 1588. ● Despite a vehement opposition by the Portuguese, in 1606, the Dutch established themselves at Machilipatnam after obtaining a farman from the ruler of Golconda. They also established themselves in the Spice-Islands (Java and Sumatra); likewise, by 1610, they predominated in the spice trade. ● The cloth produced on the Coromandel Coast was the most popular and also cheapest to carry. Hence, Dutch increased their trade to south from Machilipatnam to the Coromandel Coast. They made Pulicat as their base station after taking it from the local ruler. ● Like the Dutch, the English also had come to the coast for the spice trade, but the hostility of the Dutch created a hindrance. ● In 1612, after defeating a Portuguese fleet out-side Surat, the English were able to set up a factory (in Surat), for which permission finally was taken by Thomas Roe in 1618 from the Mughal Emperor Jahangir. ● The Dutch followed the English and soon established a factory at Surat as well. Export of textiles was the base of India’s foreign trade. As an English writer observed, “From Aden to Achin (in Malaya) from head to foot, everyone was clothed in Indian textiles.” ● In 1622, with the help of the Persian forces, the English captured Ormuz, the Portuguese base at the head of the Persian Gulf. ● By the first quarter of the seventeenth century, both the Dutch and the English were well set in the Indian trade, and the Portuguese monopoly was broken forever. ● The Portuguese restricted to Goa and Daman and Diu only; likewise, their share in India’s overseas trade declined continuously and was almost insignificant by the end of the century. ● By 1640, export of cloth from the Coromandel equated with that of Gujarat; and by 1660, it was three times that of Gujarat. Machilipatnam and Fort St. David, which later developed into Madras were the chief centers of the trade. ● Another item which became popular was the export of Saltpeter (chemical name Potassium nitrate), which supplemented the Europeans, as it was used in making gun-powder and was also used as a ballast for ships going to Europe. ● The best quality Saltpeter was found in Bihar; therefore, exports from these areas grew rapidly; surprisingly, by the end of the Mughal Dynasty 65 century, this trade became equal (in value) to the exports from the Coromandel. ● The Indian textiles became a rage in England by the last quarter of the seventeenth century. An English observer wrote, “Almost everything that used to be made of wool or silk, relating either to dress of the women or the furniture of our houses was supplied by the Indian trade.” ● The increasing import from India, put down the local European market; as a result of which, in 1701, an agitation had been seen in Europe. Subsequently, all calicoes painted, dyed, printed, or stained from Persia, China, or the East Indies (i.e. India) were banned. But the agitation and subsequent strict laws could not change the trade pattern effectively. ● India was more closely linked to the world markets, especially to the European markets where a commercial revolution was taking place. But this linkage had negative factors as well. Europe had little to supply to India in return for its goods. Causes for the Downfall of the Mughals ● The Mughal Empire declined rapidly after the death of Aurangzeb. Taking this advantage, in 1739, Nadir Shah imprisoned the Mughal Emperor and looted Delhi. The religious and Deccan policies of Aurangzeb contributed to its decline. ● The weak successors and demoralization of the Mughal army were also the reasons for the decline.The financial difficulties due to continuous wars led to the decline.The neglect of the sea power by the Mughals was felt when the Europeans began to settle in India.Further, the invasions of Nadir Shah and Ahmad Shah Abdali weakened the Mughal state. 66 Master Series : Medieval India Medieval India Master Exercise MCQs 1. for Preliminary Examination Which of the following statements are true? 5. (a) Akbar divided the kingdom into 15 provinces (a) A hereditary post in the court of the King (b) A military office (c) Both (a) & (b) (d) A feudal title used for all landlords (c) Any office in the Mughal Empire 6. Which among the following was the Court language of the Mughal Empire? 2. Benevolent despotism 3. Rule of aristocracy; (b) Turk 4. Military based organization; (c) Persian (d) Urdu Which of the above were the features of Mughal administration? Give the correct chronological order of the events: (a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 2, 3 and 4 (i) Attack of Nadir Shah (c) 1, 3 and 4 (ii) Attack of Ahmed Shah Abdali (iii) Death of Sayyid brother (d) All of these 7. Choose the correct answer from the codes given below: Consider the following statements: 1. Akbar introduced Dahsala system for revenue administration. (a) (i)-(ii)-(iii) (c) (ii)-(iii)-(i) 2. The seventeenth century the introduction and expansion of two major crops – tobacco and maize. (d) (iii)-(i)-(ii) Which of the above statements is/are correct? Who invited Babur to India? (a) Only 1 (i) Rana Sanga (b) Only 2 (ii) Daulat Khan Lodhi (c) Both 1 and 2 (iii) Sikandar Lodhi (d) Neither 1 nor 2 (b) (ii)-(i)-(iii) 4. Consider the following features: 1. Centralized authority; (a) Arabic 3. What was the meaning of Mansab during Mughal empire? (b) Sher Shah started many reforms in administration (d) None of these 2. 3 (iv) Sher Khan Choose the correct answer from the codes given below: 8. Consider the following statements: 1. Jat rebellion was the result of agrarian crisis. (a) (i), (ii) 2. Agrarian crisis was only the reason of Disintegration of Mughal Empire. (b) (i), (iv) Which of the above statements is/are correct? (c) (ii), (iii) (a) Only 1 (d) (ii), (iv) (b) Only 2 Mughal Dynasty 67 (c) Both 1 and 2 under various Mughal Kings and how it played a major role in the decline of the Mughals. (d) Neither 1 nor 2 9. about 7. The Deccani ulcer destroyed the Mughal rule in India. How far do you agree with the statement? Elucidate. 2. Mansabs received the salary both in cash and kinds. 8. The rule of Shah Jahan was the epitome of Art and Architecture in India. Analyse the statement. Which of the above statements is/are correct? 9. Jahangir in his later years of rule was a puppet in the hands of Nur Jahan? Explain the Junta rule in the above mentioned context. Consider the following Mansabdari system: statements 1. It was hereditary system. (a) Only 1 (b) Only 2 (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 10. Consider the following statements: 1. During Mughal rule, judiciary laws were based on Islamic rules. 2. The Justice department was under Qazi-ulQuzat’ in 17th centuary. Which of the above statements is/are correct? (a) Only 1 (b) Only 2 (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 Subjectve type questions for Main Examination 10. Akbar’s Religious and Rajput Policy were the pillars of strong Mughal foundation in India. Explain. 11. The Land Reforms policy of Mughals were the continuation of Sher Shah’s works. Elucidate. 12. How far can you say that Agrarian crisis became important reason for disintegration of Mughal Empire? 13. The weakest part of Mughal administration was the military organization”. Elaborate. 14. Discuss the significane of Mansabdari system, how it affected the Mughal empire? 15. Throw light on judicial system of Mughal Empire. 16. Criticaly examines the Features and significance of Mughal administration. 1. Discuss the nature and character of Akbar’s Rajput policy. 17. The Mughal Empire fell by the burden of its own weight. Examine. 2. Describe the Rajput policy of Mughal Emperors, do you agree with view that reversal of Akbar’s Rajput policy by Aurangzeb was responsible for the disintegration of Mughal Empire. 18. Before Aurangzeb, all the Mughal Emperors were capable rulers, after him all were incapable rulers. Critically comment. 3. Expansion of Mughal Empire in Deccan brought about its decline. Discuss. 4. Discuss the responsibility of Aurangzeb in decline of Mughal Empire. 20. Mughal Empire was an upgrade on Delhi Sultanante in the field of Administration but devoid of its bigotry and racialism. Comment. 5. Discuss the various factors responsible for the disintegration of great Mughal Empire. 6. Trace the development of Mansabdari System 19. Mughal Empire was Akbar’s Empire. Examine. Answers to MCQs 1. 6. (c) (d) 2. 7. (c) (c) 3. 8. (d) (a) 4. 9. (a) 5. (c) (c) 10. (c) 68 Master Series : Medieval India Introduction to Constitution & Preamble | 68 MEDIEVAL INDIA MASTER SERIES UNIT 4 Rise of MARATHAS ● The Marathas had important positions in the administrative and military systems of Ahmednagar and Bijapur. Marathas did not have any large, well-established states; however, a number of influential Maratha families, namely, the Mores, the Ghatages, the Nimbalkars, etc., exercised local authority in some areas. ● The Maratha ruler Shahji Bhonsle and his son, Shivaji, consolidated the Maratha kingdom. Shahji acted as the kingmaker in Ahmednagar, and defied the Mughals. Taking advantage of the unsettled conditions, Shahji tried to set up a semi-independent principality at Bangalore, as Mir Jumla, the leading noble of Golconda, tried to carve out such a principality on the Coromandal coast. Further, Shivaji’s attempted to carve out a large principality around Poona. Early Career of Shivaji ● Shahji had left the Poona jagir to his neglected senior wife, Jija Bai and his minor son, Shivaji. Shivaji was brave and intellect since his childhood. When he was merely 18 years old, he overran a number of hill forts near Poona—Rajgarh, Kondana, and Torna in the years 1645-47. ● In 1647, after the death of his guardian, Dadaji Kondadeo, Shivaji became his own master and the full control of his father’s jagir came under his control. In 1656, Shivaji conquered Javli from the Maratha chief, Chandra Rao More and started his reigning career. ● The conquest of Javli made Shivaji the undisputed master of the Mavala region or the highlands and freed his path to the Satara region and to the coastal strip, the Konkan. Mavali foot-soldiers became a strong part of Shivaji’s army. With their support, Shivaji conquered a series of hill forts near Poona. Shivaji and the Mughals ● In 1657, the Mughal invasion of Bijapur saved Shivaji from Bijapur reprisal. Shivaji first entered into negotiations with Aurangzeb and asked him for the grant of all the Bijapuri territories he held and other areas including the port of Dabhol in the Konkan. Later Shivaji betrayed and changed his side. ● Shivaji resumed-his career of conquest at the expense of Bijapur. He burst into the Konkan, the coastal strip between the Western Ghats and the sea, and seized the northern part of it. The ruler of Bijapur sent Afzal Khan (one of the premier nobles) along with 10,000 troops. Afzal Khan had been given instructions to capture Shivaji by any possible means. ● In 1659, Afzal Khan sent an invitation to Shivaji for a personal interview, promising to get him pardoned from the Bijapuri court. Convinced that this was a trap, Shivaji went with full preparation, and murdered Afzal Khan. Shivaji captured all Afzal Khan’s property, including equipment and artillery. ● Shivaji soon became a legendary figure. His name passed from house to house and he was credited with magical powers. People flocked to him from the Maratha areas to join his army, and even Afghan mercenaries who had Rise of Marathas 69 ● ● ● ● ● ● been previously in the service of Bijapur, joined his army. Aurangzeb was anxious because of the rising of the Maratha power near to the Mughal frontiers. Poona and adjacent areas, which had been parts of the Ahmednagar kingdom had been transferred to Bijapur by the treaty of 1636. However, these areas were now again claimed by the Mughals. Aurangzeb instructed Shaista Khan, the new Mughal governor of the Deccan (he was also related to Aurangzeb by marriage), to invade Shivaji’s dominions and Adil Shah, the ruler of Bijapur, was asked to cooperate. Adil Shah sent Sidi Jauhar, the Abyssinian chief, who, invested Shivaji in Panhala. Getting trapped, Shivaji escaped and Panhala came under the control of the Bijapuri forces. Adil Shah took no further interest in the war against Shivaji, and soon came to a secret understanding with him. This agreement freed Shivaji to deal with the Mughals. In 1660, Shaista Khan occupied Poona and made it his headquarters. He then sent detachments to seize control of the Konkan from Shivaji. Despite harassing attacks from Shivaji, and the bravery of Maratha defenders, the Mughals secured their control on north Konkan. In 1663, on one night, Shivaji infiltrated into the camp and attacked on Shaista Khan, when he was in his harem (in Poona). He killed his son and one of his captains and wounded Khan. This daring attack of Shivaji put Khan into disgrace. In anger, Aurangzeb transferred Shaista Khan to Bengal, even refused to give him an interview at the time of transfer as was the custom. In 1664, Shivaji attacked Surat, which was the premier Mughal port, and looted it to his heart’s content. Treaty of Purandar ● After the failure of Shaista Khan, Aurangzeb deputed Raja Jai Singh of Amber, who was one of the most trusted advisers of Aurangzeb, to deal with Shivaji. Unlike Shaista Khan, Jai Singh did not underestimate the Marathas rather he made careful diplomatic and military preparations. ● Jai Singh planned to strike at the heart of Shivaji’s territories i.e. fort Purandar where Shivaji had lodged his family and his treasure. In 1665, Jai Singh besieged Purandar (1665), beating off all Maratha attempts to relieve it. With the fall of the fort at sight, and no relief likely from any quarter, Shivaji opened negotiations with Jai Singh. ● After hard bargaining with Shivaji, the following terms we agreed upon − 1. Out of 35 forts held by Shivaji, 23 forts were surrendered to the Mughals; 2. Remaining 12 forts were left with Shivaji on condition of service and loyalty to the Mughal throne; 3. Territory worth four lakhs of huns a year in the Bijapuri Konkan, which Shivaji had already held, was granted to him. 4. The Bijapur territory worth of five lakhs of huns a year in the uplands (Balaghat), which Shivaji had conquered, was also granted to him. In return for these, Shivaji was to pay 40 lakhs huns in instalments to the Mughals. 5. Shivaji asked them to be excused from personal service. Hence, a mansab of 5,000 was granted to his minor son, Sambhaji. 6. Shivaji promised, however, to join personally in any Mughal campaign in the Deccan. ● Jai Singh, later, cleverly threw a bone of contention between Shivaji and the Bijapuri ruler. But the success of Jai Singh’s scheme depended on Mughal support to Shivaji in making up from Bijapur territory worth the amount he had yielded to the Mughals. ● Jai Singh had considered the alliance with Shivaji from the starting point of the conquest of Bijapur to the entire Deccan. However, the Mughal-Maratha expedition against Bijapur failed. Shivaji who had been deputed to capture fort Panhala was also unsuccessful. 70 Master Series : Medieval India ● As the plan failed, Jai Singh persuaded Shivaji to meet with Aurangzeb at Agra. Jai Singh though that if Shivaji and Aurangzeb could be reconciled, then Aurangzeb might be persuaded to give greater resources for a renewed invasion on Bijapur. But Shivaji’s meeting with Aurangzeb also became futile. ● When Shivaji met Aurangzeb, he kept him in the category of 5,000 mansabdar (the rank, which had been granted to his minor son). Further, the emperor, whose birthday was being celebrated, did not find time to speak to Shivaji. Therefore, Shivaji walked off angrily and refused imperial service. ● Since Shivaji had come to Agra on Jai Singh’s assurances, Aurangzeb wrote to Jai Singh for advice. In return, Jai Singh strongly argued for a lenient treatment for Shivaji. However, in 1666, before any decision could be taken, Shivaji escaped from the detention. Administrative System of Shivaji ● Shivaji’s system of administration was largely borrowed from the administrative practice of the Deccani states. Shivaji designated eight ministers, sometimes called the ‘Ashtapradhan’ (it was not in the nature of a council of ministers), each minister being directly responsible to the ruler. ● The most important ministers were the ‘Peshwa’ who looked after the finances and general administration, and the sari-i-naubat (senapati), which was a post of honor and was generally given to one of the leading Maratha chiefs. ● The majumdar was the accountant, while the waqenavis was responsible for intelligence post and household affairs. Further, the surunavis or chitnis helped the king with his correspondence. ● The dabir was master of ceremonies and also helped the king in his dealings with foreign powers. The nyayadhish and panditrao were in charge of justice and charitable grants. ● Shivaji preferred to give salaries in cash to the regular soldiers; however sometimes the chiefs received revenue grants (saranjam). ● Shivaji strictly regulated the “mirasdars,” (mirasdars were those who had the hereditary rights in land). Later mirasdars grew and strengthened themselves by building strongholds and castles in the villages. Likewise, they had become unruly and seized the country. Shivaji destroyed their bastions and forced them to surrender. ● Shivaji was not only a deserving general and a skillful strategist, but he was also a shrewd diplomat and laid the foundation of a strong state by curbing the power of the deshmukhs. Shivaji’s Achievements ● In 1670, Shivaji renewed the contest with the Mughals, sacking Surat a second time. During the next four years, he recovered a large number of his forts, including Purandar, from the Mughals and made deep inroads into Mughal territories, especially Berar and Khandesh. ● Mughal preoccupation with the Afghan uprising in the north-west gave an opportunity to Shivaji. Further, Shivaji also renewed his contest with Bijapur, securing Panhala and Satara by means of bribes. ● In 1674, Shivaji crowned himself formally at Raigad. He was by now, became the most powerful among the Maratha chiefs. ● The formal coronation had, therefore, a number of purposes, including − 1. It placed him on a much higher pedestal than any of the Maratha chiefs; 2. It strengthened his social position and hence he married into some of the leading old Maratha families; 3. Gaga Bhatt, the priest presiding over the function, supported Shivaji and said that Shivaji was a high class Kshatriya; and 4. As an independent ruler, now it became possible for Shivaji to enter into treaties with the Deccani sultans on a footing of equality and not as a rebel. Rise of Marathas 71 ● In 1676, Shivaji undertook an expedition into the Bijapuri Karnataka. Shivaji was given a grand welcome by the Qutb Shah at his capital and a formal agreement was made. Qutub Shah agreed to pay a subsidy of one lakh huns (five lakhs of rupees) annually to Shivaji along with a Maratha ambassador who was appointed at his court. ● Qutub Shah, further, supplied a contingent of troops and artillery to aid Shivaji and also provided money for the expenses of his army. The treaty with Qutub Shah was beneficial to Shivaji, as it enabled him to capture Jinji and Vellore from Bijapur officials and also to conquer much of the territories held by his half-brother, Ekoji. ● Shivaji had assumed the title of “HaindavaDharmoddharak” (Protector of the Hindu faith), but he plundered mercilessly the Hindu population of the respective region. ● As per the agreement, Shivaji had to share treasure (won in the war) with Qutub Shah, but when Shivaji returned back to home with treasure, he refused to share anything with the Qutub Shah. Hence, Qutub Shah resented with Shivaji.Karnataka expedition was the last expedition of Shivaji, as he died shortly after his return from the Karnataka expedition (1680). 72 Master Series : Medieval India 4 Medieval India Master Exercise MCQs 1. for Preliminary Examination Consider the following statements: Codes: 1. Guru Ramdas was political Guru of Shivaji. A B C D 2. Shivaji adopted the title of Chhatrapati and Kshtriya Kulavatamsa. (a) 1 3 2 4 (b) 3 4 1 2 3. Shivaji belonged to Bhosle clan. (c) 2 1 3 4 Which of the above statements is/are correct? (d) 4 2 1 3 (a) Only 2 4. (b) 2 and 3 1. Balaji Vishwanath introduced Saraujami system. (c) None of these 2. Baji Rao I campaigned against Sidis of Janjira. (d) All of the above 2. Match the following: List-I 3. Deshmukhs were equivalent to Chandharib of North and Desais of Gujarart List-II 1. Peshwa (A) Baroda 2. Bhonsle (B) Indore 3. Gaekwad (C) Poona 4. Holkar (D) Nagpur Which of the above statements is/are correct? (a) 2 and 3 (b) Only 1 (c) None of these Codes: 3. Consider the following statements: (d) All of the above A B C D (a) 1 2 3 4 (b) 4 1 2 3 (c) 3 4 1 2 1. It was one of the battle of 2nd AngloMaratha War. (d) 4 1 3 2 2. The Peshwa action was led by Baji Rao II. 5. Consider the following statements about Bhima Koregaon Battle: Match the following: Which of the above statements is/are correct? List-I List-II 1. Peshwa (A) PM 2. Sar-i-Naubat (B) Royal Correspondence (a) Only 1 (b) Only 2 (c) Both (d) None 3. Sachiv (C) Armed force chief 4. Dobir (D) Foreign Minister Answers to MCQs 1. (d) 2. (c) 3. (b) 4. (d) 5. (b) Introduction to Constitution & Preamble | 73 MEDIEVAL INDIA MASTER SERIES UNIT 6 Bhakti and SUFI MOVEMENTS ● The Medieval period is considered as an age of great cultural synthesis in India and during this period a new phase of cultural development was initiated. ● The Turks and Mughals introduced fresh ideas and helped in giving rise to new features in the areas of religion, philosophy and ideas. ● The synthesis between different cultures gave birth to new philosophical and religious traditions, ideas. Sufism ● After the arrival of Islam in India, some changes can be seen in religious practice as well. Religious ideas (especially Hindu and Muslim religions) were exchanged. During the eleventh century, some of the Muslims (especially who had come from Persia and nearby regions) were fundamentally Sufis. They settled in different parts of India and soon gathered plenty of Indian followers. ● Sufism or tasawuf is the name for various mystical and movements in Islam. It aims at establishing direct communion between god and man through personal experience of mystery which lies within Islam. ● Every religion gives rise to mystical tendencies in its fold at a particular stage of its evolution. In this sense, Sufism was a natural development within Islam based on the spirit of Quaranic Piety. ● The Sufis while accepting the Shariat did not confine their religious practice to formal adherence and stressed cultivation of religious experience aimed at a direct perception of god. ● There developed a number of Sufi orders of Silsilah in and outside India. All these orders had their specific characteristics. However, there were a number of features which are common to all Sufi orders. ● Sufism stressed the elements of love and devotion as effective means of the realization of God. Love of God meant love of humanity and so the Sufis believed service to humanity was tantamount to service to God. ● In Sufism, self-discipline was considered an essential condition to gain knowledge of God by sense of perception.While orthodox Muslims emphasise external conduct, the Sufis lay stress on inner purity. ● While the orthodox believe in blind observance of rituals, the Sufis consider love and devotion as the only means of attaining salvation. ● According to Sufis one must have the guidance of a pir or guru, without which spiritual development is impossible.Sufism also inculcated a spirit of tolerance among its followers. ● Other ideas emphasised by Sufism are meditation, good actions, repentance for sins, performance of prayers and pilgrimages, fasting, charity and suppression of passions by ascetic practices. 74 Master Series : Medieval India Growth of Sufism in Islamic World ● Sufism began to acquire the form of an organised movement with the establishment of the Turkish rule under the Ghaznavis and then under the Seljuqs in various parts of central Asia and Iran in the later 10th and 11th centuries. ● The period marks the development of two parallel institutions in the Islamic world – the Madarasa system (seminary, higher religious school) in its new form as an official institution of orthodox Islamic learning and the Khanqah system as an organized, endowed an permanent centre for Sufi activities. ● Another salient feature of Sufism during this period was the emergence of Sufi poetry in Persian.While Arabic literature on mysticism is in prose, Persian literature is in poetry. ● Sufi poetry in Persian in the form of narrative poems (mannavis) reached its peak during the 12th and 13th centuries. Al-Ghazzali was the most outstanding sufi author. One of the most authentic and celebrated manual of sufism was Kashful Mahjub written by Al-Hujwiri. Sufi Movement in India ● The Sufi movement in India commenced in the 11th century A.D. Al Hujwiri, who established himself in north India was buried in Lahore and regarded as the oldest Sufi in the sub-continent. ● Among the important Sufi Orders in the history of Medieval India were those of the Chishtitiya, Suhrawardiya, Qadiriya and Naqshbandiya. ● Chisti and the Suhrawardi Silsilahs were popular during the Sultanate period. ● The Suhrawardis were active in Punjab and Sindh while the Chishti’s were active in Delhi, Rajasthan and parts of the western Gangetic plains. By the end of the sultanate period Chishti’s spread to the eastern regions of the Gangetic plain (Bihar and Bengal) and into the Deccan. ● During the medieval period the Sufis played an important role in interpreting and elaborating on Islamic theological concepts like WahdatulWujud (unity of being) and also encouraged the development of practices like Ziyarat (the practice of visiting tombs). The Chishti Silsilah ● The Chisti Order was established in India by Muinuddin Chishti who moved to India after the invasion of Muizzuddin Muhammad Ghori and subsequently to Ajmer in 1206. ● The fame of Khwaja Muinuddin grew after his death in 1235. ● His grave was visited by Muhammad Tughlaq after which the mosque and dome were erected by Mahmud Khalji of Malwa in the fifteenth century. ● The patronage of this dargah peaked after the reign of the Mughal emperor Akbar. ● The Chishtis believed in love as the bond between God and individual soul and tolerance between people of different faiths. ● They accepted disciples irrespective of their religious beliefs. ● They associated with Hindu and Jain yogi’s, and used simple language. ● The Chishti presence in Delhi was established by Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki who settled in Delhi from his homeland in Transoxiana in 1221. This was at the time of the Mongol invasions when there was a steady flow of people from central Asia fleeing from the Mongols. ● Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki presence in Delhi was a threat to the Suhrawardis who sought to force him to leave by leveling charges against him. The Sultan of Delhi, Iltutmish, dismissed these attempts eventually forcing the Suhrawardis to relent. ● The Chishti pirs laid great emphasis on the simplicity of life, poverty, humility and selfless devotion to God. ● The renunciation of worldly possessions was regarded by them as necessary for the control of the senses that was necessary to maintain a spiritual life. Bhakti and Sufi Movements 75 ● Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti argued that highest form of devotion to God was to redress the misery of those in distress, fulfilling the need of the helpless and to feed the hungry. ● Chisti’s refused to accept any grant for their maintenance from the Sultans. ● The other important Chishti Baba Fariduddin Ganj-i-Shakar, established himself at Hansi (in Haryana) on the route between Multan and Lahore. ● Nizamuddin Auliya, was the best known Chishti saint of the Sultanate period. He lived in the fourteenth century, during a period of political change and turmoil. During his lifetime he was witness to the establishment of the Khalji rule after the death of Balban and subsequently the establishment of the Tughlaq’s. ● There are numerous stories surrounding the life of Nizamuddin Auliya, famous among them were stories of his confrontations with the Sultans of Delhi. The Khwaja is said to have maintained a strict policy of not involving himself with the various groups and factions of the Sultan’s court in Delhi earning him the respect of many. ● Nasiruddin Chiragh Dehlvi was another of the Chishti saint of Delhi. He played an active role in the political affairs of the period. ● In the 13th century the Chishti Order was established in the Deccan by Shaikh Burhanuddin Gharib. ● Between the 14th and 16th centuries many Chishti Sufis migrated to Gulbarga. This was accompanied with a change where some of the Chishtis began accepting grants and patronage from the ruling establishment. ● Muhammad Banda Nawaz was among the famous pirs in the region. ● The Deccan city of Bijapur emerged as an important centre for Sufi activity. The Suhrawardi Silsilah ● This Silsilah was founded by Shihabuddin Suhrawardi in Baghdad. ● It was established in India by Bahauddin Zakariya who founded the Suhrawardi Order, ● ● ● ● ● ● ● based in Mutan, which was under the control of Qubacha. Bahauddin Zakariya was critical of Qubacha and openly favored Iltutmish over his rival. Bahauddin Zakariya’s ways were different from that of the Chishtis. The Suhrawardis, unlike the Chishtis, accepted, maintenance grants from the Sultans. They believed that a Sufi should possess the three attributes of property, knowledge and hal or mystical enlightenment. Suhrawardi saints argued that this was necessary to ensure that they served the poor better. Bahauddin Zakariya stressed on the observance or external forms of religious belief and advocated a combination of ilm (scholarship) with mysticism. Practices like bowing before the sheikh, presenting water to visitors and tonsuring the head at the time of initiation into the Order that the Chishtis had adopted were rejected. After his death the silsilah continued to play an important role in Punjab and Sindh. Naqshbandi Silsilah ● In India this order was established by Khwaja Bahauddin Naqshbandi. ● From the beginning the mystics of this Order stressed on the observance of the Shariat and denounced all innovations or biddat. ● Sheikh Baqi Billah the successor to Khawaja Bahauddin Naqshbandi settled near Delhi, and his successor Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi attempted to purge Islam from all liberal and what he believed were ‘un-Islamic’ practices. ● He opposed the listening of sama (religious music) and the practice of pilgrimage to the tombs of saints. ● He opposed interaction with Hindus and Shias. ● He criticised the new status accorded by Akbar to many non-Muslims, the withdrawal of the Jizyah and the ban on cow slaughter. ● He believed that he was the mujaddid (renewer) of the first millennium of Islam. 76 Master Series : Medieval India ● He maintained that the relationship between man and God was that between the slave and the master and not the relation of a lover and beloved. ● He emphasized the individual’s unique relation of faith and responsibility to God as creator. ● He tried to harmonize the doctrines of mysticism and the teachings of orthodox Islam. The Qadri Silsilah ● The Quadiriyya Silsilah was popular in Punjab. ● Sheikh Abdul Qadir and his sons were supporters of the Mughals under Akbar. ● The pirs of this Order supported the concept of Wahdat al Wajud. ● Among the famous Sufis of this order was Miyan Mir who had enrolled the Mughal princess Jahanara and her brother Dara as disciples. ● The influence of the Sheikh’s teachings is evident in the works of the prince Dara. ● Shah Badakhshani another pir of this Silsilah while dismissing orthodox elements, declared that, the infidel who had perceived reality and recognised it was a believer and that a believer who did not recognise reality was an infidel. ● During medieval period there was constant tension between the liberal and orthodox views in Islam. ● The sufis featured on both sides, while there were those like the Chishtis who held a liberal view and argued in favour of assimilation of local traditions there were others like Sheikh Abdul Haqq of the Qadiriyya Silsilah who held the view that the purity of Islam was being diluted. ● This Orthodox view was represented by the ulema that argued from the perspective of being upholders of the Shariat. ● The liberal opinion found its voice among many sufis who argued against the narrow definition of Islamic laws by the ulema. The Effects of Sufism ● The Sufi ideology promoted love and devotion as means of coming nearer to God. The true God’s devotees bound to came close (both) to God and to one’s fellow men. Secondly, Sufis suggested that prayers, fasts, and rituals were not as important as the true love of God. ● The Sufis, as they were promoting true love to God and fellow men, they were pretty flexible and tolerant for all other religions and sects, and advocated that the paths to God can be many. ● The Sufis, further, promoted respect for all human beings. This was the reason that the orthodox Ulema did not approve of the ideology of Sufis and said that Sufi teachings were not in agreement with orthodox Islam. ● Many of the Hindus also respected the Sufi saints and became followers. However, the Sufis did not attempt to deceive or convert Hindus to Islam, but rather advised Hindus to be better Hindus by loving the one true God. Bhakti Movement ● During the seventh century, Bhakti movement evolved in the south part of the country (especially in the Tamil speaking regions). Over a period of time, it spread in all the directions. ● The Alvars and the Nayanars of the Tamil devotional cult had started the tradition of preaching the idea of bhakti through hymns and stories. ● Most of the saints of Bhakti movement were from the non-Brahman families. ● Like Sufi ideology, the bhakti ideology also taught that the relationship between man and God was based on love, and worshipping God with devotion was better than merely performing any number of religious ceremonies. Bhakti Saints emphasized on the tolerance among men and religions. ● In the ninth century Sankara started a Hindu revivalist movement giving a new orientation to Hinduism. His doctrine of Advaita or Bhakti and Sufi Movements 77 ● ● ● ● ● Monism was too abstract to appeal to the common man. Moreover, there was a reaction against the Advaita concept of Nirgunabrahman (God without attributes) with the emergence of the idea of Sagunabrahman (God with attributes). In the twelfth century, Ramanuja, who was born at Sriperumbudur near modern Chennai, preached Visishtadvaita. According to Ramanuja God is Sagunabrahman. The creative process and all the objects in creation are real but not illusory as was held by Sankaracharya. Therefore, God, soul, matter are real. But God is inner substance and the rest are his attributes. He also advocated prabattimarga or path of self-surrender to God. He invited the downtrodden to Vaishnavism. In the thirteenth century, Madhava from Kannada region propagated Dvaita or dualism of Jivatma and Paramatma. According to his philosophy, the world is not an illusion but a reality. God, soul, matter are unique in nature. Nimbarka and Vallabhacharya were also other preachers of Vaishnavite Bhakti in the Telangana region. Sankaracharya ● Sankaracharya was a Nambudiri Brahman born in Kaladi, Malabar. He was originally a worshiper of Shiva. ● He gave an entirely new turn to the Hindu revival movement by providing it with a solid philosophical background through the reinterpretation of ancient Indian scriptures, particularly the Upanishads. ● Sankaracharya advocated the philosophy of “Advaita” the monism of the Vedanta by giving a brilliant exposition to the entire range of the Vedic religions and spiritual thought. ● Having lost his father in his childhood, Sankaracharya become a sanyasi, while in his teens and began to roam around in search of true knowledge and wisdom. ● A genius by birth and intensely religious by outlook and social heritage, he received ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● instruction in religious scriptures and philosophy at Kashi. Sankaracharya renewed and systematised Vedanta philosophy by stressing on its main principle of monism (evalaadvaita or absolute non-dualism). Sankaracharya started a vigorous campaign for the revival of Hinduism based on the solid foundation of Vedic philosophy and ancient Indian cultural tradition in order to check the growth of Buddhism and Jainism. He recognised the ascetic order of sanyasis on the pattern of Buddhist sangha and launched a campaign for the popularisation of Hinduism. He composed extensive commentaries on the Brahmasutra and chief Upanishad and traveled all around India to highlight the cultural unity of India. The mathas also began propagating and became the centre of Vedic religion. The mathas, among many, included Jaganathpuri in the east, Sringeri in the South, Dwarka in the west and Badrinath in the north. Sankaracharya was an orthodox Brahmin for whom the Vedic literature was sacred and unquestionably true. In order to harmonise the many paradoxes of Vedic tradition, he had to take recourse to a philosophy of “double standard of truth” (already known in Buddhism). It meant that on the everyday level of truth, the world was produce by Brahma, and it went through an evolutionary process similar to that taught by the Sankhya school of philosophy. But on the highest level of truth, the whole universe including the God was unreal, i.e., the world in maya, an illusion and figment of imagination, Therefore, Shankarcharya believed that ultimately the only reality was the Brahman, the impersonal world soul of the Upanishads with which the individual soul was identical. Sankaracharya also believed that god and the created world was one and the difference which is evident is due to ignorance. 78 Master Series : Medieval India ● According to him, the way to salvation was to realize by means of meditation and knowledge that god and the created beings were one and same. At the deepest level of meditation “nirvikalpasamadhi”, the complete identity between god and the individual is realized. ● It is the goal of everyone to know, realize, feel and display in action this identity. When this is accomplished all sufferings, birth and death cease. This identity has been termed as “sachidanand Brahman” by Sankaracharya. ● Sankaracharya’s ‘Brahman’ is not really different from the concept of ‘nirvana’ of Mahayana Buddhism. ● It is a fact which was well recognised by his opponents who called him “crypto-Buddhist.” ● However, Shankarcharya proved the Buddhist scholars wrong and was able to show that Buddhist metaphysics was only a poor imitation of the metaphysics of Sanatan dharma. ● The philosophy of Sankaracharya had far reaching consequences for the India society. For example, the monsticSankaracharya (mathas) which he established in the four corners of India served as an effective step towards the physical and spiritual unification of India. ● By the able use of arguments he reduced all the apparently self-contradicting passages of the Upanishads to a consistent system which has remained the standard of Hinduism to this day. ● Sankaracharaya passed away at KedarNath at the age of 32. ● Later on Ramanuja combined Sankara’s Advaitavada with the VaishnavaPancharatra theology which claimed that Vishnu is the very foundation of the universe. ● The impact of Ramanuja’s writings and his long service as priest of the famous Vishnu temple at Srinangam made his ideas widely known among the Vaishnavites and he is justly regarded as the founder of Srivashnavism. ● The Vedantic Philosophy of Sankaracharya was revived by Vivekanand in the second half of the 19th century. The Bhakti Movement in North India ● The bhakti movement in the north included socio-religious movements that were linked to one of the acharyas from the south and is sometimes seen as a continuation of the movement that originated in the south. ● Though there were similarities in the traditions of the two regions, the notion of bhakti varied in the teachings of each of the saints. ● The Nirguna’s like Kabir rejected the Varna Ashrama and all conventions based on caste distinction and championed new values, helping the emergence of new groups and new unorthodox/protestant sects. ● The Saguna’s like Tulsidas on the other hand upheld the caste system and the supremacy of the Brahmins. They preached religion of surrender and simple faith in a personal god and had a strong commitment to idol worship. Monotheistic Bhakti ● Kabir was the earliest and most influential Bhakti saint in north India. He was a weaver and spent a large part of his life in Banaras. His poems were included in the Sikh scripture, the Adi Granth. ● Among those who were influenced by Kabir were Raidas, who was a tanner by caste from Banaras, Guru Nanak who was a Khatri from Punjab and Dhanna who was a Jat peasant from Rajasthan. ● There are similarities in the teachings of the various monotheistic Bhakti saints in North India.Most of the monotheists belonged to the low castes and were aware that there existed a unity in their ideas. ● They were also aware of each other’s teachings and influence and in their verses they mention each other and their predecessors in a manner suggesting ideological affinity among them. ● All of them were influenced by the Vaishnava concept of Bhakti, the Nathpanthi movement and Sufism.Their ideas seem to be a synthesis of the three traditions. ● The importance given to the personal Bhakti and Sufi Movements 79 experience of Bhakti saint with God was another common feature among the monotheistic bhakti saints. ● Nirguna bhakti and not Saguna bhakti was what they believed in. They had adopted the notion of bhakti from Vaishnavaism but they gave it a nirguna orientation. ● Though they called God using different names and titles their God was non-incarnate, formless, eternal and ineffable. ● The Bhakti saints refused any formal association with the organized dominant religions of the time (Hinduism and Islam) and criticized what they regarded to be the negative aspects of these religions. ● They rejected the authority of the Brahmans and attacked the caste system and practice of idolatry. ● They composed their poems in popular languages and dialects spoken across north India which enabled them to transmit their ideas among the masses. It also helped their ideas to spread rapidly among the various lower classes. Vaishnava Bhakti ● In the 14th and early 15th centuries Ramananda emerged as a popular Vaishnava bhakti saint in north India.Though he was from the south he lived in Banaras because he considered it to be the link between the South Indian bhakti and North Indian Vaishnava bhakti traditions. ● He looked upon Ram and not Vishnu as the object of bhakti.He worshiped Ram and Sita and came to be identified as the founder of the Ram cult in north India.He like the monotheist bhakti saints also rejected cast hierarchies and preached in the local languages in his attempt to popularize the cult.His followers are called Ramanandis. ● Tulsidas also championed the bhakti cause. Tulsidas was a worshipper of Rama and composed the famous Ramcharitmanas, the Hindi version of Ramayana. ● In the early 16 century Vallabacharya, a popular bhakti saint popularized the Krishna bhakti. Among those who followed Vallabacharya’s footsteps were Surdas and Mira Bai. ● Surdas popularized Krishna cult in north India.Mirabai was a great devotee of Krishna and she became popular in Rajasthan for her bhajans. ● The Vaishnava bhakti movement in Bengal was very different form its counterparts in north India and the south and was influenced by the Vaishnava bhakti tradition of the Bhagavata Purana and the Sahajiya Buddhist and Nathpanthi traditions. These traditions focused on esoteric and emotional aspects of devotion. ● In the 12th century, Jayadeva was an important bhakti saint in this tradition. He highlighted the mystical dimension of love with reference to Krishna and Radha. Chaitanya was a popular bhakti saint from the region; he was looked upon as an avatara of Krishna. Though, he did not question the authority of the Brahmans and the scriptures. He also popularized the sankirtan (group devotional songs accompanied with ecstatic dancing). With him the bhakti movement in Bengal began to develop into a reform movement with the notions of caste divisions that came to be questioned. ● In Maharashtra the bhakti movement drew its inspiration from the Bhagavata Purana and the Siva Nathpanthis. Jnaneswar was a pioneer bhakti saint of Maharashtra. His commentary on the Bhagavad Gita called Jnanesvari served as a foundation of the bhakti ideology in Maharashtra. Arguing against caste distinctions he believed that the only way to attain God was through Bhakti. Vithoba was the God of this sect and its followers performed a pilgrimage to the temple twice a year. The Vithoba of Pandarpur became the mainstay of the movement in Maharashtra. ● Namdev (1270–1350) was another important bhakti saint from Maharashtra. While he is remembered in the north Indian monotheistic tradition as a nirguna saint, in Maharashtra 80 Master Series : Medieval India he is considered to be part of the varkari tradition (the Vaishnava devotional tradition). ● Some of the other important bhakti saints of Maharashtra were the saints Choka, Sonara, Tukaram and Eknath. Tukaram’s teachings are in the form of the Avangas (dohas), which constitute the Gatha, while Eknath’s teachings that were in Marathi attempted to shift the emphasis of Marathi literature from spiritual to narrative compositions. ● ● Importance of the Bhakti Movement ● The importance of the bhakti movement was very great. Various preachers spoke and wrote in the regional languages and thus, the bhakti movement provided an impetus for the development of regional languages such as Hindi, Marathi, Bengali, Kannada, etc. ● Through regional languages they made direct appeal to the masses. As the caste system was condemned by the bhakti saints, the lower classes were raised to a position of great importance. ● The importance of women in society was also increased because the bhakti movement gave equal importance to them. Moreover, the bhakti movement gave to the people a simple religion, without complicated rituals. They were required to show sincere devotion to God. The new idea of a life of charity and service to fellow people developed. Guru Nanak ● The teachings and philosophy of Guru Nanak form an important part of Indian philosophical thought. His philosophy consists of three basic elements: a leading charismatic personality (the Guru), ideology (Shabad) and Organization (Sangat). ● Nanak evaluated and criticized the prevailing religious beliefs and attempted to establish a true religion, which could lead to salvation. ● He repudiated idol worship and did not favour pilgrimage nor accept the theory of incarnation. He condemned formalism and ● ● ● ● ● ritualism.He laid emphasis on having a true Guru for revelation. He advised people to follow the principles of conduct and worship: sach (truth), halal (lawful earning), khair (wishing well of others), niyat (right intention) and service to the lord. He denounced the caste system and the inequality it caused. He argued that the caste and honour should be judged by the acts or the deeds of individuals. He laid stress on concepts of justice, righteousness and liberty.His verses mainly consist of two basic concepts, Sach (truth) and Naam (name). The bases of the divine expression for him were formed by, the Sabad (the word), Guru (the divine precept) and Hukam (the divine order).He introduced the concept of Langar (a community kitchen). Guru Nanak identifies himself with the people or the ruled. The first four Gurus of Sikh followed the tradition of quiet meditation and scholarship. However, the fifth Guru, Arjun Das, completed the compilation of the Sikh scriptures popular as the Adi Granth or Grant Sahib. To emphasize that the Guru combined both spiritual and worldly leadership in his person, he began to live in an aristocratic style. He erected lofty buildings at Amritsar, wore fine clothes, kept fine horses procured from Central Asia and maintained retainers in attendance. Guru Arjun Das started a culture of collecting offerings from the Sikh community at the rate of one-tenth of their income. Akbar had been deeply impressed with the Sikh Gurus and, probably he also visited them at Amritsar. But later, a clash began with the imprisonment and killing of Guru Arjun Das by Jahangir on a charge of helping rebel prince, Khusrau, with money and prayer. ● After Arjun Das, Guru Har Govind became Sikh Guru. He was also imprisoned for some time, but soon he was set free. ● Guru Har Gobind developed friendly relations with Jahangir and accompanied him on his journey to Kashmir just before his Bhakti and Sufi Movements 81 death. However, Guru Har Gobind clashed with Shah Jahan on a hunting issue. ● There were a series of skirmishes and ultimately the Guru retired to the Punjab foothills where he did not interfere with. ● By the time of Guru Har Gobind, Sikh Guru had sizeable followers, including a Pathan contingent led by Painda Khan. However, the occasional conflict between the Gurus and the Mughal rulers remained there, but that was personal and political rather than religious. ● Though the Sikh guru’s stressed on equality the social differentiation among the followers continued. It was only towards the end of the 17th century that Guru Gobind Singh reasserted the idea of equality. ● In 1699 Guru Gobind Singh attempted to resolve the differences among the various Sikh groups and created the Khalsa. This institution removed the masands as intermediaries. Thereafter every Sikh was to have a direct link with the Guru. ● The idea of Guru Panth was another institutional idea that emerged during this period. It sanctified the collective authority of the KhalsaPanth, which equated the Panth with the Guru. ● Guru Nanak in his last days had nominated a successor and paid homage to him, this gave rise to the idea that the Guru and the Sikh were interchangeable.This created a problem for the institution of the Sangat (that was a collective body of the Sikhs) in which God was said to be present. ● When Guru Gobind Singh created the Khalsa he chose the panjpiyare (the five beloved) and requested them to administer the pahul (amritchakhha) to him. ● With this the difference between the Guru and the Khalsa was symbolically removed. Guru Gobind Singh is believed to have said that the Khalsa is his own roop (form). ● The followers of the tenth guru came to be known as the ‘Khalsa,’ which means “the pure”. In the seventeenth century, the Khalsa had become a strong military group. It was the time when the Sikhs distinguished themselves from other people by the means of five characteristics (popular as ‘5Ks’), namely − 1. Kesha (hair), 2. Kangha (comb), 3. Kara (iron bracelet), 4. Kripan (dagger), and 5. Kachchha (under-wear). ● Guru Arjun compiled the Guru Granth Sahib.After the death of Guru Gobind Singh the tenth Guru the tradition of guru ended.It was believed that the spirit of the guru did not pass onto any successor but instead remained within “Shri Gurugranth Sahib”. Other Luminaries of the Composite Culture ● Dara Shikoh, the eldest son of Shah Jahan, was by temperament a scholar and a Sufi who loved to discourse with religious divines. With the help of Brahmanas of Kasi, Dara got the Gita translated into Persian. ● Dara declared the Vedas to be “heavenly books in point of time” and “in conformity with the holy Quran,” thus underlining the belief that there was no fundamental difference between Hinduism and Islam. ● Dadu (a saint of Gujarat), preached a nonsectarian (nipakh) path. He refused to relate himself with either the Hindus or the Muslims, or to bother with the revealed scriptures of the two, asserting the indivisibility of the Brahma or the Supreme Reality. ● Tukaram from Pandharpur, Maharashtra began a liberal trend of Bakhti movement, which later became the center of the Maharashtra Dharma. In addition, here, worship of Vithoba (a form of Vishnu), had become popular. The same liberal tread can be seen in the life and works of Tukaram, the supreme exponent of Shake in Maharashtra at Pandharpur, which 82 Master Series : Medieval India had become the centre of the Maharashtra Dharma and where worship of Vithoba, a form of Vishnu, had become popular. Tukaram, who was probably born in a ‘sudra’ (lower caste) family used to do puja (worship) to the god with his own hand (worship of God by sudra was strictly prohibited at that time). ● The sentiments of the orthodox Hindus were echoed by Raghunandan of Navadwipa (Nadia) in Bengal. He was the most influential writer of Dharamshastras (of medieval period). He claimed that none other except Brahmanas had the right to read the scriptures or to preach. Raghunandan, further, said that in the Kali age, there were only two varnas (caste), i.e. Brahmanas and Sudras. The true Kshatriyas having disappeared long ago and the vaishyas and others having lost their caste status due to the non-performance of appropriate duties. Considered to be the most influential writer on the Dharamshastras during the medieval period, Raghunandan asserted the privileges of the Brahmans stating that none other except the Brahmans had the right to read the scriptures or to preach. Bhakti and Sufi Movements 83 Medieval India Master Exercise MCQs 1. for Preliminary Examination Which of the following indicates the correct chronology of flourishing of the Bhakti saints? 3. Provided an impetus for the development of regional languages (a) Ramananda – Guru Nanak – Namdev – Dynaneshwar – Tukaram 4. Hindu Muslim Unity (b) Ramananda – Dynaneshwar - Guru Nanak – Namdev – Tukaram (a) Only 2, 3 and 4 (c) Dynaneshwar – Namdev – Ramananda – Guru Nanak – Tukaram (c) Only 1, 3 and 4 (d) Ramananda – Guru Nanak – Dynaneshwar – Namdev – Tukaram 2. Codes: (b) Only 2 and 4 (d) All of the above 6. (a) Shah Wali-Ullah (a) Tukaram (b) Sayed Ahmad Barelavi (b) Surdas (c) Sir Sayed Ahmad (c) Chaitanya (d) Mohammad Ilyas 7. (a) Shah Wali-Ullah 1. Dnyana (d) Abdullah Shah (b) Sayed Ahmad Barelavi (c) Sir Sayed Ahmad 8. 3. Bhaav Consider the following statement (s) is/are related to the purpose of the Sufi Movement. Codes: I. (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 (c) 1 and 3 The Bhakti movement was started by Code: (a) Shankara (a) Only I (b) Ramanada (b) Only II (c) Alvars (c) Both I & II (d) Sufi teachers Which of the following statement/s is/are correct with regards to impact of the Bhakti movement? 1. Position of women was raised 2. Removed caste system Its main object is to bring humanity, divided as it is into so many different sections, closer together in the deeper understanding of life. II. The Sufi message is the echo of the same divine message which has always come and will always come to enlighten humanity. (d) All of the above 5. What is the real name of Baba Bulleh Shah? Before accepting Bhakti as one of the recognized road to salvation, which of the following was/ were the only road/roads to salvation? 2. Karma 4. Who interpreted neo-Sufi concept of Islam? In the Bhakti tradition, who popularized kirtans? (d) Namdev 3. 6 (d) Neither I & II 9. Which of the following statement (s) is/are correct object of Sufi Movement? (a) To realize and spread the knowledge of unity, the religion of love and wisdom, 84 Master Series : Medieval India so that the bias of faiths and beliefs may of itself fall away, the human heart may overflow with love, and all hatred caused by distinctions and differences may be rooted out. (b) To discover the light and power latent in man, the secret of all religion, the power of mysticism, and the essence of philosophy, without interfering with customs or belief. Hints: 1. Dynaneshwar – 13th century; Namdev – 13th and 14th century; Ramananda – First half 15th century; Guru Nanak – 15th and 16th century, Disciple of Kabir, Kabir disciple of Ramananda; Tukaram – 17th century. 2. The early sufis popularized musical gatherings called ‘sama’. Chaitanya popularized kirtans or musical gatherings as a special form of mystic experience. 3. Dnyana (Knowledge) and Karma (Action) led to domination of priests. Bhakti emphasized bhaav, faith in god, love towards god and service to humanity, etc. thus removing need for the priests. 4. Bhakti cult rose during the seventh and eight centuries. The Saivaite Nayanars and Vaishnavaite Alvars preached the Bhakti cult under the Pallavas, Pandyas and Cholas. But, the spread of Bhakti movement in medieval India is a different kind. This medieval Bhakti movement was the direct result of the influence of the spread of Islam in India. Monotheism or belief in one God, equality and brotherhood of man and rejection of rituals and class divisions are the distinctive characteristics of Islam. These Islamic ideas created a profound impact on the religious leaders of this period. Moreover, the preaching of Sufi teachers shaped the thinking of Bhakti reformers like Ramananda, Kabir and Nanak. 5. Through regional languages they made direct appeal to the masses. They condemned the caste system and included all people, thus increasing the importance of lower castes. Bhakti movement gave equal importance to them. They gave to the people a simple religion, without complicated rituals. They were required to show sincere devotion to God. (c) Only A (d) Both A & B 10. Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya was disciple of which Sufi Saint? (a) Baba Farid (b) Khwaja Moinuddin Chisti (c) Sheikh Nasiruddin Mahmud (d) Sheikh Shihabuddin Subjectve type questions for Main Examination 1. The rise of Sufism and Bhaktism in India contributed to the development of composite culture. Elucidate 2. In relation to religious beliefs of the Medieval period in India, explain the contribution of following personalities: (a) Dara Shikoh (b) Ramdas (c) Tukaram (d) Kabir (e) Shankaracharya 3. Explain the difference between the Chisti and Suhrawardi Silsilah’s. Answers to MCQs 1. 6. (c) (a) 2. 7. (c) (d) 3. 8. (a) (c) 4. 9. (c) 5. (c) (d) 10. (a) Introduction to Constitution & Preamble | 85 MEDIEVAL INDIA MASTER SERIES UNIT 5 Vijayanagar and BAHMANI KINGDOM ● The three ancient kingdoms, Chera, Chola, and Pandya, occupied the Dravidian country, peopled by Tamil-speaking peoples. Pandya, the largest of them, had its capital at Madura, and traced its foundation to the 4th century B.C. ● The Chola kingdom had its headquarters at Combaconum and Tanjore. Talkad, in Mysore, now buried by the sands of the Kaveri, was the capital of the Chera kingdom 288 to 900 AD. ● The 116th king of the Pandya dynasty was overthrown by the Muslim general Malik Kafur in 1304. But the Muslims failed to establish their power in the extreme south, and a series of Hindu dynasties ruled from Madura over the old Pandya kingdom until the 18th century. ● The authentic history in Southern India begins with the Hindu kingdom of Vijayanagar or Narsinha, from 1336 to 1672 AD. The capital can still be traced within the Madras District of Bellary, on the right bank of the Tungabhadra river—vast ruins of temples, fortifications, tanks, and bridges. For at least three centuries, Vijayanagar ruled over the southern part of the Indian triangle. The Rajas waged war and made peace on equal terms with the Muslim Sultans of the Deccan. ● The latter part of Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s reign witnessed a spate of rebellions by the nobles and provincial governors. The rebellion of Hasan Shah resulted in the establishment of the Madurai Sultanate. In 1336 the Vijayanagar kingdom was founded. In 1347 Bahmani kingdom was established. Vijayanagar Empire (1336-1565) Sources ● The sources for the study of Vijayanagar are varied such as literary, archaeological and numismatics. ● Krishnadeva Raya’s Amukthamalyada, Gangadevi’s Maduravijayam and Allasani Peddanna’s Manucharitam are some of the indigenous literature of this period. Fig. 4.1. Vijayanagara Empire ● The Moroccan traveler, Ibn Battuta, Venetian traveler Nicolo de Conti, Persian traveler Abdur Razzak and the Portuguese traveler Domingo Paes were among eminent 86 Master Series : Medieval India foreign travelers who left valuable accounts on the socio-economic conditions of the Vijayanagar Empire. ● The copper plate inscriptions such as the Srirangam copper plates of Deva Raya II provide the achievements of Vijayanagar rulers. ● The Hampi ruins and other monuments of Vijayanagar provide information on the cultural contributions of the Vijayanagar rulers. ● The numerous coins issued by the Vijayanagar rulers contain figures and legends explaining their tittles and achievements. Political History ● The Vijayanagar Empire was founded in 1346 as a direct response to the challenge posed by the sultanate of Delhi. The empire was founded by brothers, Harihara and Bukka. Their dynasty was named after their father, Sangama. ● There are several theories with regard to the origin of this dynasty. According to some scholars, they had been the feudatories of the Kakatiyas of Warangal and after their fall they served the Kampili state. Another view says that they were the feudatories of the Hoysalas and belonged to Karnataka. ● Harihara and Bukka were helped and inspired by contemporary scholar and a saint Vidyaranya for the establishment of their kingdom. It is believed that to commemorate the memory of their guru, the brothers established the city of Vidyanagar or Vijayanagara on the banks of river Tungabhadra. ● The empire included people from different cultural regions, the Tamil, Telugu and Karnataka region who all spoke different languages and belonged to different cultures. ● Between 1336 and 1565, Vijayanagar was ruled by three different dynasties- Sangama, who remained in power till 1485; the Saluva who remained in power till 1503 and the Tuluvas.The last dynasty was the Aravidu dynasty that ruled till seventeenth century. ● Foreign travellers like Nicolo Conti, Fernao Nuniz, Domingo Paes, Duarto Barbosa and AbdurRazzaq wrote about the magnificence of Vijayanagar. ● Vijayanagar’s main rivals were Bahamani Sultan’s with whom they fought many battles. The Tungabhadra doab (between Krishna and Tungabhadra), Krishna-Godavari basin and Konkan areas of Marathwada were the bone of contention between two. Vijayanagar Dynasties Dynasty Sangama Saluva Tuluva Aravidu Founder Harihar and Bukka Saluva Narsimha Vir Narsimha Tirumala Period 1336-1485 1485-1505 1505-1570 1570-1649 Sangama Dynasty (1336–1485) ● This dynasty was founded in 1336 by two brothers Harihara and Bukka. These two brothers were feudatories in Kampili of Karnataka.They laid the foundation of the kingdom of Vijayanagar on the banks of the river Tunghabhadra. Their capital was located at Vijayanagar. This city is nowadays known as Hampi (Karnataka). Though Hampi is a small city but it has many buildings of architectural splendor. It is also a World Heritage Site. ● Harihara (1336–1356), was the first ruler of the Vijayanagar Empire and also the Sangama dynasty. Bukka Rai I (1356–377) succeeded Harihara. Their father was Sangama, hence the name of dynasty. ● Dev Raya I and Dev Raya II in 15th century were two great rulers of Sangama dynasty. Dev Raya II appointed large number of Muslims soldiers in his army as archers. At the same time the Muslim Bahmani kingdom also had large number of Hindu soldiers. Both kingdoms used religion as political tool. ● Virupaksha II was the last ruler of this dynasty, killed by his commander in chief Saluva Narsimha in 1485, and laid down the foundation of Saluva dynasty. Vijayanagar and Bahamani Kingdom 87 Saluva Dynasty (1485–1505 AD) ● Saluva Narasimha came forward to take control and help to prevent the demise of Sangama King. This change of power marked the end of the Sangama dynasty and the beginning of the Saluva dynasty. ● By tradition the Saluvas were natives of the Kalyani region of northern Karnataka. The Gorantla inscription traces their origins to this region from the time of the Western Chalukyas and Kalachuris of Karnataka. The term ‘Saluva’ is known to lexicographers as ‘hawk’. They later spread onto the east coast of modern Andhra Pradesh, perhaps by migration or during the Vijayanagar conquests of the fourteenth century. The earliest known Saluva from inscriptional evidence in the Vijayanagar era was Mangaldeva, the greatgrandfather of Saluva Narasimha Deva Raya. Mangaldeva played an important role in the victories of Vijaynagar king, Bukka Raya I, against the sultanate of Madurai. Tuluva Dynasty (1505–1570 AD) ● The dynasty was effectively founded when General Tuluva Narasa Nayaka became regent to the two young sons of the previous emperor in 1491. The sons were kept under firm control, with the younger of them even being kept in confinement for his entire reign, before he was murdered. That murder allowed the general’s son, Viranarasimha Raya, to declare himself king, although he spent his entire reign putting down rebellions throughout the empire. ● The Tuluva gained their name from their homeland, the Tulu-speaking region of ‘Tulunud’. Narasa Nayaka belonged to the Bunt community, the upper class matrilineal Hindu community belonging to the Nagavanshi Kshatriya, a warrior order found mainly in southern coastal Karnataka. Under their control, the Vijaynagar Empire reached the height of its power. Vira Narsimha (1505-1509) ● He is known as the founder of this dynasty. He was the son of Narasa Nayaka. He became the king after the assassination of Immadi Narasimha. Krishna Deva Raya (1509-1529) ● He was the younger brother of Vira Narasimha and most famous king of this dynasty, also known as Andhra Bhoj. Krishna Deva Raya maintained friendly relations with Albuquerque, Portuguese governor and allowed him to build a fort at Bhatkal. ● He possessed great military ability. His first task was to check the invading Bahmani forces. By that time the Bahmani kingdom was replaced by Deccan Sultanates. The Muslim armies were decisively defeated in the battle of Diwani by Krishna Deva Raya. ● Then he invaded Raichur Doab which had resulted in the confrontation with the Sultan of Bijapur, Ismail Adil Shah. Krishna Deva Raya defeated him and captured the city of Raichur in 1520. From there he marched on Bidar and captured it. ● Krishna Deva Raya’s Orissa campaign was also successful. He defeated the Gajapathi ruler Prataparudra and conquered the whole of Telangana. ● Though a Vaishnavaite, he respected all religions. He was a great patron of literature and art and he was known as Andhra Bhoja. ● Eight eminent scholars known as Ashtadiggajas were at his royal court. AllasaniPeddanna was the greatest and he was called Andhrakavita Pitamaha. His important works include Manucharitam and Harikathasaram. PingaliSuranna and Tenali Ramakrishna were other important scholars. ● Krishna Deva Raya himself authored a Telugu work, Amukthamalyadha and Sanskrit works, Jambavati Kalyanam and Ushaparinayam. He built the famous Vittalaswamy and HazaraRamaswamy temples at Vijayanagar. ● He took the titles of Yavanaraja Sthapanacharya (restorer of Yavana kingdom i.e. Bahamani) and Abhinava Bhoja. 88 Master Series : Medieval India ● He also built a new city called Nagalapuram in memory of his queen Nagaladevi. Besides, he built a large number of Rayagopurams. ● After his death, Achutadeva and Venkata succeeded the throne. During the reign of Rama Raya, the combined forces of Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, Golkonda and Bidar defeated him at the Battle of Talaikotta in 1565. This battle is also known as RaksasaThangadi. ● Rama Raya was imprisoned and executed. The city of Vijayanagar was destroyed. This battle was generally considered to mark the end of the Vijayanagar Empire. temples. Temples had great role in developing various cultures, like drama, music, paintings and hence it encouraged various craftsmen and artisans. Temples in south India thus played an important role, both for developing economy as well as culture. Famous Travelers to Vijayanagar Empire Travellers Ibn Batuta Country Morocco Rulers Harihar Nicolo de Conti Italy Deva Raya I Abdur Razzak Persia DevaRaya II Domingo Paes Portugal KrishnaDeva Raya Duarte Barbosa Portugal KrisnaDeva Raya Aravidu Dynasty ● Aravidu dynasty for about another century. Thirumala, Sri Ranga and Venkata II were the important rulers of this dynasty. The last ruler of Vijayanagar kingdom was Sri Ranga III. Features of Vijayanagar Empire ● They gave centralized administration in which king was supreme and generally a Brahmin Kings were assisted by Mantri Parishad, whose members were also mainly Brahmins. Land tax collection was an important source of revenue for empire. They minted Gold coins, silver and copper coins were not known. They were the followers of Vaishnavism. ● There was evidence of influence of Aryan culture. Brahmins have great impact on administration , all top positions in army, revenue and judicial were occupied by Brahmins and temples got certain land which were taxed but at very low rates; 1/40th in case of temples and 1/30th in case of priests. ● Brahmins had monopoly over education, it was reserved for upper castes only and women were generally ignored. ● Temples were one of the largest employers. They also worked as banking institutions providing loans @ 3-30%. External trade was charged at higher rates as external trade had greater degree of risk. ● Sometimes even kings had to take loans from Administration ● The king enjoyed absolute authority in executive, judicial and legislative matters.He was the highest court of appeal. ● The succession to the throne was on the principle of hereditary. Sometimes usurpation to the throne took place as SaluvaNarasimha came to power by ending the Sangama dynasty. ● The King was assisted by a council of ministers in his day to day administration.The Empire was divided into different administrative units called Mandalams, Nadus, sthalas and finally into gramas. ● The governor of Mandalam was called Mandaleswara or Nayak.Vijayanagar rulers gave full powers to the local authorities in the administration.Besides land revenue, tributes and gifts from vassals and feudal chiefs, customs collected at the ports, taxes on various professions were other sources of income to the government. ● Land revenue was fixed generally one sixth of the produce.The expenditure of the government includes personal expenses of king and the charities given by him and military expenditure. ● In the matter of justice, harsh punishments such as mutilation and throwing to elephants were followed. Vijayanagar and Bahamani Kingdom 89 Army and Military Organisation of the Vijayanagar Empire ● In order to wage continuous warfare there was a need to keep a large army. Artillery was important and well bred horses were maintained. The Vijayanagar rulers imported high quality horses from across the Arabian Sea from Arabia and other Gulf countries. ● The port of Malabar was the centre of this trade and trade in other luxury commodities. The Vijayanagar rulers always attempted to control the port of Malabar. ● Like the Bahamanis, the Vijayanagar state also was familiar with the use of firearms and employed Turkish and Portuguese experts to train the soldiers in the latest weaponry of warfare. ● One of the Rayas, Deva Raya II enrolled Muslims in his armed services, allotted them jagirs and erected a mosque for their use in the city. ● The walls of the forts to counter the firearms were now made thick and special kinds of door with fortified walls front were constructed. On the walls of the forts, special kinds of big holes were made to rest the guns. Special kinds of parapets were constructed on the forts to put the canons on it. ● Firearms were used. Some firearms were small and comprised of rifles and pistols. Some like canons were heavy and had to be put on a bullock cart or on an elephant and pushed into the battlefield. ● One of the important characteristics of the Vijayanagar administration was the Amara Nayaka system. In this system, the commander of the Vijayanagar army was called the Nayaka. Each Nayaka was given an area for administration. ● The Nayaka was responsible for expanding agricultural activities in his area. He collected taxes in his area and with this income maintained his army, horses, elephants and weapons of warfare that he had to supply to the Raya or the Vijayanagar ruler. The Nayaka was also the commander of the forts. ● Some of the revenue was also used for the maintenance of temples and irrigation works. The Amara-Nayakas sent tribute to the king annually and personally appeared in the royal court with gifts to express their loyalty.In the seventeenth century, several of these Nayakas became independent and established separate states. ● The feudal Nayankaras used to maintain their own soldiers, forces and elephants. They were a powerful section that challenged the Vijayanagar authority, weakened its internal structures and contributed to the defeat of the Vijayangar in the battle of Talikota. Social Life ● Allasani Peddanna in his Manucharitam refers the existence of four castes – Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas and Sudras – in the Vijayanagar society. ● Foreign travelers left vivid accounts on the splendor of buildings and luxurious social life in the city of Vijayanagar. ● Silk and cotton clothes were mainly used for dress.Perfumes, flowers and ornaments were used by the people. Paes mentions of the beautiful houses of the rich and the large number of their household servants. Nicolo Conti refers to the prevalence of slavery. Dancing, music, wrestling, gambling and cock-fighting were some of the amusements. ● Chidambaram speak the glorious epoch of Vijayanagar. They were continued by the Nayak rulers in the later period. The metal images of Krishna Deva Raya and his queens at Tirupati are examples for casting of metal images. Music and dancing were also patronized by the rulers of Vijayanagar. Economic Condition ● According to the accounts of the foreign travelers, the Vijayanagar Empire was one of the wealthiest parts of the world at that time. Agriculture continued to be the chief occupation of the people. 90 Master Series : Medieval India ● The Vijayanagar rulers provided a stimulus to its further growth by providing irrigation facilities. New tanks were built and dams were constructed across the rivers like Tunghabadra. Nuniz refers to the excavation of canals. ● There were numerous industries and they were organized into guilds. Metal workers and other craftsmen flourished during this period. Diamond mines were located in Kurnool and Anantapur district. Vijayanagar was also a great centre of trade. ● The chief gold coin was the varaha but weights and measures varied from place to place. ● Inland, coastal and overseas trade led to the general prosperity. There were a number of seaports on the Malabar Coast, the chief being Cannanore. Commercial contacts with Arabia, Persia, South Africa and Portugal on the west and with Burma, Malay Peninsula and China on the east flourished. ● The chief items of exports were cotton and silk clothes, spices, rice, iron, saltpeter and sugar.The imports consisted of horses, pearls, copper, coral, mercury, China silk and velvet clothes. The art of shipbuilding had developed. Cultural Contributions ● The temple building activity further gained momentum during the Vijayanagar rule.The chief characteristics of the Vijayanagara architecture were the construction of tall Raya Gopurams or gateways and the Kalyanamandapam with carved pillars in the temple premises. ● The sculptures on the pillars were carved with distinctive features. The horse was the most common animal found in these pillars. Large Mandapams contain one hundred pillars as well as one thousand pillars in some big temples. These Mandapams were used for seating the deity on festival occasions. ● Also, many Amman shrines were added to the already existing temples during this period.The most important temples of the Vijayanagar style were found in the Hampi ruins or the city of Vijayanagar. ● Vittalaswamy and Hazara Ramaswamy temples were the best examples of this style. The Varadharaja and Ekamparanatha temples at Kanchipuram stand as examples for the magnificence of the Vijayanagara style of temple architecture. ● The Raya Gopurams at Thiruvannamalai and Chidambaram speak the glorious epoch of Vijayanagar. They were continued by the Nayak rulers in the later period. ● The metal images of Krishna Deva Raya and his queens at Tirupati are examples for casting of metal images. ● Music and dancing were also patronized by the rulers of Vijayanagar. Different languages such as Sanskrit, Telugu, Kannada and Tamil flourished in the regions. ● There was a great development in Sanskrit and Telugu literature.The peak of literary achievement was reached during the reign of Krishna Deva Raya. He himself was a scholar in Sanskrit and Telugu. ● His famous court poet Allasani Peddanna was distinguished in Telugu literature. Bahmani Kingdom ● The Deccan region was a part of the provincial administration of the Delhi Sultanate.In order to establish a stable administration in the Deccan, Mohammad bin Tughlaq appointed amiran-i-sada/ Sada Amir, who were the administrative heads of hundred villages. ● From 1337 the conflict between the officers in Deccan and Delhi sultanate accelerated which led to the establishment of an independent state in the Deccan in 1347 with the capital at Gulbarga in Andhra Pradesh. ● Its founders Haran Gangu assumed the title AlauddinHasanBahman Shah as he traced his descent from the mythical hero of Iran, Bahman Shah and the kingdom was named after him, the Bahamani Sultanate. ● After Mohammad bin Tughlaq there were no attempts by the Delhi Sultanate to control the Deccan region, therefore, the Bahamani Sultans without any checks annexed the kingdom. Vijayanagar and Bahamani Kingdom 91 Kingdom Golkonda (Andhra) Bijapur (Kar) Ahmadnagar (Mah) Berar (Maharshtra) Bidar (Karnataka) Fig. 4.2. Bahamani Kingdom ● There were a total of fourteen Sultans ruling over this kingdom. Among them, Alauddin Bahman Shah, Muhammad Shah I and Firoz Shah were important. ● Three important people who played a key role in expanding and consolidating the Bahmani Kingdom are as follows: 1. Firoz Shah Bahamani (1397-1422) ● He was well acquainted with the religious sciences, i.e. Commentaries on the Quran, jurisprudence etc. He was fond of Botany, Geometry, Logic etc.) He was educated and learned man and knew many languages. The most remarkable step taken by him is the induction of Hindus in administration on large scale. He was married to daughter of Deva Raya I and later defeated by Dev Raya I. He gave up the power to his brother Ahmad Shah. 2. Ahmad Shah ● He was also known as Wali, as he was treated as Sufi Saint. Ahmad Shah shifted the capital from Gulbarga to Bidar. A famous north Indian saint Gesu Daraz (Long Haired) a Saint of Chisti Silsila visited in his reign. ● The Bahamani kingdom gradually expanded and reached to zenith of power and territorial limits during the Prime Minister ship of Mahmud Gawan. After his death the kingdom was divided into 5 kingdoms, which though were not large, but very strong. Founder Qutub Mulk Year 1512 Yusuf Adil Khan Malik Ahmad Fatehullah Imad Ul Mulk Qasim Barid 1489 1490 1484 1527 Dynasty Qutb Shahi dynasty Adil Shahi dynasty Nizam Shahi dynasty Imad Shahi dynasty Barid Shahi dynasty ● Ahmad Wali Shah shifted the capital from Gulbarga to Bidar.The power of the Bahmani kingdom reached its peak under the rule of Muhammad Shah III. It extended from the Arabian sea to the Bay of Bengal. On the west it extended from Goa to Bombay. On the east, it extended from Kakinada to the mouth of the river Krishna. 3. Mahmud Gawan ● One of the most important personalities in the Bahamani kingdom was Mahmud Gawan. The Bahmani kingdom reached its peak under the guidance of Mahmud Gawan. ● Mahmud Gawan’s early life is obscure. He was an Iranian by birth and first reached Deccan as a trader. He was granted the title of ‘Chief of the Merchants’ or Malikut-Tujjar by the Bahamani ruler, Humayun Shah. ● The sudden death of Humayun led to the coronation of his minor son Ahmad III. A regency council was set for the administration and Mahmud Gawan was its important member. ● He was made wazir or the prime minister and was given the title of ‘Khwaju-i-Jahan.’The history of Bahmani kingdom after this period is actually the record of the achievements of Mahmud Gawan. ● He lived a simple life and was magnanimous. He was also a learned person. He possessed a great knowledge of mathematics.He made endowments to build a college at Bidar which was built in the Persian style of architecture. ● He was also a military genius. He waged 92 Master Series : Medieval India successful wars against Vijayanagar, Orissa and the sea pirates on the Arabian Sea.His conquests include Konkan, Goa and KrishnaGodavari delta and thus he expanded the Bahmani Empire through his conquests. ● Despite of being an Afaqui he was liberal and wanted a compromise between the Afaquis and the Deccanis.He controlled the kingdom in an efficient manner and provided it stability. ● Gawan conquered the Vijayanagar territories up to Kanchi.On the western coast, Goa and Dhabol were conquered. Losing these important ports was a great loss for Vijayanagar. ● Bahamani strengthened its trading relations with Iran and Iraq after gaining control over Goa and Dabhol.His administrative reforms were aimed to increase the control of Sultan over the nobles and provinces. ● Gawan carried out many internal reforms and attempted to put an end to the strife in the nobility. Royal officers were appointed in each province for this purpose. Most of the forts were under the control of these officers. ● In order to curb the military power of the Tarafdar, Gawan ordered that only one fort of each province was to be under the direct control of the provincial Tarafdar.The remaining forts of the province were placed under a Qiladar or commander of the forts. The Qiladar was appointed by the central Government. Administration of Mahmud Gawan ● The success of Muhammad Shah was due to the advice and services of his minister Mahmud Gawan. One of the important acquisitions was the control over Dabhol, an important port on the west coast. ● Under Bahman Shah and his son Muhammad Shah, the administrative system was well organised.The kingdom was divided into four administrative units called ‘taraf’ or provinces. These provinces were Daultabad, Bidar, Berar and Gulbarga. ● Muhammad I defeated the Vijayanagar kingdom and consequently Golconda was annexed to Bahamani kingdom. ● Every province was under a Tarafdar who was also called a Subedar. Some land was converted into Khalisa land from the jurisdiction of the Tarafdar. Khalisa land was that piece of land which was used to run expenses of the king and the royal household. ● Further the services and the salary of every noble was fixed. Those nobles who kept 500 horses were given 1000,000 huns annually. If short of the stipulated troops, the Tarafdar would have to reimburse the amount to the central government. ● Nobles used to get their salary either in cash or in form of grant of land or ‘jagir’. ● Bahamani ruler depended for military support on his Amirs.There were two groups in the ranks of Amirs: 1. One was the Deccanis who were immigrant Muslims and had been staying for a long time in the Deccan region. 2. The other group was Afaquis or Pardesis who had recently come from Central Asia, Iran and Iraq and had settled in the Deccan region recently. ● Between both these groups there was always tension to appropriate better administrative positions and because of their feuds, the stability of the Bahamani Sultanate was affected. ● For the first time in India both Bahamani and Vijaynagar kingdoms used gunpowder in the warfare.The Bahamanis were already familiar with the use of firearms. They employed Turkish and Portuguese experts to train the soldiers in the latest weaponry of warfare. Break up of Bahmani Kingdom ● However, soon after his death, the governors declared their independence and the Bahamani kingdom broke up.In the fifteenth and the sixteenth century, some Amirs in Bidar, Ahmadnagar, Golconda and Bijapur and Berar established independent sultanates of their own and formed new states. Vijayanagar and Bahamani Kingdom 93 ● These were the NizamShahis of Ahmadnagar, the AdilShahis of Bijapur, the QutbShahis of Golconda, and the ImadShahis of Berar and the BaridShahis of Bidar. ● They formed a league of states and strengthened them by matrimonial alliances. They maintained the traditional rivalry with the Vijayanagar rulers. ● Golconda and Bijapur entered into matrimonial alliances and led the Battle of Talikota against Vijayanagar.They finally succumbed to the Mughal armies. ● Deccan Sultanate emerged after the fall of Bahamani Kingdom – Bidar, Bijapur, Golconda, Ahmednagar, Berar. Conflicts between the Vijayanagar and the Bahamani Kingdoms ● There were constant conflicts between the Vijayanagar and the Bahamani kingdoms over the control of Raichur doab which was the land between rivers Krishna and Tungabhadra. ● This area was fertile and rich in mineral resources. The famous diamond mines of Golconda were located in the eastern part of the doab region. ● The geography of both the kingdoms was such that expansion was possible only across Tungabhadra in the Deccan. It appears that the battles between the two were not conclusive and the status quo was maintained. ● Sometimes, Bahamani had an advantage and sometimes, Vijayanagar had an advantage. For instance, in 1504, the Bahamani managed to reconquer the Raichur doab. However, with the ascent of Krishna Deva Raya, the Bahamanis lost Raichur, Mudkal, Nalgonda and other inland towns. ● An important result of these wars was that both the powers were so involved amongst themselves that they never realized the increasing power of the Portuguese on the coast of South India. ● Besides, continuous warfare exhausted the resources of both the states and weakened them. ● The other areas of conflict were the Marathwada region and the deltaic region of Krishna-Godavari.Both regions had fertile areas and important ports that controlled trade to the foreign countries. ● The fertile area in the Marathwada region was the Konkan belt that also had the port of Goa which was an important region for trade and export and import especially import of horses from Iraq and Iran. ● Often, the battles between the Vijayanagar and the Bahamani states are perceived as HinduMuslim conflicts, but the above mentioned reasons show that the struggle was not due to any religious differences. ● Territorial and economic motives were the main causes for the war.Despite hostilities between the two states, there were times when they also co-operated with each other. ● Krishna Deva Raya, for example, supported some claimants to power in the Sultanates and took pride in the title “establisher of the Yavana kingdom”. Similarly, the Sultan of Bijapur intervened to resolve succession disputes in Vijayanagra following the death of Krishna Deva Raya. ● There were also sharing and exchange of ideas, especially in the field of art, literature and architecture. Deccan and South India ● After the break-up of the Bahmani kingdom, three powerful states, Ahmadnagar, Bijapur, and Golconda emerged as the independent states. In 1565, all these three states united to crush Vijayanagara Empire at the battle of Bannihatti, near Tallikota. ● After the victory in the battle of Bannihatti, the Deccani states resumed their old ways. Both Ahmednagar and Bijapur claimed Sholapur, which was a rich and fertile tract of that time. 94 Master Series : Medieval India ● The Gujarat rulers actively supported Berar ruler against Ahmednagar, and later also engaged in a war against Ahmednagar. On the other hand, Bijapur and Golconda clashed over the possession of Naldurg (located in Maharashtra). ● In 1572, the Mughal emperor Akbar conquest Gujarat, which created a new situation. The conquest of Gujarat was just beginning of the Mughal conquest of the Deccan. However, Akbar at that time was busy elsewhere and did not pay attention to the Deccan affairs. ● Ahmednagar conquested Berar. Further, Ahmednagar and Bijapur made an agreement whereby Bijapur was left free to expand its territory in the south at the expense of Vijayanagara, while Ahmednagar ruled Berar. ● The Marathas were also started taking interest in the affairs of the Deccan. ● In south, the revenue affairs at the local level were in the hands of the Deccani Brahmans. ● During the middle of the sixteenth century, the rulers of the Deccan states relied upon a policy i.e. winning over the Marathas to their side. ● The Maratha chiefs were given services and positions in all the three leading states of the Deccan. Ibrahim Adil Shah (ruler of Bijapur), who ascended the throne in 1555, was the leading advocate of this policy. ● Ibrahim Adil Shah, most likely, introduced Marathi in revenue accounts at all levels. Besides, a few other families such as the Bhonsales who had the family name of Ghorpade, Dafles (or Chavans), etc., also rose to prominence in Bijapur. ● Ahmednagar ruler had been given the title of ‘Peshwa’ to a Brahmana, namely Kankoji Narsi. Mughal’s Movement towards Deccan ● After decline of the Delhi Sultanate, many Sufi saints and other people in search of the employment had migrated to the court of the Bahmani rulers. ● After the conquest of Malwa and Gujarat in 1560’s and early 1570’s, Akbar gradually moved towards the Deccan politics. ● In 1576, a Mughal army invaded Khandesh, and compelled the rulers of Khandesh to surrender. However, because of the 12 years (from 1586 to 1598) Akbar’s absent from India (he was lived at Lahore during this period), affairs in the Deccan deteriorated. ● Among the Deccan states, there was very unstable politics. War among the various Deccan states was a frequent occurrence. Religion (especially shia and sunni) was the leading cause of conflict. Mahdawi Belief ● Mahdawi ideas had spread widely in the Deccan. In fact, a group of the Muslims believed that in every epoch, a man from the family of the Prophet will make an appearance and will strengthen the religion, and make justice triumph; such a group of Muslims were known as the ‘Mahdi.’ ● In India, Saiyid Muhammad, who was born at Jaunpur (in Uttar Pradesh), in the first half of the fifteenth century, proclaimed himself as the Mahdi. ● Saiyid Muhammad traveled throughout the country as well as in the Islamic world, which created great enthusiasm. He established his dairas (circles) in different parts of the country, including the Deccan where his ideas found a fertile soil. However, the orthodox elements were bitterly opposed to Mahdawaism as to Shiism. Vijayanagar and Bahamani Kingdom 95 Medieval India Master Exercise MCQs 1. for Preliminary Examination Who among the following was the founder of the Vijaynagar Kingdom and the city according to the Kapaluru and Begepalli grants? (a) Saluva Narsimha 2. 3. (c) Six (d) Seven 6. (a) Deva Raya I (c) Tirimala (b) Deva Raya II (d) Hari and Bukka (c) Harihar Who became the King of Tuluva Dynasty after the assassination of Immadi Narasimha? (d) Bukka 7. (a) Hari Which of the following foreign travellers visited in the court of Harihara I? (b) Vir Narsimha (a) Ibn Batuta (c) Tirimala (b) Nicolo de Conti (d) Krishna Deva Raya (c) Abdur Razzak Consider the following statement (s) related to the features of Vijaynagar Empire. (d) Domingo Paes 8. It was monarchy Which of the following foreign travellers visited in the court of Deve Raya II ? (a) Ibn Batuta II. Land tax was an important source of revenue for the empire. (b) Nicolo de Conti Select the correct statement (s): (c) Abdur Razzak (a) Only I (d) Domingo Paes (b) Only II 9. Which Vijaynagar ruler followed Vaishnavism? (c) Both I & II (a) Krishna Dev Ray (d) Neither I nor II (b) Vir Narsimha Who was the following Bahmani King married to the daughter of Dev Raya I? (a) Sultan Quli Hamadani or Quttbul Mulk (b) Yusuf Adil Khan (c) Ahmad Shah I 5. Who among the Vijaynagar ruler adopted the ‘Gajabetekara (the elephant hunter)’? (b) Vir Narsimha I. 4. 5 (c) Tirumala (d) All of the above 10. Who among the ruler of Vijaynagar maintained friendly relations with Albuquerque, the Portuguese Governor and granted him permission to build fort at Bhatkal? (d) Firoz Shah Bahmani (a) Krishna Dev Ray How many kingdoms ruled over Vijaynagar? (b) Vir Narsimha (a) Four (c) Tirumala (b) Five (d) All of the above 96 Master Series : Medieval India Subjectve type questions for 3. Main Examination 1. Explain the rivalry between the Vijayanagar and Bahamani Kingdom? 2. Mention the contributions of Krishna Deva Raya in the development of Telugu and Sanskrit literatures in South. With reference to Bahmani Kingdom, list down the contribution of: (a) Mahmud Gawan (b) Malik Amber Answers to MCQs 1. 6. (d) (b) 2. 7. (b) (a) 3. 8. (c) (c) 4. 9. (d) 5. (a) (d) 10. (a) Part - C Art and Culture Characteristics of Indian Culture 1 ART AND CULTURE MASTER SERIES UNIT 1 Characteristics of INDIAN CULTURE What is Culture? Culture is the characteristics and knowledge of a particular group of people, encompassing language, religion, cuisine, social habits, music and arts. The Center for Advance Research on Language Acquisition goes a step further, defining culture as shared patterns of behaviors and interactions, cognitive constructs and understanding that are learned by socialization. Thus, it can be seen as the growth of a group identity fostered by social patterns unique to the group. Salient Features of Indian Culture (a) Unity in Diversity: According to the Indian spiritual tradition there is only one source for the universe. But it has infinite manifestations. Many people have described and experienced it in different ways.. The principle of unity in diversity is the implicit law of nature, universe and life. People belonging to various religions harmoniously co-exist in India. Numerous styles of architecture, sculpture, painting, music, dance, festivals and customs have developed here. This wide variety has made the Indian culture rich and beautiful. There are many reasons. The size of the country and the variations in its physical and climatic features are the main reasons for the variety. Different ethnic groups like Iranians, Greeks, Kushanas, Shakas, Hunas, Arabs, Turks, Mughals and Europeans came to India. They settled here and mingled with the local population. They brought their cultural habits, thoughts and ideas to India. India has always shown a remarkable capacity for the assimilation of ideas. Despite this diversity, there is an intrinsic unity in our cultural heritage. It is reflected throughout the nation in our music, dance forms, drama, art and literature. (b) Continuity and Change: Indian cultural heritage is as old as the Indus Valley Civilization. It still flourishes maintaining its original features together with changes. Even today, the pattern of a house in an Indian village is not very different from that of a Harappan house. There were many great cultures in different parts of the world. However, most of them have disappeared or have been replaced by other cultures. A culture perishes when it fails to absorb changes. They include the reform movements by Jainism and Buddhism in 6th century BC and the religious and social awakening in the 18th and 19th centuries. Several changes were brought about in Indian thought and practices by various movements. The Indian culture has maintained an unbroken continuity from the Vedic times to the present day, in spite of countless wars and two centuries of the British rule. Thus a process of continuity and change has always been a feature of the Indian culture. It shows the dynamic character of our culture. (c) Religious Pluralism: India has been a cradle of religions. It considered religion as a way of life and not just as rituals or dogmas. India has a tradition of giving equal respect for all religions. Due to this, other major world 2 Master Series : Art and Culture religions flourished in India. Adhithidevobhava is a famous mantra of our land. India has always preached and practised tolerance and understanding. These have been the basis of Indian religion, philosophy, art and literature. The secular character of Indian culture is a result of the intermingling of people from diverse cultural groups. Hindus, Muslims, Christians, Sikhs, Buddhists, Jains, Parsees and Jews live together in India. During festivities people come together to share their thoughts and beliefs. (Example: The devotees of Lord Ayyappa visit the Vavar Mosque at Erumeli). Everyone is free to profess, practise and propagate any religion of his/her own choice. There is no state religion and the state gives equal respect for all religions. (d) Universalism: The values of Vasudhaiva Kudumbakam and Loka Samastha Sukhino Bhavanthu are the key aspects of Indian tradition. Our scriptures advocate that Iswar or the Divine Spirit is in all living beings. So, the Indian culture believes in the oneness of all living beings. The concept of co-existence is not limited to the geographical and political boundaries of the country alone. India has a universal outlook. It has been promoting the message of peace and harmony in the entire world. Spiritual and Material India is popularly known to be a land of spiritualism. However, Indian history from ancient times shows the development of materialistic culture as well. Our ancient civilizations were proud of its vast knowledge of mathematics, weights and measures. Discoveries of many scientific theories were made by Indians long before the modern science acknowledged them. Similarly, in the areas of astronomy, medicine and other sciences India’s achievements in ancient times were significant. There was no resistance from religions in pursuing such knowledge. (e) Humanity and Tolerance: The gentleness of Indians has always been there, despite the aggressiveness of the Muslim conquerors and the reformative attitude of the British, the Portuguese and the Dutch. The Indians are noted for their benevolent and calm nature, without any harshness in their principles and ideals. Mahatma Gandhi’s satyagraha principle or Ahimsa worked wonders and gave credit to India in the international forum. (f) Closely connected Social System: The Indian culture has family-bound traditions and customs. The families are closely connected with grandparents, parents, children and grandchildren. They share the same spirit, values, tradition and property. Indians regard family as an institution or a link, which continues for the rest of their lives. (g) Cultural Charisma (Cultural Appeal): India is a place of infinite variety of culture and tradition. They are the most remarkable features of India. One can identify ‘Indian Music’, ‘Indian Dance’, ‘Indian Literature’, Indian Cuisine’ ‘Indian Fairs and Festivals’ and so on. Indian classical music and dance are mentioned in the ancient religious texts and are treasured by its people till now. There are innumerable religious and historical monuments in India that reflect the strong influence of several rulers that ruled the country for ages. Culture and its Determinants Culture is determined and shaped historically and socially. It, in its turn, influences the social, economic and political development of people or nation. (a) Culture, Society and History: To begin with, culture is the life and mind of a society at any given time in history. The culture of a particular society or age cannot be separated from its historical context. The continuity, change or transformation in cultural traditions is influenced by the social, economic and political developments at any given time, and vice-versa. To give a few examples, the growth and changes in agricultural production are inseparably linked with the emergence, development and changes within the Vedic civilization in India. The early Dravidian civilization has been an important influence because of its cultural significance in a specific historical and social context. The flowering of art and literature as well as the Buddhist monuments of the Mau- Characteristics of Indian Culture 3 rya and Gupta period would not have been possible without the prosperity and increase in commerce during that period. The same can be said for the Chola temples or the Vijaynagar structures. The Bhakti movement had as its basis the growth of trade and commerce, and the consequent growth of towns in the 14th and 15th centuries, which motivated a questioning of the caste restrictions in certain occupations in the name of religion. The preachings of Bhakti saints in the peoples’ languages and their compilation made possible the growth of Braj, Awadhi, Rajasthani, Gujarati, Marathi, Panjabi, Kashmiri and other regional literatures. The enormous expenditure involved in the magnificent architecture of the Mughals was possible only because of the significantly increased state share in the surplus production during Mughal rule. Development of new musical forms and their popularisation in the courts, translation of important texts of the world, as well as growth of new techniques in production were immensely helped by the Court patronage generated by this increased surplus. The concepts of equality as part of anti-caste and peasant economic struggles, the movement for women’s education and emancipation, a scientific temper, secularism, a democratic culture and the culture of democracy took shape in the context of modernity that came with the development of capitalism in India, as a result of the impact of British conquest. (b) Political Structures and their Impact on Culture: Political structures have also had an impact on our culture throughout its history. For example, the periods of political decentralization, as after the disintegration of the Gupta Empire and, later, the Mughal Empire, resulted in the growth of regional cultures. Similarly the periods of centralization, such as the Mughal and the modern periods, helped in the development of a composite, syncretic tradition that has the semblance of a national culture. The religion professed by a ruler can inspire the development of art forms bearing those religious expressions. It does not, however, mean that other forms were suppressed. Similarly a more liberal, democratic and secular rule may witness the growth of non-religious art forms as seen in modern and contemporary India. An oppressive rule can also stimulate cultural expressions of protest as seen during the colonial rule. (c) Outside Influences and Culture: No society has existed in isolation, or remained uninfluenced by the other societies it came in contact with. This is as true of our country as any other, and we have had contact with the outside world since the earliest times. Our entire scientific and technological heritage is a shared heritage. Repeated new influences as a result of trade contacts, conquests followed by settlements and adoption or intermixing with the native population by different tribes and races through India’s history have enriched India’s culture. The Aryans brought with them forms of agricultural products, new gods and beliefs. With Turkish conquest came gunpowder, cavalry and new techniques. Stitched cloth, domes, arches, paper, glass-making techniques, and water-wheel are some of the elements of civilization which came from outside. Persian influences after the Mughal conquest brought into being new melodies, musical forms, musical instruments, dastan and ghazals as forms of literary expression, miniature painting, etc. The composite, syncretic culture, and flowering of different regional cultures came from the interaction that shared life gave to India. It is a culture of unity in diversity. 4 Master Series : Art and Culture Art and Culture Master Exercise 1 Subjectve type questions for Main Examination 1. What is the difference between art and culture? How is culture different from civilization? 2. India is the land of diversified culture, religion, customs, traditions and languages. What are the factors that shape our history? 3. In the context of diversity of India, can it be said that the regions form cultural units rather than the States? Give reasons with examples for your viewpoint. (UPSC 2017) History and Culture of India Through Ages 5 ART AND CULTURE MASTER SERIES UNIT 2 History and Culture of India THROUGH AGES What is Pre-history? Pre-history concerns itself with the period of human existence before the availability of written records with which recorded history begins. It is thus a study of those pre-literate societies of our earliest hunter-gatherer ancestors and the progress, technological and otherwise, as they domesticated animals, gradually mastered agriculture, and settled down in the earliest settlements, villages and towns. It follows the development of some of these settlements into centralised human societies and the emergence of the first great civilisations of the world. The story of this progress from the earliest hunter-gatherer lifestyle to the diversity of human activity today encompasses a vast span of time and is not uniform in different parts of the world. ● India is one of the oldest inhabited regions on the planet. The Hominid activity in the subcontinent dates back to over 250,000 years. ● Significant human activity was underway in India by the Holocene Period some 10,000 years ago. Before delving into the ancient history of India, one of the vital thing to understand is the Geological time frame for better understanding of continuity and cultural pattern of the Indian history. The Evolution of Humankind ● It is believed that the genus Homo evolved in Africa roughly 2.5 million years ago. ● The Homo habilis species that emerged were the first members of the Homo lineage, and is definitely known to have made and used stone tools and artefacts. (Refer fig 2.2) ● It is known that Homo erectus populations, which had appeared by around 1.8 million years ago, had spread out of Africa and occupied large regions of Eastern and Southeast Asia half a million years ago. ● Fully modern man or Homo sapiens sapiens appears in the period between 100,000 BP (before present) and 60,000 BP, initially in South Africa and the Near East. ● In the Indian context, the oldest fossils of the Homo lineage have been found in Tamil Nadu and have been dated to 1.5 million years ago. Fig. 2.1. Evolution of Humankind 6 Master Series : Art and Culture The Quaternary Period The Quaternary Period is the current and most recent of the three periods of the Cenozoic Era in the geologic time scale. It spans from 2.588 million years ago to the present. The Quaternary Period is divided into two epochs, the Pleistocene (2.588 million years ago to 11.7 thousand years ago) and the Holocene (11.7 thousand years ago to today). Pleistocene Epoch ● Pleistocene climate was marked by repeated glacial cycles in which continental glaciers pushed to the 40th parallel in some places. ● It is estimated that, at maximum glacial extent, 30% of the Earth's surface was covered by ice. The mean annual temperature at the edge of the ice was −6 °C (21 °F), at the edge of the permafrost, 0 °C (32 °F). ● The evolution of anatomically modern humans took place during the Pleistocene. In the beginning of the Pleistocene, Paranthropus species are still present, as well as early human ancestors, but during the lower Palaeolithic they disappeared, and the only hominine species found in fossil records is Homo erectus for much of the Pleistocene. ● The Middle Palaeolithic saw more varied speciation within Homo, including the appearance of Homo sapiens about 200,000 years ago. Modern humans migrated from Africa, spreading all over the ice-free world during the late Pleistocene. Holocene Epoch The Holocene also encompasses the growth and impacts of the human species worldwide, including all its written history, development of major civilizations, and overall significant transition towards urban living in the present. The beginning of the Holocene corresponds with the beginning of the Mesolithic age in majority areas. The Late Holocene brought advancements such as the bow and arrow (at some places) and saw new methods of warfare. Spear throwers and their large points were replaced by the bow and arrow with its small narrow points beginning. Villages built on defensive bluffs indicate increased warfare, leading to food gathering in communal groups for protection rather than individual hunting. Ancient history can be divided into different periods according to the tools used by people then. 1. Palaeolithic Period: 2 million BC – 10,000 BC 2. Mesolithic Period: 10,000 BC – 8000 BC 3. Neolithic Period: 8000 BC – 4000 BC 4. Chalcolithic Period: 4000 BC – 1500 BC 5. Iron Age: 1500 BC – 200 BC Fig. 2.2. The Evolution of Man History and Culture of India Through Ages 7 The Stone Age The Division of Stone Age ● In earlier studies of History, the division was made into three groups based on the material of manufacture of these weapons and implements, recognized as three ages of stone, bronze and iron. ● The Stone Age was initially divided into an earlier period of chipped stone tools and a later period of ground or polished stone tools by and termed as Palaeolithic and Neolithic, respectively. ● Later, in the course of the discovery and study of several sites, it emerged that the Palaeolithic was not a single homogeneous period, but a sequence of pre-historic phases marked by faunal changes and changes in the lithic industries (lithic means stone). The Stone Age was thus divided into The Upper, Middle and Lower Palaeolithic. ● Stone tools smaller than the trademark Palaeoliths, known as microliths, were increasingly found in many deposits overlying Palaeolithic stone assemblages, which were ascribed to a period between the late Palaeolithic and early Neolithic. This period was given the term Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age). Therefore the Mesolithic age was the transitional period from hunting-gathering to food-producing cultures. ● ● ● General Transitions Through the Stone Age ● The time span of the Lower Palaeolithic was the maximum covering the whole of Lower Pleistocene and bulk of the Middle Pleistocene epoch. During this span many river valleys and terraces were formed. Early men preferred to live near the water supply, as the stone tools are found mainly in or adjacent to the river valleys. Evidence of the earliest stone tools in Western Europe has appeared from the deposits of first Inter-glacial phase in the Lower Pleistocene. ● The Upper Palaeolithic is marked by a lot of technological advances such as profusion ● in the variety of stone and bone tools and artefacts, constructing dwellings, sewing clothes with bone needles, etc. This is also the earliest occurrence of art – painting of walls of cave sand dwellings, carving of human and animal figurines from stones and ivory and decorating bodies of the living and the dead with beads and pendants. The Middle Stone Age or Mesolithic is a brief period of transition between the Palaeolithic and the food-producing stage of the Neolithic in most parts of the world, and is characterised by the appearance of microliths (tiny stone artefacts, often a few centimetres in size) in the archaeological record. It is characteristically a few thousand years in duration after the last stages of the Upper Palaeolithic and ends with the advent of agriculture. The onset of the Neolithic varies between 10,000BC to 3,000 or 2500BC in different parts of the world. The Neolithic marked the beginning of settled life for humankind, though sections of the population still lived as nomadic or semi-nomadic hunter-gatherers or agro-pastoralists. The Stone Age (Palaeolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic) was followed by the Bronze Age in most parts of the world and later the Iron Age. Script or writing makes an appearance in the Bronze Age in many parts of the world and, by the end of the Iron Age, prehistory merges into recorded history in most parts of the world. Some researchers prefer the term ‘proto-history’ to refer to those periods during which a culture or civilisation has not yet developed writing but other cultures have already noted its existence into their own writings. Roman Britain or early days of literate civilizations in Mesopotamia and Egypt may be called proto-historic, as possibly the Neolithic-Chalcolithic and the Iron Age in south India. The periods following the Iron Age is in written part in most parts of the world and hence the beginning of recorded history in these regions occur. 8 Master Series : Art and Culture The Palaeolithic Age ● It was the first part of the Stone Age. During this period, man relied on hunting and had no knowledge of cultivation and house building. ● During the Paleolithic Age or Old Stone Age man used crude implements for hunting wild animals or for the purpose of cutting and boring. The chief implements used consisted of darts, scrapers, axes and throwing stones. ● Tips of sharpened stones were used as heads of spears, lances or daggers. Most of the Paleolithic remains in India were made of a peculiar kind of rock called quartzite. ● According to the nature of tools and the change in the climate, the Paleolithic Age in India is divided into three phases; 1. Lower Paleolithic (500,000 BC to 50,000 BC), 2. Middle Paleolithic (50,000 BC to 40,000 BC), and 3. Upper Paleolithic (40,000 BC to 10,000 BC). A. Lower Palaeolithic Age ● They were mainly hunters and food gatherers; tools used were axes, choppers and cleavers. ● Earliest lower Palaeolithic site is Bori in Maharashtra. ● Limestone was also used to make tools. ● Major sites of lower Palaeolithic age were: Soan valley (in present Pakistan), sites in the Thar Desert, Kashmir, Mewar plains, Saurashtra, Gujarat, Central India, Deccan Plateau, Chotanagpur plateau, North of the Cauvery River, Belan valley in UP. ● There are habitation sites including caves and rock shelters ● The Early or Lower Stone Age in India may be associated with the people of the Homo sapiens group. B. Middle Palaeolithic Age ● Tools used were blades, pointers, scrapers and borers. ● The tools were smaller, lighter and thinner. ● Important Middle Palaeolithic Age sites are: Belan valley in UP, Luni valley (Rajasthan), Son and Narmada rivers, Bhimbetka. Bhimbetka Rock Shelters ● Bhimbetka rock shelters are located in Raisen District of Madhya Pradesh, 45 km south of Bhopal at the southern edge of the Vindhyachal hills. ● These served as shelters for Paleolithic age man for over more than 1 lakh years. ● This is the most exclusive Paleolithic site in India which contains the rock carvings and paintings. ● These paintings belong to the Paleolithic, and Mesolithic ages, Chalcolithic, early-historic and even medieval times. ● It was excavated by VN Mishra and it has many rock shelters and caves and is considered as richest haul of such dwelling. ● Quarzite were used in Bhimbetka and is the earliest example of rock painting. Various colours were used in the paintings, i.e., Green and Dark Red colour. These colours were prepared by combining manganese, hematite, wooden coal, soft red stone, plant leaves. Sometimes animal fat and extracts of leaves were used as well. Brushes were made of the fiber of plants. ● It depicted animals, hunting scenes, birds and humans. Main animals depicted are: Elephant, Tiger, Lion, Bison, Rhinoceros, Bear. ● Bhimbetka is a World heritage Site. Earlier it was considered to be a Buddhist site and was later recognized as Paleolithic site. Bhimbetka Rock shelters were included in the world heritage list in 2003. Fig. 2.3. The Bhimbetka Dwellings C. Upper Palaeolithic Age ● Emergence of Homo sapiens. ● Lot of bone tools, including needles, harpoons, blades, fishing tools and burin tools were found. ● Major sites of Upper Palaeolithic age are: Belan, Son, Chota Nagpur plateau (Bihar), Maharashtra, Orissa and Eastern Ghats in Andhra Pradesh. History and Culture of India Through Ages 9 Fig.2.4. Palaeolithic Sites in India 10 Master Series : Art and Culture ● Paintings at Bhimbetka site belong to this age. ● Nearly all of our knowledge of Palaeolithic human culture and way of life comes from archaeology and ethnographic comparisons to modern hunter-gatherer cultures. ● The economy of a typical Palaeolithic society was a hunter-gatherer economy. Humans hunted wild animals for meat and gathered food, firewood, and materials for their tools, clothes, or shelters. Human population density was very low, around only one person per square mile. ● This was most likely due to low body fat, infanticide, women regularly engaging in intense endurance exercise and a nomadic lifestyle. At the end of the Palaeolithic, specifically the Middle and or Upper Palaeolithic, humans began to produce works of art such as cave paintings, rock art and jewellery and began to engage in religious behaviour such as burial and ritual. Palaeolithic Tools ● Palaeolithic humans made tools of stone, bone, and wood. Evidence shows these early hominids intentionally selected raw materials with good flaking qualities and chose appropriate sized stones for their needs to produce sharp-edged tools for cutting. ● The earliest Palaeolithic stone tool industry began around 2.6 million years ago. It contained tools such as choppers, burins and awls. The most recent Lower Palaeolithic implements completely vanished from the archaeological record around 100,000 years ago and were replaced by more complex Middle Palaeolithic tool kits. ● Lower Palaeolithic humans used a variety of stone tools, including hand axes and choppers. Although they appear to have used hand axes often for various purposes of attack and defence. ● Choppers and scrapers were likely used for skinning and butchering scavenged animals and sharp ended sticks were often obtained for digging up edible roots. Presumably, early humans used wooden spears as early as five million years ago to hunt small animals, much as their relatives, chimpanzees. ● The Lower Palaeolithic hominid Homo erectus possibly invented rafts to travel over large bodies of water, which may have allowed a group of Homo erectus to reach the distant islands. Around 200,000 BP, Middle Palaeolithic Stone tool manufacturing spawned a tool making technique. ● This technique increased efficiency by allowing the creation of more controlled and consistent flakes. It allowed Middle Palaeolithic humans to create stone tipped spears, which were the earliest composite tools, by hafting sharp, pointy stone flakes onto wooden shafts. Microliths or small stone tools or points were invented around 70,000 or 65,000 BP and were essential to the invention of bows and spear throwers in the following Upper Palaeolithic period. The invention of these devices brought many additional foods like fish into the human diets, which provided a hedge against starvation and a more abundant food supply (the period of appearance of microliths in India is still an issue of debate). ● Fire was used by the Lower Palaeolithic hominid as early as 300,000 or 1.5 million years ago and possibly even earlier. ● However, the use of fire only became common in the societies of the following Middle Palaeolithic Period. Use of fire reduced mortality rates and provided protection against predators. ● Early hominids may have begun to cook their food as early as the Lower Palaeolithic or at the latest in the early Middle Palaeolithic. ● Some scientists have hypothesized that Hominids began cooking food to defrost frozen meat, which would help ensure their survival in cold regions. Palaeolithic Society ● The social organization of the Lower Palaeolithic societies remains largely unknown to scientists, though Lower Palaeolithic hominids were likely to have had more complex social structures than chimpanzee societies. ● Later Homo erectus may have been the first people to invent home bases and incorporate them into their foraging and hunting strategies like contemporary hunter-gatherers, possibly as early as 1.7 million years ago. History and Culture of India Through Ages 11 ● However, the earliest solid evidence for the existence of home bases among humans only dates back to 500,000 years ago. ● Human societies from the Palaeolithic to the early Neolithic farming tribes lived without states and organized governments. By the end of the Palaeolithic era, about 10,000 BP people began to settle down into permanent locations, and began to rely on agriculture for sustenance in many locations. ● Much evidence exists that humans took part in long-distance trade between bands for rare commodities such as ochre, which was often used for religious purposes such as ritual and raw materials, as early as 120,000 years ago in Middle Palaeolithic. ● Some sources claim that most Middle and Upper Palaeolithic societies were possibly fundamentally egalitarian and may have rarely or never engaged in organized violence between groups (war). ● There was no formal division of labour during the Palaeolithic. Each member of the group was skilled at all tasks essential to survival, regardless of individual abilities. Mesolithic Period (Middle Stone Age) ● Major climate change happened. Climate became warmer and more humid. ● Humans began to live in groups and started switching towards the sedentary life style. The increase in the group size created the need of more food for the survival of all members of the family, this lead to improvements of the tools and weapons. ● The Mesolithic Era also brought modifications in the clothing and food style of then times. People started wearing clothes made of animal’s skin as well eating cooked food by using fire. Primitive people were also fond of art and paintings as depicted by the popular cave paintings present at Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh. ● Rainfall increased and so more availability of flora and fauna. Domestication of animals and plants were seen for the first time. Started 12000 years ago. ● First animal to be domesticated was the wild ancestor of the dog. Sheep and goats were the most common domesticated animals. Hunting and food gathering continued. ● The Mesolithic sites in distribution cover almost the entire country except a few areas like Indo- gangetic plain, Assam and most of the Western coast of India. In Indo-gangetic plain, their absence can be explained by the lack of primary raw material (stones) for making tools. ● Assam and Western coast were probably left uninhabited due to very high rainfall and dense vegetation in this area. ● Transitional Phase between Paleolithic & Neolithic Age ● Characteristic tools of this Age: Microliths ● They are small stone tools that were probably stuck to stones to be used as saws and sickles. Major Sites of Mesolithic Brahmagiri (Mysore), Narmada, Vindhya, Gujarat, UP, Sojat (Rajasthan), Bhimbetka, Godavari Basin, Sarai Nahar Rai. ● Tools used were blades, crescents, triangles, trapezes, spearheads, knives, arrowheads, sickles, harpoons and daggers. ● It seems that the Mesolithic people preferred the following environment-Sand-dunes, Rock-shelter, Alluvial plain, Rocky plain, Lake-shore, Coastal environment. Mesolithic Tools ● The people perhaps produced a variety of implements and weapons such as arrows, spears, knives, sickles etc. ● The advantage of these composite tools was that, being made of a number of micro-lithic components, one of the broken components could easily be replaced without discarding the whole tool. This type of replacement was not possible in case of a single piece tool. ● Tools are characterised by parallel-sided blades taken out from prepared cores of finematerials as chert, crystal, chalcedony, jasper, carnelian, agate etc. ● In India, Microlith tools are associated with Mesolithc period (whereas in many other 12 Master Series : Art and Culture parts of the world microliths are also found during Palaeolithic period). ● Numerous types among the microliths have been noted such as blunted back blades, obliquely truncated blades, points, lunates, triangles, crescents, trapezes etc. Size of these tools varies between 1cm. and 3cm. ● Some of the microliths were used as components of spearheads, arrowheads, knives, sickles, harpoons and daggers. They were fitted into grooves in bone, wood and reed shafts and joined together by natural adhesives like gum and resin. ● It can be inferred that the Mesolithic people had little material culture. Later, in contact with the metalworking and farming people they acquired a few items of material culture like, pottery, metal tools and stone beads for ornaments. Mesolithic Society ● It seems to be certain that this period experienced the arrival of new peoples in India, possibly from the west. This is the reason for which the Upper Palaeolithic blade industry was non-existent in Indian context. ● The process of disposing the dead was also unspecialized among them. The bodies used to be buried within the habitation area, whether it is a rock-shelter or an open-air site. ● At the site Sarai Nahar Rai in the District Pratapgarh all the skeletons are found to be placed in West-east direction keeping the right forehand diagonally across the abdomen. ● In fact, we are not sure whether the microlith makers of India were the hunters and food-gatherers of Palaeolithic tradition or they were the agriculturists. This new subsistence economy based on food production had a lasting impact on the evolution of human society and the environment. ● Agriculture had not fully developed. ● The earliest evidence of domestication of animals has been provided by Adamagarh in Madhya Pradesh and Bagor in Rajasthan. ● The Pachpadra basin and Sojat Area of Rajasthan is a rich Mesolithic sites and lot of microliths have been discovered. ● Bagor in Rajasthan is the almost largest Mesolithic site in India. Another major Mesolithic site in Rajasthan is Tilwara. ● In Gujarat some places on the banks of River Sabarmati are Mesolithic sites which include the Akhaj, Valsana, Hirpur, Langhanj etc. Sarai Nahar Rai in Allahabad-Pratapgarh of Uttar Pradesh is a Mesolithic site. Other sites in Uttar Pradesh are Morhana Pahar and lekkahia. ● In Madhya Pradesh Bhimbetka along with Adamgarh are major Mesolithic sites. In Jharkhand Chota Nagpur plateau is a major Mesolithic site in India. In Orissa Mayurbhanj, Keonjhar, Sundergarh is a major Mesolithic site in India. ● In south India Godavari basin is rich in microliths. ● The rock painting of Mesolithic period is found in Adamgarh, Bhimbetka of Madhya Pradesh and Pratapgarh, Mirzapur of Rajasthan. ● Apart from the animals, hunting scenes, the Mesolithic sites have also painting of social life, sexual activity, child birth, rearing of children and burial ceremony, which makes it clear that Mesolithic man had developed an aesthetic sense. Neolithic Period (New Stone Age) ● The human settlements in the Mesolithic era got more sedentary and this was the beginning of establishment of villages. Moving from nomadic to settled life. Man now could keep cattle, sheep and goats and protect crops from pests. ● In due course, as the efficiency of agricultural production improved, some farmers were able to generate surplus food. As a consequence, a section of the population were freed from the task of food production and their talents and energies were diverted to tasks such as the production of pots, baskets, quarrying of stone, making of bricks, masonry and carpentry. This was the beginning of the new occupations such as the oil presser, washer man, barber, musician, dancers etc. This transition from hunting-gathering to food production is called the Neolithic revolution. History and Culture of India Through Ages 13 ● Wheel was discovered. Ragi, wheat and horse gram were cultivated. They knew to make fire. Around 6000 BC, the smelting of metals such as Copper began which was used for raw material to be used in tool production. Later, Tin was mixed with copper and bronze appeared which stronger metal than both tin and copper was. ● Use of bronze for tools led to the invention of wheel which revolutionized transport and pottery production. Art was seen in cave paintings of dance, Evidence of houses, Also show first intentional disposal of the dead. ● Important Sites of Neolithic: Inamgaon, Burzahom (Kasmir), Mehrgarh (Pakistan), Daojali Hading (Tripura/Assam), Hallur (AP), Paiyampalli (AP), Chirand (Bihar). ● In North India, Burzahom site in Kashmir is located in a cave inside Mahadeva hills on famous Kashmir Valley. The other twin sites, Gurfkral & Martand, are close to it. The unique evidence of pit-dwellings with wooden super-structures, coarse grey or black polished pottery frequently with ‘mat-bases’, large number of bone tools in the shape of points, awls, needles, harpoon heads, stone-axes, ring-stones, a type of specialized choppers (pierced, rectangular), knife with razor-like blade, are the characteristics of the Burzahom Period. Burzahom cave site has another interesting point to note — an engraved hunting scene which strongly suggests their hunting economy. ● Most of the Neolithic sites of Central and South India lies in the zone between river Tapti in the north-west and Tungabhadra and lower Krishna Rivers in the south-east. Most of these sites may be declared as Neo-Chalcolithic sites, excepting Brahmagiri and Sanganakallu which are referred to as orthodox Neolithic sites occurring in this part of this sub-continent. ● The significant zones of Eastern India includes Assam, Bengal-Bihar-Orissa cultural sites. In Assam Neolithic sites, a type of small ground cells with rounded contour, shouldered cells, etc which are conspicuously lacking in the ● ● ● ● Neolithic sites of North and Central India are found. These Neolithic findings are associated with the common occurrence of ‘Megalithic monuments’ widely distributed in entire hill areas of Assam. The raw materials for such tools are flat slabs of chert, sand-stone and slate. Brahmaputra valley, Khasi, Garo and Kachar hills are the prominent Neolithic sites of Assam. In some places, tanged axes, grooved hammer-stones could be noticed in addition to above-mentioned tools.The districts of Midnapur, Bankura, Burdwan, Birbhum and Purulia in West Bengal together form a triangular zonal shape which offers significant Neolithic cultural tools. Polished elongated Celts, rectangular polished chisels, black coloured polished pottery, etc have been discovered from these Neolithic sites The Neolithic culture had been established in India at a stage when a far more advanced urban culture exhibiting Chalcolithic features flourished in the extreme north centring round Indus valley. This urban culture as found in Indus valley might have positive influence of Western Asiatic Neolithic cum Chalcolithic mixed cultural thrust. On the other hand, die eastern Neolithic culture shows striking similarities with the Neolithic typologies of China and other sites of South-east Asia. The Western Indian and Malwa forms of Neolithic tradition may better be termed as Neo-Chalcolithic, have had, their origin from a ‘self-evolved’ microlithic base. Thus, it is safer to say that the Neolithic culture developed in different parts of India not from a single source. Philological researches have established a definite link between these Neolithic peoples of India and the primitive tribes that lived in Indo-China, the Malayan Peninsula and the Indian Archipelago. Neolithic Tools ● The tools and implements of the Neolithic Age were very different from those of the preceding ages, i.e., the Palaeolithic and 14 Master Series : Art and Culture ● ● ● ● Mesolithic. The people of this age used stones other than quartzite and the tools and implements they made were far better grooved, ground and polished. For different types of work, they had different types of highly finished tools and these can be very easily distinguished from the rough, crude tools of the Palaeolithic Age. As the name Neolithic denotes, it was the New Stone Age, metals except gold being then unknown. Neolithic people were skilled farmers, manufacturing a range of tools necessary for the tending, harvesting and processing of crops (such as sickle blades and grinding stones) and food production (e.g. pottery, bone implements). They were also skilled manufacturers of a range of other types of stone tools and ornaments, including projectile points, beads, and statuettes. The tools and implements left by the Neolithic people of India have been found all over India. A stone factory of the time has been discovered in the Bellary district of Madras where traces of the various stages of the making of the tools and implements can be still seen. Neolithic Society ● The life and living of the Neolithic men showed a distinct advance from those of the previous ages. Agriculture became known to them, domestication of animals like ox, goat etc., production of fire by friction of bamboos or pieces of wood or flint, making of painted pottery were all known, to them. ● They lived in caves, decorated their frails by painting scenes of hunting, dancing etc. They knew spinning and weaving, as also making of boats. Some tombs of the Neolithic men which have been discovered show that they used to bury their dead in large earthen urn. There were also tombs with stone-slab roof on stone pillars. ● The domestication of large animals (c. 8000 BC) resulted in a dramatic increase in social inequality in most of the areas where it occurred. Possession of livestock allowed competition between households and resulted in inherited inequalities of wealth. Neolithic pastoralists who controlled large herds gradually acquired more livestock, and this made economic inequalities more pronounced. ● Families and households were still largely independent economically, and the household was probably the centre of life. Whether a non-hierarchical system of organization existed is debatable, and there is no evidence that explicitly suggests that Neolithic societies functioned under any dominating class or individual, as was the case in the chiefdoms of the Bronze Age. Neolithic Revolution ● Between 10,000 and 3000 B.C.E., people in several areas around the earth developed new agricultural methods and machines, such as the plough pulled by horses or oxen. During this time, people also began domestication and development of both crops and animals. ● The results of these changes made agricultural production much more productive. Food output increased. More land could be farmed by fewer people or in fewer hours. This resulted in greatly improved production and increased the availability of food. ● Most importantly, the agricultural surplus and techniques also brought about deep social divisions and in particular encouraged inequality between the sexes (male and female). ● The change from hunting/gathering to primitive farming appears so abrupt that this technological change is often characterized as the Neolithic Revolution. The revolution resulted in the discovery of smelting and the creation of bronze tools led to the Bronze Age (name given to Late Neolithic period). ● Agricultural innovation greatly increased food production output and created a surplus beyond what was needed for survival. ● Producing more food freed people’s time from agricultural work. Some people continued to work in agriculture, while others did other forms of work in large numbers (artisans, clerks, and priests etc.) History and Culture of India Through Ages 15 ● People could specialize in work other than agriculture. The amount of non-agricultural goods produced increased. ● With more food and temporarily better nutrition, population increased. Often, a population increased at a faster rate than an area’s resources were capable of sustaining it, and nutrition per person returned to its original level. ● As families and the number of potential workers grew, food production could increase even more. These developments provided the basis for densely populated settlements, specialization and division of labour, trading economies, the development of non-portable art and architecture, centralized administrations and political structures, hierarchical ideologies, depersonalized systems of knowledge (writing), and property ownership. Personal land and private property ownership led to hierarchical society, class struggle and armies. Chalcolithic Period (Copper Age/Bronze Age) ● About 5,000 years ago the man started using bronze along with the stone. Now the man had developed to a great extent. The population was mainly urban including the priests, writers and clerks during this stage. ● Though the tools available suggest that there was over-lapping in use of stone and the metal, the similarity in the shape and types of stone and bronze tools shows simultaneous use of the bronze and stone. Tin mixed with the copper was the major material used. That is why, the period is called Bronze age. ● The specialists were needed to manufacture goods with the metal, like smiths, miners and the smelters. During this period, the discovery of wheel revolutionized the whole system. The transportation was improved which eventually brought about the complexities in life of the man. The commerce was developed. ● The production in all fields was surplus i.e. he could sell it away for luxuries. This gave rise to capitalism. The person with more resources was able to control the power. The status of rich and poor developed and along with this came the exploitation. This age is witnessed in Indus Valley Civilization that spread to long belt along the western India. ● Cultivation & cattle rearing along with established the knowledge of crop rotation (Inamgaon), Knowledge of Irrigation & Harvesting, Excavation reveals structures like Granaries, Embankment & Fortification, Mud houses made of mud in circular & rectangular pattern along with mud chulha. ● Famous Pottery of this age: Black on Red ware. ● Other settlements were: Brahmagiri, Navada Toli (Narmada region), Chirand (Ganga region) and, Mahishadal (West Bengal). Chalcolithic Tools ● The Chalcolithic people used tiny tools and weapons of stone in which the stone-blades and blade-lets occupied an important role. In certain settlements, copper objects are found in good numbers, e.g., at Ahar and Gilund in Rajasthan. ● The Chalcolithic people made tools, weapons and bangles of copper, manufactured beads of semi-precious stones such as carnelian, steatite, and quartz because spindle whorls have been discovered in Malwa. Discovery of cotton, flax and silk threads shows that they knew well the manufacture of cloth. Painted pottery is one of the distinguishing feature of the Chalcolithic period, most prominent being ‘Black and Red ware’. They used both Iota and thali. No plough or hoe has been found at Chalcolithic sites. ● Though copper and bronze came to be used, its usage was limited due to the scarcity of the material and dependence on stone tool equipment did not changed much. The Neolithic trend of using polished stone tools continued in this period also. Copper and its alloys were used in making axes, chisels, knives, fishhooks, pins, rods, etc. Chalcolithic Society ● People domesticated animals and practised agriculture. They seem to have eaten beef 16 Master Series : Art and Culture ● ● ● ● but not pork. Occasionally their houses were made of mud bricks, but mostly they were constructed with wattle and daub, and seem to have been thatched. However, the people in Ahar lived in stone-built houses. Though the Chalcolithic people of Harappa made extensive use of bricks, the Chalcolithic people in the rest of India did not use any such material. The walls were constructed out of mud or mud and wattle. The houses were either circular or rectangular on plan, plastered with cow dung and lime. They had some light roof supported on wooden posts as post-holes were encountered in large number in all the Chalcolithic sites. The Chalcolithic people subsisted on farming and hunting-fishing, reared cattle, sheep, goat, buffalo and pig, which were also slaughtered for food. The principal cereal was barley though wheat was also cultivated. Neither plough nor hoe has been attested to at Chalcolithic sites, but perforated stone discs, which were used as weights for the digging sticks abound. Fish and animal flesh formed an important part of the diet of the Chalcolithic people. Fish bones and fishhooks attest to active fishing. Hunting also was an important occupation for bones of wild animals like wild pig, deer, stage, sambhar, cheetah, etc. were found in the excavations. Cattle, buffalo, goat, sheep, pig and rarely horse were among the domesticated animals. Regional differences in regard to cereals, pottery, etc., appear in this phase. The dead were buried. Terracotta figurines of women suggest that the Chalcolithic people venerated the mother goddess. Probably, the bull was the symbol of a religious cult. Both the settlements and burial practices suggest existence of social inequalities. The rate of infant mortality was very high. Although most Chalcolithic cultures existing in the major part of the country were younger than the Indus Valley civilization, they did not derive any substantial benefit from the advanced technological knowledge of the Indus people. ● The rural life pattern, started in Neolithic period has been perfected in the Chalcolithic period, and this period forms the transition from stone ages to pure metal age. Chalcolithic Cultures ● Chronologically, there are several series of Chalcolithic settlements in India. Some are pre-Harappan, others are contemporaries of the Harappan culture and still others are post-Harappan. Pre-Harappan strata on some sites in the Harappan zone are also called early Harappan to distinguish them from the mature urban Indus civilization. Thus the preHarappan phase at Kalibangan in Rajasthan and Banwali in Haryana is distinctly Chalcolithic. So is the case with Kot Diji in Sind. The Kayatha culture in Madhya Pradesh (20001800 BC) is a contemporary of the Harappan culture. It has some pre-Harappan elements in pottery, but it also shows Harappan influence. Several postHarappan Chalcolithic cultures in these areas are influenced by the post-urban phase of the Harappan culture. ● Several other Chalcolithic cultures, though younger in age than the mature Harappan culture, are not connected with the Indus Civilization. The Malwa culture (17001200BC) found in Navadatoli, Eran and Nagda is considered to be nonHarappan. So is the case with the Jorwe culture (1400-700 BC) which covers the whole of Maharashtra except parts of Vidarbha and Konkan. ● In the southern and eastern parts of India, Chalcolithic settlements existed independently of the Harappan culture. In south India they are found invariably in continuation of the Neolithic settlements. The Chalcolithic settlement of the Vindhyan region, Bihar and Bengal Pre-Harappan Chalcolithic cultures spread farming communities in Sind, Baluchistan, Rajasthan, etc., and created conditions for the rise of the urban civilization. ● In Western India, these cultures disappeared by 1200 BC or so. Only the Jorwe culture continued until 700 BC. However, in several parts of the country the Chalcolithic ‘black History and Culture of India Through Ages 17 and red ware’ continued till the second century BC. ● The eclipse of the Chalcolithic habitation could be attributed to a decline in rainfall from about 1200 BC onwards. In fact, the Chalcolithic people could not continue for long with the digging stick in the black soil area which is difficult to break in the dry season. In the red soil areas, especially in eastern India, however, the chalcolithic phase was immediately followed, without any gap, by the iron phase which gradually transformed the people into full-fledged agriculturists. Similarly, at several sites in southern India Chalcolithic culture was transformed into megalithic culture using iron. ● In South India, the Neolithic phase imperceptibly faded into the Chalcolithic phase, and so these cultures are called Neolithic-Chalcolithic. The Chalcolithic communities founded the first large villages in peninsular India and cultivated far more cereals than is known in the case of the Neolithic communities. The settlements at Kayatha and Eran in Madhya Pradesh and Inamgaon in western Maharashtra were fortified. Iron Age ● The Iron Age was a period found at different points around the world where societies recovered from the collapse of Bronze-Age civilization, developed new tools, and built bigger, more complex civilizations than ever before. This is the era that gave Europe Aristotle, Plato, and Socrates. It’s the time in which China developed Confucianism and Taoism. India, of course, was not to be left out of this. ● India’s Iron Age laid religious, philosophical, social, and political foundations that would go on to influence people across the world. ● India’s Iron Age emerged in an era of transition known as the Vedic period (ca. 1,500-600 BCE). The Vedic period covers both the end of the Bronze Age following the collapse of the Harappan civilization around 1,400 CE and the start of the Iron Age. ● The Harappan civilization of the Indus River Valley had been complex and highly urbanized. The societies of the Vedic period were smaller, most only about the size of a village, recovering from the changes in the regional economy as well as drought, the likely culprit that collapsed India’s BronzeAge stability. ● This was a time of re-organization, but also religious growth. The Vedic period is named for the Vedas, foundational religious texts of Hinduism. The oldest, written in the ancient script of Vedic Sanskrit, was likely created between 1,500 and 1,200 BCE. ● Thriving from about 1,200 to 600 BCE along the Indus and Ganges river valleys, the Painted Grey Ware people started using iron for agricultural tools, domesticate horses, and started re-organizing into more complex social and political units. ● This is the first period in Indian history to show clear evidence of social and political hierarchies, as well as true governments. (a) The upper Ganges valley and its peripheries (b) Malwa plateau and Tapti valley (c) South and Central Indian megalithic areas (d) Baluchistan plains (e) Middle and Lower Ganges valleys (f) North west mainly Peshawar region. 18 Master Series : Art and Culture Art and Culture Master Exercise 2 MCQs for Preliminary Examination 1. Consider the following pairs: Paleolithic Age Site State Which of the following element was used in Bhimbetka Rock Shelters? 1. Bhimbetka : Madhya Pradesh (a) Limestone (b) Quarzite 2. Hunsgi : Karnataka (c) Iron (d) Bronze 3. Daojali Hading : Arunachal Pradesh 4. Chirand : Uttar Pradesh 5. (a) Cow (b) Horse (a) 1 and 2 (c) Dog (b) 2 and 3 (d) None (d) 2 and 4 Polished stones were used in Subjectve type questions for Main Examination 1. Discuss the linkage between climate change and Mesolithic period. 2. Explain the inventions occurred during Neolithic Revolution. 3. What are the major characteristics that differentiate Upper Paleolithic and Late Stone Age cultures from Middle Paleolithic and Middle Stone Age cultures? 4. How did the settlement pattern of the Upper Paleolithic differ from that of the Middle Paleolithic? (a) Paleolithic age (b) Neolithic age (c) Chalcolithic age (d) Mesolithic age 3. The first animal tamed by primitive man was: Which of the above pairs are correctly matched? (c) 3 and 4 2. 4. Who discovered a Paleolithic stone tool in India in 1863? (a) Sir John Lubbock (b) Le Mesurier (c) Robert Bruce (d) None of the above Answers to MCQs 1. (a) 2. (b) 3. (c) 4. (b) 5. (c) Indian Architecture 19 ART AND CULTURE MASTER SERIES UNIT 3 Indian ARCHITECTURE What is Indian Architecture? The architecture of India is rooted in its long and glorious, the history, unique culture, and the multiplicity of religious beliefs. Indian architecture have progressed with time and assimilated many influences that came as a result of India’s global outreach and interaction with almost all other regions of the world. Indian Architecture can be broadly called as ● Indus Civilization ● Cave Architecture ● Temple Architecture ● Indo-Islamic Architecture ● Modern Architecture Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) ● Harappan architecture is the architecture of the Harappans, an ancient people who lived in the Indus Valley from about 3300 BCE to 1300 BCE. ● The IVC were advanced for their time, especially in architecture. Earliest remains were found in: ● ● ● ● ● ● Harappa Mohenjodaro Ropar Kalibangan Lothal Rangpur Fig. 3.1. Excavated ruins of Mohenjo-daro, with the Great Bath in the front Characteristic Feature of Indus Valley Civilization ● Harappa and Mohen-Jo Dero were laid out on a grid pattern and had provisions for an advanced drainage system. ● Roads were wide and at right angles to one another. ● The corbelled arch and baths were constructed with knowledge and skill. ● A typical city would be divided into two sections, each fortified separately. (a) One section was located on an artificially raised mound (sometimes called acropolis) while the other level was on level ground. (b) The acropolis contained the important buildings of the city, like the assembly 20 Master Series : Art and Culture halls, religious structures, granaries and in the great bath in case of Mohenjo-Daro. (c) The lower section of the city was where the housing for the inhabitants was located. ● The large-scale use of burnt bricks in almost all kinds of constructions and the absence of stone buildings are the important characteristics of the Harappan culture. Important Features Why didn’t the IVC Architecture Survive the ravages of time? It was due to the fact that during this time sculpture and architecture was utilising organic and perishable materials such as mud, mudbrick, bamboo, timber, leaves, straw and thatch. Cave Architecture ● The cave architecture in India is believed to have begun in the third century BC. ● These caves were used by Buddhist and Jain monks as places of worship and residence. ● Some examples of this type of cave structure are Chaityas and Viharas of Buddhists. ● These were excavated not only by Buddhists or Jains but also by Hindus. ● These caves house some of the amazing murals, sculptures and architectural structures. ● Some of the famous and prominent caves are at Nashik, Kanheri, Gaya (Barabar Hills), Bhaja, Nagarjunikonda, Badami, Elephanta and Ellora. ● The Great Bath: The most impressive structure excavated at Mohenjo-Daro so far, is the Great Bath. Constructed with kiln-burnt bricks, this Monumental Bath is a pool 12 metres long, 7 metres wide and 2.5 metres deep. Gypsum has been used along with mortar to make the floor and sides of the pool water-tight. The pool is in the centre of a large open quadrangle with rooms and galleries on all sides. A flight of steps at either end connects it the rooms. Probably meant for religious rites, it may have been used by the people for changing their clothes. The pool was fed by a well nearby and the dirty water was drained into the city’s sewage system through a large corbelled drain 1.83 metres high. Ajanta and Ellora Caves ● The Granary at Harappa: The Granary at Harappa is made of burnt brick. Built close to the river Ravi to make transportation easy, it is comprised of two blocks. Each block has six storage rooms 15 metres long and 6 metres wide. The two blocks are separated by a passage. Air-ducts are provided under the wooden floor. The row of triangular openings may have been for ventilation. The granary complex measures 55 metres by 43 metres (a) Ajanta ● The Assembly Hall: The Assembly Hall covers an area of 750 square metres. Four rows of fine brick piers and pillars at the corners suggest that it was used as an assembly hall. ● Dock at Lothal: The sea-port of Lothal on the Gulf of Cambay has an enclosed shipping dock more than 216 metres long and 37 metres wide. It was controlled by a sluice-gate and ships could be loaded at both high and low tides. ● Maharashtra is home to the spectacular and amazing Ajanta and Ellora group of caves. ● The cave at Ajanta and Ellora were cut out of rock, by hand, and rank amongst some of the most outstanding specimens of ancient Indian architectural heritage. ● In all there are 34 caves at Ellora and 29 caves at Ajanta. ● The Ajanta caves depict the story of Buddhism, spanning the period from 200 BC to 650 AD. ● The caves at Ajanta served as secluded retreats to the Buddhist monks. ● Beautiful wall frescos and sculptures speak volumes of the advancement of Indian art in ancient period. ● Some of the caves at Ajanta house panels depicting stories from the Jatakas, stories about several incarnations of the Buddha. ● Other wonderful paintings in Ajanta are the Indian Architecture 21 flying apsara, dying princess and Buddha in preaching mode. (b) Ellora ● The Ellora caves are carved into the sides of a basaltic hill. ● The caves at Ellora contain some of the finest specimens of cave-temple architecture and exquisitely adorned interiors. ● Structures in the Ellora caves represent the three faiths of Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism and were carved during 350 AD to 700 AD. ● The nobility, serenity and grace of Buddha are visible in the Buddhist caves of Ellora. ● Ellora caves also contain images of Vishwakarma, the patron saint of Indian craftsmen. ● The Kailasha temple in Cave 16 is indeed an architectural wonder, the entire structure having been carved out of a monolith. Art and Architecture During the Mauryan Period Mauryan Columns ● The highly polished, tall and well proportioned columns with slightly tapering monolithic shafts, and standing free in space and complete and independent by themselves are admittedly the best representatives of the court art of the Mauryas. (Refer Fig 3.2) ● The columns that bear the edicts of Asoka include those of Delhi-Meerut, Allahabad, Lauriya-Areraj, Lauriya-Nandanqarh, Rampurva and’ Kosam the third category, that of columns bearing dedicatory inscriptions, includes at least two wellknown specimens, those of Rummindei and Nigali Sagar. ● All Mauryan columns, no matter where they are set up, are chiselled out of grey Chunar sandstone and have a lustrous polish due to the application perhaps of silicious varnish on the stone. This uniform place of origin of the material probably suggests that there was at or near Chunar an art-centre established and patronized directly by the Mauryan Court, an assumption supported by the additional fact that all the component parts of the columns including the crowning animal, abacus and the shaft tend increasingly to form one whole so far as form and technique are concerned. ● The component Parts that are easily known are (a) the shaft always plain and smooth, circular in section and slightly tapering upwards, without any base whatsovor, and always and Invariably chiselled out of one piece of stone; (b) the capital having the shape and appearance of a gently arched bell formed of lotus petals, the proportionate ratio of breadth and height being variable from capital to capital, and joined with the shaft by a copper-boll of cylindrical shape bulging in the middle; (c) the abacus, square and plain in the earlier specimens and circular and decorated in the later ones, and of variable proportions; (d) and the crowning animal, seated or standing, always and invariably in the round, and always constituting a single piece with the abacus. ● The total aesthetic effect of Maurya columns has never been surpassed in later Indian art, Mauryan columns occupy a proud position by reason of their very free and significant artistic form in space, the balanced proportion of their constituent elements, the unitary and integrated effect of the whole, the chaste and elegant shaft and capital, and no less by the conscious, proud and dignified attitude of the crowning ornaments. ● The indigenous and original contribution to the creation of this item of Mauryan art is therefore undeniable. Equally undeniable is also the fact that in their lustrous varnish, in their adoption and adaptation of the bell-shaped capital, in the higher plane of conception and driving idea and in the general monumental and dignified quality and appearance they exhibit, the Mauryan columns seem to reveal clearly the debt they owe to Achamenian art, as well as to Hellenistic Art so far as the crowning member of the columns and part of the general effect are concerned. 22 Master Series : Art and Culture Fig. 3.3. Dhauli cave Mauryan Cave Architecture Fig. 3.2. Ashoka Pillar, Vaishali (Bihar) Mauryan Animal Figures ● The Basarh Bakhira lion evidently marks one of the earliest stages; (Refer Fig 3.3) the next definite stage is reached at Dhauli where the elephant which is datable as we know in the twelfth or thirteenth year of Asoka’s reign; to this stage must also be ascribed the elephant of Sankissa. The Rampurva bull marks the next stage in the ascending scaleclosely followed by the Lauriya-Nandangarh lion; while the Rampurva lion leads us to the final stage represented by the quadripartite semi-lions of Sarnath and Sanchi – an unmistakable evidence of clever accumulation that always comes at later stage of the evolution of form. ● From the Lauriya-Nandangarh specimen to the Rampurva lion there is a decided advance in the clear and precise cutting of the stone, in general finish, in the feeling for form and in linear rhythm. there is also an evident advance in modelling which is powerful and vigorous, specially in the muscle and thews. ● Of the architectural remains usually ascribed to the Maurya period very few are artistically Significant. Tradition ascribes a large number of stupas and chaitya-halls to the building activities of Asoka, but none of them exists today in their original form and plan except the excavated chaitya-halls, bearing inscriptions of Asoka and Dasaratha, in the Barbar caves. ● Chronologically the latest and architecturally the best of the series is undoubtedly the Lomasa Rishi (Refer Fig 3.4) which though bearing no inscription may be taken to belong to the Maurya period. In ground plan and general design it is much like the Sudama, and consists similarlv of a rectangular antechamber with barrel vaulted roof entered by the long side through a doorway with sloping jambs. But the most interesting architectural element in the Lomasa Rishi is its facade which is frankly an exact translation of the gable end of a wooden structure in the language of stone. Fig. 3.4. Lomas Rishi Cave Indian Architecture 23 Mauryan Sculpture ● Besides the animal sculptures described and discussed above, quite a considerable number of independent figure sculptures in the round and of various size and proportion and a few fragments of reliefs have been ascribed to the Maurya period mainly on the ground of their having the so- called Mauryan polish on them and their being carved out of grey sandstone from Chunar. ● The two Patna Yakshas almost identical in form and appearance, conception and treatment, dress and ornament, and now in the Indian Museum come first in the list of alleged Mauryan sculptures. ● Artistically the Didarganj Yakshini is the best of the series and can in no way be considered as archaic or primitive. One witness here perhaps an earliest urban, conscious and sophisticated female type and form immortalised in later Indian art and literature. Mauryan Art – Foreign Influence ● There can be no doubt that the impetus came from outside. The very sudden use of stone and that at once for monumental art of large designs and huge proportions, and the quick process of evolution from primitive to conscious, civilised and sophisticated form and appearance, from tribal to imperial outlook that is evident in the total effect of the columns point unmistakably in that direction . ● It has been repeatedly suggested, not without reason, that this extraneous impetus and inspiration came from Iran of the Achaemenid emperors; some have even suggested that Mauryan columns are but Indian adaptations of the Achaemenian prototype. As repeatedly attempts have been made to deny the aliened extent of debt, not again without a certain amount of justice; but few have seriously doubted that West Asiatic art-forms in general and Achaemenian impetus and inspiration directly and in particular were at work at the root. ● The stone columns of the Mauryan Pillared Hall were evidently without capitals whereas the columns of the pillared halls of Perspolis are provided with more or less elaborate capitals. Achaemenian columns stand either on bell-shaped bases or on plain rectangular blocks or on plain circular mouldings while the Independent Mauryan columns have no base at all. The bell form that is used as supporting base in Persian columns serves as capital in Mauryan ones and makes altogether a different aesthetic effect; and moreover in form, shape and appearance the Mauryan bell, which along with the Achaemenian may have originally been derived from stylised lotus design and which may have been a common art-motu in both Indian and Iranian art-heritage, is a long way off from the Achaemenian bell in which a ring of leaves and petals plays an important part in the decoration of the upper end of the motif and which has no bulge whatsoever in the middle that makes the Mauryan bell so gainly and conspicuous. ● Mauryan columns are all plain and circular, but evidently they did not adopt the type from Achaemenian unfluited ones which had for ordinary purposes been discarded by the Achaemenians themselves. A funeral mound at Lauriya-Nandangarh has yielded to the excavator’s spade a plain and circular piece of a column carved out of sala wood; such columns are in our literature known as sthuna, and the primitive animal standards were evidently comprised of such sthuna columns. It is not unlikely that the Mauryan shaft was derived from such wooden originals. ● The assumption derives further support from the fact that Achaemenian shafts are indeed built of separate pieces or segments of stone and evidently present the essential character of the work of a mason, while the Mauryan shaft is one piece which pertains to the character of the work of a wood-carver or carpenter. ● The Achaemenian capitals crowned with a cluster of stylised palm-leaves after the old Egyptian manner, and formed of either of two semi-bulls or unicorns or lions seated back to back, or of an upright or inverted cup, and the whole crowned with projecting double volutes have nothing whatsever in common 24 Master Series : Art and Culture with the Mauryan capitals which consist, as we have seen of simply a bell formed of stylised lotus-petals. The crowning of abacus and the round and independent animal motif of Mauryan columns are also altogether absent from Achaemenian examples. ● The result achieved by this almost thorough transformation is altogether different. The Achaemenian column intended invariably as part of a larger architectural conception is composed of much too may component parts presenting harsh contrasts and looking complex and complicated, while the Mauryan column intended to produce the effect of an independent monument at least in its latest and best specimen is simpler, more harmo- nious in conception and execution, and gives the feeling of greater stability, dignity and strength. ● The indigenous and original contribution to the creation of this item of Mauryan art is therefore undeniable. Equally underiable is also the tact that in their lustrous varnish, in their adoption and adaptation of the bell-shaped capital, in the higher plane of conception and driving idea and in the general monumental and dignified quality and appearance they exhibit, the Mauryan columns seem to reveal clearly the debt they owe to Achaemenian art, as well as to Hellenistic Art so far as the crowning member of the columns and part of the general effect are concerned. Temple Architecture ● In ancient India, temple architecture of high standard developed in almost all regions. ● The distinct architectural style of temple construction in different parts was a result of geographical, climatic, ethnic, racial, historical and linguistic diversities. Basic Forms of Temples in India ● Garbhgriha: A cave-like sanctum (garbhagriha literally ‘womb-house’), which, in the early temples, was a small cubicle with a single entrance and grew into a larger chamber in time. The garbhagriha is made to house the main icon which in itself the focus of much ritual attention. ● Mandapa: The entrance to the temple which may be a portico or colonnaded hall that incorporates space for a large number of worshippers and is known as a mandapa. (a) ● Vimana: From the fifth century CE onwards, freestanding temples tend to have a mountain like spire, which can take the shape of a curving shikhar in North India and a pyramidal tower, called a vimana, in South India. ● Vahan: The mount or vehicle of the temple’s main deity along with a standard pillar or dhvaj is placed axially before the sanctum. (b) Indian Architecture 25 ● While the earliest temples had just one tower, or shikhara, later temples had several. The garbhagriha is always located directly under the tallest tower. Sub-Divisions of Nagara Style (Refer Fig. 3.5) (c) (d) Fig. 3.5. (a) Shikhara in Latina sytle (b) Shikhara in Phamsana style (c) Mandapa in Phamsana design, Shikhara in Latina style (d) Shikhara in Valabhi style Classification of Indian Temple Styles Based on different architectural styles, employed in the construction of the temples, Ancient Indian temples are classified in three broad types: 1. The Nagara or the Northern style 2. The Dravida or the Southern style 3. The Vesara or Mixed style But at the same time there are also some regional styles of Bengal, Kerala and the Himalayan areas. Complexity in Classification: As temples grew more complex, more surfaces were created for sculpture through additive geometry, i.e., by adding more and more rhythmically projecting, symmetrical walls and niches, without breaking away from the fundamental plan of the shrine. Nagara Style of Architecture ● The style of temple architecture that became popular in northern India is known as Nagara. ● It is common for an entire temple to be built on a stone platform with steps leading up to it. ● Unlike in South India it does not usually have elaborate boundary walls or gateways. ● Latina: Also known as the rekha-prasada type of shikara – which is square at the base and whose walls curve or slope inward to a point on top. ● Phamsana: Buildings tend to be broader and shorter than latina ones. Their roofs are composed of several slabs that gently rise to a single point over the centre of the building, unlike the latina ones which look like sharply rising tall towers. Phamsana roofs do not curve inward, instead they slope upwards on a straight incline. ● Valabhi: Rectangular buildings with a roof that rises into a vaulted chamber. The edge of this vaulted chamber is rounded, like the bamboo or wooden wagons. Temple Architecture in of India Various Regions ● Central India ● Western India ● Eastern India ● The Hills (a) Central India ● Ancient temples of Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan share many traits. ● The most visible is that they are made up of sandstone. ● These are relatively modest-looking shrines each having four pillars that support a small mandapa which looks like a simple square porch-like extension before an equally small room that served as the garbhagriha. (b) Western India (Gujarat and Rajasthan) ● Sandstone (most common), Grey to black Basalt, Soft White marble (Jain temples, 11th-12th century) were used. ● Proximity of sacred architecture to a water body such as a tank, a river or a pond. 26 Master Series : Art and Culture ● The influence of the woodcarving tradition of Gujarat is evident in the lavish carving and sculpture work. Decorative Feature of Nagara Style in Vimana ● Amalak horizontal fluted disc ● Kalash a vase on top of amalak ● However, the walls of the central small shrine are devoid of carving and are left plain as the temple faces the east and, every year, at the time of the equinoxes, the sun shines directly into this central shrine. Famous Sun Temples of India Sun Temple at Konark, Orissa The Sun Temple, Modhera, Gujrat Suryanagar Temple, Tamilnadu Suryanarayansway Temple, Arasavalli, Andhra Pradesh 5. Sun Temple, Assam 6. Brahmadeya Sun Temple, Unao, Madhya Pradesh 1. 2. 3. 4. (c) Eastern Style of Temple ● Terracotta was the main construction. (Refer Fig. 3.6) medium of Pala Style ● It includes tall curving shikhara crowned by a large amalaka. ● Local vernacular building traditions of Bengal also influenced the style of temples – Most prominent was the shape of the curving or sloping side of the bamboo roof of a Bengali hut. ● In Odisha the Shikhara (Deul) is vertical almost until the top, when it suddenly curves sharply inwards, preceded, as usual, by mandapas (jagamohana). (d) The Hills ● Hills of Kumaon, Garhwal, Himachal and Kashmir are part of this. ● Gandhara influence is present. ● As a result both Buddhist and Hindu traditions began to intermingle and spread in the hills ● Tradition of wooden buildings with pitched roofs. ● While the main garbhagriha and shikhara are made in rekha-prasada or latina style, the mandapa is of an older form of wooden architecture. ● Sometimes, the temple itself takes on a pagoda shape. Dravidan Style of Architecture ● The shape of the main temple tower known as vimana in Tamil Nadu is like a stepped pyramid that rises up geometrically rather than the curving shikhara of North India. ● In the South Indian temple, the word ‘shikhara’ is used only for the crowning element at the top of the temple which is usually shaped like a small stupika or an octagonal cupola— this is equivalent to the amlak and kalasha of North Indian temples. (Refer Fig. 3.7) ● The front wall has an entrance gateway in its centre, which is known as a gopuram. ● It is common to find a large water reservoir, or a temple tank, enclosed within the complex. Fig. 3.7. The Typical Dravidian Temple Contrast with Nagara Style Fig. 3.6. The Terracota Temple (Curving Roof) ● The North Indian idea of multiple shikharas rising together as a cluster was not popular in South India. Indian Architecture 27 ● Unlike the Nagara temple, the Dravida temple is enclosed within a compound wall. ● With the passage of time, the population and size of the town associated with that temple would have increased, and it would have become necessary to make a new boundary wall around the temple. This would have been taller that the last one, and its Gopurams would have been even loftier. South Indian Temples ● The Gopurams of Meenakshi temple in Madurai is the best example of a temple having loftier Gopurams. (Refer Fig. 3.9) ● Temples thus become the focus of urban architecture. ● During the eighth to twelfth centuries, the role of the temple was not limited to religious matters alone. Temples became rich administrative centres, controlling vast areas of land. ● The plan of the temple and the shape of the vimana were conditioned by the iconographic nature of the consecrated deity. ● The early buildings, it is generally assumed, were rockcut, while the later ones were structural. ● The rock cut temples and Rathas of Mahabalipuram, the magnificent Shiva temple in Thanjavur called as Brihadeeswara Temple are the best examples of Dravidian architecture.(Refer Fig. 3.8) Fig. 3.8. Brihadeeswara Temple, Thanjavuru Fig. 3.9. A Gopuram of Meenakshi Temple in Madurai Vesara Style of Architecture (Deccan Region) ● A hybridised style (of Nagara and Dravida styles) that seems to have become popular after the mid-seventh century. ● The Eastern Chalukyan temples, like the Mahakuta near Badami (Refer Fig. 3.10), and the Swarga Brahma temple at Alampur show a greater assimilation of northern styles from Odisha and Rajasthan. ● The Hoysaleshvara temple at Halebid in Karnataka (built in dark schist stone) is one of the best example of Vesara style temples built by Hoyasalas. They are easily distinguishable from other medieval temples by their highly original star-like ground-plans and a profusion of decorative carvings. Fig. 3.10. Temple of Badami 28 Master Series : Art and Culture Comparison of Ajanta and Mahabalipuram Ajanata Caves Mahabalipuram Temple ● ● ● ● The famous cave site in western India is Ajanta. ● The group of monuments at Mahabalipuram is a collection of 7th- and 8th-century CE religious monuments in It is located in Aurangabad district of Maharashtra. the coastal resort town of Mamallapuram, Tamil Nadu, It has 29 caves, including 4 chaitya caves. India and a UNESCO World Heritage Site. It has the large Chaitya-Vihara and is decorated with ● It is on the Coromandel Coast of the Bay of Bengal, sculpture and paintings (murals). about 60 kilometres (37 mi) south of Chennai. ● Ajanta is the only surviving example of the painting ● The site has 400 ancient monuments and Hindu temples, of the first century BCE and the fifth century BCE. including one of the largest open-air rock reliefs in the ● Some of the vihara caves here are unfinished. world: the Descent of the Ganges or Arjuna's Penance. ● The monuments were built during the Pallava dynasty. Known as the Seven Pagodas in many colonial-era publications, they are also called the Mamallapuram temples or Mahabalipuram temples in contemporary literature. Indo-Islamic Architecture Islam came to India, particularly, with Muslim merchants, traders, holy men and conquerors over a passage of six hundred years. ● Muslims absorbed many features of local cultures and traditions and combined them with their own architectural practices. ● The main elements in the Islamic architecture is the introduction of arches and beams, and it is the arcuate style of construction while the traditional Indian building style is trabeate, using pillars and beams and lintels. ● Keeping in mind religious and secular necessities, architectural building like mosques for daily prayers, the Jama Masjids, tombs, dargahs, minars, hammams, formally laid out gardens, madrasas, sarais or caravansarais, Kos minars, etc., were constructed over a period of time. In spite of the obvious Saracenic, Persian and Turkish influences, Indo-Islamic structures were heavily influenced by prevailing sensibilities of Indian architectural and decorative forms. Categorisation of Indo-Islamic Architecture ● The Imperial Style (Delhi Sultanate) ● The Mughal Style (Delhi, Agra, and Lahore) ● The Provincial Style (Mandu, Gujarat, Bengal, and Jaunpur) ● The Deccani Style (Bijapur, Golconda) Decorative Forms in Indo-Islamic Style ● These forms included designing on plaster through incision or stucco. The designs were either left plain or covered with colours. ● Motifs were also painted on or carved in stone. These motifs included varieties of flowers, both from the sub-continent and places outside, particularly Iran. ● The lotus bud fringe was used to great advantage in the inner curves of the arches. ● Popular colours were blue, turquoise, green and yellow. ● Subsequently the techniques of tessellation (mosaic designs) and pietra dura were made use of for surface decoration. (Refer Fig. 3.13) ● At times lapis lazuli was used in the interior walls or on canopies. ● Other decorations included arabesque, calligraphy and high and low relief carving and a profuse use of jalis. The high relief carving has a three-dimensional look. (Refer Fig. 3.10) Indian Architecture 29 for construction such as quartzite, sandstone, buff, marble, etc. Minars ● Two most striking minars of medieval times are the Qutub Minar in Delhi and the Chand Minar at Daulatabad Fort. ● The everyday use of the minar was for the azaan or call to prayer. ● It’s phenomenal height, however, symbolised the might and power of the ruler. Fig. 3.11. The Intricate Jali Work, Amer Fort, Jaipur Tombs ● Monumental structures over graves of rulers and royalty was a popular feature of medieval India. ● Some well known examples of such tombs are those of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq, Humayun, Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan, Akbar and Itmad uddaula. ● The idea behind the tomb was eternal paradise as a reward for the true believer on the Day of judgement. Fig. 3.12. A Lotus Bud fringe ● This led to the paradisiacal imagery for tomb construction. ● Surely though, such vast expanses of structured and stylised spaces could not have been intended only to signify peace and happiness in the next world but to also showcase the majesty, grandeur and might of the person buried there. Sarais Fig. 3.13. Pietra dura work (with flower motif), Agra Materials Used for Construction in Indo-Islamic Architecture Forms ● The walls in all buildings were extremely thick and were largely constructed of rubble masonary, which was easily available. ● These walls were then cased over with chunam or limestone plaster or dressed stone. ● An amazing range of stones were utilised ● Sarais were largely built on a simple square or rectangular plan and were meant to provide temporary accommodation to Indian and foreign travellers, pilgrims, merchants, traders, etc. ● In effect, sarais were public domains which thronged with people of varied cultural backgrounds. ● This led to cross-cultural interaction, influences and syncretic tendencies in the cultural mores of the times and at the level of the people. 30 Master Series : Art and Culture The following table enlists the Major Monuments of India − Monuments Constructed by Nalanda University Gupta Dynasty The seven Pagodas of Mahabalipuram Narasimhavarman II Jagannatha Temple King Anantavarman Chodaganga Deva (Eastern Ganga Dynasty) Lingaraj Temple Somavamsi Dynasty Khajuraho Group of Monuments Chandela Dynasty Brihadeeswara Temple (also known Raja Raja Chola I as RajaRajeswara Temple) Ajanta Caves Satavahana Dynasty later Mauryan Dynasty Ellora Caves Kalachuri, Chalukya, and Rashtrakuta Dynasties Agra Fort Mughal Emperor Akbar Thousand Pillars Temple (also known Kakatiya Dynasty as Rudreshwara Swamy Temple) Red Fort Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan Taj Mahal Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan Konark Sun Temple Narasimhadeva I (Eastern Ganga Dynasty) Fatehpur Sikri Mughal Emperor Akbar Bibi Ka Maqbara Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb Jama Masjid Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan Mehrangarh Fort Rao Jodha Tajmahal Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan Qutub Minar Qutubuddin Aibak Makkah Masjid Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah Hawa Mahal Maharaja Sawai Pratap Singh Moti Masjid Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan Humayun’s Tomb Akbar and Humayun’s wife Empress Bega Begum Charminar Quli Qutub Shah Elephanta Caves Not exactly known Bara Imambara Asaf-ud-Daula (Nawab of Awadh) Dilwara Temples Vastupal-Tejpal Gateway of India British Government (Designed by George Wittet) India Gate Designed by Edwin Lutyens Jantar Mantar Maharaja Jai Singh Parana Qila (Old Fort) Shershah Suri Golden Temple Fourth Sikh guru, Guru Ram Das Victoria Memorial British Government Thillai Natarajah Temple Made collectively by Pallava, Chola, Pandya, etc. Group of Hampi Monuments Vijayanagara Empire Lotus Temple Architect - Fariborz Sahba Location Rajgir, Nalanda (Bihar) Mahabalipuram (Tamil Nadu) Puri, Odisha Bhubaneswar, Odhisha Chhatarpur, Madhya Pradesh Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu Aurangabad, Maharashtra Aurangabad, Maharashtra Agra, Uttar Pradesh Hanamakonda, Telangana Delhi Agra, Uttar Pradesh Konark, Odisha Agra, UP Aurangabad, Maharashtra Delhi Jodhpur, Rajasthan Agra, Uttar Pradesh Delhi Hyderabad, Telangana Jaipur, Rajasthan Agra, Uttar Pradesh Delhi Hyderabad, Telangana Mumbai (Harbour), Maharashtra Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh Mount Abu, Rajasthan Mumbai City, Maharashtra Delhi Delhi Delhi Amritsar, Punjab Kolkata, West Bengal Chidambaram, Tamil Nadu Hampi, Karnataka Delhi Indian Architecture 31 3.2. Indian Sculpture Deep-rooted Background of Indian Sculpture on them the representation of a human or an animal figure and have on top an inscription in pictographic script which has not been deciphered so far. [Refer Fig. 3.14 (b)] ● The beginning of stone sculpture in India goes back to a very remote age. ● The excavations carried out in 1924, at the ruins of Mohenjodaro on the Indus river and Harappa in the Punjab, brought to light a highly developed Indus Valley urban civilization. ● Trade and cultural contacts existed between these cities and those of Mesopotamia of which the evidence is the occurrence of the seals. ● Clay was the earliest medium in which man began to mould and large number of terracotta figurines have been discovered from the Indus Valley sites. Examples of Early Sculpture in IVC (a) (b) (a) Male Torso: It is of polished red lime stone from Harappa, chiselled in the round, is remarkable for its naturalistic pose and sophisticated modeling, highlighting its physical beauty. (b) Bearded Nobleman: Another noteworthy example from this urban culture is the bust portrait of a bearded nobleman or high priest, from Mohenjodaro, wearing a shawl with trefoil pattern. (c) Dancing Girl: The bronze dancing girl of the same period discovered at Mohenjodaro is perhaps the greatest surviving achievement of the metal work of the Harappan age. This world-famous figure shows a female dancing figure standing as if relaxing after a dance number, with her right hand on her hip and the left dangling free. [Refer Fig. 3.14 (a)] (d) Terracotta Figure: Representing a bull is a forceful representation, eloquently proclaiming the special study of the anatomy of the animal by the modeller who fashioned the figure. The animal is shown standing with his head turned to the right and there is a cord around the neck. [Refer Fig. 3.14 (c)] (e) Harrapan Seals: A large number of seals have been discovered in the excavations. They are made of steatite, terracotta and copper and are of various shapes and sizes. Generally they are rectangular, some are circular and few are cylindrical. Almost invariably they bear (c) Fig. 3.14. (a) The Dancing Girl of Mohenjo Daro (b) Indus valley Seal with Bull, Elephant, and Rhinoceros, 2500–1900 BC (c) Ceremonial vessel, Harappan, 2600-2450 BCE Buddhist Sculptures ● The earliest historical sculpture in India is of the Mauryan age in the 4th-3rd centuries B.C. ● It is a bold and massive style marked by a certain realism freely employing foreign elements from Achaemenid Persia. ● The great Buddhist Emperor Ashoka caused the erection of monolithic pillars of sandstone, 30 to 40 feet high, crowned by animal figures like the bull, lion and elephant, and had them inscribed with the Buddhist concepts of morality, humanity and piety, which he wished his people to follow. ● Famous Ashokan pillars are from Lauriya Nandangarh in Bihar, Sanchi and Sarnath. 32 Master Series : Art and Culture Significance of India’s National Emblem from Ashoka’s Sarnath Pillar The most remarkable feature in stupas is the highly polished monolithic lion-capital found at Sarnath, which is now the Emblem of the Government of India. ● It represents four roaring lions back to back facing the four cardinal directions. ● The round abacus is decorated with four dharmachakras or wheels of law, alternating with an elephant, a bull, a horse and a lion, all carved with masterly skill. ● The abacus is supported by a bell-shaped base consisting of a lotus with dharmachakra, which perhaps symbolized the victory of righteousness over physical force. ● The superb modeling of the figures executed in a realistic manner with a certain stylization, is invested with a great power and dignity, and reveals the aristocratic and international nature of Mauryan art. Buddha Images and Changes Over the Time ● The narrative art of Bharhut depicted stories of Buddha’s previous birth in sculptures. (Refer Fig. 3.15) ● Though it may seem strange, Buddha is never represented in human form in Buddhist art before the Christian era, as his spirituality was considered too abstract for the purpose. ● The adherents of the Buddhist faith followed the Hinayana path as a means of attaining salvation. ● Buddha’s presence in early Indian art is, therefore, suggested by symbols like the Bodhi tree under which he attained enlightenment, the wheel of law, his foot prints, the royal umbrella, the stupa and an empty throne, etc. ● Satavahana Kings of South India excavated cave temples and monasteries along the Western Coast of India and erected several Buddhist stupas. Fig. 3.15. Worship of the Bodhi Tree, Bharhut, Madhya Pradesh Stupa Architecture ● Stupa worship was an ancient form of honouring the great dead. ● Stupas were built not only to enshrine relics of Buddha and Buddhist saints, but also to commemorate events of religious significance. ● It is a solid structural dome raised on a terrace and surmounted by a railed pavilion from which rises the shaft of the crowning umbrella. ● Stupa was originally a mud funerary mound enshrining in its core the sacred relics of the Buddha or his disciples, such as hair, bits of bones, etc. Evolution of Indian Style of Sculpture Making ● After Alexander’s invasion of India in 326 BC, the Indo-Greek, Indo Scythian and Kushan kings ruled over its north-western territories and under their patronage emerged a distinct style of sculpture, popularly known as the Greco-Roman, Buddhist or Gandhara art. ● It was a product of the combination of Hellenistic, West Asiatic and native elements. Greek and Roman techniques, modified according to Indian requirements, were employed in fashioning the Gandhara sculpture which truly represents Indian culture in a Western garb. ● The subject-matter treated is predominantly Buddhist. Its area extended from Takshila in India to the Swat Valley in Pakistan and northwards to areas in Afghanistan. Buddha Became Symbol for Growing Art in Asia ● The first century of the Christian era's revolutionary change, had far-reaching effects, not only on the art of India, but also on the artistic development of Buddhist countries of Asia. ● Buddha who was hitherto designated only by a symbol, was conceived in human form. ● He was given some of the 32 suspicious bodily signs associated with the Mahapurushalakshana, such as the protuberance of the skull, the hair-knot, bindi between the eyebrows and elongated ears. ● This change came about as a result of the new changes that had crept into the religious outlook of Buddhism due to the influence of the Devotional School of Hindu Philosophy, requiring the worship of personal gods. ● It must have exercised profound influence on the religious approach of the masses towards Buddhism. ● The image becomes henceforth the main element of sculpture and worship. Indian Architecture 33 Gandhara and Mathura Art Possibly, the emergence of the image of Buddha in Gandhara and in Mathura was a parallel development. In each case, it was produced by the local artist craftsmen working in the local tradition. Fig. 3.16. (a) Gandhara Art (b) Mathura Art Main Differences Between Mathura and Gandhara School of Arts Features Origin Material Used Image Features Halo Mathura School Gandhara School No foreign Influence, however, later ● Strong Greek influence. Was based it cross fertilized with the Gandhara on Greco-Roman norms encapsulating School. Its development took place foreign techniques and an alien spirit. indigenously. ● It is also known as Graeco-Buddhist School of art. ● Initially inspired by Yaksha Images Assimilating various traits of Acamenian, Parthian and Bactrian traditions into the local tradition is a hallmark of the Gandhara style. ● Initially inspired by Hellenistic features. Spotted Red Sandstone ● Blue-grey Mica schist/Grey Sandstone Early period: Light volume having ● Finer details and realistic images. Buddha carved out in various Mudras. fleshy body. ● Curly hair, anatomical accuracy, Later Period: Flashiness reduced. spatial depth, and foreshortening. Buddha carved out in various Mudras. Not much attention to detailed ● Buddha is sometimes thin. sculpting. Buddha is stout. ● More stress is given to the bodily features and external beauty More stress is given to the inner beauty and facial emotions rather than bodily gesture. The halo around the head of Buddha Not decorated, generally. The images are was profusely decorated. Images are very expressive less expressive. 34 Master Series : Art and Culture Amaravati School of Art ● Flourished in Amaravati, situated in the eastern Deccan, Andhra Pradesh, a different type of art form evolved. ● Patronized first by the Satavahanas and later by the Ikshvakus and also by other groups ● The lotus and the purnakumbha motifs are typical of Amaravati Art expressing auspiciousness and abundance. ● White Marble was used in this art and the themes were Buddha’s life and Jatakas tales. Greenish white limestone was also used. Major Works of Amaravati School of Arts ● Lord Buddha is depicted in the form of ‘Swastika’ mark. This has been carved out on the cushioned seat over a throne that is situated under the Bodhi tree. ● At a later stage the Amaravati School depicted Buddha in the human form for the first time. The sculptures of this school depict Buddha in the superhuman form. ● There are animal sculptures, the Triratna, the coins of that age and other minor antiquities. ● The sculpted figures apparently reflect the features of Satavahana sculptures and architectures. ● The female figures are full of dynamism and life. ● The figures of Amaravati have slim blithe features and are represented in difficult poses and curves. However the scenes are overcrowded, the general effect is not pleasing. ● Other pieces of art from the Amaravati School include the ornate bull or ‘nandiswara’ that was situated in the Amareswara temple; earlier forms of Lord Ganesha, Ganeshani and Lakshmi. Gupta Sculpture ● With the Gupta period India entered upon the classical phase of sculpture. ● By the efforts of the centuries, techniques of art were perfected, definite types were evolved, and ideals of beauty were formulated with precision. ● A thorough intelligent grasp of the true aims ● ● ● ● ● and essential principles of art, a highly developed aesthetic sense and masterly execution by skilled hands produced those remarkable images which were to be the ideal and despair of the Indian artists of subsequent ages. Sculptures were made out of stone, wood, bronze, and terracotta clay. Most of these sculptures were portrayed as Buddhist and Hindu gods. Some portray scenes from important people lives. Many sculptures were made to stand up by themselves. But some were carved into to walls, temples, and caves. Gupta sculptures portrayed deities in human form. These sculptures were very detailed and beautiful. For example this Buddha sculpture has very smooth body and is very detailed. Classic examples of Gupta periods are Red Sandstone image of Buddha from Mathura, Sculptures at Deogarh temples (Sheshashayi Vishnu) and those from the temples of Udaigiri and Ajanta. Medieval School of Sculpture ● Indian sculpture from the 7th century onwards developed two styles: sculpture that flourished in northern and southern India. ● The local schools of Maharashtra and Karnataka also possess considerable individuality and often show both northern and southern features. Sculpture in bronze was also produced in this period. ● Instead of the classical dignity, sobriety and simplicity, the sculpture is now more and more tending towards ornamentation, creating highly ornate art objects, with strange and unusual imaginary creatures, such as half human, half monsters, etc. Medieval Indian Sculpture of North India ● The history of North Indian sculpture from the 7th to the 9th centuries is obscure. There are two trends: one shows the decline and collapse of classical forms and the other depicts the evolution of new styles. Indian Architecture 35 ● A breakdown of the Gupta type of sculpture is indicated from at the 7th century onwards. It changed from harmonious proportion, graceful movement and supple modelling to squat proportions, a halting movement and a hard form. ● A novel elegance, richer decorativeness and a disconnected rhythm characterised the medieval styles of the 10th and 11th centuries. ● The sculptures at Abaneri, the shiva temple at Indore, and the Teli-Ka-Mandir at Gwalior are examples of Medieval North Indian sculptures. Medieval Indian Sculpture of East India ● Sculpture in eastern India represents a distinct idiom. The flatness of planes and angularity of contours are less prominent, the figures have a sense of mass and weight. ● This is clearly seen in sculpture from Konark in Orissa. Medieval Indian Sculpture of South India ● The 7th-century sculptures at Mahabalipuram are a great example of medieval sculpture. ● It is a large relief depicting the penance of Arjuna. The tall, slender figures, with supple tubular limbs recall the proportions of Amaravati. The light, aerial forms gained stability. ● The temples at Tiruvalishvaram, Kodumbalur, Kilaiyur, Shrinivasanalur, Kumbakonam, are examples of this types of sculpture. ● South Indian bronze sculpture occupied a special place has a special place in the history of Indian art. 9th and 10th centuries witnessed lot of bronze sculptures. Most South Indian bronze images represent Hindu Gods. Colonial Sculptures in India European influence in Indian Art ● The European colonists brought the new concept of western sculptural art to India. ● They had a very rich history of European architecture consisting of Neo-classical, Romanesque, Gothic and Renaissance style. ● The initial structures they built were useful warehouses, walled trading posts as well as forted townships along the coastline. ● There is also Danish influence in Indian sculpture, which is clearly visible in Nagapatnam, which was laid out in squares and canals and also in Tranquebar and Srerampore. ● The French brought a distinct urban design to its settlement through the Castesian Grid plans and classical architectural patterns. ● Finally British brought the long lasting impact on Indian architecture through their two hundreds years of ruling. British Architecture Styles ● The British followed different architectural styles among which Gothic, Imperial, Christian, English, Renaissance and Victorian were the most important. ● The British architecture started with building factories but soon they started building courts, schools, municipal halls and Dak Bungalows, which were all ordinary structures built by garrison engineers. ● Many buildings of that time were influenced and copied from famous buildings in London and other places of Britain. ● Unlike Europe, these buildings were made of mostly brick and coated with lime or ‘Chunam’ and sometimes with engraved ‘facades’ that looked like made of stones. However, some later buildings were made up of stones. ● Governor Sir Bartle Frere really tried to give Bombay an imperial look and feel. The Secretariat, University Library, Rajabai Tower, Telegraph Office and the Victoria Terminus all adopted the Victorian Gothic style, similar to buildings in London. ● New Delhi was constructed during the British period, which was considered as ‘The Rome of Hindustan’. Sir Edward Lutyens, employed by British Viceroy was the designer of this city.He was specifically 36 Master Series : Art and Culture directed to “harmonise externally with the traditions of Indian art”. The Rashtrapati Bhawan or the then Viceroy’s House is the great example of this fusion with Chajjas, Jalis and Chhatteis. Indo-Gothic Style It was a blend of Indian, Persian and Gothic Styles of architecture. Features of Indo-Gothic style are as follows: ● The constructions were extremely large and elaborate in their execution. ● The walls were thinner than in the IndoIslamic architecture. ● The arches were pointed unlike the curving arches of Indo-Islamic era. ● One of the unique features of the Victorian style was the use of large widows. ● The churches had a crucified ground plan. ● For example, Victoria Memorial in Kolkata, Gateway of India in Mumbai etc. Neo-Roman Style The architecture of New Delhi was done by Edwin Lutyens and Herbert Baker are examples of NeoRoman style. Some of the features are: ● The constructions were anonymous and without any interesting features. ● It was a confluence of all styles of architecture which made the style congested and cramped the space of artistic expression. ● Simplicity, modernity and utility were highly compromised due to the hybrid nature of the constructions. ● There was a focus on circular buildings. Indian Architecture 37 Art and Culture Master Exercise 3 MCQs for Preliminary Examination 1. Which of the following language is used in the inscription of Sanchi Stupa? 6. (a) Pali (b) Brahmi (c) Sakskrit (d) None of these 2. 3. The Bhimbetka rock shelters are an archaeological site of the Palaeolithic period. It is located in which state? (a) Gujarat (b) Madhya Pradesh (c) Maharashtra (d) Jharkhand Consider the following pairs: School of Art Stone Used 1. Gandhara Blue-grey Mica schist/ Grey Sandstone 2. Mathura White Marble 3. Amaravati Spotted Red Sandstone 7. 8. Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched? 4. (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 only (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 only Ashokan pillars can be found at following places. 1. Nandangarh 2. Sanchi 9. 3. Sarnath Select the correct answer using the code below: 5. (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 (c) 2 and 3 (d) All of the these Yaksha and Yakshini sculptures relates to: (a) Buddhism (b) Hinduism (c) Jainism (d) All of the above Consider the following statements regarding Harappan civilization: 1. All of the cities were divided into two or more parts. 2. In the divided cities usually, the part to the west was larger but at a lower elevation and called as the lower town. 3. In the divided cities usually, the part to the east was smaller but at a higher elevation and called as the citadel. Which of the statement(s) given above is/are incorrect? (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) None of the above At which of the following Harappan sites, terracotta female figures were discovered? (a) Mohenjo-daro (b) Kot Bala (c) Kot Diji (d) Khirasara With reference to Barabar caves, consider the following statements. 1. They were built during the reign of Ashoka. 2. They were dedicated to ajivikas. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 Which of the following is/are features of the Dravida style of temple architecture? 1. Curvilinear shikara 2. Recessed sculptures 3. Gopuram Select the correct answer using the codes given below. (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 38 Master Series : Art and Culture 10. The structures which provided temporary accommodation to travellers are: (a) Tombs (b) Sarais (c) Minars (d) Temples Subjectve type questions for Main Examination 1. 2. 3. Why were so many temples built during the age of Pallavas despite their conflict with the Chalukya kingdom? 4. What are the commonalities and differences between the temples of North India and South India? 5. Indian style of architecture was overshadowed by Islamic style of architecture in the late 12th century. Elucidate. Harappan civilization was the age of “First Urbanization” in our ancient history, with planned cities and buildings. Corroborate your answer with relevant illustrations. What is the difference between Stupa, Chaitya and Vihara? Describe the physical and aesthetic features of Sanchi Stupa. Answers to MCQs 1. 6. (b) 2. (c) 7. (b) 3. (a) 8. (a) (c) 4. 9. (d) 5. (d) (b) 10. (b) Languages and Literature 39 ART AND CULTURE MASTER SERIES UNIT 4 Languages and LITERATURE The Rich Heritage of India The literary base of a civilization tells us about the evolution of each of its languages and culture through the span of centuries. Sanskrit is the mother of many Indian languages. The Vedas, Upanishads, Puranas and Dharmasutras are all written in Sanskrit. There is also a variety of secular and regional literature. By reading about the languages and literature created in the past, we shall be able to understand our civilization better and appreciate the diversity and richness of our culture. Some famous work are: ● ‘Abhijanam Shakuntalam’ and ‘Meghdoot’ by Kalidasa, ● ‘Mricchakatika’ by Shudraka, ● ‘Swapna Vasavadattam’ by Bhasa, ● ‘Ratnavali’ by Sri Harsha. ● Chanakya’s ‘Arthashastra’ , ● Vatsyayana’s ‘Kamasutra’. Vedas ● The Vedas are the earliest known literature in India. ● The Vedas were written in Sanskrit and were handed down orally from one generation to the other. The word ‘Veda’ literally means knowledge. ● To be able to keep such a literary wealth as the Vedas intact, when the art of writing was not there and there was a paucity of writing material, is unprecedented in world history. In Hindu culture, Vedas are considered as eternal and divine revelations. They treat the whole world as one human family ‘Vasudev Kutumbakam’. There are four Vedas, namely, the – Rig Veda, Yajur Veda, Sama Veda and Atharva Veda. Each Veda consists of the Brahmanas, the Upanishads and the Aranyakas. Rig Veda ● The Rig Veda is the earliest of the Vedas. It is a collection of 1028 hymns in Vedic Sanskrit. Many of these are beautiful descriptions of nature. The prayers are largely for seeking worldly prosperity. ● It is believed that these recitations are the natural outpouring of Vedic Rishis experiencing a mentally transcendental stage. ● Some of the well-known Rishis are Vasistha, Gautama, Gritasamada, Vamadeva, Vishvamitra and Atri. ● The prominent gods of the Rig Veda are Indra, Agni, Varun, Rudra, Aditya, Vayu, Aditi and the Ashwini twins. Some of the prominent goddesses are Usha – the goddess of dawn, Vak – the goddess of speech and Prithvi – the goddess of earth. The prayers are for seeking worldly prosperity and for the development of a highly cultured society. Yajur Veda ● Yajur means sacrifice or worship. This Veda is concerned mostly with rites and mantras of different sacrifices. ● It gives directions for the performance of the yajnas. It has both poetic and prose 40 Master Series : Art and Culture renderings. Being a treatise on rituals, it is the most popular of the four Vedas. ● There are two major branches of Yajur Veda, namely Shukla and Krishna Yajur Veda i.e. Vajasaneyi Samhita and Taitriya Samhita. Sama Veda ● Sama means melody or songs. This Veda consists of 16,000 ragas and raginis or musical notes. ● Out of total 1875 verses only 75 are original and others are from the Rig Veda. ● The Sama Veda prescribes the tunes for the recitation of the hymns of the Rig Veda. ● It may be called the book of Chants (Saman). This book is an evidence of the development of Indian music during this period. Atharva Veda ● The Atharva Veda is also known as the Brahma Veda. It contains treatment for ninety-nine diseases. ● The source of this Veda is traced to two rishis called Atharvah and Angiras. The Atharva Veda is of immense value as it represents the religious ideas at an early period of civilisation. It has two branches, the Paippalada and the Saunaka. ● This book gives detailed information about the family, social and political life of later Vedic period. Vedangas ● In order to understand the Vedas, it is necessary to learn the Vedangas or the limbs of the Vedas. ● These supplements of the Vedas provide education (siksha), grammar (vyakarana), ritual (kalpa), etymology (nirukta), metrics (chhanda) and astronomy (Jyotisha). ● A good deal of literature grew around these subjects. It was written in the form of precepts in the sutra style. ● The most famous example of this is Panini’s grammar, Ashtadhyayi, which illustrates the rules of grammar and also throws light on society, economy and culture of those times. Brahmanas and Aranyakas ● After the four Vedas, a number of works called the Brahmanas were developed. ● These books gave a detailed explanation of Vedic rituals and instructions and deal with the science of sacrifice. ● The latter portions of the Brahmanas were called the Aranyakas while the final parts of the Aranyakas are philosophic books named Upanishads which belong to the later stage of the Brahmana literature. ● Each of the four Vedas have their own Brahmana books. ● Rig Veda had Kaushitaki and Aitreya. Taitteriya belongs to Krishna Yajur Veda and Shatpath belongs to Shukla Yajur Veda. ● Tandav, Panchvish and Jaimaniya belongs to Atharva Veda. It is through them that we get a detailed information of the social, political and religious life of the people. Upanishads ● The Upanishads mark the culmination of Indian thought and are the final parts of the Vedas. ● As the Upanishads contain abstract and difficult discussions of ultimate philosophical problems, they were taught to the pupils at the end. ● Vedas start with the worship of the manifest, as that is obvious and then slowly transform to the knowledge of the unmanifest. ● There are more than 200 known Upanishads, one of which, the Muktika, gives a list of 108 Upanishads – this number corresponds to the holy number of beads on a mala or Hindu rosary. Ramayana and the Mahabharata ● The Mahabharata, was written by Ved Vyas. Originally, it was written in Sanskrit and contained 8800 verses and was called “Jaya” or the collection dealing with victory. ● These were raised to 24,000 and came to be known as Bharata, named after one of the earliest Vedic tribes. The final compilation brought the verses to 100,000, which came to be known as the Mahabharata or the Satasahasri Samhita. Languages and Literature 41 ● It contains narrative, descriptive and didactic material, relating to conflict between the Kauravas and the Pandavas. ● The Mahabharata and the Ramayana have several renderings in different Indian languages. ● The Mahabharata contains the famous Bhagavad Gita which contains the essence of divine wisdom and is truly a universal gospel. Though it is a very ancient scripture, its fundamental teachings are in use even today. ● In the Bhagvad Gita, Krishna explains to Arjuna his duties as a warrior and prince and elaborates on different Yogic and Vedantic philosophies with examples and analogies. ● This makes Gita a concise guide to Hindu philosophy and a parochial, self-contained guide to life. ● In modern times Swami Vivekananda, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Mahatma Gandhi and many others used the text to inspire the Indian independence movement. Puranas ● The Puranas occupy a unique position in the sacred literature of the Hindus. They are regarded next in importance only to the Vedas and the Epics. ● There are said to be eighteen Puranas and about the same number of Upapuranas. Some of the well known Puranas are – Brahma, Bhagvat, Padma, Vishnu, Vayu, Agni, Matsya and Garuda. ● Their origin can be traced as far back as the time when Buddhism was gaining importance and was a major opponent of the Brahmanic culture. ● Puranas are mythological works which propagate religious and spiritual messages through parables and fables. ● They are full of myths, stories, legends and sermons that were meant for the education of the common people. ● These Puranas contain important geographical information/histories and deal with the mysteries of creation, re-creation and dynastic genealogies. This period also saw the compilation of various smritis or law books written in verse. The phase of writing commentaries on the smritis begins after the Gupta period. Amarasimha the Sanskrit Lexicographer, states that a Purana should describe five topics; 1. Sarga (Creation) 2. Pratisarga (Secondary creation) 3. Vemsa (Geneology) 4. Manvantara(Manu periods) 5. Vamsanucarita (Dynastic history) Buddhist and Jain Literature in Pali, Prakrit and Sanskrit ● The religious books of the Jains and the Buddhists refer to historical persons or incidents. ● The earliest Buddhist works were written in Pali, which was spoken in Magadha and South Bihar. The Buddhist works can be divided into the canonical and the noncanonical. ● The canonical literature is best represented by the “Tripitakas”, that is, three baskets -Vinaya Pitaka, Sutta Pitaka and Abhidhamma Pitaka. Vinaya Pitaka deals with the rules and regulations of daily life. Sutta Pitaka contains dialogues and discourses on morality and deals with Dharma while Abhidhamma Pitaka deals with philosophy and metaphysics. ● It includes discourses on various subjects such as ethics, psychology, theories of knowledge and mataphysical problems. ● The Jain texts were written in Prakrit and were finally compiled in the sixth century AD in Valabhi in Gujarat. The important works are known as Angas, Upangas, Prakirnas, Chhedab Sutras and Malasutras. ● Among the important Jain scholars, reference may be made to Haribhadra Suri, (eighth century AD) and Hemchandra Suri, (twelfth century AD). ● Jainism helped in the growth of a rich literature comprising poetry, philosophy and grammar. These works contain many passages which help us to reconstruct the political history of eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. ● The Jain texts refer repeatedly to trade and traders. 42 Master Series : Art and Culture Sanskrit Literature ● The Dharmasutras were compiled between 500 and 200 BC. ● These lay down duties for different varnas as well as for the kings and their officials. They prescribed the rules according to which property had to be held, sold and inherited. ● They also prescribe punishments for persons guilty of assault, murder and adultery. The Manusmriti tells us about the role of man and woman in society, their code of conduct and relationship with each other. ● Kautilya’s Arthashastra is an important treatise of the Mauryan times. It reflects the state of society and economy at that time and provides rich material for the study of ancient Indian polity and economy. ● The works of Bhasa, Shudraka, Kalidasa and Banabhatta provide us with glimpses of the social and cultural life of northern and central India in times of the Guptas and Harsha. ● The Gupta period also saw the development of Sanskrit grammar based on the works of Panini and Patanjali. Dravidan Literature Telugu Literature ● The Vijayanagara period was the golden age of Telugu literature. Nachana Somanatha, a court poet of Bukka I, produced a poetical work titled Uttaraharivamsam. ● Krishnadevaraya (1509-1529), the greatest of the Vijayanagara emperors, was a poet of great merit. His work Amukta Malyada is regarded as an excellent prabandha in Telugu literature. ● Eight Telugu literary luminaries, popularly known as ashtadiggajas adorned his court. Among them, Allasani Peddana, the author of Manucharitram, was the greatest. ● He was known as Andhra Kavitapitamaha. The other seven poets of the group were Nandi Timmana, the author of Parijathapaharanam, Madayagari Mallana, Dhurjati, Ayyalaraju Ramabhadra Kavi, Pingali Surana, Ramaraja Bhushana and Tenali Ramakrishna. ● Dhurjati, a devotee of Shiva, composed two poetical works of great merit known as Kalahasteeswara Mahatmayam and Kalahasteeswara Satakam Pingali Surana composed two works Raghavapandaviyam and Kalapuranodayam. ● In the former, he attempted a literary feat telling the story of the Ramayana and the Mahabharata simultaneously. Kannada Literature ● Kannada language has been developed fully after the tenth century AD. ● The earliest known literary work in Kannada is Kavirajamang written by the Rashtrakuta King, Nripatunga Amoghavarsha I. Pampa, known as the father of Kannada wrote his great poetic works Adi Purana and Vïkramarjiva Vijaya in the tenth century AD. ● Pampa lived in the court of Chalukya Arikesari. In his poetic skill, beauty of description, delineation of character and development of rasa, Pampa is unrivalled. Ponna and Ranna were two other poets who lived during the reign of Rashtrakuta Krishna III. ● Ponna wrote an epic named Shanti Purana and Ranna wrote Ajitanatha Purano. Together Pampa, Ponna and Ranna earned the title Ratnatraya (the three gems). Malayalam Literature ● Malayalam is spoken in Kerala and the adjoining areas. The language of Malayalam emerged around the eleventh century AD. ● By fifteenth century Malayalam was recognized as an independent language. ● Bhasa Kautilya, a commentary on Arthashastra and Kokasandisan are two great works. ● Rama Panikkar and Ramanuj an Ezhuthachan are well known authors of Malayalam literature. Though it developed much later compared to other South Indian languages, ● Malayalam has made a mark as a powerful medium of expression. Now a large number of journals, newspapers and magazines are Languages and Literature 43 published in Malayalam. When people read and write in their own language, they enjoy it more. ● It is so well inter-woven in their social life that they can express and feel their emotions as well in their own language. This, must also be the case with you and your language also. Sangam Literature ● The Sangama literature was produced in the early four centuries of the Christian era, although it was finally compiled by 600 AD. Poets who were these assemblies were patronised by kings and chieftains produced the Sangama literature over a period of three to four centuries. ● Poets, bards and writers, authors came from various parts of South India to Madurai. Such assemblies were called “Sangamas”, and the literature produced in these assemblies was called “Sangama literature”. ● The contributions of Tamil saints like Thiruvalluvar who wrote ‘Kural’ which has been translated into many langauges are noteworthy. ● The Sangama literature is a collection of long and short poems composed by various poets in praise of numerous heroes and heroines. They are secular in nature and of a very high quality. Three such sangams were held. ● The poems collected in the first sangam have been lost. In the second Sangam about 2000 poems have been collected. ● There are about 30,000 lines of poetry, which are arranged in eight anthologies called Ettuttokoi. ● There are two main groups – the Patinenkil Kanakku (the eighteen lower collections) and Pattupattu (the ten songs). The former is generally assumed to be older than the latter, and considered to be of more historical importance. Thiruvallurar’s work ‘Kural’ is divided into three parts. The first part deals with the epics, the second part with polity and government and the third part with love. Besides the Sangama texts, we have a text called Tolkkappiyam, which deals with grammar and poetry. In addition, we have the twin epics of Silappadikaram and Manimekalai. These two were composed around the sixth century AD. The first is considered as the brightest gem of Tamil literature and deals with a love story. The second epic was written by a grain merchant of Madurai. These epics throw light on the socio-economic life of Tamils from second century to sixth century AD. Hindi Literature ● The rise of the Bhakti movement and the use of regional langages by the various saints helped in their growth and development of Hindi. ● Prithviraj Raso is supposed to be the first book in the Hindi language. It is an account of exploits of Prithviraj Chauhan. In its imitation several other rasos were written. ● The language went on changing as the area where it was used expanded. New words to express new situations were either coined or taken from areas coming under its influence. Hindi literature looked to Sanskrit classics for guidance and Bharata’s Natyashastra was kept in mind by Hindi writers. ● Though it is said that Tulsidas wrote Ramcharit Manas based on Valmiki’s Ramayana, he also alters situations and adds quite a few new scenes and situations based on folklore. For example, Sita’s exile is mentioned in Valmiki’s version but it is not mentioned in Tulsidas’s account. Tuisidas has deified his hero while the hero of Valmiki is a human being. ● Hindi evolved during the Apabhramsa stage between the 7th and 8th centuries AD and the 14th C. It was characterized as Veergatha Kala i.e. the age of heroic poetry or the Adi Kala (early period). It was patronised by the Rajput rulers as it glorified chiralry and poetry. The most famous figures from this period were Kabir and Tulsidas. In modern times, the ‘Khadi dialect’ became more prominent and a variety of literature was produced in Sanskrit. ● Similarly, Surdas wrote his Sur Sagar in which he talks of Krishna as an infant, a young lad indulging in pranks and a young 44 Master Series : Art and Culture man engaged in dalliance with the gopis. These poets made a deep impression on the minds of the listeners. ● They inspired Mirabai, who sang in Rajasthani language, and Raskhan, who, though a Muslim, sang in praise of Krishna. Nandadasa was an important Bhakti poet. Rahim and Bhushan were a class apart. Their subject was not devotion, but spiritual. Bihari wrote his Satsai in the seventeenth century; it gives us a glimpse of shringar (love) and other rasas. ● Bankim Chandra Chatterji (l838-94) wrote novels originally in Bangla. They came to be translated into Hindi and became very popular. Vande Mataram, our national song, is an excerpt from his novel, Anand Math. Swami Dayanand’s contribution to Hindi cannot be ignored. ● Satyartha Prakash was his most important work in Hindi. Among other names who have enriched Hindi literature, is that of Munshi Prem Chand, who switched over from Urdu to Hindi. Surya Kant Tripathi, ‘Nirala’, achieves recognition because he questioned the orthodoxies in society. Mahadevi Verma is the first woman writer in Hindi to highlight issues related to women. Bengali Literature ● In this regard, a very important landmark was achieved by William Carey, who wrote a grammar of Bengali and published an English-Bengali dictionary and also wrote books on dialogues and stories. ● It may be noted that the grammar and dictionaries are important in the development of a literature. They guide the writers as to the correctness of a sentence and also help them in finding suitable words for a particular situation and idea. ● Although the aim of the press run by the missionaries was mainly to propagate Christian faith but other presses run by local people helped in the flourishing of non-Christian literature. ● In 1854 came Sir Charles Wood’s Despatch and in 1857 the three universities of Calcutta, Madras and Bombay were established. Besides textbooks for schools and colleges, other literature were also produced. ● Raja Ram Mohan Roy who wrote in Bengali besides English that gave impetus to Bengali literature. Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar (182091) and Akshay Kumar Dutta (1820-86) were two other writers of this early period. In addition to these, Bankim Chandra Chatterji (l834-94), Sharat Chandra Chatterji (l8761938), and RC Dutta, a noted historian and a prose writer, all contributed to the making of Bengali literature. Assamese ● Like Bengali, Assamese also developed in response to the Bhakti movement. ● Shankardeva who introduced Vaishnavism in Assam helped in the growth of Assamese poetry. Punjabi and Rajasthani Literature ● Punjabi is a language with several shades. It is being written in two scripts, Gurmukhi and Persian. ● The Gurmukhi script till the end of the nineteenth century was almost limited to the Adi Granth, the holy book of the Sikhs. ● However, the language did not lack literature. Guru Nanak was the first poet in Punjabi. Some other contemporary poets, mostly Sufi saints, used to sing in this language. These Sufis or their followers used the Persian script if they wanted to commit their poetry to writing. In this list, the first name is that of Farid. ● The Adi Granth also contains poetry of the next four gurus. All this literature belongs to the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. Amongst the later gurus, the poetry of the ninth guru, Guru Tegh Bahadur has also contributed to the Adi Granth. ● Guru Gobind Singh, the tenth guru, was educated in Patna (Bihar), where he learnt Languages and Literature 45 Persian and Sanskrit. He has composed two savaiyyas in Punjabi but these are not a part of the Adi Granth. Marathi Literature ● Marathi grew out of these these local dialects. The Portuguese missionaries started using Marathi for preaching their gospel. ● The earliest Marathi poetry and prose is by Saint Jnaneshwar (Gyaneshwar) who lived in thirteenth century. ● He wrote a long commentary on the Bhagavad Gita. He was the one who started the kirtan tradition in Maharashtra. He was followed by Namdev (1270-1350), Gora, Sena and Janabai. All these sang and popularised the Marathi language. ● Tukarama (1598-1650) is supposed to be the greatest Bhakti poet of them all. ● Ramdas (1608-81), who was the guru of Shivaji, is the last of these hymn writers. ● He was the devotee of Rama. He inspired Shivaji. The closing years of the nineteenth century saw an upsurge in the Marathi literature. It was a nationalist movement that made Marathi prose popular and prominent. ● Bal Gangadhar Tilak (l 857-1920) started his Journal Kesari in Marathi. This helped the growth of Marathi literature. But the role of Keshav Sut and VS Chiplunkar was no less. Hari Narayan Apte and Agarkar wrote novels which became very popular. ● All these prose writers made great contribution to the development of Marathi literature. The name of HG Salgaokar is remembered for writing inspirational poetry. ● Besides, the names of MG Ranade, KT Telang, GT Madholkar (poet and novelist) are no less important. Sindhi Literature ● Sindh was one of the important centres of Sufis, who established khanqahs at various places. ● The Sufi singers with their devotional music made the language popular. ● The credit for creating literature in Sindhi goes to Mirza Kalish Beg and Dewan Kauramal. Gujarati Literature ● Bhakti songs of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries deals with early Gujarati literature . ● Narsi Mehta’s name is the foremost in this respect. The people of Gujarat wove these devotional songs in their folk dances and their religious forms often find expressions in their celebrations. ● Narmad’s poetry gave a fillip to the Gujarati literature. Saraswati Chandra, a novel by Govardhan Ram, has become a classic and has given great impetus to other writers. But probably a name that cannot be forgotten is that of Dr KM Munshi. ● He was a novelist, an essayist and a historian, and has left a plethora of historical novels. In these books he exhibits his ability to mix fact with fiction. Prithvi Vallabha is one of his finest novels. Tribal Literature ● India is rich with a diversity of religions, arts, customs, races, traditions, and languages. While the government of India recognizes twenty-two official languages, there are over 880 languages spoken in the country. ● Until recently, the tribal literature created in non-mainstream languages has not been very recognized or available for an Indian or global audience. One of the primary reasons for this is that tribal discourse, including folktales and songs, is mainly oral in nature. In addition, the communities who produce it tend to be far from developed metropolitan cities, and so their creative works have been largely overlooked. ● However, the Indian government and prominent personalities, including social activists and politicians, have stepped forward to encourage the conservation and translation of these unheard voices and to share their literary gems with the world. Sahitya Akademi, India’s National Academy 46 Master Series : Art and Culture of Letters, has developed the Project of Indian Literature in Tribal Languages and Oral Traditions to preserve and educate people about this literature. ● Tribal languages such as Kukna, Bhili, Gondi, Mizo, Garo, Santhali, Kinnauri, Garhwali, Dehwali, Warli, Pawri and so on, possess hundreds of literature in their own sweet orla form. ● Tribals in India have indeed taken to writing now-a-days. Many tribal languages now possess their own scripts or have taken recourse to the state scripts. Approximately four decades ago, when Dalit literature started pulling the nation’s attention, tribal writers also came into the limelight. In Marathi, for example, Atmaram Rathod, Laxman Mane, Laxman Gaikwad, each belonging from nomadic tribal communities, were hailed as Dalit writers. During that time, the northeast was yet to flower its magic in tribal literature to the rest of India. During the last 20 years that the various tribal voices and literary works have started making their presence felt. Thus, Kochereti from Kerala and Alma Kabutri from the north stormed the readers almost the same time when L. Khiangte’s anthology of Mizo Literature and Govind Chatak’s anthology of Garhwali literature appeared in English and Hindi translation. ● The last two decades have established that Indian tribal literature is no longer only the folk songs and folk tales. It now embraces other complex genres, like the novel and drama. Daxin Bajarange’s Budhan Theatre in Ahmedabad has been giving rise to gorgeously refreshing plays, modern in form and contemporary in content. Little magazines such as Chattisgarhi Lokakshar and Dhol have started coming out, providing space for tribal poets and writers. Literary conferences regularly provide a platform for tribal writers. Conferences are being frequently held at Ranchi in Jharkhand and Dandi in Gujarat. In January 2008, a global conference under the title ‘Chotro’, dedicated to tribal literature and culture, was held at Indira Gandhi National Centre for Arts at Delhi. ● At present there exists a successful understanding among tribal activists all over the country that tribal uniqueness and culture cannot be upheld unless tribal languages and literature are played up. Languages and Literature 47 4 Art and Culture Master Exercise MCQs for Preliminary Examination 1. Which of the following literary works were composed during the Gupta’s period? 1. Kathasaritsagar by Somdev (c) Shankracharya (d) Rishi Agasta 5. 2. Vikramanyadevcharita by Bilhana 3. Gita Govinda by Jayadev Select the correct answer using the codes given below. (a) Tolkāppiyam (a) 1 and 2 only (c) Patinenkīlkanakku (b) 1 and 3 only (d) None of the above (c) 2 only (d) None 2. Who is chief deity under Rig veda ? (b) Patinenmēlkanakku Subjectve type questions for Main Examination (a) Indra 1. Briefly give details about the Vedas. (b) Varun 2. Vernacular newspapers were more of a viewspaper than newspaper. Examine. 3. How did various regional forms of literature developed in the course of time and what was their significance on the society? 4. What is Sangam literature? How did it evolve and contribute to development of our ancient literature? (c) Agni (d) Vayu 3. Which of the following Indian literature is the earliest known works? (a) Puranas (b) Rig Vedas (c) Sama Vedas (d) Rajtrangini 4. Which of the following is related to Tamil Grammar, that is said to be the earliest extant work of Tamil Literature? Who among the following wrote the Kural, which deals with many aspects of life and religion? (a) Thiruvalluvar (b) Ayaikar Answers to MCQs 1. (d) 2. (a) 3. (b) 4. (a) 5. (a) 48 Master Series : Art and Culture ART AND CULTURE MASTER SERIES UNIT 5 Religions and Schools of PHILOSOPHY IN INDIA 5.1 Religions in India What does Religion Signify? Religion is the science of soul. Morality and ethics have their foundation on religion. Religion has played an important part in the lives of the Indians from the earliest times. It assumed numerous forms in relation to different groups of people associated with them. Religious ideas, thoughts and practices differed among these groups, and transformations and developments took place in the various religious forms in course of time. Religion in India was never static in character but was driven by an inherent dynamic strength. Religion in India is characterized by a diversity of religious beliefs & practices. Secularism in India means treatment of all religions equally by the state. India is a Secular State by the 42nd amendment act of Constitution in 1976. The Indian subcontinent is the birthplace of four of the world’s major religions; namely Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism. Hinduism ● Hinduism is an Indian religion and dharma, or a way of life, widely practised in South Asia. ● Hinduism has been called the oldest religion in the world, and some practitioners and scholars refer to it as Sanātana Dharma, “the eternal tradition”, or the “eternal way”, beyond human history. ● Scholars regard Hinduism as a fusion. This “Hindu synthesis” started to develop between 500 BCE and 300 CE, following the Vedic period (1500 BCE to 500 BCE). ● Although Hinduism contains a broad range of philosophies, it is linked by shared concepts, recognisable rituals, cosmology, shared textual resources, and pilgrimage to sacred sites. Hindu texts are classified into Śruti (“heard”) and Smriti (“remembered”). ● These texts discuss theology, philosophy, mythology, Vedic yajna, Yoga, agamic rituals, and temple building, among other topics. Major scriptures include the Vedas and Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita, and the Agamas. Buddhism Buddhism began in India 2,500 years ago and remains the dominant world religion in the East. There are over 360 million followers of Buddhism worldwide and over a million American Buddhists today. Buddhist concepts have also been influential on western culture in general, particularly in the areas of meditation and non-violence. Life of Gautama Buddha (567–487 BC) ● Gautama or Siddhartha, the founder of Buddhism, was born in 567 B.C. in Lumbini Garden near Kapilavastu. His father was Suddodhana of the Sakya clan and mother Mayadevi. (Refer Fig. 5.1 ) ● As his mother died at child birth, he was brought up by his aunt Prajapati Gautami. At the age of sixteen he married Yasodhara and gave birth to a son, Rahula. ● The sight of an old man, a diseased man, a corpse and an ascetic turned him away from worldly life. Religions and Schools of Philosophy In India 49 ● He left home at the age of twenty nine in search of Truth. He wandered for seven years and met several teachers but could not get enlightenment. At last, he sat under a bodhi tree at Bodh Gaya and did intense penance, after which he got Enlightenment (Nirvana) at the age of thirty five. Since then he became known as the Buddha or ‘the Enlightened One’. He delivered his first sermon at Sarnath near Benares and for the next forty five years he led the life of a preacher. He died at the age of eighty at Kusinagara. ● The most important disciples of Buddha were Sariputta, Moggallanna, Ananda, Kassapa and Upali. Kings like Prasenajit of Kosala and Bimbisara and Ajatasatru of Magadha accepted his doctrines and became his disciples. 4. The Path for Ending Suffering: This path is called the eightfold path. It emphasizes on a middle path between worldly pleasure and painful asceticism. Divisions – Hinayana, Mahayana and Theravada There are conflicting view about the divisions/ sects in Buddhism. This is because each division along with their different schools of thought promote their own sect as actual Buddhism. Nevertheless, few precise differences can be ascertained – After Buddha’s demise (Mahaparinirman), the Buddhist order split into two groups. 1. Hinayana (Lesser Vehicle): They interpreted Buddha’s teaching literally and strictly, emphasizing on strict personal meditation and the monastic path to Enlightenment. 2. Mahayana (Greater Vehicle): They interpreted Buddha’s teaching logically and liberally trying to understand the true meaning of Buddha’s teachings. Bodhisattva Fig. 5.1. Gautama Buddha The Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path (Middle Path) 1. The Truth of Suffering: No matter how much we struggle, we are unable to find the ultimate happiness or satisfaction. Suffering is the common bond we share. Therefore suffering is the real truth of our existence. A Bodhisattva is an ordinary person who takes up a course in his or her life that moves in the direction of Buddha. The Mahayana has conceived them as having renounced the ultimate state out of pure compassion towards all beings, and can therefore refers to anyone en route. In non-Mahayana Buddhism, it usually refers either to Maitreya, the Buddha of the Future, or to the historical Buddha Gautama prior to his enlightenment. The four major events 1. The Great Renunciation (Mahabhinishkramana): Buddha leaving his home, family and kingdom in search of truth. This is symbolised by a horse. 2. Enlightenment (Nirvana): Buddha attaining 2. Desire: The truth about the cause of suffering enlightenment under the tree in Bodh Gaya. This is symbolised by a bodhi tree. – Cravings, desires and ignorance about reality are the cause of suffering. 3. Dhammachakraparivartan: This was 3. The Truth about end of Suffering: If desire is eliminated, then only the suffering would stop. This stage when all desires are burned is called “nirvana” in Buddhism. Buddha giving his first sermon in Deer Park close to Varanasi. This is symbolised by a wheel. 4. Mahaparinirvana: Buddha’s death. This is symbolised by a stupa. Essentially, stupa is a mound. 50 Master Series : Art and Culture Buddhist Literary Texts – Tripitakas Tripitakas ( three baskets ) comprises the three main categories of texts that make up the Buddhist canon. 1. Vinaya-pitaka: Contains the rules of communal life for monks and nuns. 2. Sutta-pitaka: Collection of sermons of the Buddha. 3. Abhidhamma-pitaka: Contains interpretations and analyses of Buddhist concept Sarvastivada ● The Sarvāstivāda were an early school of Buddhism that held to the existence of all dharmas in the past, present and future, the “three times”. ● The Sarvāstivādins were one of the most influential Buddhist monastic groups, flourishing throughout Northwest India, Northern India, and Central Asia. ● Sarvāstivāda is a Sanskrit term that can be glossed as: “the theory of all exists”. The Sarvāstivāda argued that all dharmas exist in the past, present and future, the “three times”. Vasubandhu's Abhidharmakośabhāsya states, “He who affirms the existence of the dharmas of the three time periods [past, present and future] is held to be a Sarvāstivādin. ● The Sarvāstivāda was also known by other names, particularly hetuvada and yuktivada. ● Hetuvada comes from hetu – ‘cause’, which indicates their emphasis on causation and conditionality. ● Yuktivada comes from yukti – ‘reason’ or even 'logic', which shows their use of rational argument and syllogism. ● The Sarvastivada school is also known as the Vaibhashika because of the c. 2ndcentury-CE commentary Mahavibhasha (“Great Elucidation”). This text itself was commented upon by the important 4th- or 5th-century Buddhist thinker Vasubandhu in his Abhidharmakosha, prior to his conversion to the Mahayana tradition of Buddhism. Buddhist Schools ● The Sammitīya were one of the eighteen or twenty early Buddhist schools in India, and were an offshoot of the Vātsīputrīya sect. Like its predecessor, it claims the person as a carrier of skandhas endures, and as such was a representative (perhaps the most prominent one) of the Pudgalavāda schools. ● The Sautrāntika were an early Buddhist school generally believed to be descended from the Sthavira nikāya by way of their immediate parent school, the Sarvāstivādins. Their name means literally “those who rely upon the sutras”, and indicated their rejection of the Abhidharma texts of other early Buddhist schools. Jainism Life of Vardhamana Mahavira (539– 467 BC) Vardhamana Mahavira was the 24th Tirthankara of the Jain tradition. He was born at Kundagrama near Vaisali to Kshatriya parents Siddhartha and Trisala. He married Yasoda and gave birth to a daughter. At the age of thirty he became an ascetic and wandered for twelve years. In the 13th year of his penance, he attained the highest spiritual knowledge called Kevala Gnana. Thereafter, he was called Mahavira and Jina. His followers were called Jains and his religion Jainism. He preached his doctrines for 30 years and died at the age of 72 at Pava near Rajagriha. (Refer Fig. 5.2) Teachings of Mahavira The three principles of Jainism, also known as Triratnas (three gems), are ● Right faith ● Right knowledge ● Right conduct. Right faith is the belief in the teachings and wisdom of Mahavira. Right Knowledge is the acceptance of the theory that there is no God and that the world has been existing without a creator and that all objects possess a soul. Religions and Schools of Philosophy In India 51 ● The first Jain Council was convened at Pataliputra by Sthulabahu, the leader of the Digambaras, in the beginning of the 3rd century BC. In this council 12 Angas were compiled. The second Jain Council was held at Valabhi in 5th century AD. In this council final compilation of the 12 Angas and 12 Upangas took place. Jain Sects Jains are divided into two major sects; the Digambara (meaning sky clad) sect and the Svetambara (meaning white clad) sect. Digambara Fig. 5.2. Lord Mahavira Right conduct refers to the observance of the five great vows ● Not to injure life ● Not to lie ● Not to steal ● Not to acquire property ● Not to lead immoral life. Spread of Jainism ● Mahavira organised the Sangha to spread his teachings. He admitted both men and women in the Sangha, which consisted of both monks and lay followers. The rapid spread of Jainism was due to the dedicated work of the members of the Sangha. ● It spread rapidly in Western India and Karnataka. Chandragupta Maurya, Kharavela of Kalinga and the royal dynasties of south India such as the Gangas, the Kadambas, the Chalukyas and the Rashtrakutas patronized Jainism. ● By the end of the fourth century B.C., there was a serious famine in the Ganges valley. Many Jain monks led by Bhadrabagu and Chandragupta Maurya came to Sravana Belgola in Karnataka. ● Those who stayed back in north India were led by a monk named Sthulabahu who changed the code of conduct for the monks. ● This led to the division of Jainism into two sects Svetambaras (whiteclad) and Digambaras (Sky-clad or Naked). Svetambara They believes that They believe that anybody women cannot can achieve salvation, be it achieve nirvana or a householder or a monk. liberation directly. They first have to reborn as a man for this. They believes that practice They believes that in of nudity is not essential to order to achieve nirattain liberation. vana or liberation, one must renounce everything including clothes. The monks are not Svetambara monks can have allowed to have any a few possessions simple kind of possessions. white clothing, a begging bowl, a brush to remove insects from their path and books and writing materials Digambara idols are Svetambara idols of Tirtnaked, undecorated with hankars are decorated with downcast eyes. jewels, wearing loincloth with prominent staring eyes. Christianity ● Two major divisions – the Roman Catholic Church and the Protestant church. ● According to tradition, Christianity was brought to India by Saint Thomas in the 100 A.D. to legends, the Parthian king Gondophernes sent a messenger to Syria to look for a skilful architect who would build for him a new city, who returned with St. Thomas, who converted him and many members of his court to Christianity. ● The truth of the legend is doubtful. It was most probably the frequent trade and 52 Master Series : Art and Culture movement between India and the west which was responsible for bringing this disciple of Lord Christ to India. ● Tomas preached Christianity in many parts of India & was killed at Mylapore, near Madras. The tomb of St. Thomas is still to be found at the same place. ● A large community of Christians known as Syrian Christians continues to reside in Kerala even today. Sikhism ● Started by Guru Nanak, and was preached by subsequent Gurus till tenth Guru, Guru Gobind Singh, with basic beliefs as: ♦ Formless God ♦ Equality of all mankind ♦ Need of a Guru ♦ Pahul tradition ● Music has always been an important feature of Sikhism as they believe that through music one can attain ecstacy or samadhi. ● The fifth guru, Guru Arjun Dev, gave the Sikhs three things viz. (a) Adi Granth, which contains the sayings of five gurus and other allied saints. (b) Standardized script for Gurmukhi in which the Adi Granth was first written. (c) Site and the foundation of the Har Mandir sahib/Golden Temple and the Akal Takht at Amritsar, the highest seat from where the dictats for the entire Sikh community are issued. ● The tenth guru, Guru Gobind Singh created the Khalsa, which means “the pure”, in 1699. ● He also ordained the Sikhs to take five vows, namely, keeping of kesh (long hair and a beard), kangha (comb), kada (a metallic bangle), kirpan (a sword) and kaccha (an underwear extending to a little above the knees). Consequently, these symbols became the distinguishing marks of a Sikh. ● He further added that after his death the Adi Granth will be the guru of the Sikhs and they have to pay obeisance to this holy book. Facts about other Sikh Gurus a) Guru Angad Dev (1504-1552) ● Compiled the biography of Guru Nanak Dev, known as the Janam Sakhi. ● Introduced Gurmukhi script and encouraged people to learn Punjabi. b) Guru Amar Das (1479-1574) ● Guru Amar Das further institutionalized the free communal kitchen called langar among the Sikhs. ● Guru Amar Das not only preached the equality of people but also tried to foster the idea of women’s equality. c) Guru Ram Das (1534-1581) ● Founded the city of Amritsar in 1574. ● Spread Sikhism in North India. ● Guru Ram Das stressed the importance of kirtan (hymn singing), which remains an important part of Sikh worship. d) Guru Arjan Dev (1563-1606) ● Compiled the Guru Granth Sahib in 1604. ● Started the practice of daswandh (tithe) - contributing one tenth of one›s earnings for community purposes. ● Author of Sukhmani Sahib bani - the Prayer for Peace. ● Guru Arjan Dev was imprisoned and martyred in 1606 by Emperor Jahangir. e) Guru Hargobind (1595-1644) ● Transformed the Sikhs by introducing martial arts and weapons for the defense of the masses. ● Built the Akal Takht in 1608 at Amritsar in Punjab. f) Guru Harkrishan (1656-1664) ● Became Guru at the age of five. ● Gurdwara Bangla Sahib in New Delhi was constructed in the Guru’s memory. g) Guru Tegh Bahadur (1621-1675) ● Build the city of Anandpur Sahib. ● Sacrificed his life upholding the “right to freedom of religion”. ● Guru Tegh Bahadur was martyred by Emperor Aurangzeb. Zoroastrianism ● Founded by Zarathushtra or Zoroaster, in 8th century BC. He preached monotheism in the region now known as Persia. Religions and Schools of Philosophy In India 53 ● He taught the worship of fire + the presence of good and bad in the form of Ahura Mazda (the Supreme Being represented as a deity of goodness and light) and Ahura Man. ● Zoroastrian religion spread over the whole of Persia and remained the dominant religion till the 8th century AD when Muslims conquered this region. ● Most of the Parsis migrated to different parts of the world. They also came to India and settled at Navsari in Gujarat, and later on spread to almost all the parts of India. ● Zoroastrianism is not a proselytizing religion and no new entrants are accepted into its fold under any circumstances. ● ● ● ● Islam ● According to the Muslim belief, Quran is the message of Allah revealed to Mohammad through his archangel Gabriel. ● Prophet Mohammad’s sayings are preserved in what is called the Hadith or Hadees. The five fundamental principles of Islam are 1. Tauhid (belief in Allah) 2. Namaz (prayers, five times a day) 3. Roza (fasting in the month of Ramzan) 4. Zakat (giving of alms) 5. Haj (pilgrimage to Mecca) Judaism ● Indian Jews are a religious minority of India. Judaism was one of the first foreign religions to arrive in India. ● Of the total Jewish population in India, about half live in Manipur & Mizoram and a quarter live in the city of Mumbai. ● In Kerala a community of Jews can be seen at Kannur (Kodungalloor) and Kochi The Sufi Movement The Sufis ● The Sufis were mystics. They were pious men who were shocked at the degeneration in political and religious life. They opposed ● ● the vulgar display of wealth in public life and the readiness of the ulema to serve “ungodly” rulers. Many began to lead a retired ascetic life, having nothing to do with the state. The Sufi philosophy also differed from the ulema. The Sufis laid emphasis upon free thought and liberal ideas. They were against formal worship, rigidity and fanaticism in religion. The Sufis turned to meditation in order to achieve religious satisfaction. Like the Bhakti saints, the Sufis too interpreted religion as ‘love of god’ and service of humanity. In course of time, the Sufis were divided into different silsilahs (orders) with each silsilah having its own pir (guide) called Khwaja or Sheikh. The pir and his disciples lived in a khanqah (hospice). A pir nominated a successor or wali from his disciples to carry on his work. The Sufis organised samas (a recital of holy songs) to arouse mystical ecstasy. Sufism in India ● The advent of Sufism in India is said to be in the eleventh and twelfth centuries. One of the early Sufis of eminence, who settled in India, was Al-Hujwari who died in 1089, popularly known as Data Ganj Baksh (Distributor of Unlimited Treasure). ● In the beginning, the main centres of the Sufis were Multan and Punjab. By the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, the Sufis had spread to Kashmir, Bihar, Bengal and the Deccan. ● It may be mentioned that Sufism had already taken on a definite form before coming to India. Its fundamental and moral principles, teachings and orders, system of fasting, prayers and practice of living in khanqahs had already been fixed. ● The Sufis came to India via Afghanistan on their own free will. Their emphasis upon a pure life, devotional love and service to humanity made them popular and earned them a place of honour in Indian society. 54 Master Series : Art and Culture ● Abul Fazl while writing in the Ain-i-Akbari speaks of fourteen silsilahs of the Sufis. ● These silsilahs were divided into two types: Ba-shara and Be-shara. Ba-shara were those orders that followed the Islamic Law (Sharia) and its directives such as namaz and roza. Chief amongst these were the Chishti, Suhrawardi, Firdawsi, Qadiri and Naqshbandi silsilahs. ● The beshara silsilahs were not bound by the Sharia. The Qalandars belonged to this group. The Chishti Silsilah ● The Chishti order was founded in a village called Khwaja Chishti (near Herat). ● In India, the Chishti silsilah was founded by Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti (born c. 1142) who came to India around 1192. ● He made Ajmer the main centre for his teaching. He believed that serving mankind was the best form of devotion and therefore he worked amongst the downtrodden. ● He died in Ajmer in 1236. During Mughal times, Ajmer became a leading pilgrim centre because the emperors regularly visited the Sheikh’s tomb. ● The extent of his popularity can be seen by the fact that even today, millions of Muslims and Hindus visit his dargah for fufilment of their wishes. ● The khanqah of Qutubuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki was also visited by people from all walks of life. Sultan Iltutmish dedicated the Qutub Minar to this Saint. Sheikh Fariduddin of Ajodhan (Pattan in Pakistan) popularised the Chishti silsilah in modern Haryana and Punjab. The Suhrawardi Silsilah ● This silsilah was founded by Sheikh Shihabuddin Suhrawardi. ● It was established in India by Sheikh Bahauddin Zakariya (1182-1262). ● He set up a leading khanqah in Multan, which was visited by rulers, high government officials and rich merchants. Sheikh Bahauddin Zakariya openly took Iltutmisht’s side in his struggle against Qabacha and received from him the title Shaikhul Islam (Leader of Islam). ● It must be noted that unlike the Chishti saints, the Suhrawardis maintained close contacts with the state. They accepted gifts, jagirs and even government posts in the ecclersiastical department. The Suhrawardi silsilah was firmly established in Punjab and Sind. ● Besides these two silsilahs there were others such as the Firdawsi Silsilah, Shattari Silsilah, Qadiri Silsilah, Naqshbandi Silsilah. The Bhakti Movement The development of Bhakti movement took place in Tamil Nadu between the 7th and 12th centuries. It was reflected in the emotional poems of the Nayanars (devotees of Shiva) and Alvars (devotees of Vishnu). These saints looked upon religion not as a cold formal worship but as a loving bond based upon love between the worshipped and worshipper. They wrote in local languages, Tamil and Telugu and were therefore able to reach out to many people. ● Centered around Krishna’s childhood and youth, this work uses Krishna’s exploits to explain deep philosophy in simple terms. This work became a turning point in the history of the Vaishnavite movement which was an important component of the Bhakti movement. ● A more effective method for spreading of the Bhakti ideology was the use of local languages. The Bhakti saints composed their verses in local languages. They also translated Sanskrit works to make them understandable to a wider audience. Thus we find Jnanadeva writing in Marathi, Kabir, Surdas and Tulsidas in Hindi, Shankaradeva popularising Assamese, Chaitanya and Chandidas spreading their message in Bengali, Mirabai in Hindi and Rajasthani. ● The Bhakti saints believed that salvation can be achieved by all. They made no distinction of caste, creed or religion before God. They themselves came from diverse backgrounds. ● Ramananda, whose disciples included Hindus and Muslims, came from a conservative brahman family. His disciple, Kabir, was Religions and Schools of Philosophy In India 55 a weaver. Guru Nanak was a village accountant’s son. ● Namdev was a tailor. The saints stressed equality, disregarded the caste system and attacked institutionalised religion. The saints did not confine themselves to purely religious ideas. ● They advocated social reforms too. They opposed sati and female infanticide. Women were encouraged to join kirtans. Mirabai and Lalla (of Kashmir) composed verses that are popular even today. ● In northern India, it developed into two streams, nirguna bhakti and saguna bhakti. ♦ Nirguna bhaktas – Devotees of a formless God even while calling him variously as Rama, Govinda, Hari or Raghunatha. The most conspicuous among them were Kabir and Nanak ● ● ● ● ♦ Saguna bhaktas – Devotees of Rama, the son of Dasharatha, or Krishna, the son of Devaki and Vasudeva, who idolised Rama in his famous Ramcharita Manas ● Surdas, who sang praises of Krishna in his famous ● ● Raskhan, a Muslim poet, who was a devotee of Lord Krishna, also belonged to this tradition. The Vaishnavite Movement ● Saints such as Kabir, Namdev and Guru Nanak had preached devotion toward a nirankar form of God. During this period, another movement based upon devotion towards a sakar form of God had also developed. ● This movement, called the Vaishnavite movement, centered around the worship of Rama and Krishna, who were seen as incarnations (avatars) of Lord Vishnu. Its main exponents were Surdas, Mirabai, Tulsidas and Chaitanya. Their path to salvation was expressed through the medium of poetry, song, dance and kirtans. ● Surdas (1483-1563) was a disciple of the famous teacher, Vallabhachara. He was a ● blind poet, whose songs are centered around Krishna. His Sursagar recounts the exploits of Krishna during his childhood and youth with gentle affection and delightfulness. The love for Krishna was also expressed through the songs of Mirabai (l 503-73). Widowed at an early age, she believed in a spiritual marriage with her Lord. Her poems have a quality of their own and are popular even today. The Vaishnavite movement spread in the east through the efforts of Chaitanya (1484-1533). Chaitanya considered Krishna not as a mere incarnation of Vishnu but as the highest form of God. The devotion for Krishna was expressed through Sankirtans (hymn session by devotees) which took place in homes, temples and even street processions. Like other Bhakti saints, Chaitanya too was willing to welcome everyone, irrespective of caste, into the fold. The saints thus promoted a sense of equality amongst the people. Ramananda: The worship of Rama was popularised by saints like Ramananda (14001470). He considered Rama as the supreme God. Women and outcastes were welcomed. The most famous of the Rama bhaktas was Tulsidas (l532-1623) who wrote the Ramacharitmanas. The Vaishnavite saints developed their philosophy within the broad framework of Hinduism. They called for reforms in religion and love amongst fellow beings. Shaivite Movement (Lingyat) ● The Lingayat/Veerashaiva community, a politically dominant group in Karnataka, are devotees of Shiva. The Lingayats follow 12th-century saint-philosopher Basavanna who had rejected ritualistic worship and preeminence of the Vedas. The Veerashaivas sect of the community also worships Shiva idols and practises other Hindu customs. The Lingayats consider the Veershaivas to be part of Hinduism as they follow Hindu customs while the Veerashaivas think the community 56 Master Series : Art and Culture was an ancient religion established by Shiva and Basavanna was one of its saints. ● The community has a strong presence in the state especially in the north. Lingayats constitute 17% of the total population in Karnataka. They are dominant in close to 100 of the 224 assembly seats, mostly in North Karnataka. Virasaivism teaches eight rules to be observed which are called ashtavarans. (1) obedience to a guru (2) worship of a linga (3) reverence for the Jangama as for an incarnation of Siva (4) smearing of ashes (Vibhuti) made of cowdung (5) wearing of a rosary of rudraksha beads (6) padodaka sipping the water in which the feet of a guru of jangama have been bathed (7) prasada offering food to a guru linga or jangama and partaking sacramentally of what is left and (8) panchakshara uttering the five syllabled formula namah sivaya at the diksha ceremony these eight modes of piety are taught to every Lingayat child. (9) The lingayats do not concern themselves with the worship of Siva in public temples. The present issue of Lingayats The Lingayat community has been demanding status of a separate religion for a long time. The issue came at the centre stage when Chief Minister Siddaramaiah promised to consider the demand. One part of the community demands the minority status for both Veerashaiva and Lingayats considering them the same, while another wants it only for the Lingayats as it considers Veershaivas to be Hindus. The Nagamohan committee has recommended minority status for only the Lingayats and has kept Veershaivas out. 5.2 Schools of Philosophy in India Indian philosophy refers to ancient philosophical traditions of the Indian subcontinent. The principal schools are classified as either orthodox or heterodox – āstika or nāstika – depending on one of three alternate criteria: whether it believes the Vedas are a valid source of knowledge; whether the school believes in the premises of Brahman and Atman; and whether the school believes in afterlife and Devas. There are six major schools of orthodox Indian Hindu philosophy—Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Samkhya, Yoga, Mīmānsā and Vedanta, and five major heterodox schools—Jain, Buddhist, Ajivika, Ajñana, and Cārvāka. However, there are other methods of classification; Vidyaranya for instance identifies sixteen schools of Indian philosophy by including those that belong to the Śaiva and Raseśvara traditions. (a) Samkhya System ● The Samkhya philosophy holds that reality is constituted of two principles one female and the other male i.e. Prakriti, Purusha respectively. ● Prakriti and Purusha are completely independent and absolute. ● According to this system, Purusha is mere consciousness; hence it cannot be modified or changed. Prakriti on the other hand is constituted of three attributes, thought, movement and the change or transformation of these attributes brings about the change in all objects. ● The Samkhya philosophy tries to establish some relationship between Purusha and Prakriti for explaining the creation of the universe. ● The propounder of this philosophy was Kapila, who wrote the Samkhya sutra. ● Infact Samkhya school explained the phenomena of the doctrine of evolution and answered all the questions aroused by the thinkers of those days. (b) Yoga ● Yoga literally means the union of the two principal entities. ● The origin of yoga is found in the Yogasutra of Patanjali believed to have been written in the second century BC. ● By purifying and controlling changes in the mental mechanism, yoga systematically brings about the release of purusha from prakriti. Religions and Schools of Philosophy In India 57 ● Yogic techniques control the body, mind and sense organs. Thus this philosophy is also considered as means of achieving freedom or mukti. ● This freedom could be attained by practising self-control (yama), observation of rules (niyama), fixed postures (asana), breath control (pranayama), choosing an object (pratyahara) and fixing the mind (dharna), concentrating on the chosen object (dhyana) and complete dissolution of self, merging the mind and the object (Samadhi). ● Yoga admits the existence of God as a teacher and guide. (c) Nyaya ● Nyaya is considered as a technique of logical thinking. ● According to Nyaya, valid knowledge is defined as the real knowledge, that is, one knows about the object as it exists. ● For example, it is when one knows a snake as a snake or a cup as a cup. ● Nyaya system of philosophy considers God who creates, sustains and destroys the universe. ● Gautama is said to be the author of the Nyaya Sutras. (d) Vaisheshika ● Vaisheshika system is considered as the realistic and objective philosophy of universe. ● The reality according to this philosophy has many bases or categories which are substance, attribute, action, genus, distinct quality and inherence. ● Vaisheshika thinkers believe that all objects of the universe are composed of five elements– earth, water, air, fire and ether. ● They believe that God is the guiding principle. ● The living beings were rewarded or punished according to the law of karma, based on actions of merit and demerit. ● Creation and destruction of universe was a cyclic process and took place in agreement with the wishes of God. ● Kanada wrote the basic text of Vaisheshika philosophy. ● A number of treatises were written on this text but the best among them is the one written by Prashastapada in the sixth century AD. ● Vaisheshika School of philosophy explained the phenomena of the universe by the atomic theory, the combination of atoms and molecules into matter and explained the mechanical process of formation of Universe. (e) Mimamsa ● Mimamsa philosophy is basically the analysis of interpretation, application and the use of the text of the Samhita and Brahmana portions of the Veda. ● According to Mimamsa philosophy Vedas are eternal and possess all knowledge, and religion means the fulfillment of duties prescribed by the Vedas. ● This philosophy encompasses the Nyaya – Vaisheshika systems and emphasizes the concept of valid knowledge. ● Its main text is known as the Sutras of Jaimini which have been written during the third century BC. ● The names associated with this philosophy are Sabar Swami and Kumarila Bhatta. ● The essence of the system according to Jaimini is Dharma which is the dispenser of fruits of one’s actions, the law of righteousness itself. This system lays stress on the ritualistic part of Vedas. (f) Vedanta ● Vedanta implies the philosophy of the Upanishad, the concluding portion of the Vedas. ● Shankaracharya wrote the commentaries on the Upanishads, Brahmasutras and the Bhagavad Gita. ● Shankaracharya’s discourse or his philosophical views came to be known as Advaita Vedanta. 58 Master Series : Art and Culture ● Advaita literally means non-dualism or belief in one reality. ● Shankaracharya expounded that ultimate reality is one, it being the Brahman. ● According to Vedanta philosophy, ‘Brahman is true, the world is false and self and Brahman are not different, Shankaracharya believes that the Brahman is existent, unchanging, the highest truth and the ultimate knowledge. ● The knowledge of Brahman is the essence of all things and the ultimate existence. ● Ramanuja was another well known Advaita scholar. ● Vedanta philosophy has ventured to deny the existence of the apparent ego, as known to us, and in this respect Vedanta has its unique position in the history of philosophies of the world. ● Vedanta is a philosophy and a religion. As a philosophy it inculcates the highest truths that have been discovered by the greatest philosophers and the most advanced thinkers of all ages and all countries. (g) Charvaka School ● Brihaspati is supposed to be the founder of the Charvaka School of philosophy. ● It finds mention in the Vedas and Brihadaranyka Upanishad. ● It holds that knowledge is the product of the combination of four elements which leaves no trace after death. ● Charvaka philosophy deals with the materialistic philosophy. ● It is also known as the Lokayata Philosophy – the philosophy of the masses. ● According to Charvaka there is no other world. Hence, death is the end of humans and pleasure the ultimate object in life. Charvaka recognises no existence other than this material world. ● Since God, soul, and heaven, cannot be perceived, they are not recognised by Charvakas. ● Out of the five elements earth, water, fire, air and ether, the Charvakas do not recognise ether as it is not known through perception. ● The whole universe according to them is thus consisted of four elements. Religions and Schools of Philosophy In India 59 Art and Culture Master Exercise 5 MCQs for Preliminary Examination 1. Who, according to Jains, was the founder of Jainism? (a) Parsavanatha (c) 2, 3 and 4 only (d) 1 and 4 only 5. (b) Arishtanemi (c) Rishabha (a) Yoga (d) Mahavira 2. (b) Vedanta In India, Jainism spread during the reign of: (c) Vaisheshika (a) Harshavardhana (d) Mimansa (b) Chandragupta Vikramaditya (d) Chandragupta Maurya Subjectve type questions for Main Examination Buddhism and Jainism both gave stress on: 1. Explain how the temple was the focus for all aspects of everyday life in the Ancient Indian community - religious, cultural, educational and social. 2. Most if not all religions would qualify as philosophies too. Is Buddhism a Religion or a Philosophy? 3. Did the six darshans evolve from one another? Or did they evolve or manifest separately? 4. How can we bring principles of Philosophy into innovations of Neuroscience to help humankind to move in positive or right direction? 5. Write a note on Sufism, its origin and its influence on Indian Islam. (c) Samudragupta 3. (a) Worship of God (b) None of these (c) Self-mortification (d) Non-violence 4. With which school of Indian philosophy the 'Theory of karma' is associated? Which of the following Bhakti saints were contemporaries? 1. Kabir 2. Guru Nanak 3. Dadu Dayal 4. Tukaram Select the correct answer using the codes given below: Answers to MCQs (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 and 4 only 1. (a) 2. (d) 3. (d) 4. (a) 5. (c) 60 Master Series : Art and Culture ART AND CULTURE MASTER SERIES UNIT 6 Paintings & Performing Arts 6.1 Paintings in India Sadanga, The Six Limbs of Indian Painting Around the 1st century BC, Vatsyayana enumerated the Sadanga or Six Limbs of Indian Painting, a series of canons laying down the main principles of the art. These 'Six Limbs' have been translated as follows. ● Rupabheda: The knowledge of appearances. ● Pramanam: Correct perception, measure and structure. ● Bhava: Action of feelings on forms. ● Lavanya: Yojanam Infusion of grace, artistic representation. ● Sadrisyam: Similitude. ● Varnikabhanga: Artistic manner of using the brush and colours. These ' Six Limbs ' were put into practice by Indian artists, and are the basic principles on which their art was founded. Indian painting is the result of the synthesis of various traditions and its development is an ongoing process. However while adapting to new styles, Indian painting has maintained its distinct character. Art in the Ancient Period Painting as an art form has flourished in India from very early times as is evident from the remains that have been discovered in the caves, and the literary sources. Cave Paintings ● Bhimbetka caves (MP) have drawings and paintings of animals. ● The cave paintings of Narsinghgarh (Maharashtra) show skins of spotted deer left drying. Painting in Indian Literature Works ● Hindu and Buddhist literature refer to paintings of various types and techniques for example, Lepyachitras, lekhachitras and . ● Buddhist text Vinayapitaka describes the existence of painted figures in many royal buildings ● The play Mudrarakshasa (5th Century AD) mentions numerous paintings or Patas. ● Vishnudharmottara purana (7th century AD) has a section on painting called Chitrasutra which describes the six organs of painting like variety of form, proportion, lustre and portryal of colour etc. ● The best specimens of Gupta paintings are the ones at Ajanta. Their subject was animals and birds, trees, flowers, human figures and stories from the Jataka. (Refer Fig 6.1) Mural Paintings ● Mural paintings are done on walls and rock surfaces like roofs and sides. ● The murals chiefly depict religious scenes from the life of the Buddha and the ● Buddhist Jataka stories, religious themes of Jain and Hindu religions, but we also have secular scene. ● In Mural Painting one can find, princes in their palaces, ladies in their chambers, coolies with loads over their shoulders, beggars, peasants and ascetics, together with all the many beasts, birds and flowers of India. Painting and Performing Arts 61 Mughal Paintings Fig. 6.1. Jataka tales from Ajanta Caves Important Mural Paintings of Ancient Period ● The caves of Ajanta, Bagh, Sittanavasal ● Armamalai Cave (Tamil Nadu) ● Ravan Chhaya rock shelter ● Kailasanatha temple in Ellora Caves ● Badami cave Temples, Karnataka During the middle Ages murals were usually executed on dry plaster. Murals today are painted in a variety of ways, using oil or water-based media. Miniature Painting ● Small works which were made on perishable materials. ● Buddhist, Jain and Hindu manuscripts were illustrated, on palm leaves. ● Resemble the Ajanta style, but on a miniature scale. ● Mughal painting evolved from the Persian school of miniature painting with Hindu, Buddhist and Jain influences. ● The paintings often revolved around themes like battles, legendary stories, hunting scenes, wildlife, royal life, mythology, etc. ● Humayun, the second Mughal emperor, returned from his exile, he brought along with him two eminent Persian artists – Mir Sayyid Ali and Abd al-Samad. Based on Humayun’s instructions, these Persian artists created many famous paintings, including the ‘Khamsa of Nizami.’ These paintings deviated from the traditional style of Persian art and hence a new style of art form called ‘Mughal Painting’ was born. ● During Akbar reign, under his orders ‘Humayunama’ was illustrated. About 1200 paintings were drawn on lines pasted on one side of the manuscript of this book. Abul Fazal has listed 15 outstanding painters like Daswant, Basawan, Kesav and Farrukh Beg. ● During Jahangir’s time, the art of painting reached its climax. Jahangir was not only interested in painting, he was also its keen judge. He established a gallery of painting in his own garden. ● Withdrawal of royal patronage to painting under Aurangzeb led to the dispersal of artists to different places in the country. ● This helped in the development of Rajasthani and Pahari Schools. Painting in the Medieval Period ● In Eastern India, in Bengal, Bihar and Orissa, during the Pala kingdom in the 9th – 10th century AD, a new kind of painting developed called the miniature painting. ● From the thirteenth century onwards, the Turkish Sultans of northern India brought with them important features of Persian court culture. ● During the Mughal period, book illumination or individual miniatures replaced wall painting as the most vital form of art. ● With the synthesis of Persian and Indian style the independent style of Mughal painting was developed. (Refer Fig. 6.2) ● Artists began to use vibrant colours such as peacock blue and red and were able to give three dimensional effects to paintings. Fig. 6.2. A Mughal Painting 62 Master Series : Art and Culture Features of Rajasthani Paintings and Pahari Paintings ● In Rajasthani School the themes of the paintings were mostly religious and love subjects based on Lord Rama and Krishna. Court scenes were also depicted. ● Pahari School is famous for beautiful flowering lines and brilliant colours. The theme revolves around mythical and secular themes. filled by paintings of flowers, animals, birds, and even geometric designs. ● There are paintings for each occasion and festival such as birth, marriage, Holi, Surya Shasti, Kali Puja, Upanayanam, Durga Puja etc. Painting in the Modern Period ● In the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries paintings comprised semi westernized local styles which were patronised by British residents and visitors. ● Themes were generally drawn from Indian social life, popular festivals, and Mughal monuments. ● Oil paintings of Raja Ravi Varma of Travancore depicting mythological and social themes became highly popular at this time. ● Amrita Shergil painted on Indian themes in bright colours especially Indian women and peasants ● Two government institutions have been set up to promote art, music etc in India. ● The National Gallery of Modern Art has the largest collection of modern art under one roof. ● The second one is the Lalit Kala Akademi which recognises(a)and patronizes artists in all fields. 6.2. Regional Paintings in India Madhubani Painting or Mithila Painting ● It is practiced in the Mithila region of Nepal and in Indian States of Bihar. (Refer Fig. 6.3) ● Painting is done with fingers, twigs, brushes, nib-pens, and matchsticks, using natural dyes and pigments. ● Characterized by eye-catching geometrical patterns. ● The painting was traditionally done on freshly plastered mud walls and floors of huts, but now they are also done on cloth, handmade paper and canvas. ● Generally no space is left empty; the gaps are (a) (b) Fig. 6.3. (a) & (b) The Madhubani Painting Rajput Painting ● The main themes around which Rajasthani Paintings of India revolved include the Great epics of Ramayana and the Mahabharata, the life of Lord Krishna, landscapes and humans. ● Miniatures in manuscripts or single sheets to be kept in albums were the preferred medium of Rajput painting, but many paintings were done on the walls of palaces, inner chambers of the forts, havelis, particularly, the havelis of Shekhawati. ● The colours were extracted from certain minerals, plant sources, conch shells, and were even derived by processing precious stones. ● Gold and silver were used. Pahari Painting ● Originating from Himalayan hill kingdoms of North India. ● Pahari paintings have been widely influenced by the Rajput paintings, because of the family Painting and Performing Arts 63 relations of the Pahari Rajas with royal court at Rajasthan. ● Pahari paintings of India can be divided into two distinct categories, on the basis of their geographical range, namely: (1) Basohli and Kulu Style (Colours are less intense, the treatment of landscape and perspective is generally more naturalistic) (2) Guler and Kangra Style (Based on colors and refinement) Phad Paintings ● Rajasthan in Western India is its place of origin. ● A large painting on cloth, which venerates the deeds of a hero ● Generally, the life events of Goga Chauhan, Prithaviraj Chauhan, Amar Singh Rathor, Tejaji, and many others were illustrated on the Phadas in the earlier times ● The colors employed are generally vegetable dyes and are used in a fixed order starting from orange-yellow to brown, green, red and finally black. ● A traditional Phad runs the length of thirty feet and is five feet wide. (Refer Fig. 6.4) ● Khadi, or hand woven local material is used as the canvas. ● Only one color can be used at a time. ● Specific colors are used for different things – orange for limbs and torso, yellow for ornaments, clothing and designs, blue for water and curtains, green for trees and vegetation and red, prominently for dress. ● All these are outlined with bold black strokes, which give definition to these forms. (b) Fig. 6.4. (a) & (b) The Phad Paintings Pattachitra Paintings ● Pattachitra is a vibrant folk art form native to Orissa. ● Born out of the cult of Jagannath Dev. ● Incredible pictorial conceptions, characteristic conventions and vibrant colors ● Executed primarily on cloth, using natural colors. ● Pattachitra on pal leaf is known as talapattachitra. Fig. 6.5. Pattachitra Paintings Warli Painting ● The Warlis or Varlis are an indigenous tribe or Adivasis, living in mountainous as well as coastal areas of MaharashtraGujarat border and surrounding areas. (Refer Fig. 6.6) (a) 64 Master Series : Art and Culture ● Their mural paintings are similar to those done between 500 and 10,000 BCE in the Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka, in Madhya Pradesh. ● The ritual paintings are usually done inside the huts. ● The walls are made of a mixture of branches, earth and cow dung, making a Red Ochre background for the wall paintings. ● The paintings use a very basic graphic vocabulary: a circle, a triangle and a square. Their paintings were monosyllabic. The circle and triangle come from their observation of nature, the circle representing the sun and the moon, the triangle derived from mountains and pointed trees. ● The Warli use only white for their paintings. Deccani School of Paintings ● The Deccani style refers to the miniature art style that was practiced in Bijapur, Ahmednagar, Golkonda and Hyderabad from the 16th-19th century. ● It was an art form that was an idiom of Islamic painting combining European, Iranian and Turkish influences. ● They often portrayed intense colors and sensuous looking female figures. The ladies were portrayed with beautiful faces, large eyes and broad foreheads. ● Also, symmetrical arrangement played a prominent role in the Deccan School of miniature painting, the artists from the Deccan School of painting chose to portray geometrically accurate buildings and other man made wonders. ● Bright colors like red and orange are some of the most important aspects of Deccan School of miniature painting. The types of Deccani paintings are: Fig. 6.6. Warli Painting Kalamkari Painting ● Painting done by Kalam (pen). (Refer Fig. 6.7) ● These paintings are made in Andhra Pradesh. ● It is hand painted as well as block printing with vegetable dyes applied on cloth. ● This art is mainly related to decorating temple interiors with painted cloth panels ● The artists use a bamboo or date palm stick pointed at one end with a bundle of fine hair attached to the other end to serve as brush or pen. ● The kalamkari dyes are obtained by extracting colours from plant roots, leaves, along with salts of iron, tin, copper, alum etc. Fig. 6.7. Kalamkari Painting a) Ahmednagar painting: This school was patronized by Hussain Nizam Shah I of Ahmednagar. b) Bijapur Paintings: This school was patronized by Ali Adil Shah I (1558-80 A.D.) and his successor Ibrahim II (1580-1627 A.D.). c) Golconda painting: The patrons of the Golconda paintings were the Qutb Shahi rulers. The first important work was accomplished during the times of Muhammad Quli Qutab Shah (1580-1611). Tanjore Paintings It is the native art form of Thanjavur (also known as Tanjore) city of Tamil Nadu. The dense composition, surface richness and vibrant colors of Indian Thanjavur Paintings distinguish them from the other types of paintings. Then, there are embellishments of semi-precious stones, pearls and glass pieces that further add to their appeal. The relief work gives them a three dimensional effect. Tanjore Painting of India originated during the 16th century, under the reign of the Cholas. Painting and Performing Arts 65 Mysore Paintings Mysore Paintings of India make use of thinner gold leaves and require much more hard work. The most popular themes of these paintings include Hindu Gods and Goddesses and scenes from Hindu mythology. The grace, beauty and intricacy of Indian Mysore Paintings leave the onlookers mesmerized. 6.3. Indian Handicrafts The 'World' of Indian Handicrafts India is a combination of many worlds, living in many centuries and cultures. The world of India’s crafts spans millennia and spreads across the length and breadth of our land, which is seen in cities and towns, by-lanes and villages. A small crafted object made in an unknown village of India has the capacity of becoming an object displayed in the finest museums of the world, yet the same object is often merely an object of utility for a particular community which never thinks of it as a great art. It is often a lack of knowledge of the variety of cultures, techniques, meanings, uses and relevance of such handicrafted objects that allows us to neglect their beauty and take our cultural heritage for granted. The Definition of Crafts ● Indian words for handicrafts are commonly hastkala, hastshilp, dastkari, karigari, all meaning handiwork, but they also refer to objects made with craftsmanship, i.e., specialised skills of the hands which are also artistic. ● The aesthetic content is an intrinsic part of such objects and means the object of utility has a value that goes beyond mere usage and is also pleasing to the eye. ● A handcrafted object is seldom merely decorative, and whether it has no embellishment or is highly decorative, its true purpose is served only when it is both useful and has a fine form. Crafts and Culture Crafts are therefore closely related to concept of form, pattern, design, usage, and these lead to its total aesthetic quality. Carving ● Once the stone is selected the measurements for rough hewing and cutting of the sculpture are taken. ● Carving is a difficult process, requiring skill, concentration and extreme caution. ● It is a process in which forms are cut away or subtracted from the original solid material. Types of Stone Works Stone objects include household objects like bowls, plates, grinding stones, and pillars, beams and brackets for construction of houses. Figures made in solid materials like stone are further classified into categories that explain their technical dimensions: ● Relief-sculptured panels ● Three-dimensional figures in the round. ● A block of stone is carved by chiselling away tiny chips in order to create the desired shape. Once the stone has been carved the chips cannot be put back or replaced. This means the artist has to have a precise and accurate idea of how far to carve and what to remove. ● One cannot afford to make mistakes in this process for once the stone is cut away or carved it cannot be put back. ● Imagine the acumen needed to plan in advance the shape of the face, the size of the smile and the right angle of the jewel that will adorn a carved image. ● Once the rough work is over, details are carved with finer tools and then the stone is polished. Some stones can be polished to shine like a mirror. Stone Sculpture Through the Ages ● At Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh, there are a number of rock shelters of the Stone Age period. ● Early inhabitants lived in natural caves and created fine tools and flints of agate and other natural stones in the area. These tiny flints and well-carved stone implements are the first examples in the long story of Indian sculpture. ● At Ellora, in Maharashtra, there are Hindu, Buddhist and Jain rock-cut shrines. 66 Master Series : Art and Culture ● The Kailash temple at Ellora of the ninth century is an entire temple that was carved out of the natural hillside. ● The temple is really a massive sculpture cut out of a single piece of the hill. The artists started work from the top and carved downwards, beginning with the towering roof, the windows, the doors through which one enters into halls with enormous sculptured panels. Metal Craft ● For our traditional rulers, the nobility and wealthy landowners, objects made of precious metal were symbolic manifestations of power. ● Much of their income from taxes was converted into treasure (khazana) in the form of objects made from precious metals and jewellery. ● It was in workshops (karkhanas) that goldsmiths and silversmiths, whether private or public servants, practised their skills under the patronage and close supervision of their masters. ● Some of these objects were made to be presented as gifts on special occasions such as the public assemblies (durbars) that formed part of court ritual, while others were only brought out for specific religious rituals. ● Still others were designed for everyday use. ● Nataraja is an example of Metal Crafts in Chola Kingdom. (Refer Fig. 6.8) Crafting Metals ● Human cultures around the world have a long history of experimentation and expression using alloys like brass and bronze, and precious metals like gold and silver, and in more recent human history using iron and steel. Making of a Bronze Image ● From the Rig Vedic times there have been references to two casting processes, solid and hollow, termed ‘ghana’ and ‘sushira’. ● Tamil Nadu is one of the famous bronze casting regions. ● Stylistically, the images belong to different periods like Pallava, Chola, Pandyan and Nayaka and the images that are now produced belong to one or the other of these styles. ● The icon-makers are known as stapatis. Meenakari or Enamel Work ● One of the most sophisticated forms of jewellery developed in North India is Meenakari. (Refer Fig. 6.9) ● Jaipur is the main centre, but some craftsmen practise this art in Delhi, Lucknow and Varanasi as well. ● Meenakari is combined with kundan to produce a delicate and rich effect. The meenakari or enamelled patterns are so fine and intricate that they need to be examined with a magnifying glass. ● This tradition continues even today. Fig. 6.9. Meenakari or Enamel Work Paper Crafts Paper Toys ● Toy-makers, especially those living in cities and industrial areas, make use of materials like paper, cardboard, palm-leaf, clay, bamboo Fig. 6.8. The Metal Crafts of Nataraja Painting and Performing Arts 67 strips, pith, and papier-mâché along with other recycled materials to create toys for children. ● Discarded items including newspaper, string, rubber bands are recycled to create toys. ● The toymaker creates a number of different playthings such as kites, puppets, stringmanipulated toys, rattles, drums, damrus and whistles, moving toys like windwheels, animal toys like the jumping snake, mystery boxes, and jack-in-the-box kind of toys. ● Apart from toy-making, Indian craftsmen also produce a wide variety of decorative and utilitarian items by using plain, white and coloured papers. Papier-mâché of Kashmir ● The raw materials used in making papier-mâché articles usually include old newsprint, methi (fenugreek) powder, Multani mitti or clay. ● In South India, waste paper pulp is handbeaten into a soft substance and mixed with local clay. It is rolled out into thin sheets placed over any complicated mould. ● The articles are finally dipped into a thin solution of paper pulp and white clay to provide a smooth uniform surface. ● The objects are then painted in oil or water colour. Textiles ● Textiles are a part of India’s history — its past, present, and future. Indian textiles were found in the tombs of the Egyptian Pharaohs, they were sought-after export to ancient Greece and Rome, they also became part of the fashionable attire of both European and Mughal courts. ● Suppressing and replacing the Indian handloom cotton trade with mill-made alternatives was a key factor of the British Industrial Revolution. That is the reason Gandhi made handspun khadi a symbol of the Indian Independence movement. ● Tussar, Eri and Moga: India is the only source of tussar silk that comes from the Antheria Assamia moth, which feeds on the leaves of the Som and Wali trees. ● Tussar silk has a coarse, uneven texture and a slightly yellowish brown colour. Since it is less strong in texture and cannot be refined it does not have the same sheen or fineness as mulberry silk. ● The celebrated Kashmiri shahtoosh ‘ring shawl’ made from the fleece of the wild Himalayan ibex is so fine that a metre of this woollen shawl can pass through a man’s signet ring. ● Production and sale is banned today for ecological reasons and to prevent the extinction of the ibex. ● Weaving it was a fine art, wearing it now a forbidden luxury. Indian Embroidery ● There are shawls from Kashmir that are magically two-sided with the same design embroidered in different colours on each side. This is known as do-rukha. ● Punjab is famed for its traditional embroidery called phulkari — flowering work. Using threads in brilliant colours like flaming pinks, oranges, mustard yellows and creams, the reverse satin stitch is done on a brick-red khadi cloth. ● Sujni, from Bihar, is a form of quilted embroidery with mainly narrative themes. ● Kantha, embroidery from Bengal, is made of thousands of fine stitches, giving the fabric a puckered quilted look. 6.4. Classical Dances in India The Tradition of Dance in India Dance in India has a rich and vital tradition dating back to ancient times.However, it is not easy to trace the precise history and evolution of the various dances known as the 'art' or ‘classical’ forms popular today. The earliest treatise on dance available to us is Bharat Muni's Natyashastra, the source book of the art of drama, dance and music. The Natyashastra is also known as the fifth veda. According to the author, he has evolved this veda by taking words from the Rigveda, music from the Samaveda, gestures from the Yajurveda and emotions from the Atharvaveda. As per the ancient treatises, dance is considered as having three aspects: 68 Master Series : Art and Culture ● Natya: It highlights the dramatic element and most dance forms do not give emphasis to this aspect today with the exception of dance-drama forms like Kathakali. ● Nritya: It is essentially expressional, performed specifically to convey the meaning of a theme or idea. ● Nritta: It is on the other hand, is pure dance where body movements do not express any mood (bhava), nor do they convey any meaning. 1. 3. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Navarasas (Nine expressions in Dance) To present nritya and natya effectively, a dancer should be trained to communicate the navarasas. 1. Love (Shringaara) 2. Mirth (Haasya) 3. Compassion (Karuna) 4. Valour (Veera) 5. Anger (Roudra) 6. Fear (Bhayanak) 7. Disgust (Bibhatsa) 8. Wonder (Adbhuta) 9. Peace (Shaanta) An ancient classification followed in all styles is of Tandava and Lasya. ● Tandava: The masculine, is heroic bold and vigorous. ● Lasya: The feminine is soft, lyrical and graceful. Evolution of Dance in India ● Nurtured for centuries, dance in India has evolved in different parts of the country its own distinct style taking on the culture of that particular region, each acquiring its own flavour. ● Consequently a number of major styles of ‘art’ dance are known to us today, like Bharatnatyam, Kathakali, Kuchipudi, Kathak, Manipuri, Odissi and Sattriya. ● Then, there are regional variations, the dances of rural and tribal areas, which range from simple, joyous celebrations of the seasons, harvest or birth of a child to dances for the propitiation of demons or for invoking spirits. Eight Classical Dances in India The Sangeet Natak Akademi currently confers classical status on eight Indian classical dance styles. Bharatanatyam (Tamil Nadu) Kathak (North India) Kathakali (Kerala) Kuchipudi (Andhra Pradesh) Manipuri (Manipur) Mohiniyattam (Kerala) Odissi (Odisha) Sattriya (Assam) Panchtatatva (Five major styles of Dance) ● ● ● ● ● Bharatnatyam (Element of Fire) Odissi (Element of water) Kuchipudi (Element of earth) Mohiniattam (Element of air) Kathakali (Element of sky) A. Bharatanatyam ● 2,000 years old popular dance form in Tamil Nadu and Karnataka ● This dance flourished in the Hindu temples of South India. ● The temple dancers (called Devadasis or servants of god) flourished under royal patronage and religious devotion. ● The present form of Bharatnatyam dance was evolved by Poniah Pillai of Tanjore and his brothers. ● The credit of reviving and popularizing the Bharatnatyam in its present form goes to Rukmini DeviArundale, who gave it new life and respectability. ● Bala Saraswati, the queen of Bharatnatyam also deserves accolades for her work and efforts to popularize Bharatnatyam. Significance of Bharatnatyam ● It is known for its grace, elegance, purity, tenderness, expression and sculpturesque poses. ● It is considered to be a fire-dance — the mystic manifestation of the metaphysical element of fire in the human body. ● The movements of an authentic Bharata Natyam dancer resemble the movements of a dancing flame. ● It was created not merely for pleasure, but to embody the cosmic relationships and expressions (bhava) for all the worlds. Painting and Performing Arts 69 ● So this performing art follows the worlds’ movements in all activities and states: work and leisure, calm and laughter, fight and wars. How Bharatanatyam Dance is Performed? ● Although it is more commonly danced by women, it is practiced by both male and female dancers. ● Bharata Natyam proper is a solo dance, with two aspects lasya and tandava ● It is also called as ekaharya (solo) performance: one dancer presenting various characters, regardless of their gender. ● However, in more modern times, Bharata Natyam performances have taken stage as group performances involving dramatical performances that require many characters depicted by various dancers. Techniques Involved in Bharatnatyam Dance ● As a solo dance, it leans heavily on the abhinaya or mime aspect of dance – the nritya, where the dancer expresses the sahitya through movement and mime. ● The dance form is based on ‘Adavu’ (steps) and ‘Hasthamudra’ (hand gestures). ● The dance movements are characterized by bent legs, while feet keep rhythm. Hands may be used in a series of mudras, or symbolic hand gestures, to tell a story. ● The body limbs are classified as Anga, Pratyanga or Upaanga. ● 6 Angas comprise: chest, waist, bottom, hands, head, legs. Some Bharatanatyam experts distinguish also neck. ● 6 Pratyangas are: thighs, knees, shoulders, arms, stomach. Some Bharathanatyam experts distinguish also Wrists, Elbows and Ankles. ● 12 Upaangas are: glance, eyebrows, eyelids, eyeballs, cheeks, nose, gums, lips, teeth, tongue, chin and face in general. Some Bharatanatyam experts distinguish also heels, fingers, feet and palms. ● Pratynaga and Upaangas are supposed to move in unison with the Angas. Three Divisions of Bharathanatyam ● Nirutham: It is a pure dance without any emotions, expressions or sahityam. It involves Adavus (These are a combination of hand movement and feet movement as well as head movements and eye movements). ● Niruthiyam: It has sahityam (a sentence which means something). It has emotions, expressions and has a meaning shown by the hastas. Niruthiyam involves all four types of Abhinayam. ● Natyam: When a Nirutham and Niruthiyam are combined together with music in the background. This type of dance requires the dancer’s imagination and initiative to tell a story through dancing and music. ● Natyam: When a Nirutham and Niruthiyam are combined together with music in the background it is called Natyam. This type of dance requires the dancer’s imagination and initiative to tell a story through dancing and music. Major Items in Bharatnatyam The sequence of the dance performance is ‘Alarippu’, ‘Jathiswaram’, ‘Sabdam’, ‘Varnam’, ‘Padam’ and ‘Thillana’. After ‘Thillana’, with a ‘Mangala Slokam’ the dance program ends. Typically a Performance includes ● Alarippu: Meaning flowering bud is traditionally the first dance piece that Bharatanatyam dancers learn and perform in this type of classical dance recital. It is an invocation piece, symbolising the offering of respects to both God and the audience. ● Jatiswaram: An abstract dance where the drums set the beat. Jatiswaram brings out three aspects of dance: unity of music, rhythm and movements.Jatiswaram has no sahitya or words, but is composed of adavus which are pure dance sequences - nritta. ● Shabdam: The dancing is accompanied by a poem or song with a devotional or amorous theme. Shabdam is usually depicting graceful movements in a story or a poem ● Varnam: The center piece of the performance. It is the longest section of the dance punctuated with the most complex and diffi- 70 Master Series : Art and Culture cult movements. Positions of the hands and body tell a story, usually of love and the longing for the lover. ● Padam: Probably the most lyrical section where the dancer “speaks” of some aspect of love, devotion to the Supreme Being; or of love of mother for child; or the love of lovers separated and reunited. ● Tillana: The final section is a pure dance (nirutham) when the virtuosity of the music is reflected in the complex footwork and captivating poses of the dancer. Apart from these items, there are items such as Shlokam, Swarajathi, Krithi, etc. The performance concludes with the chanting of a few religious verses as a form of benediction. dancer’s movements, while the others do. The modern costumes are deeply symbolic, as their purpose is to project the dancer’s sukshma sharira, in the material world. ● Music: The accompanying music is in the Carnatic style of South India. ● Ensemble: Mostly, South Indian instruments are used in the ensemble. These include, the mridangam (drum), nagaswaram (long pipe horn made from a black wood), the flute, violin and veena. ● Languages: Tamil, Telugu, Kannada and Sanskrit are traditionally used in Bharata Natyam. B. Kuchupudi ● Kuchipudi derives its name from the village of Kuchelapuram, a small village about 65 kms from Vijaywada. (Refer Fig. 6.11) ● It is known for its graceful movements and its strong narrative/dramatic character. ● Andhra has a very long tradition of dancedrama which was known under the generic name of Yakshagaana. ● In 17th century Kuchipudi style of Yakshagaana was conceived by Siddhendra Yogi a talented Vaishnava poet. Fig. 6.10. Bharatnatyam Performance Four Types of Abhinaya in Dance ● Anghika: Physical or body movements. ● Vachika: the song being played, poetry ● Aaharya: Ornamentation of a character/dancer e.g. jewellery, costume ● Satvika: Involuntary movements e.g. trembling, break of voice, tears. Other Significant Aspects of Bharatnatyam ● Jewellery: Dancers wear anklets made of rope or leather with rows of sleigh-like (traditionally copper) bells attached on the anklet. The dancer's talent is judged (along with style and presentation) by the amount of ringing heard and the number of bells on the anklet. ● Costume: There are several varieties of Bharata Natyam costumes, some of which do not restrict the ● Siddhendra Yogi initiated young Brahmin boys of Kuchipudi village to practice and perform his compositions particularly Bhaamaakalaapam. How Kuchipudi Dance is Performed? ● To show the dexterity of the dancers in footwork and their control and balance over their bodies, techniques like dancing on the rim of a brass plate and with a pitcher full of water on the head was introduced. Acrobatic dancing became part of the repertoire. ● Carrying a fine combination of Natya, Nritta and Nritya, Kuchipudi was never a solo affair and required a number of performers. ● By the middle of this century, Kuchipudi fully crystallized as a separate classical solo dance style. Thus there are now two forms of Kuchipudi; the traditional musical dancedrama and the solo dance. Painting and Performing Arts 71 ● Notable people – Raja reddy and Radha reddy, Sonal mansingh, Yamini Krishnamurtthy. ● The music that accompanies the dance is according to the classical school of Carnatic music and is delightfully syncopatic. ● The accompanying musicians, besides the vocalist are: a mridangam player to provide percussion music, a violin or veena player or both for providing instrumental melodic music, and a cymbal player who usually conducts the orchestra and recites the sollukattus (mnemonic rhythm syllables). C. Kathakali ● Kathakali (means ‘story play’), as a dance form popular today, is considered to be of comparatively recent origin. ● It is an art which has evolved from many social and religious theatrical forms which existed in the southern region in ancient times. ● Chakiarkoothu, Koodiyattam, Krishnattam and Ramanattam are few of the ritual performing arts of Kerala which have had a direct influence on Kathakali in its form and technique. Major Features of Kathakali ● It is known for its heavy, elaborate makeup and costumes. ● It presents themes derived from the Ramayana, the Mahabharata and other Hindu epics, mythologies and legends. ● It is the only Indian dance form in which the entire body, both skeleton and muscles, down to even the smallest facial muscle are used to portray emotion. ● In Kathakali emphasis is given more on ‘aharya abhinaya’, the use of costumes, ornaments and facial make-up. The Kathakali makeup is so heavy that it looks like a mask. A mixture of rice paste and lime is applied to make the chutti on the face which highlights the facial make-up. (Refer Fig. 6.12) Fig. 6.11. A Kuchipudi Performance Differences Between Bharatanatyam and Kuchipudi ● Bharatnatyam has more sculptured poses whereas Kuchipudi has more rounded poses. ● Beyond the stylistic differences of Kuchipudi and Bharata Natyam steps, there are certain types of dances that are unique to Kuchipudi: Specifically there is the Tarangam which is unique in that the dancer holds a plate with two diyas (small oilburning candles) in her hands while balancing a "kindi" (small vessel) containing water. ● Bharatanatyam (BN) doesn’t have 'vachikabhinayam', thus none of BN dancers would give lip movement for the song for which they are dancing, where as kuchipudi dancers would give lip movement as if they are singing the song for which they are dancing (this is because Kuchipudi has evolved from drama, as in olden days artists used to sing to their own tunes and dance simultaneously, as dancers today wanting in their music sense cannot sing on their own). Other Unique Aspects of Kathakali ● Costume: There are several kinds of Kathakali costumes namely, Sathwika (the hero), Kathi (the villain), Minukku (females), and Thatti. ● Concept: When Kathakali dance is being performed the text of the drama or the story is sung for the dancer and is the baseline for his/her interpretation. ● Personalities: It was Mahakavi Vallathol Narayan Menon, who gave Kathakali its present form. He was the founder of the Kerala Kala Mandalam. ● Music: Kathakali music follows the traditional sopana sangeet of Kerala.Now, Kathakali music also uses Carnatic ragas – the raga and tala conforming to the bhava, rasa and dance patterns (nritta and natya). 72 Master Series : Art and Culture and the other is extended out on the level of the shoulder. ● The pirouettes (a full turn on the front of one foot in ballet) are the most characteristic feature of the dance style in nritta portions. ● It possesses a particular performance style of expressional pieces called bhaav bataanaa (lit. to show bhaav or ‘feeling’). It is a mode where abhinaya (nritya) dominates. Fig. 6.12. A Kathakali Performance D. Kathak Dance ● The word Kathak has been derived from the word Katha which means a story. Kathakars or story-tellers, are people who narrate stories largely based on episodes from the epics, myths and legends. (Refer Fig. 6.13) ● It probably started as an oral tradition. Mime and gestures were perhaps added later on to make the recitation more effective. ● The Vaishnavite cult which swept North India in the 15th century and the resultant bhakti movement contributed to a whole new range of lyrics and musical forms. ● The Radha-Krishna theme proved immensely popular alongwith the works of Mirabai, Surdas, Nandadas and Krishnadas. ● Modern exponents of Kathak dance are Birju Maharaj and Uma Sharma. Salient Features of Kathak Dance ● The weight of the body is equally distributed along the horizontal and vertical axis. ● The full foot contact is of prime importance where only the toe or the ball of the foot is used, their function is limited. ● There are no deflections and no use of sharp bends or curves of the upper or lower part of the body. ● Torso movements emerge from the change of the shoulder line rather than through the manipulations of the backbone or upper chest and lower waist muscles. ● In the basic stance, the dancer stands straight, holds one hand at a level higher than the head Fig. 6.13. A Kathak Dance Performance Difference Between Kathak and other Classical Dances ● Kathak dances are performed straight-legged and the ankle bells worn by the dancers are skillfully controlled. ● In Kathak dance the emphasis is more on footwork as against hasta mudras or hand formations in Bharatnatyam dance. ● Kathak dance can be performed by both men and women. A Kathak dancer is not required strictly to stick to fixed steps and stages in. He or she can change the sequence of steps to suit his or her skill and style of dancing. ● Being the only classical dance of India having links with Muslim culture, it represents a unique synthesis of Hindu and Muslim genius in art. Further, Kathak is the only form of classical dance wedded to Hindustani or the North Indian music. Painting and Performing Arts 73 E. Odissi ● Odissi is a highly stylised dance and to some extent is based on the classical Natya Shastra and the Abhinaya Darpana. (Refer Fig. 6.14) ● It closely follows the tenets laid down by the Natya Shastra. Facial expressions, hand gestures and body movements are used to suggest a certain feeling, an emotion or one of the nine rasas. Tribhanga ● It is a very feminine stance where the body is deflected at the neck, torso and the knees. (Refer Fig. 6.16) Fig. 6.16. The Tribhanga Posture of Odissi Salient Features of Odissi Fig. 6.14. A Odissi Performance Chowk ● It is a position imitating a square – a very masculine stance with the weight of the body equally balanced. (Refer Fig. 5.15) ● The techniques of movement are built around the two basic postures of the Chowkand the Tribhanga. Fig. 6.15. A Chowk Performance ● The torso movement is very important and is a unique feature of the Odissi style. ● With the lower half of the body remaining static, the torso moves from one side to the other along the axis passing through the centre of the upper half of the body. Great training is required for this control so as to avoid any shoulder or hip movement. ● There are certain foot positions with flat, toe or heel contact. These are used in a variety of intricate combinations. There are also numerous possibilities of leg movements. Almost all leg movements are spiral or circular, whether in space or on the ground. ● In addition to the leg movement, there are a variety of gaits for doing pirouettes and jumps and also certain postures inspired by the sculptures. These bhangis, as they are called are really units of movement ending in one particular stance. ● Hand gestures play an important role both in nritta where they are used only as decorative embellishments and in nritya where they are used for communication. ● An Odissi orchestra essentially consists of a pakhawaj player (usually the Guru himself), a singer, a flutist, a sitar or violin player and a manjira player. 74 Master Series : Art and Culture F. Mohin iyattam ● Mohiniyattam literally interpreted as the dance of ‘Mohini’ is the classical solo dance form of Kerala. ● According to a Puranic story, Lord Vishnu took on the guise of a ‘Mohini’ to seduce the Asuras, both in connection with churning of the ocean and episode of the slaying of Bhasmasura. ● The delicate body movements and subtle facial expressions are more feminine in nature and therefore are ideally suited for performance by women. Fig. 6.17. The Mohiniyattam Dance Salient Features of Mohiniyattam Dance ● Mohiniyattam is characterized by graceful, swaying body movements with no abrupt jerks or sudden leaps. It belongs to the lasya style which is feminine, tender and graceful. ● The movements are emphasized by the glides and the up and down movement on toes, like the waves of the sea and the swaying of the coconut, palm trees and the paddy fields. ● The foot work is not terse and is rendered softly. Importance is given to the hand gestures and Mukhabhinaya with subtle facial expressions. ● Mohiniyattam lays emphasis on acting. The dancer identifies herself with the character and sentiments existing in the compositions like the Padams and Pada Varnams which give ample opportunity for facial expressions. ● The hand gestures, 24 in number, are mainly adopted from Hastalakshana Deepika, a text followed by Kathakali. Few are also borrowed from Natya Shastra, Abhinaya Darpana and Balarambharatam. ● The gestures and facial expressions are closer to the natural (gramya) and the realistic (lokadharmi) than to the dramatic or rigidly conventional (natyadharmi). G. Manipuri ● Manipuri dance is indigenous to Manipur, the North eastern state of India. ● The most striking part of Manipur dance is its colorful decoration, lightness of dancing foot, delicacy of abhinaya (drama), lilting music and poetic charm. ● Manipuri dance incorporates both the tandava and lasya and ranges from the most vigorous masculine to the subdued and graceful feminine. ● The Manipuri classical style of singing is called Nat – very different from both north and south Indian music. ● Manipuri Dance is a common name and envelopes all the dance-forms of Manipur. Thus, Manipuri dance can be called a basket of various dances. Various Forms of Manipuri Dance ● Ras Leela: The most important dance form in the Manipuri style. The theme revolves around the love of Krishna and the milkmaids (gopinis). Although the themes are romantic, we must remember that the Bhakti school of Hinduism considers physical love as a metaphor for spiritual longing. (Refer Fig. 6.18) ● Pung Cholom: It is based upon the drum known as pung or Manipuri mridang. This dance may be performed by men or women. The dancers play the pung at the same time that they are dancing. Sometimes acrobatics are used for an exciting effect, all without breaking the flow of the music. (Refer Fig. 6.19) ● Nupa Pala: It is a variation of the Pung Cholom; this is also known as the Kartal Cholom and is the cymbal dance. ● Khamba Thoibi: This portrays the love affair between a prince and princes of two warring clans. Painting and Performing Arts 75 ● Maibi This dance which deals with the cosmogony of the Meitei people of Manipur. Besides the Ras and other leelas, each stage in one’s life is celebrated with Sankirtana performances – child birth, upanayanam, wedding and shradha are all occasions for singing and dancing in Manipur. The whole community participates as song and dance form part of daily life expressions. ● The costumes are usually made of pat – a silk produced in Assam which is derived from the mulberry plant – and woven with intricate local motifs. Fig. 6.20. The Sattriya Dance Fig. 6.18. The Rasleela 6.5. Folk Dances of India Indian folk and tribal dances are simple dances, and are performed to express joy and happiness among themselves. Folk and tribal dances are performed for every possible occasion, to celebrate the arrival of seasons, birth of a child, a wedding and festivals. The dances are extremely simple with minimum of steps or movement. The dances burst with verve and vitality. On most occasions, the dancers sing themselves, while being accompanied by artists on the instruments. Each form of dance has a specific costume. Most costumes are flamboyant with extensive jewels. Fig. 6.19. The Cholom Pung H. Sattriya ● Sattriya recognized in 2000 as a classical dance by Sangeet Natak Akademi, the Sattriya is the most recent entrant in this list. (Refer Fig. 6.20) ● Traditionally, Sattriya was performed only by bhokots (male monks) in monasteries as a part of their daily rituals or to mark special festivals. ● Today, in addition to this practice, Sattriya is also performed on stage by men and women who are not members of the sattras, on themes not merely mythological. ● Sattriya dance tradition is governed by strictly laid down principles in respect of hastamudras, footworks, aharyas, music etc. Folk Dance of Central India ● Chuar Dance (Madhya Pradesh): Men put head-dresses with stringed ‘cowries’ and plumes of peacock feathers and make their way to the dancing ground. Women ornamented with brass fillets and bead necklaces with their tattooed bodies also join the gathering. The men beat the drums, tossing the horns and feathers of their head-gears to the rising tempo that gives the dance a wilder touch. ● Muria Dances (Chhattisgarh): At the start of dance sequences they begin with an invocation to the phallic deity of their tribe and the founder of the Ghotul institution. The site chosen for the dance is near the Ghotul compound. During marriages, the Muria boys and girls perform Har Endanna dance. 76 Master Series : Art and Culture ● Saila Dance (Chhattisgarh): Performed during the post harvest time. Saila is a stickdance and is popular among the people of Sarguja, Chhindwara and Betul districts. Saila dance often comes out with many variations and much buffoonery. Sometimes the dancers form a circle, each standing on one leg and supporting himself by holding on to the man in front. ● Karma Dance (Chhattisgarh): The Karma dance is associated with the fertility cult and is related to the Karma festival that falls in the month of August. The Karma dance symbolizes coming of green branches in tress during the spring season. Fig. 6.21. The Chhau ● Kaksar Dance: Kaksar dance is performed during the festival period. To invoke the blessings of the deity, young boys and girls perform Kaksar (a group dance). The Kaksar dance presents a unique opportunity to boys and girls to choose their life partners. Folk Dances of East India ● Chhau (Jharkhand, Odisa, Fig. 6.22. The Goti Puas West Bengal): All the Chhau (mask dance) performers hold swords and shields while performing. The stages are decorated and brightly lit by torches, lanterns and flickering oil lamps. The musical instruments used are the Dhol (a cylindrical drum), Nagara (a huge drum) and Shehnai (reed pipes). The Chhau dance is performed by men and boys. Seraikela (Jharkhnad), Purulia(West Bengal) Mayurbhanj (Not, wearing mask, Odisha). (Refer Fig. 6.21) ● Brita Dance (West Bengal): Usually the barren women of the region perform the Brita dance to invoke the blessings of the Gods so that their wishes are fulfilled. Traditionally this dance is performed after a person recovers from a contagious disease like small pox. ● Kali Naach (West Bengal): The Kali dance is performed to invoke the blessings of Goddess Kali. While performing the Kali Naach, the performers wear a mask, purified by mantras and dances to the accompaniment of a sword. ● Dalkhai (Orissa): Dalkhai Dance is performed during the time of festivals. In the Dalkhai dance the men usually play the musical instruments. Chaiti Ghora is a dummy horse version of the Dalkhai dance and is popular in the fishing communities. ● Goti Puas (Orissa): It is interesting to note that the Odissi dance evolved from a curious amalgamation of both Mahari and Goti Pua dance styles. Usually a Goti Pua performance is ably supported by a set of three musicians, who play the pakhawaj, cymbals and harmonium. The boys do the singing themselves, though at times the group has an additional singer. (Refer Fig. 6.11) Folk Dances of North East India ● Bihu (Assam): It is an integral part of the Bihu festival of Assam. Young men and girls perform the Bihu dance together to the accompaniment of drums and pipes. Love forms the subject matter of the songs that are sung during the performance. The dances are performed in circles or parallel rows. Painting and Performing Arts 77 Fig. 6.23. Bihu Dance Form ● Hajgiri (Tripura): It is performed by young girls who display a series of balancing skills and instruments of their kind. It is to ensure good harvest. Tribal people of Tripura and other adjoining states make use of the compounds of their own houses as dancing grounds during main festivals. ● Nongkrem (Meghalaya): ‘Nongkrem’ is an important folkdance of Meghalaya. The Khasis tribe of Meghalaya also celebrates the ripening of paddy for threshing, by dances and songs. ● Dhol-Cholom (Manipur): Dhol Cholom, a drum dance is one of the dances performed during Holi in Manipur. The Thang-ta dance of Manipur was an evolved from the martial arts drills promoted by the kings of Manipur. The dance is exciting and is performed by young men holding swords and shields. Folk Dance of North India ● Hikat (Himachal Pradesh): It is performed by women. The Hikat dance is performed in pairs and the participants extend their arms to the front, holding each other’s wrists. The dancers keep their bodies inclined back and make round of the same place. ● Namagen (Himachal Pradesh): Namagen is a dance performance usually held during autumnal hue celebrations. The most prominent dance amongst these is the Gaddis. In this dance the costumes are largely woolen. ● Hurka Baul (Uttarakhand): Some of the seasonal folk dances of Uttarakhand are Jhumeila, the Chaufula of Garhwal and the Hurka Baul of Kumaon. The Hurka Baul dance is performed during the cultivation of paddy and maize. The drum (Hurka) which is the only musical accompaniment and baul, the song. In the Hurka Baul dance the singer narrates the story of battles and heroic deeds, the performers enter from two opposite sides and enact the stories in a series of crisp movements. ● Chholiya (Uttarakhand): The Chholiya dance is performed during marriages. As the procession of marriage proceeds to the bride’s house, the male dancers, armed with swords and shields, dance animatedly. ● Bhangra (Punjab): It is performed by men folks during Baisakhi. During the Bhangra performance the drummer is surrounded by men dressed in lungis and turbans. (Refer Fig. 6.25) ● Dumhal (Jammu & Kashmir): This dance is performed with long colorful robes, tall conical caps (studded with beads and shells). Dumhal dance is accompanied by songs which the performers themselves sing. It is supported by drums. (Refer Fig. 6.24) Fig. 6.25. The Bhangra Fig. 6.24. Dumhal ● Luddi (Punjab): It is performed by men folk. Luddi is performed to celebrate victory. In the Luddi dance the try to copy the movement of a snake’s head. 78 Master Series : Art and Culture ● Gidha (Punjab): In the Gidha dance a woman or a pair of women dance while the others surrounding her clap in rhythm. The Gidha dance is performed during the festival of Teeyan to welcome the monsoons (rains). ● Dhamyal (Haryana): It is performed either by men alone or with women. A circular drum (Dhup) is played lightly by the male dancers. The spring season is a time of celebration in Haryana. The celebration is done usually after the work in the fields has been done. Nataraja or Lord Shiva, before leaving for the battlefield. The Perini dance is performed to the accompaniment of the beat of the drums. ● Thapetta Gullu (Andhra Pradesh): More than ten persons participate in this dance. The participants or performers sing songs in the praise of local goddess. Dancers use drums, hanging around their necks. The dancers wear tinkling bells around their waist. (Refer Fig. 6.27) Folk Dances of South India ● Padayani (Kerala): It is associated with the festival of certain temples, called Padayani or Paddeni. Such temples are in Alleppey, Quilon, Pathanamthitta and Kottayam districts. The main Kolams (huge masks) displayed in Padayani are Bhairavi (Kali), Kalan (god of death), Yakshi (fairy) and Pakshi (bird). ● Kummi (Tamil Nadu): Kummi is a popular folk dance of Tamil Nadu. Kummi dance is performed by tribal women during festivals. Kummi is a simple folk dance where dancers form circles and clap in rhythmic way. (Refer Fig. 6.26) Fig. 6.26. The Kummi ● Kolattam (Andhra and Tamil Nadu): It is derived from Kol (a small stick) and Attam (play). Kolattam dance is a combination of rhythmic movements, songs and music and is performed during local village festivals. The stick, used in the Kolattam dance, provides the main rhythm. ● Perini (Andhra Pradesh): The Perini Thandavam is a male dance of the warriors. As a part of tradition, the warriors performed this dominant dance in front of the idol of Fig. 6.27. The Thapetta Gullu Folk Dances of South West India ● Dollu Kunitha (Karnataka): Large drums are adorned with colored clothes and hang around the necks of men. The songs used in this dance usually have religious and battle fervor. This dance forms a part of the ritualistic dances of the Dodavas of Karnataka. (Refer Fig. 6.29) ● Ghode Modni (Goa): It portrays the brave deeds of the Goan warriors. In the Ghode Modni (dummy horse presentation) dance the delightfully dressed dancers perform dances, armed with swords. During the Ghode Modni celebrations people are in a mood for fun and frolic. ● Lava Dance of Minicoy (Lakshadweep): During the Lava dance performance the dancers are dressed in multi-hued costumes and a headgear. They also carry a drum. The dancers perform to the rhythmic beats of drums and songs. (Refer Fig. 6.29) ● Tarangmel (Goa): It is usually performed during Dussehra and Holi celebrations. Gathering of young people is an invitation to everyone to join in the festive spirit. The musical instruments used during Tarangmel are ‘romut’, ‘dhol’ and ‘tasha’. Painting and Performing Arts 79 Tali dancers hold cymbals in their hands and strike them in a rhythmic manner. ● Dindi and Kala (Maharashtra): In these dances the playful attitude of Lord Krishna is presented. Dindi is a small drum. The musicians, comprising ‘Mridangam’ player and a vocalist, stand in the center and give the dancers the necessary musical background. Men and women folk perform the dance on the rhythmic music. Fig. 6.28. The Dollu Kunitha Fig. 6.29. The Lava Dance Folk Dances of West India ● Dandiya (Gujarat and Rajasthan): Dressed in colorful costumes, the performers play skillfully with big sticks in their hands. Dandiya dance is accompanied by the musical instrument called the ‘Meddale’ played by the drummer in the centre. (Refer Fig. 6.29) ● Garba (Gujarat): It is associated with the fertility cult. The Garba dance is performed throughout nine nights of Navaratri, an autumn festival. Women folk come out into the open and with perforated earthen pots holding lighted lambs poised on the head sing, clap and dance a simple, circular dance, in honor of the Goddess Amba. ● Dhangari Gaja (Maharashtra): It is performed by Dhangars of Maharashtra to please their God for blessings. The Dhangari Gaja dance is performed in the traditional Marathi dresses – Dhoti, Angarakha and Pheta, accompanied by colorful handkerchiefs. Dancers move around a group of drum players. ● Koli (Maharashtra): The dances of Kolis incorporate all elements of their surroundings. The Koli dance is performed by both men and women – divided into two groups. The main story of the dance is enacted by the smaller group of men and women. (Refer Fig. 6.31) Fig. 6.30. Dandiya ● Tera Tali (Rajasthan): It is performed by two or three women of the ‘Kamar’ tribe. The women folk sit on the ground while performing the Tera Tali which is an elaborate ritual with many other rituals in it. The Tera Fig. 6.31. Koli Dance 80 Master Series : Art and Culture 6.6. Indian Music and Instrument The ‘Deep’ Origin of Music in India The origins of Indian classical music can be found in the Vedas, which are the oldest scriptures in the Hindu tradition dating back to 1500 BCE. ● The Sama veda was derived from the Rig veda so that its hymns could be sung as Samagana. These hymns were sung by Udgatar priests at sacrifices in which the Soma ritual drink, clarified and mixed with milk and other ingredients, was offered in libation to various deities. ● This chanting style evolved into jatis and eventually into ragas. Indian classical music has also been significantly influenced by, or syncretised with, Indian folk music. ● Bharat's Natyashastra was the first treatise laying down fundamental principles of dance, music, and drama. What is a Raga? Each Raga has its own scale consisting of minimum five and maximum seven notes (swaras). A raga has specific ascending (Aaroh) and descending (Avaroh) movements, specific dominating notes (vadi) and specific notes complementing the Vadi (Samvadi) notes. The characteristic phrases of a raga (Pakad) establish its identity and mood. Types of Classical Music ● Carnatic Music: Carnatic music is confined to Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Kerala. ● Hindustani Music: The classical music of the rest of the country goes under the name, Hindustani Classical Music. Hindustani Music Evolution of Hindustani Music ● Advent of Islamic rule under the Delhi Sultanate and later the Mughal Empire over northern India helped spur the fusion of Hindu and Muslim ideas to bring forth new forms of musical synthesis like qawwali and khyal. ● After the dissolution of the Mughal empire, the patronage of music continued in smaller princely kingdoms like Awadh, Patiala, and Banaras, giving rise to the diversity of styles that is today known as gharanas. ● There is an amount of foreign influences in Hindustani music in terms of the instruments, style of presentation, and ragas such as Hijaz Bhairav, Bhairavi, Bahar, and Yaman. ● Also, as is the case with Carnatic music, Hindustani music has assimilated various folk tunes. Types of Hindustani Compositions ● The major vocal forms or styles associated with Hindustani classical music are: ♦ Dhrupad ♦ Khyal ♦ Tarana ● Other forms include dhamar, trivat, chaiti, kajari, tappa, tap-khyal, ashtapadis, thumri, dadra, ghazal and bhajan; these are folk or semi-classical or light classical styles, as they often do not adhere to the rigorous rules of classical music. (a) Dhrupad ● It is an old style of singing, traditionally performed by male singers. ● The lyrics, some of which were written in Sanskrit centuries ago, are presently often sung in brajbhasha, a medieval form of North and East Indian languages that was spoken in Eastern India. ● Dhrupad music is primarily devotional in theme and content. ● Dhrupad was the main form of northern Indian classical music until two centuries ago, when it gave way to the somewhat less austere khyal, a more free-form style of singing. (b) Khayal ● It is a Hindustani form of vocal music based on Dhrupad. ● Khyal, literally meaning “thought” or “imagination” in Hindustani and derived from the Arabic term, is unusual as it is based on improvising and expressing emotion. Painting and Performing Arts 81 ● A Khayal is a two to eight-line lyric set to a melody. The lyric is of an emotional account possibly from poetic observation. ● Khayals are also popular for depicting the emotions between two lovers, situations of ethological significance in Hinduism and Islam, or other situations evoking intense feelings. ● Amir Khusrau might have created the style in the late 14th century. (c) Tarana ● Taranas are medium to fast-paced songs that are used to convey a mood of elation and are usually performed towards the end of a concert. ● They consist of a few lines of poetry with soft syllables or bols set to a tune. ● The tillana of Carnatic music is based on the tarana, although the former is primarily associated with dance. (d) Tappa ● Tappa is a form of Indian semi-classical vocal music whose speciality is its rolling pace based on fast, subtle, knotty construction. ● It originated from the folk songs of the camel riders of Punjab and was developed as a form of classical music (e) Thumri ● Thumri is a semi-classical vocal form said to have begun in Uttar Pradesh with the court of Nawab Wajid Ali Shah. Instruments used in Hindustani Music ● Plays of the Tabla, a type of drum, usually keep the rhythm, an indicator of time in Hindustani music. ● Another common instrument is the stringed Tanpura, which is played at a steady tone (a drone) throughout the performance of the raga, and which provides both a point of reference for the musician and a background against which the music stands out. The task of playing the tanpura traditionally falls to a student of the soloist. ● Other instruments for accompaniment include the Sarangi and the Harmonium. Carnatic Music ● Carnatic music remained relatively unaffected by Persian and Arabic influences. It was at this time that Carnatic music flourished in Vijayanagara, while the Vijayanagar Empire reached its greatest extent. ● The main emphasis in Carnatic music is on vocal music; most compositions are written to be sung, and even when played on instruments, they are meant to be performed in a singing style (known as gāyaki). Like Hindustani music, Carnatic music rests on two main elements. ● Rāga: The modes or melodic formulæ ● Tāla: The rhythmic cycles ● There are three types of thumri: Poorab ang, Lucknavi and Punjabi thumri. Important Elements of Carnatic Music ● The lyrics are typically in a proto-Hindi language called Brij Bhasha and are usually romantic. ● Śruti: Commonly refers to musical pitch (f) Ghazal ● Ghazal is the most common form of poetry in the Urdu language and was popularized by classical poets like Mir Taqi Mir, Ghalib, Daagh, Zauq and Sauda amongst the North Indian literary elite. ● Ghazal exists in multiple variations, including semi-classical, folk and pop forms. ● Swara: Refers to a type of musical sound that is a single note, which defines a relative (higher or lower) position of a note, rather than a defined frequency. Raga System in Carnatic ● A raga in Carnatic music prescribes a set of rules for building a melody. ● In Carnatic music, the sampoorna ragas (those with all seven notes in their scales) are 82 Master Series : Art and Culture classified into a system called the melakarta, which groups them according to the kinds of notes that they have. ● There are seventy-two melakarta ragas. There is a system known as the katapayadi sankhya to determine the names of melakarta ragas. ● Ragas may be divided into two classes: janaka ragas (i.e. melakarta or parent ragas) and janya ragas (descendant ragas of a particular janaka raga). Tala System in Carnatic ● Tala refers to a fixed time cycle or meter, set for a particular composition, which is built from groupings of beats. ● Talas have cycles of a defined number of beats and rarely change within a song. ● Carnatic music singers usually keep the beat by moving their hands up and down in specified patterns, and using their fingers simultaneously to keep time. Compositions of Carnatic ● In contrast to Hindustani music of the northern part of India, Carnatic music is taught and learned through compositions, which encode many intricate musical details, also providing scope for free improvisation. ● A Carnatic composition really has two elements, one being the musical element, the other being what is conveyed in the composition. ● In addition to the rich musical experience, each composition brings out the knowledge and personality of the composer, and hence the words are as important as the musical element itself. ● There are many types/forms of compositions. Geethams and swarajatis (which have their own peculiar composition structures) are principally meant to serve as basic learning exercises. Prominent Composers in Carnatic ● Purandara Dasa, who is known as the father (Pitamaha) of Carnatic Music, formulated the system that is commonly used for the teaching of Carnatic music. ● The contemporaries Tyagaraja, Muthuswami, Dikshitar and Syama Sastri are regarded as the Trinity of Carnaticmusic because of the quality of Syama Sastri's compositions, the varieties of compositions of Muthuswami Dikshitar, and Tyagaraja's prolific output in composing kritis. Forms in Carnatic music The most common and significant forms in Carnatic music are the Varnam and the Kriti (or kirtanam). (a) Varnam ● Varnams are short metric pieces which encapsulate the main features and requirements of a raga. ● All varnams consist of lyrics, as well as swara passages, including a pallavi, an anupallavi, muktayi swaras, a charanam, and chittaswaras. ● Known for their complex structure, varnams are a fundamental form in Carnatic music. (b) Kriti – The Carnatic Song Carnatic songs (kritis) are varied in structure and style, but generally consist of three units. ● Pallavi: This is the equivalent of a refrain in Western music, with 1 or 2 lines. ● Anupallavi: This is the second verse, also as 2 lines. ● Charana: The final (and longest) verse that wraps up the song. The Charanam usually borrows patterns from the Anupallavi. There can be multiple charanas. Similarities and Differences Between 'Hindustani' and 'Carnatic' Music ● Both the styles are monophonic, follow a melodic line and employ a drone (tanpura) with the help of one or two notes against the melody. ● Both the styles use definite scales to define a raga but the Carnatic Style employs Shrutis or semitones to create a Raga and thus have many more Ragas than the Hindustani style. ● Carnatic ragas differ from Hindustani ragas. The names of ragas are also different. ● However, there are some ragas which have the same scale as Hindustani ragas but have different names; such as Hindolam and Malkauns, Shankarabharanam and Bilawal. Conti... Painting and Performing Arts 83 ● There is a third category of ragas like Hamsadhwani, Charukeshi, Kalavati etc. which are essentially Carnatic Ragas. They share the same name, the same scale (same set of notes) but can be rendered in the two distinctively different Carnatic and Hindustani styles. ● Unlike Hindustani music, Carnatic music does not adhere to Time or Samay concepts and instead of Thaats, Carnatic music follows the Melakarta concept. Folk Music A. Bauls ● The Bauls of Bengal are an order of musicians dating back to the 17th century, who play a form of Vaishnava music using a khamak, ektara and dotara. ● The word Baul comes from Sanskrit batul meaning divinely inspired insanity. ● They are a group of mystic minstrels with a syncretic form of Vaishnavism influenced by Sufism and Buddhism. ● They are itinerant singer-poets whose music is earthy, and reflects on the infinite amid quotidian contexts of work and love. ● They have also been influenced by Hindu tantric sect of the Kartabhajas and also by Sufi sects. Bauls travel in search of the internal ideal, Maner Manush (Man of the Heart). B. Bhangra ● Bhangra are a lively form of music and dance that originated in the Punjab region to celebrate Baisakhi, the festival of the Sikhs. ● As many Bhangra lyrics reflect the long and often tumultuous history of the Punjab, knowledge of Punjabi history offers important insights into the meaning of the music. C. Dandiya ● It is practiced in (mainly) the state of Gujarat. ● Dandiya is a form of dance-oriented folk music that has also been adapted for pop music. ● The present musical style is derived from the traditional musical accompaniment to the folk dance. D. Gana Sangeet ● Gana sangeet is generally sung in chorus carrying some social message. ● The songs are usually about Freedom, community strength, patriotism. ● Due to the British occupation in India, a lot of protest songs about anti-imperialism/prosocialism has been written in India. ● Examples: Apni Azadi Ko Hum Hargis Mita Sakte Nahin, ajadee hoyni tor, Kadam kadam badhaye jaa, Vande Mataram, etc. E. Haryanavi Music ● It is sung and played in the state of Haryana, parts of western UP and neighboring districts of Rajasthan and Punjab. ● The Jogis, Bhats and Sangis are the people who have made folk music popular in Haryana. ● The tradition of music in Haryana goes back to the Vedic times, and it is the only state in India to have towns and villages named after different ragas. ● Mainly string instruments are used to make music. The sarangi is generally preferred. ● For the wind instruments, the Been and the Bansuri provide lilting tunes in tandem with the Dholak, a Drum usually played with the palms or little sticks. F. Lavani ● Lavani comes from the word Lavanya which means beauty. ● Lavani originated in the arid region of Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh practiced all over Maharashtra. ● Traditionally, the songs are sung by female artistes, but male artistes may occasionally sing Lavanis. ● The dance format associated with Lavani is known as Tamasha. ● Lavani is a combination of traditional song and dance, which particularly performed to the enchanting beats of 'Dholak', an drum like instrument. ● They are sung in a quick tempo. Musical Instruments of India ● There are many musical instruments in India. ● Some instruments are used primarily in north Indian music (Hindustani sangeet), some are used in the south Indian music (Carnatic 84 Master Series : Art and Culture sangeet), while others are found in folk music. Musical instruments are classified into 5 types. 1. Non-membranous percussion (Ghan) 2. Membranous percussion (Avanaddh) 3. Wind blown (Sushir) 4. Plucked string (Tat) 5. Bowed string (Vitat) or lowered by opening or closing the hole with the stomach. A. Non-Membranous Percussion (Ghan) ● This is one of the oldest classes of instruments in India. ● This class is based upon percussive instruments which do not have membranes, specifically those which have solid resonators. ● These may be either melodic instruments or instruments to keep tale. (a) Ghungharu ● Ghungharu are the "tinklebells" or "jingle bells" which are used to adorn the feet of dancers. ● When tied to the feet, they are played by the act of dancing. ● They may also be played by hand. ● This instrument evolved from the payal which are traditional anklets worn by women in India. Fig. 6.33. The Ghatam Instrument (c) Manjira ● It is also called jhanj, tala, mondira, (small size) kafi (large size), or a host of other names. ● It is basically a set of small cymbals. It is a ubiquitous component of dance music and bhajans. ● It is a very ancient instrument; examples may be seen on temple walls going back to the earliest of times. ● They are usually made of brass. Fig. 6.34. Manjira Fig. 6.32. The Ghungharu (b) Ghatam ● Ghatam is a large clay pot. ● It is very commonly played in South Indian classical performances. ● There are two actions of resonance. The primary one is the ringing of the pot caused by striking. A very low resonance is also produced by the cavity. This pitch is raised B. Wind Blown Instrument (Sushir) This class of instrument is characterized by the use of air to excite the var ious resonators. (a) Flutes ● They are typically made of bamboo or reed. ● There are two main types : Bansuri and Venu. ● The bansuri is used in the North Indian system. It typically has six holes, however there has been a tendency in recent years Painting and Performing Arts 85 to use seven holes for added flexibility and correctness of pitch in the higher registers. ● Venu is the South Indian flute and is used in the Carnatic system. It typically has eight holes. ● It is considered a very auspicious instrument and is found at temples and at weddings. (b) Harmonium ● The harmonium is also known as peti or baja. ● It is a reed organ with hand pumped bellows. ● This instrument is not a native Indian instrument. It is a European instrument which was imported in the 19th century. ● Although it is a relatively recent introduction, it has spread throughout the subcontinent. Today, it is used in virtually every musical genre except the south Indian classical. (c) Shehnai ● The shehnai is a North Indian instrument. ● Although it is referred to as a double-reeded instrument it is actually a quadruple-reed instrument. This is because it has two upper reeds and two lower reeds. ● The instrument has a wooden body with a brass bell. The reed is attached to a brass tube which is wrapped in string. ● The shehnai has eight holes but it is common to find some of the holes partially or completely occluded with wax. ● The sound of the shehnai is considered particularly auspicious. Fig. 6.36. Nadaswaram C. Plucked Stringed Instruments (Tat) This class of instruments is characterized by plucked strings. In ancient times virtually all instruments of this class were referred to as veena. (a) Saraswati Veena ● Saraswati veena (Saraswathi veena or simply ‘veena’) is the instrument associated with Saraswati, the goddess of learning and the arts. ● This instrument is common in south India and is an important instrument in carnatic sangeet. ● It has a body made of wood, generally, this is jackwood. ● The highest quality veenas have the entire body carved from a single block of wood, while the ordinary veenas have a body which is carved in three sections (resonator, neck and head). ● A major centre for the manufacture of the saraswati veena is in Tanjore. Fig. 6.35. Shehnai (d) Nadaswaram ● Nadaswaram is a South Indian version of the shehnai. It is also called nagaswaram. ● It is substantially larger than the shehnai and has a simple double reed rather than the more complex quadruple reed. Fig. 6.37. The Veena 86 Master Series : Art and Culture (b) Sitar ● Artists such as Ravi Shankar have popularized this instrument around the world. ● Sitar is a long necked instrument with an interesting construction. ● It has a varying number of strings but 17 is usual. It has three to four playing strings and three to four drone strings. ● There are also a series of sympathetic strings lying under the frets. These strings are almost never played but they vibrate whenever the corresponding note is sounded. ● The frets are metal rods which have been bent into crescents. The main resonator is usually made of a gourd and there is sometimes an additional resonator attached to the neck. D. Bowed-Stringed Instruments (Virat) This is a class of stringed instruments which are bowed. (a) Dilruba ● Dilruba is a cross between the sitar and sarangi. ● The dilruba is popular in north-west India. It is found in Punjab, Uttar Pradesh and Maharashtra. Fig. 6.40. The Dilruba (b) Violin Fig. 6.38. The Sitar (c) Sarod ● Sarod is an instrument which is derived from the rabab. It is not an ancient instrument, probably no more than 150 to 200 years. ● It is essentially a bass Rabab. It has a metal fingerboard with no frets. The bridge rests on a taut membrane which covers the resonator. Fig. 6.39. The Sarod ● The violin is not native to the Indian subcontinent ● There appears to be no difference in construction between the Indian violin and its Western counterpart, however the technique is quite different. ● The most refined technique is to be found in South Indian music. Instead of holding the instrument under the chin, the musician props it between the shoulder and the foot. This gives a stability which cannot be matched by either north Indian nor occidental techniques. ● North Indian technique, though not nearly as refined, is still impressive. Fig. 6.41. The Violin Painting and Performing Arts 87 (b) Mridangam (c) Sarangi ● It has three to four main playing strings and a number of sympathetic strings. The instrument has no frets or fingerboard; the strings float in the air. ● Pitch is determined by sliding the fingernail against the string rather than pressing it against a fingerboard (like violin). ● This instrument has traditionally been associated with the kathak dance and the vocal styles of thumri, dadra and kheyal. ● Mridangam is a South Indian version of the pakhawaj. ● It has heavy annular membrane around the right side, and a number of pieces of straw which are placed radially between the annular membrane and the main membrane. ● The right side has a permanent application, known as soru or karanai. The left side uses a mixture of flour and water to provide a proper tone. This application must be removed after each performance. ● The lacing and heads are all placed upon a barrel shaped wooden shell. The wood is usually of jackwood. Fig. 6.42. The Sarangi E. Membranous Percussive (Avanaddh) This is a class of instruments which have struck membranes. These typically comprise the drums. (a) Tabla Fig. 6.44. Mridangam (c) Nagada ● Tabla is a pair of drums. It consists of a small right hand drum called dayan and a larger metal one called bayan. ● The dayan (right hand drum) is almost always made of wood. ● The bayan (left hand drum) may be made of iron, aluminium, copper, steel, or clay; yet brass with a nickel or chrome plate is the most common material. ● The large black spot on each of the playing surfaces are a mixture of gum, soot, and iron filings. ● Nagada are the kettle drums of the old naubat (traditional ensemble of nine instruments). ● These drums are about 1-2 feet in diameter, and played with sticks. Fig. 6.45. Nagada (d) Dholak Fig. 6.43. The Tabla ● Dholak is a very popular folk drum of northern India. ● It is barrel shaped with a simple membrane on the right hand side; basically it is just a smaller version of the dhol. 88 Master Series : Art and Culture ● The left hand is also a single membrane with a special application on the inner surface. This application is a mixture of tar, clay and sand (dholak masala) which lowers the pitch and provides a well defined tone. sculpture are reflected in them. Stories adapted from puranic literature, local myths and legends usually form the content. Importance of Puppetry ● Puppetry has been successfully used to motivate emotionally and physically handicapped students to develop their mental and physical status. ● The aesthetic satisfaction derived from making of puppets and communicating through them helps in the all round development of the personality of the child. ● In modern times, educationists all over the world have realised the potential of puppetry as a medium for communication. ● Many institutions and individuals in India are involving students and teachers in the use of puppetry for communicating educational concepts. Fig. 6.46. Dholak (e) Damaru ● Damaru is the most common hour-glass drum in India. ● The resonator is usually either metal or wood. ● There are two drumheads on each side of the resonator which are laced together with cord. ● Near the centre of the lacing are two loose knoted cords. ● The knots on each end strike both heads to produce a rattling sound. This is affected by rotating the drum rapidly in alternating directions. The pitch is bent by squeezing the lacing. Fig 5.47. Damaru 6.7. Puppet Forms in India The root of Puppet is derived from the latin word ‘Pupa’ meaning a doll. In Sanskrit terminology Puttalika and Puttika means ‘little sons’. The earliest reference to the art of puppetry is found in Tamil classic ‘Silappadikaram’ written around the 1st or 2nd century B.C. Like traditional theatre, themes for puppet theatre are mostly based on epics and legends. Puppets from different parts of the country have their own identity. Regional styles of painting and Types of Puppetry in India 1. 2. 3. 4. String Puppets Shadow Puppets Rod Puppets Glove Puppets (a) String Puppets ● India has a rich and ancient tradition of string puppets or marionettes. ● Marionettes having jointed limbs controlled by strings allow far greater flexibility and are, therefore, the most articulate of the puppets. ● Rajasthan, Orissa, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu are some of the regions where this form of puppetry has flourished. Some are described below: Kathputli (Rajasthan) ● Materials Used: Carved from a single piece of wood, these puppets are like large dolls that are colourfully dressed. ● Costumes: Headgears are designed in the medieval Rajasthani style of dress, which is prevalent even today. ● Music: Kathputli is accompanied by a highly dramatised version of the regional music. Painting and Performing Arts 89 ● Appearance Oval faces, large eyes, arched eyebrows and large lips are some of the distinct facial features of these string puppets. These puppets wear long trailing skirts and do not have legs. ● Performance Puppeteers manipulate them with two to five strings which are normally tied to their fingers and not to a prop or a support. Fig. 6.48. Kathputli Gombeyatta (Karnataka) ● They are styled and designed like the characters of Yakshagana, the traditional theatre form of the region. ● Appearance: Gombeyatta puppet figures are highly stylized and have joints at the legs, shoulders, elbows, hips and knees. ● Materials Used: These puppets are manipulated by five to seven strings tied to a prop. Some of the more complicated movements of the puppet are manipulated by two to three puppeteers at a time. ● Story: Episodes enacted in Gombeyatta are usually based on Prasangas of the Yakshagana plays. ● Music: It accompanies is dramatic and beautifully blends folk and classical elements. Kundhei (Orissa) ● Materials Used: Made of light wood, the Orissa puppets have no legs but wear long flowing skirts. ● Technique: They have more joints and are, therefore, more versatile, articulate and easy to manipulate. ● Performance: The puppeteers often hold a wooden prop, triangular in shape, to which strings are attached for manipulation. ● Costumes: Kundhei resemble those worn by actors of the Jatra traditional theatre. ● Music: It is drawn from the popular tunes of the region and is sometimes influenced by the music of Odissi dance. Fig. 6.49. Kundhei Dance Fig. 6.50. The Gombeyatta Bommalattam (Tamil Nadu) ● Technique: It combines the techniques of both rod and string puppets. They are made of wood and the strings for manipulation are tied to an iron ring which the puppeteer wears like a crown on his head. A few puppets have jointed arms and hands, which are manipulated by rods. ● Appearance: The Bommalattam puppets are the largest, heaviest and the most articulate of all traditional Indian marionettes. A puppet may be as big as 4.5 feet in height weighing about ten kilograms. ● Bommalattam theatre has elaborate preliminaries which are divided into four parts – Vinayak Puja, Komali, Amanattam and Pusenkanattam. 90 Master Series : Art and Culture Tholu Bommalata (Andhra Pradesh) ● Puppets: The puppets are large in size and have jointed waist, shoulders, elbows and knees. ● Appearance: They are coloured on both sides. Hence, these puppets throw coloured shadows on the screen. ● Music and Theme: It is dominantly influenced by the classical music of the region and the theme of the puppet plays are drawn from the Ramayana, Mahabharata and Puranas. Fig.5.51. Bommalattam (b) Shadow Puppets ● Shadow puppets are flat figures. They are cut out of leather, which has been treated to make it translucent. ● Shadow puppets are pressed against the screen with a strong source of light behind it. ● The manipulation between the light and the screen make silhouettes or colourful shadows, as the case may be, for the viewers who sit in front of the screen. ● This tradition of shadow puppets survives in Orissa, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu. Togalu Gombeyatta (Karnataka) ● These puppets are mostly small in size. ● The puppets however differ in size according to their social status, for instance, large size for kings and religious characters and smaller size for common people or servants. Fig. 6.52. The Togalu Gombeyatta Fig. 6.53. The Tholu Bommalata Ravanachhaya ● The puppets are in one piece and have no joints. They are not coloured, hence throw opaque shadows on the screen. ● The manipulation requires great dexterity, since there are no joints. The puppets are made of deer skin and are conceived in bold dramatic poses. ● Apart from human and animal characters, many props such as trees, mountains, chariots, etc. are also used. ● Although, Ravanachhaya puppets are smaller in size-the largest not more than two feet have no jointed limbs, they create very sensitive and lyrical shadows. Fig. 6.54. The Ravanachhaya Painting and Performing Arts 91 (c) Rod Puppets ● Rod puppets are an extension of glovepuppets, but often much larger and supported and manipulated by rods from below. ● This form of puppetry now is found mostly in West Bengal and Orissa. Putul Nach ● Materials Used They are carved from wood and follow the various artistic styles of a particular region. ● Appearance The Bengal rod-puppets, which survive are about 3 to 4 feet in height and are costumed like the actors of Jatra, a traditional theatre form prevalent in the State. ● Performance These puppets have mostly three joints. The heads, supported by the main rod, is joined at the neck and both hands attached to rods are joined at the shoulders. Yampuri ● Materials Used: These puppets are made of wood. ● Appearance: Unlike the traditional Rod puppets of West Bengal and Orissa, these puppets are in one piece and have no joints. ● Technique: As these puppets have no joints, the manipulation is different from other Rod puppets and requires greater dexterity. Fig. 6.56. The Yampuri Puppets (d) Glove Puppets Fig. 6.55. The Putul Nach Odisha Rod Puppets ● Materials Used: They also have mostly three joints, but the hands are tied to strings instead of rods. Thus elements of rod and string puppets are combined in this form of puppetry. They are much smaller in size, usually about twelve to eighteen inches. ● Technique: Manipulation is somewhat different. The Orissa rod-puppeteers squat on the ground behind a screen and manipulate. ● Music: The music blends folk tunes with classical Odissi tunes. The music begins with a short piece of ritual orchestral preliminary called Stuti and is followed by the play. ● Performance: The puppets of Orissa are smaller than those from Bengal or Andhra Pradesh. Rod puppet shows of Orissa are more operatic and prose dialogues are seldom used. ● Glove puppets, are also known as sleeve, hand or palm puppets. ● The head is made of either papier mache, cloth or wood, with two hands emerging from just below the neck. The rest of the figure consists of a long flowing skirt. ● The manipulation technique is simple the movements are controlled by the human hand the first finger inserted in the head and the middle finger and the thumb are the two arms of the puppet. With the help of these three fingers, the glove puppet comes alive. ● The tradition of glove puppets in India is popular in Uttar Pradesh, Orissa, West Bengal and Kerala. ● In Uttar Pradesh, glove puppet plays usually present social themes, whereas in Orissa such plays are based on stories of Radha and Krishna. ● In Orissa, the puppeteer plays on the dholak with one hand and manipulates the puppet with the other. The delivery of the dialogues, the movement of the puppet and the beat of 92 Master Series : Art and Culture the dholak are well synchronised and create a dramatic atmosphere. 6.8. Theatre Forms in India The Indian theatre has a tradition going back to at least 5000 years. Theatre in India started as a narrative form, i.e., reciting, singing and dancing become integral elements of the theatre. The western philosophy of life is deep-rooted in the belief that there is no life after death whereas the Indian philosophy, especially the Hindu doctrine, sees life in a continuity, i.e., there is no end even after death. Theatre in the West presents life as it is whereas in India it presents life as it should be. In other words, Life in the West has been portrayed nearer to realism whether in theatre or other arts but in India it has been illustrated more in idealistic terms. Fig. 6.57. The Glove Puppets Pavakoothu ● Evolution: It came into existence during the 18th century due to the influence of Kathakali, the famous classical dance-drama of Kerala, on puppet performances. ● Materials Used: In Pavakoothu, the height of a puppet varies from one foot to two feet. The head and the arms are carved of wood and joined together with thick cloth, cut and stitched into a small bag. ● Appearance: The face of the puppets is decorated with paints, small and thin pieces of gilded tin, the feathers of the peacock, etc. ● Technique: The manipulator puts his hand into the bag and moves the hands and head of the puppet. ● Theme: It is based on the episodes from either the Ramayana or the Mahabharat. Characteristics of Theatre Forms in India ● Element of creativity, though not based on classical or grammatical roots, is spontaneous, emerging from the circumstances. ● When there is intensity of emotions, there is a natural kind of rhythm in the expressions. ● Sorrow, joy, frustration, hatred and love have their role and place. ● They reflect the common man’s social attitudes and perceptions and also a classical element with regional, local and folk coloring. ● Customs and the desire to improvise are intermingled i.e, when the significant themes are enacted, that the acting restricts itself to traditional norms, not deviating from it. ● There is no formal setup governing the entry or exit of the actors. ● There is an immediate, direct, realistic and rhythmic relationship that the spectators are able to develop with the artists. ● Dialogue delivery is usually carried out in a high pitch which helps the actors in reaching out to a larger audience. Different Forms of Traditional Theatre A. Raasleela Fig. 6.58. The Pavakoothu ● In this theatre form dialogues in prose combined beautifully with songs and scenes from Krishna's pranks. Painting and Performing Arts 93 D. Swang Fig. 6.59. The Rasleela Theatre ● Originally music-based, gradually, prose too, played its role in the dialogues. ● The softness of emotions, accomplishment of rasa along with the development of character can be seen in this theatre form. ● The two important styles of Swang are from Rohtak and Haathras. ● In the style belonging to Rohtak, the language used is Haryanvi (Bangru) and in Haathras, it is Brajbhasha. B. Bhand Pather (Kashmir) ● A unique combination of dance, music and acting ● Satire, wit and parody are preferred for inducing laughter. ● In this theatre form, music is provided with surnai, nagaara and dhol. ● Since the actors of Bhand Pather are mainly from the farming community, the impact of their way of living, ideals and sensitivity is discernible. Fig. 6.61. The Swang C. Jatra (West Bengal) ● These are Fairs in honour of gods, or religious rituals and ceremonies have within their framework musical plays. ● Krishna Jatra became popular due to Chaitanya's influence. ● Later, however, worldly love stories too, found a place in Jatra. ● The earlier form of Jatra has been musical. Dialogues were added at later stage. The actors themselves describe the change of scene, the place of action, etc. E. Bhaona (Assam) ● It is a presentation of the Ankia Naat of Assam. ● In Bhaona cultural glimpses of Assam, Bengal, Orissa, Mathura and Brindavan can be seen. ● The Sutradhaar, or narrator begins the story, first in Sanskrit and then in either Brajboli or Assamese. Fig. 6.62. The Bhaona F. Nautanki (Uttar Pradesh) Fig. 6.60. The Jatra ● The meters used in the verses are: Doha, Chaubola, Chhappai, Behar-e-tabeel. 94 Master Series : Art and Culture ● Among those remembered with reverence is Gulab Bai of Kanpur. She gave a new dimension to this old theatre form. G. Bhavai (Gujarat) ● The instruments used in Bhavai are: bhungal, tabla, flute, pakhaawaj, rabaab, sarangi, manjeera, etc. ● Unlike other theatre forms, in Tamaasha the female actress is the chief exponent of dance movements in the play. She is known as Murki. ● Classical music, footwork at lightning-speed, and vivid gestures make it possible to portray all the emotions through dance. ● In Bhavai, there is a rare synthesis of devotional and romantic sentiments. Fig. 6.64. The Tamaasha K. Dashavatar Fig. 6.63. The Bhavai H. Maach (Madhya Pradesh) ● The term Maach is used for the stage itself and also for the play. ● In this theatre form songs are given prominence in between the dialogues. ● The term for dialogue in this form is bol and rhyme in narration is termed vanag. The tunes of this theatre form are known as rangat. ● The most developed theatre form of the Konkan and Goa regions. ● The performers personify the ten incarnations of Lord Vishnu-the god of preservation and creativity. ● The ten incarnations are Matsya (fish), Kurma (tortoise), Varaha (boar), Narsimha (lionman), Vaman (dwarf), Parashuram, Rama, Krishna (or Balram), Buddha and Kalki. ● Apart from stylized make-up, the Dashavatar performers wear masks of wood and papier mache. I. Krishnattam (Kerala) ● Krishnattam is a cycle of eight plays performed for eight consecutive days. ● The plays are Avataram, Kaliamandana, Rasa krida, kamasavadha, Swayamvaram, Bana Yudham, Vivida Vadham, and Swargarohana. ● The episodes are based on the theme of Lord Krishna - his birth, childhood pranks and various deeds depicting victory of good over evil. J. Tamaasha (Maharashtra) ● It has evolved from the folk forms such as Gondhal, Jagran and Kirtan. Fig. 6.65. The Dashavatar L. Mudiyettu (Kerala) ● It is celebrated in the month of Vrischikam (November-December). ● It is usually performed only in the Kali temples of Kerala, as an oblation to the Goddess. Painting and Performing Arts 95 ● It depicts the triumph of goddess Bhadrakali over the asura Darika. ● The seven characters in Mudiyettu-Shiva, Narada, Darika, Danavendra, Bhadrakali, Kooli and Koimbidar (Nandikeshvara) are all heavily made-up. ● The most popular episodes are from the Mahabharata i.e. Draupadi swayamvar, Subhadra vivah, Abhimanyu vadh, Karna-Arjun yuddh and from Ramayana i.e. Raajyaabhishek, Lav-kush Yuddh, Baali-Sugreeva yuddha and Panchavati. Fig. 6.68. The Yakshagaana Fig. 6.66. The Mudiyettu M. Koodiyaattam (Kerala) ● It is based on Sanskrit theatre traditions ● The characters of this theatre form are: Chakyaar or actor, Naambiyaar, the instrumentalists and Naangyaar, those taking on women's roles. ● The Sutradhar or narrator and the Vidushak or jesters are the protagonists. It is the Vidushak alone who delivers the dialogues. ● Emphasis on hand gestures and eye movements makes this dance and theatre form unique. O. Therukoothu (Tamil Nadu) ● The most popular form of folk drama of Tamil Nadu, literally means "street play". ● It is mostly performed at the time of annual temple festivals of Mariamman (Rain goddess) to achieve rich harvest. ● At the core of the extensive repertoire of Therukoothu there is a cycle of eight plays based on the life of Draupadi. Fig. 6.67. The Koodiyaattam N. Yakshagaana (Karnataka) ● It is based on mythological stories and Puranas. Fig. 6.69. The Therukoothu 96 Master Series : Art and Culture 6 Art and Culture Master Exercise MCQs for Preliminary Examination 1. 2. Which of the following pairs are correctly matched? 5. (a) Kuchipudi – Odisha (a) Hardwood painting (b) Kathakali – Kerala (b) Murals (c) Bharatnatyam – Andhra Pradesh (c) Dye painting (d) Kathak – Tamil Nadu (d) Sketch painting (a) Andhra Pradesh Subjectve type questions for Main Examination (b) Bihar 1. Early Buddhist Stupa-art, while depicting folk motifs and narratives successfully expounds Buddhist ideals. Elucidate. (UPSC 2016) Which among the following is a folk dance of India? 2. Write a short note on the evolution of Mughal paintings under the reign of Mughal rulers. (a) Manipuri 3. From where can the origin of Indian music be traced and explain the chief divisions of Indian music. Examine why classical music in India is not considered a popular career choice. (d) Bharatanatyam 4. With reference to phad paintings, consider the following statements: Why is Natyashastra called the “fifth Veda”? What does it reveal about Indian dance? 5. What are the essential elements of Indian musical instruments and how are they different from western instruments? 6. In what ways puppetry differs from traditional theatre and out of the two, which is more vibrant to show the expressions/feelings and why? Ankia Nat is a dance form of (c) Assam (d) Jammu and Kashmir 3. (b) Bihu (c) Kathakali 4. The term 'Pithoro', 'Mithila paintings' and 'Warli' are traditional forms of: 1. They are the folk paintings of Maharashtra. 2. Their themes include rural life, animals, and narratives of folk deities. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only (b) 2 only Answers to MCQs (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 1. (b) 2. (c) 3. (b) 4. (b) 5. (b) History of Indian Coins Through Ages 97 ART AND CULTURE MASTER SERIES UNIT 7 History of Indian Coins THROUGH AGES History of Indian Coins The history of coins extends from ancient times to the present, and is related to economic history, the history of minting technologies, the history shown by the images on coins, and the history of coin collecting. Coins are still widely used for monetary and other purposes. Ancient Indian Coinage The Indus valley civilisation of Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa dates back between 2500 BC and 1750 BC. There, however, is no consensus on whether the seals excavated from the sites were in fact coins. Punch-marked coins The first documented coinage is deemed to start with ‘Punch Marked’ coins issued between the 7th-6th century BC and 1stcentury AD. These coins are called ‘punch-marked’ coins because of their manufacturing technique. Mostly made of silver, these bear symbols, each of which was punched on the coin with a separate punch. The coins were first issued by the merchant guilds and then by the States, and were extensively used for the purpose of urban development and trade activity They are broadly classified into two periods : the first period (attributed to the Janapadas or small local states) and the second period (attributed to the Imperial Mauryan period). The motifs found on these coins were mostly drawn from nature like the sun, various animal motifs, trees, hills etc. and some were geometrical symbols. Dynastic Coins Fig. 7.1. History of Indian Coins The earliest of these coins relate to those of the Indo-Greeks, the Saka-Pahlavas and the Kushans. These coins are generally placed between the 2nd century BC and 2nd century AD. Hellenistic traditions characterise the silver coins of the IndoGreeks, with Greek gods and goddesses figuring 98 Master Series : Art and Culture prominently, apart from the portraits of the issuers. These coins with their Greek legends are historically significant, as the history of the Indo-Greeks has been reconstructed almost entirely on their evidence. The Saka coinage of the Western Kshatrapas are perhaps the earliest dated coins, the dates being given in the Saka era which commences in AD 78. The Saka era represents the official calendar of the Indian Republic. Kushan Coins Earliest Kushan coinage is generally attributed to Vima Kadphises. The Kushan coins generally depicted iconographic forms drawn from Greek, Mesopotamian, Zorastrian and Indian mythology. Siva, Buddha and Kartikeya were the major Indian deities portrayed. Kushan gold coins influenced subsequent issues, notably those of the Guptas. Satavahana The Satavahanas were the early rulers of the region between the rivers, Godavari and the Krishna. They were also referred to as the Andhras. Their coins were predominantly of copper and lead, however, silver issues are also known. These coins carried the motifs of fauna like elephants, lions, bulls, horses, etc. often juxtaposed against motifs from nature like hills, tree, etc. The silver coins of the Satavahanas carried portraits and bilingual legends, which were inspired by the Kshatrapa types. Gupta Gupta coinage (4th-6th centuries AD) followed the tradition of the Kushans, depicting the king on the obverse and a deity on the reverse; the deities were Indian and the legends were in Brahmi. The earliest Gupta coins are attributed to Samudragupta, Chandragupta II and Kumaragupta and their coins often commemorate dynastic succession as well as significant socio-political events, like marriage alliances, the horse sacrifice, etc (King and queen type of coin of Chandragupta 1, Asvamedha type, etc.), or for that matter artistic and personal accomplishments of royal members (Lyrist, Archer, Lion-slayer etc.). Post-Gupta Coinage Post-Gupta coinage (6th-12th centuries AD), is represented by a monotonous and aesthetically less interesting series of dynastic issues including those of Harsha (7th century AD, Kalachuri of Tripuri (11th century AD) and early medieval Rajputs (9th-12th centuries AD). Gold coins struck between this period are rare. These were revived by Gangeyadeva the Kalachuri ruler who issued the ‘Seated Lakshmi Coins’ which were copied by later rulers both in gold as well as in debase form. The Bull & Horseman type of coins were the most common motif appearing on coins struck by the Rajput clans. In western India, imported coins like the Byzantine solidi were often used reflecting trade with the Eastern Roman Empire. South Indian Coinage The symbols and motifs on South Indian coin issues were confined to dynastic crests such as the boar (Chalukya), bull (Pallava), tiger (Chola), fish (Pandya and Alupas), bow and arrow (Cheras) and lion (Hoysala) etc. The Yadavas of Devagiri issued ‘Padmatankas’ with an eight-petalled lotus on the obverse and a blank reverse. Coin legends refer to names or titles of the issuer in local scripts and languages. Decorative features are rare and divinities are almost absent till the medieval Vijayanagar period (14th- 16thcenturies AD). Medieval India Coinage The Arabs conquered Sindh in 712 AD and ruled it as a province of the Caliphate. By the 9th Century AD, provincial governors established independent rule and struck their own coins. However, it was with the emergence of Turkish Sultans of Delhi in the 12th Century that a decisive break was made with the past and the existing motifs were gradually replaced by Islamic devices, largely calligraphy. Delhi Sultanate coins The unit of account came to be consolidated and was referred to as the ‘tanka’ with the ‘jittals’ as the smaller value coins. With the Delhi Sultanate (12061526 AD) came the attempt at standardisation. This period was marked by a considerable expansion of the money economy. Coins were struck in gold, silver and copper. In the monetary system, the equation between gold and silver was probably at 1:10. The Khilji rulers issued coins in abundance with grandiloquent titles (Ala-ud-din Khilji struck coins History of Indian Coins Through Ages 99 assuming the title ‘Sikandar al Sani’, the second Alexander) as well as honorific epithets for mints (the Delhi mint bore titles ‘Hazrat Dar-al-Khilafat, etc.). The coins of the Tughlaqs (1320-1412 AD) were superior in design and execution to those of the Khiljis. Muhammed bin Tughlaq (1325-1351 AD), took personal interest in his coinage, however, his monetary experiments were a failure and the cause of much misery. The first experiment was to make his coinage reflect the gold/silver price ratio prevailing in the free market. When this experiment failed the old gold and silver coins of about 11 grams were reintroduced. The next experiment was inspired by Chinese paper currency which had spurred the development of trade and commerce. Tughlaq attempted to establish a fiduciary system of coinage between 1329 to 1332 AD. He attempted to issue tokens of brass and copper. These tokens bore the legends such as : ‘Sealed as a tanka of fifty ganis’ together with appeals such as ‘He who obeys the Sultan, obeys the Compassionate’. Mass forgeries rendered the experiment a total disaster and Tughlaq, to his credit, redeemed all tokens, forged or genuine, in specie. It may be noted that the experiments of Tughlaq were genuine experiments: while they were forced on the populace, they were not dictated by a bankrupt treasury. Gold coins were issued in very large numbers during the reign of Muhammed bin Tughlaq, thereafter gold coins became scarce. By the time of the Lodhis, coins were struck almost exclusively of copper and billon. In the provinces, the Bengal Sultans, the Jaunpur Sultans, the Bahamanis of the Deccan, the Sultans of Malwa, the Sultans of Gujarat, etc. struck coins. In the South, however, the Vijayanagar Empire evolved coinage of different metrology and design which was to remain as a standard in the region and influence coin design up to the 19th Century. Mughal Coins The Mughal period in India commenced in 1526 AD when Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodhi, the Sultan of Delhi and ended in 1857 AD when the British deposed and exiled Bahadur Shah Zafar, the last Mughal emperor after the great uprising. The Mughals brought about uniformity and consolidation of the system of coinage throughout the empire which was the most significant contribution to the monetary history of the subcontinent. The system lasted long even after the cessation of the Mughal rule in the region. The system of tri-metalism (use of gold, silver and copper in coins) which characterizes the Mughal coinage was largely the creation of Sher Shah Suri (1540 to 1545 AD), an Afghan, who ruled for a brief time. Sher Shah issued a coin of silver which was termed the Rupiya. This had a weight of 178 grains and was the precursor of the modern rupee. It remained largely unchanged till the early twentieth century. Gold coins called the Mohur (weighing 169 grains) were issued along with the silver Rupiya and the copper coins, called the Dam. Numismatics of the Mughal era reflects originality and innovative skills in the designs and minting techniques of the coins. The coin designs gained maturity during the reign of Akbar (1542 to 1605). Innovations like ornamentation of the background of the die with floral scrollwork were introduced. Jehangir (1605 to 1627) took a personal interest in his coinage. The surviving gigantic coins are amongst the largest issued in the world. The coins with zodiacal signs, portraits, literary verses and the excellent calligraphy took Mughal coinage to new heights. Aurangzeb (1658 to 1707) removed the Kalima from his coins, and the format was standardized to incorporate the name of the ruler, the mint and the date of issue. British India Coins In 1858 AD, just after India’s first war of Independence, the property and powers of East India company were transferred to the British crown. The Queen Victoria was declared as queen and later Empress of India. (a) Queen Victoria: Alexandrina Victoria (1862 to 1901) was the longest ruling British monarch in the history of British India Coinage. This illustrates that a majority of the British India coins were minted with her effigy. (b) King Edward VII: Edward VII’s (1903 to 1910) issued coins were of following types: ♦ Four silver coins (Rupee, 1/2 Rupee, 1/4 Rupee and 2 Annas). 100 Master Series : Art and Culture ♦ Three copper coins (1/4 Anna, 1/2 P ice and 1/12 Anna). ♦ A cupro-nickel 1 Anna coin No Gold coins were issued during the reign. In 1906, the King replaced the copper coins by bronze issues. The bronze coins had the same designs but a thinner plancet due to the rising international prices of copper. Another special feature of the coinage of this period was that in all the silver coins the inscription was in both English and Persian, compared to Victoria coins that showed only English. In the 1 anna cupro-nickel coin, the value was shown in five languages English, Persian, Hindi, Bengali and Telugu (c) King George VI: After the death of King George V his son, who would have been King Edward VIII, abdicated before coronation. No coins were minted using his portrait. His brother the Duke of York was crowned King George VI (1938 to 1947 AD) in May 1937 and the first coin of India with his effigy was minted in 1938 AD. After the price of silver started going up after the outbreak of World War II in 1939 AD, the practice of hoarding silver coins became common. This led to reducing the use of silver in coins. The 1940 1/4 Rupee, 1/2 Rupee and one Rupee coins were reduced from 0.917 silver to 0.500 silver (there were a limited number of 1939 Rupees minted in 0.500 silver) Republic India Coinage India won its independence on 15thAugust, 1947. During the period of transition India retained the monetary system and the currency and coinage of the earlier period. While Pakistan introduced a new series of coins in 1948 and notes in 1949, India brought out its distinctive coins on 15thAugust, 1950. Chronologically, the main considerations influencing the coinage policy of Republic India over time have been: ● The incorporation of symbols of sovereignty and indigenous motifs on independence; ● Coinage Reforms with the introduction of the metric system; ● The need felt from time to time to obviate the possibility of the metallic value of coins rising beyond the face value; ● The cost-benefit of coinisation of currency notes. Independent India Issues could broadly be categorised as: (a) The Frozen Series 1947-1950: This represented the currency arrangements during the transition period upto the establishment of the Indian Republic. The Monetary System remained unchanged at One Rupee consisting of 192 pies. ♦ 1 Rupee = 16 Annas ♦ 1 Anna = 4 Pice ♦ 1 Pice = 3 Pies (b) The Anna Series: This series was introduced on 15thAugust, 1950 and represented the first coinage of Republic India. The King’s Portrait was replaced by the Lion Capital of the Ashoka Pillar. A corn sheaf replaced the Tiger on the one Rupee coin. In some ways this symbolised a shift in focus to progress and prosperity. Indian motifs were incorporated on other coins. The monetary system was largely retained unchanged with one Rupee consisting of 16 Annas. (c) The Decimal Series: The move towards decimalisation was afoot for over a century. However, it was in September, 1955 that the Indian Coinage Act was amended for the country to adopt a metric system for coinage. The Act came into force with effect from 1stApril, 1957. The rupee remained unchanged in value and nomenclature. It, however, was now divided into 100 ‘Paisa’ instead of 16 Annas or 64 Pice. For public recognition, the new decimal Paisa was termed ‘Naya Paisa’ till 1stJune, 1964 when the term ‘Naya’ was dropped. With commodity prices rising in the sixties, small denomination coins which were made of bronze, nickel-brass, cupro-nickel, and Aluminium-Bronze were gradually minted in Aluminium. This change commenced with the introduction of the new hexagonal 3 paise coin. A twenty paise coin was introduced in 1968 but did not gain much popularity. History of Indian Coins Through Ages 101 Over a period of time, cost benefit considerations led to the gradual discontinuance of 1, 2 and 3 paise coins in the seventies; Stainless steel coinage of 10, 25 and 50 paise, was introduced in 1988 and of one rupee in 1992. The very considerable costs of managing note issues of Re 1, Rs 2, and Rs 5 led to the gradual coinisation of these denominations in the 1990s. Later, in 1996, the ‘Mahatma Gandhi Series’ was introduced with prominent new features such as changed watermarks, windowed security threads, latent images, and intaglio features for the visually handicapped. This was replaced in 2005 by the ‘MG series’ notes that had some additional security features. In 2010, India celebrated its hosting of the Commonwealth Games with commemorative 2 and 5 Rupee coins. One side of these coins features the logo of the Games while the other features the three lions from the pillar of Ashoka. In the same year, India also adopted the new symbol for the rupee `, with new coins bearing this symbol being launched in 2011. Since 2010, other commemorative coins have a lso been issued – 60th anniversary of the Indian Parliament, 150th anniversary of Swami Vivekananda, and more recently, International Day of Yoga. Conclusion: Currency is a term which refers to medium of exchange. Every country has its own currency. There are historic evidences that show that coins may have introduced somewhere between 2500 and 1750 BC. The coins printed in that time were known as punch-marked coins. As the time passed, many empires and dynasties rose and fell, which changed the country’s coinage designs. The coins reflect emblem of dynasties, social events, deities and nature. A coin shows our country how much rich in culture, architecture, language for upcoming generation. 102 Master Series : Art and Culture Art and Culture Master Exercise MCQs for Preliminary Examination 1. 4. Which of the following is not the characteristic feature of dynastic coin? (a) It denotes the silver coins of the Indo-Greeks. (b) It denotes ‘Punch Marked’ coins used in Vedic society. 5. (c) It denotes Saka coinage of the Western Kshatrapas (d) It denotes coins with Greek Gods. 2. The symbols and motifs on South Indian coin issues were confined to dynastic crests. Which of the following has been correctly matched? (c) Chola – Tiger (d) Cheras – Lion 3. (c) Slave dynasty (d) Lodhi dynasty (a) Slave dynasty (b) Mughal dynasty (c) Pallava dynasty (d) Chola kingdom The coins in present India is not minted in which of the following place? (a) Noida (b) Mumbai (c) Kolkatta (d) Delhi 1. How do you justify the view that the level of excellence of the Gupta numismatic art is not at all noticeable in later times? (UPSC 2017) 2. The types of coin discovered in Ancient India is a gateway to the culture of the era. Elucidate. 3. The Coins denoted the prosperity as well as the paucity of the Kingdom. Discuss. Which of the following dynasty attempted to establish a fiduciary system of coinage between 1329 to 1332 AD? (a) Tughlaq dynasty (b) Khalji dynasty The system of tri- metalism was the characteristic feature of which of the following dynasty? Subjectve type questions for Main Examination (a) Chalukyas - Bull (b) Pallava – Boar 7 Answers to MCQs 1. (b) 2. (c) 3. (a) 4. (b) 5. (d) Miscellaneous Information on Art and Culture 103 ART AND CULTURE MASTER SERIES UNIT 8 Miscellaneous Information on Art and Culture 8.1. Science and Technological Developments The ‘Ancient’ Root of Science and Technology in India India is a fascinating country with a very long history. The earliest evidence of its civilization dates back about 4,500 years. Their discoveries, especially in mathematics, astronomy, and medicine, have had a profound impact on the rest of the world. While it is impossible to catalogue all their achievements, here is a quick rundown that highlights their most important findings. ● Science and technology in Ancient India covered many major branches of human knowledge and activities including mathematics, astronomy, physics, metallurgy, shipbuilding and navigation, etc. ● Ancient India's contributions to astronomy are well known and documented. The earliest references to astronomy are found in RigVeda dated between 4500 BC. ● The science of astronomy continued to develop independently and culminated in original findings such as the calculation of occurrence of eclipses, calculation of earth's circumference, theorizing about gravity, determining the number of planets in the solar system. ● There are astronomical references of chronological significance in the Vedas. The Aitareya Brahmana states that the sun never sets nor rises. Mathematics has been called by the general name of Ganita which includes. 1. Arithmetics 2. Geometry 3. Algebra 4. Astronomy and Astrology. Arithmetic is called by several names such as Pattin Ganita (calculations on board), Anka Ganita (calculations with numerals). Geometry is called Rekha Ganita (line works) and Algebra, Bija Ganita (seed analysis), Astronomy and Astrology are included in the term Jyotisa. Astronomy ● Astronomy made great progress. The movement of planets came to be emphasized and closely observed. Jyotishvedanga texts established systematic categories in astronomy but the more basic problem was handled by Aryabhatta (499 AD). ● His Aryabhattiya is a concise text ontaining 121 verses. It contains separate sections on astronomical definitions, methods of determining the true position of the planets, description of the movement of the sun and the moon and the calculation of the eclipses. ● The reason he gave for eclipse was that the earth was a sphere and rotated on its axis and when the shadow of the earth fell on the moon, it caused Lunar eclipse and when the shadow of the moon fell on the earth, it caused Solar eclipse. ● On the contrary, the orthodox theory explained it as a process where the demon swallowed the planet. 104 Master Series : Art and Culture ● All these observations have been described by Varahamihira in Panch Siddhantika which gives the summary of five schools of astronomy present in his time. ● Aryabhatta deviated from Vedic astronomy and gave it a scientific outlook which became a guideline for later astronomers. ● Mehendra Suri, a court astronomer of Firoz Shah developed an astronomical instrument called Yantraja. Parameshvara and Mahabhaskariya were famous families of astronomers and almanac-makers. ● Nilakantha Somasutvan produced a commentary on Aryabhatta. Kamalakar studied the Islamic ideas on astronomy.He was an authority on Islamic knowledge as well. ● Jaipur Maharaja, Sawai Jai Singh II set five astronomical observatories in Delhi, Ujjain, Varanasi, Mathura and Jaipur. Mathematics ● Apastamba in 2nd century BC, introduced practical geometry involving acute angle, obtuse angle and right angle. ● The three main contributions in the field of mathematics were the notation system, the decimal system and the use of zero. ● These numerals replaced the Roman numerals. Zero was discovered in India in the second century BC. ● Brahmagupta’s Brahmasputa Siddhanta is the very first book that mentioned ‘zero’ as a number, hence, Brahmagupta is considered as the man who founded zero. ● He gave rules of using zero with other numbers. Aryabhatta discovered algebra and also formulated the area of a triangle, which led to the origin of Trignometry. Brahmgupta ● In 7th century, Brahmgupta took mathematics to heights far beyond others. ● In his methods of multiplication, he used place value in almost the same way as it is used today. ● He introduced negative numbers and operations on zero into mathematics. He wrote Brahm Sputa Siddantika through which the Arabs came to know our mathematical system. Bhaskaracharya ● Bhaskaracharya was the leading light of 12th Century. ● He was born at Bijapur, Karnataka and famous for his book Siddanta Shiromani. ● It is divided into four sections: Lilavati (Arithmetic), Beejaganit (Algebra), Goladhyaya (Sphere) and Grahaganit (mathematics of planets). ● Bhaskara introduced Chakrawat Method or the Cyclic Method to solve algebraic equations. ● This method was rediscovered six centuries later by European mathematicians, who called it inverse cycle. In the nineteenth century, an English man, James Taylor, translated Lilavati and made this great work known to the world. Medicine ● Diseases, cure and medicines were mentioned for the first time in the Atharva Veda. ● Fever, cough, consumption, diarrhoea, dropsy, sores, leprosy and seizure are the diseases mentioned. ● The diseases are said to be caused by the demons and spirits entering one’s body. ● The remedies recommended were replete with magical charms and spells. ● From 600 BC began the period of rational sciences. Takshila and Taranasi emerged as centres of medicine and learning. ● The two important texts in this field are Charaksamhita by Charak and Sushrutsamhita by Sushruta. Metallurgy ● The glazed potteries and bronze and copper arte-facts found in the Indus valley excavations point towards a highly developed metallurgy. ● By the first century AD, mass production of metals like iron, copper, silver, gold and of alloys like brass and bronze were taking place. ● The iron pillar in the Qutub Minar complex is indicative of the high quality of alloying that was being done. Alkali and acids were produced and utilised for making medicines. Miscellaneous Information on Art and Culture 105 ● This technology was also used for other crafts like producing dyes and colours. Textile dyeing was popular. The Ajanta frescoes reflect on the quality of colour. These paintings have survived till date. ● A two metre high bronze image of Buddha has been discovered at Sultanganj (Near Bhagalpur). Biologcal Science ● Hamsadeva compiled Mrga-pasi-sastra in the thirteenth century which gives a general,though not always scientific account of some of the beasts and birds of hunting. ● The medieval rulers as warriors and hunters, kept animals such as horses, dogs, cheetahs and falcons. Animals, both domesticated and wild, existed in their menageries. ● Akbar showed special interest in producing good breeds of domestic animals, elephants and horses. ● Jahangir, in his Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri, recorded his observations and experiments of weeding and hybridisation. He described about thirtysix species of animals. ● His court artists, specially Mansur, produced elegant and accurate portraiture of animals, some of which are still preserved in several museums and private collections. ● As a naturalist, Jahangir was interested in the study of plants and his court artists in their floral portraiture describe some fifty-seven plants. Chemical Science ● Before the introduction of writing paper, ancient literature was preserved generally on palm leaves in South India and birch-bark (bhoj-patra) in Kashmir and other northern regions of the country. ● Kashmir, Sialkot, Zafarabad, Patna, Murshidabad, Ahmedabad, Aurangabad, Mysore were well-known centres of paper production. ● During Tipu’s time, Mysore possessed a paper-making factory, producing a special type of paper that had a gold surface. ● The paper making technique was more or less the same throughout the country, differing only in preparation of the pulp from different raw materials. ● The Mughals knew the technique of production of gunpowder and its use in guns. ● Indian craftsmen learnt the technique and evolved suitable explosive compositions. ● They were aware of the method of preparation of gunpowder using saltpetre, sulphur and charcoal in different ratios for use in different types of guns. ● The principal types of fireworks included those which pierced through air (rockets), produced sparks of fire, blazed with various colours and ended with explosion. Tuzuki-Baburi gives an account of the casting of cannons. ● The melted metal was made to run into the mould till full and then cooled down. ● Besides explosives, other items were also produced. ● Ain-i-Akbari speaks of the ‘Regulations of the Perfume Office of Akbar’. ● The attar of roses was a popular perfume, the discovery of which is attributed to the mother of Nurjehan. Space Technology ● The Indian space programme is directed towards the goal of self-reliance in the use of space technology for national development. Over the years, the space programme has established itself with a succession of achievements. ● They include the launching of the first Indian space satellite Aryabhatta in 1975 and then Bhaskara I and Bhaskara II from the Soviet Union, the Rohini satellite on India’s own SLV-3 rocket and the Apple satellite on the European Arianne rocket. ● A far reaching experiment in education through satellite, SITE, was conducted in India in 1975. Subsequently, INSAT I-IB, launched in 1983, provided radio, television, telecommunication and meteorological services. ● A perspective of major space mission planned for the decade 1985-95 aims at using space technology for nationwide application in communication, survey and management of natural resources and meteorology. 106 Master Series : Art and Culture 8.2. Cultural Institutions in India (a) Lalit Kala Academy ● Established in 1954. Headquarters: New Delhi. ● Since its inception, the Academy has been organising national exhibition of contemporary Indian art with 15 national awards. Every three years, the Academy also organises Triennial India, an International exhibition of contemporary art in New Delhi. ● Regional Centres: Chennai, Lucknow, Kolkata and Bhubaneshwar and Garhi Artist Studies, Delhi. ● The Academy honours eminent artists and art historians every year by electing them as fellows of the Academy. To propogate Indian art outside, the Academy regularly participates in International Biennials and Triennials abroad and also organises exhibitions of works of art from other countries. To foster contracts with artists from outside, it sponsors exchange of artists with other countries under the various cultural exchange programmes and agreements of the Government. (b) Sangeet Natak Academy ● It was established on January 28, 1953 by a resolution of the Ministry of Education headed by Maulana Abul Kalam Azad signed on 31st May 1952. ● Headquarter – New Delhi ● The Sangeet Natak Academy – India’s National Academy for Music, Dance and Drama – is the first Academy of the Arts, set up by the Republic of India. It encourages the forms of Dance, Drama and Music, offers Scholarships to Artists and Teachers of traditional arts and gives awards to outstanding Artists. ● The Academy Awards are the highest National recognition conferred on participating artists. The Academy also confers Fellowships to Scholars, their numbers being restricted to 30 living recipients. (c) Sahitya Academy ● Sahitya Academy is the Indian National Academy of Letters meant to promote the cause of Indian literature through publications, translations, seminars, workshops, cultural exchange programmes and literary meets organised all over the country. ● The Academy was founded in March 1954 as an autonomous body fully funded by the Department of Culture. ● The Academy has recognised 24 languages. ● It has an Advisory Board for each of the languages that suggests various programmes and publications in the concerned languages. ● Its headoffice is in New Delhi. ● The highest honour conferred by the Academy on a writer is by electing him its fellow. This honour is reserved for the ‘Immortals of Literature’ and limited to 21 at any given time. (d) National School of Drama ● It is one of the foremost theatre institutions of the World and the only one of its kind in India. It was set up by Sangeet Natak Academy in 1959, later in 1975 it became an autonomous body, totally financed by Department of Culture. ● The objective of NSD is to train students in all aspects of theatre, including Theatre History Production, Scene Design, Costume Designs, Lighting, Makeup, etc. (e) Archaeological Survey of India ● The Archaeological Surrey of India (ASI) was established in 1861. ● It functions as an attached office of the Department of Culture. Under the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains Act of 1958, the ASI has declared 3,612 monuments to be of national importance in the country. ● Since its establishment one hundred and forty two years ago, the ASI has grown into a large organisation with an all India network of offices, branches and circles, Conservation, preservation and maintenance of the Centrally protected monuments and sites are the prime tasks of ASI. Miscellaneous Information on Art and Culture 107 ● The major activities of the Archaeological Survey of India are: (i) Maintenance, conservation and preservation of Centrally protected monuments/sites and remains; (ii) Conducting archaeological explorations and excavations; (iii) Chemical preservation of monuments and antiquarian remains; (iv) Architectural survey of monuments; (v) Development of epigraphical research and publications; (vi) Setting up and re-organisation of site museums and (vii) Training in Archaeology. (f) National Archives of India ● The National Archives of India is the official custodian of the non-current records of the Government of India and is holding them in trust for the use of administrators and schoolars. ● It is an Attached Office of the Ministry of Culture. ● It was set up in March 1891 in Calcutta (Kolkata) as the Imperial Record Department and subsequent to the transfer of the National Capital from Calcutta to New Delhi in 1911. ● It has a Regional Office at Bhopal and three record centres at Bhubandeswar, Jaipur and Pudducherry. (g) Anthropological Survey of lndia, Kolkata ● The Anthropological Survey of India’s contribution for understanding the people of India by its coverage of the entire length and breadth of the country and its human surface in the People of India project, its publications and ethnographic films have been widely used and acknowledged all over the world. ● Since its inception, it has been involved in studying the bio-cultural profile of Indian populations for over half a century, from its headquarters in Kolkata and seven regional centers spread over the length and breadth of the country. ● Main thrust areas of research in the Anthropological Survey of India are: 1. Understanding and documenting sociocultural aspects of the People of India including audio-visual documentation, collection and preservation of museum artefacts. 2. Understanding the physical and biological variation among the people of India through established methods and also the new technologies, understanding pre-historic, paleo-anthropological and linguistic aspects of the people of India. (h) Indian Council for Cultural Relations ● The Indian Council for Cultural Relations (ICCR), is an autonomo us organisation of the Government of India, involved in India’s external cultural relations, through cultural exchange with other countries and their peoples. ● It was founded on 9 April 1950 by Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, the first Education Minister of independent India. (i) National Gallery of Modern Art ● The National Gallery of Modern Art (NGMA), New Delhi was founded in 1954. The main aim of t he NGMA is the promotion and development of contemporary Indian Art. ● The NGMA’s important collections include paintings, sculpture, graphic arts and photographs. NGMA organizes exhibitions from its collection and under Cultural Exchange programme periodically. ● The foremost responsibility of the NGMA is the ensure quality and to set and maintain standards of excellence. (j) National Mission for Manuscripts ● The National Mission for Mansuscripts was launched in February, 2003 by the Ministry of Culture to save the most valuable of our cultural inheritance, i.e., manuscripts. 108 Master Series : Art and Culture 8.3. Miscellaneous Information related to Art and Culture National Symbols of India National Flag The National Flag is a horizontal tricolour of deep saffron (kesaria) at the top, white in the middle and dark green at the bottom in equal proportions. The ratio of width of the flag to its length is two to three. In the centre of the white band is a navy-blue wheel which represents the chakra. Its design is that of the wheel which appears on the abacus of the Sarnath Lion Capital of Ashoka. Its diameter approximates to the width of the white band and it has 24 spokes. The design of the National Flag was adopted by the Constituent Assembly of India on 22 July 1947. National Symbol Lion Capital of Asoka at Sarnath has been adopted by the Indian Government as the National Emblem of India. It was adopted on 26th of January in 1950 when India became a republic. Lion Capital of Asoka is written with a quote in Devanagari script called “Satyameva jayate” (represents truth alone triumphs) taken from Mundaka Upanishad, (part of sacred Hindu Vedas). National Anthem Jana Gana Mana was officially adopted as national anthem of India by the Constituent Assembly on 24th of January in 1950. It was written by the Rabindranath Tagore (a famous Bengali poet, artist, playwright, philosopher, composer and novelist). It was first sung at a Calcutta session of Indian National Congress in 1911 on 27th of December. The song Vande Mataram, composed in Sanskrit by Bankimchandra Chatterjee, was a National Song source of inspiration to the people in their struggle for freedom. It has an equal status with Jana-gana-mana. The first political occasion when it was sung was the 1896 session of the Indian National Congress. The National Bird of India—the Indian peacock, Pavo cristatus, is a colourful, swan-sized National Bird bird with a fan-shaped crest of feathers, a white patch under the eye and a long, slender neck. Lotus, Nelumbo Nucifera Gaertnis the National Flower of India. It is a sacred flower and National Flower occupies a unique position in the art and mythology of ancient India and has been an auspicious symbol of Indian culture since time immemorial. Ficus bengalensis, is the National Tree of India, whose branches root themselves like new National Tree trees over a large area. The roots then give rise to more trunks and branches. Due to this characteristic and its longevity, this tree is considered immortal and is an integral part of the myths and legends of India. The Ganga or Ganges is the longest river of India, flowing over 2,510 km of mountains, National River valleys and plains. It originates, as the Bhagirathi River, in the snowfields of the Gangotri Glacier in the Himalayas. It is later joined by other rivers such as the Alaknanda, Yamuna, Son, Gumti, Kosi and Ghagra. National Calender The National Calendar based on the Saka Era with Chaitra as its first month and a normal year of 365 days was adopted from 22 March 1957 along with the Gregorian calendar for the following official purposes: 1. Gazette of India, 2. News broadcast by All India Radio, 3. Calendars issued by the Government of India and 4. Government communications addressed to the members of the public. Dates of the National Calendar have a permanent correspondence with dates of the Gregorian calendar, 1 Chaitra falling on 22 March normally and on 21 March in leap year. The magnificent tiger, Panthera tigris, is a striped animal. It has a thick yellow coat of National Animal fur with dark stripes. The combination of grace, strength, agility and enormous power has earned the tiger its pride of place as the National Animal of India. A fleshy fruit, eaten ripe or used green for pickles, etc., of the tree Mangifera indica —the National Fruit mango is one of the most important and widely cultivated fruits of the tropical world. Its juicy fruit is a rich source of Vitamins A, C and D. Miscellaneous Information on Art and Culture 109 National Currency Indian Rupee is the official currency of the Republic of India. The flow of this currency National Animal is controlled by the Reserve Bank of India. The symbol of Indian rupee is derived from the Devanagari consonant ¶j¸ (ra). Aquatic The national aquatic animal of India is River Dolphin, which is also called as the Ganges river dolphin. The mammal once used to live in the Ganges, Brahmaputra and Meghna, Kamaphuli and Sangu rivers of India, Bangladesh and Nepal. However, the species is no more found in its early distribution ranges. The river dolphin is essentially blind and lives only in freshwater. Classical Languages of India The following criteria were laid down to determine the eligibility of languages to be considered for classification as a “Classical Language”. 1. High antiquity of its early texts/recorded history over a period of 1500–2000 years; 2. A body of ancient literature/texts, which is considered as a valuable heritage by generations of speakers; the literary tradition be original and not borrowed from another speech community; 3. The classical language and literature being distinct from modern, there may also be a discontinuity between the classical language and its later forms or its offshoots. ♦ Tamil (2004) ♦ Sanskrit (2005) ♦ Kannada (2008) ♦ Telagu (2008) ♦ Malayalam (2013) ♦ Odia (2014) National Calendar The Indian national calendar (sometimes called Saka calendar) is the official civil calendar in use in India. It is used, alongside the Gregorian calendar, by the Gazette of India, news broadcasts by All India Radio, and calendars and communications issued by the Government of India. Month 1 2 3 4 5 6 Chaitra Vaisakha Jyaistha Asadha Sravana Bhadra Calendar structure Length Start date (Gregorian) 30/31 31 31 31 31 31 March 22* April 21 May 22 June 22 July 23 August 23 Contii... 7 8 9 Asvina Kartika Margashirsh (Agrahayana) 10 Pausa 11 Magha 12 Phalguna 30 30 30 September 23 October 23 November 22 30 30 30 December 22 January 21 February 20 In leap years, Chaitra has 31 days and starts on March 21 instead. The months in the first half of the year all have 31 days, to take into account the slower movement of the sun across the ecliptic at this time. Samvats Samvat refers to era of the several Hindu calendar systems in India and Nepal, in a manner that the consecutive years 1 BC and AD 1 mark the Christian era and the BC/AD system. There are several samvat found in historic Buddhist, Hindu and Jaina texts and epigraphy, of which three are most significant: Vikrama era, Old Shaka era and Shaka era of 78 AD. (a) Vikram Samvat: ● The Vikram Samvat is named after king Vikramaditya, and starts in 58 BC ● It uses lunar months and solar sidereal years. ● It is the official calendar of Nepal. ● It is related to the Bikrami calendar, and is linked to Vikramaditya. (b) Shaka Samvat: ● It is a historical calendar era, corresponding to Julian year 78. ● The Saka era is believed to have been founded by King Shalivahana of the Shatavahana dynasty. ● The Saka Calender is based on luni-solar reckoning of time. ● The calendar consists of 365 days and 12 months like the normal Gregorian calendar. ● Chaitra is the first month of the year beginning on March 22 which is the day after the Spring Equinox. During leap years, the starting day of Chaitra corresponds with March 21. 110 Master Series : Art and Culture List of festivals in India Hindu Festivals In Hindu releigion, there is a tradition of celebrating almost everything. Whether it is birth, death, victory, marriage, the new year, new months, harvests, initiations, marriages or anniversaries, they all are celebrated in India. It is a well known fact that India is a land of fairs and festivals. There are numerous Hindu festivals that are celebrated throughout the year. In Hindu religion both animate and inanimate are considered sacred and that is the reason why we have hundreds of festivals and fairs in Hindu Calendar every year. Major Hindu festivals ● Diwali ● Durga Puja ● Dussehra ● Ganesh Chaturthi ● Holi ● Janmashtami ● Maha Shivaratri ● Onam ● Pongal ● Rakhi Festival ● Ram Navami The Muslim calendar begins with the month of Muharram. The tenth day of this month Muslim Festivals in is spent in great mourning, as it was on this day that the Prophet’s grandson Hussain, India achieved martyrdom. But even this sad occasion is bathed in numerous colors, due to the long colorful processions taken out by people carrying Taziahs, which are in fact magnificent replicas of the martyr’s tomb. On the other hand Bakriid or Id-ul-Zuha, is a festival of sacrifice, as on this day Prophet Ibrahim’s faith was tested. Eid-ul-Fitr is another significant Muslim festival, which is celebrated at the end of the month of Ramzan. A festival of bittersweet sentiments is Id-e-Milad, which commemorates the birth as well as the death anniversary of the Prophet Mohammed. ● Bakra Eid ● Barah Wafat Celebration ● Eid-ul-Fitr Sikh Festivals ● Muharram Sikhism is considered the youngest of the major world religions. As per traditional Sikh belief system, this religion is based upon the divine revelations received by Guru Nanak, almost 500 years ago in the state of Punjab. The word Sikhism has its roots in the Sanskrit term ‘Sikh’, which means a student or disciple. The Sikh community is a staunch believer in the concept of one god and do not indulge in idol worship or is any form of racism. The most sacred text of Sikhism is the Guru Granth Sahib. This holy text is a compilation of preaching of ten Sikh gurus and also that of various other spiritual personalities of their time. ● Gurupurabs ● Baisakhi ● Holla Mohalla ● Maghi ● Bandi Chorrh Divas (Diwali) Contii... Miscellaneous Information on Art and Culture 111 Jain Festivals Buddhist Festival Sindhi Festivals North East Festivals Jain festivals occur on designated days of the year. Jain festivals are either related to life events of Tirthankara or they are performed with intention of purification of soul. ● Paryushana ● Jayanti ● Diwali ● New Year ● Gyana Panchami ● Pausha Dashmi ● Varshi Tapa or Akshay Tritiya Tapa ● Maun-agiyara ● Navapad Oli ● Mahamastakabhisheka ● Roth Teej ● Akshaya Tritiya ● Shrut Panchami ● Buddha purnima ● Songkram ● Plughing festival ● Ulambana ● Hemis Gompa ● Losar festival ● Cheti Chand ● Teejri ● Akhan Tee ● Aunn-Matyo ● Ban Badhri ● Somavati Umaas ● Nandhi and Vaddi Thadri ● Janamashtami, Ram Navmi and Shivratri ● Tirmoori ● Dussehra ● Navratra ● Lal Loi ● Rakhri ● Shraadh ● Nagapanchmi (Gogro) ● Chaliha Sahib Festival ● Hornbill Festival, Kohima Nagaland ● Losoong, Sikkim ● Nongkrem Dance Festival, Meghalaya ● Chapchar Kut, Mizoram ● Wangala Festival, Meghalaya ● Dree Festival, Arunachal Pradesh ● Losar, Arunachal Pradesh ● Kharchi Puja, Tripura ● Majuli Festival, Assam ● Nongkrem Dance Festival, Meghalaya ● Anthurium Festival, Mizoram ● Aoling festival, Nagaland ● Cheiraoba, Manipur ● Bihu Festival, Assam 112 Master Series : Art and Culture National Festivals of India India is a land of multi-ethnicity where people of different languages and cultures live together with peace and harmony. India is worldwide known for its cultural diversity and colorful festivals. Gandhi Jayanti Every year, October 2nd is celebrated as Gandhi Jayanti to commemorate the birth anniversary of the Father of the Nation, Mahatma Gandhi. Gandhi Ji was born on October 2, 1869, into a Hindu family, in Porbandar city of Gujarat state. His father, Karam Chand Gandhi was the Diwan of Porbander State, which was a small princely salute state in the Kathiwar Agency of British India. Mohandas Karam Chand Gandhi or Mahatma Gandhi was the main force behind. Independence Day Every year, August 15 is celebrated as Independence Day to commemorate India’s freedom from British rule. This auspicious day is also marked as a birth of the world’s biggest democracy, India. Independence Day is one of the three national festivals of India and binds the people of different cultures and religions into a bond of unity and brotherhood. Republic Day of India On 26th of January every year India celebrates its Republic Day. It is one of the national holidays of India and regarded as the most important day in the Indian history as it was on this day in 1950 the constitution of India came into force and India became a truly sovereign state. It is celebrated with much enthusiasm throughout the country to commemorate the event. Wari-Warkari: Wari is a pilgrimage for the Warkari sect related to Pandharpur god Vithoba in Maharashtra, and it’s part of Bhakti movement rather than festival of a particular tribal group. Martial Arts from India ● Gatka: Gatka is an Indian martial arts focused on weapons, especially swords. ● Huyen Langlon: Huyen Langlon is a martial arts from northeastern India. ● Kalaripayattu: Kalaripayattu is an ancient martial arts style from India. ● Malla-Yuddha: Malla-Yuddha is an Indian and Southeast Asian martial arts focused on combat wrestling. ● Mardani Khel: Mardani Khel is a weapon-based martial arts. ● Niyuddha: Niyuddha is an ancient Indian martial arts focused on kicking, punching and throwing. ● Pehlwani: Pehlwani is an Indian martial arts focused on wrestling & grappling techniques. ● Silambam: Silambam is an Indian martial arts focused primarily on staff fighting. ● Sqay: Sqay is a weapon-based martial arts originating from the Kashmir area of India and Pakistan. ● Varma Kalai: Varma Kalai is an Indian martial arts focused on pressure points. It can also be used for healing applications. ● Silambam: Silambam is a weapon-based Indian martial art from Tamil Nadu. ● Musti Yuddha: It is unarmed martial art from the oldest city of India “Varanasi“. ● Thang Ta: Thang Ta is popular term for the ancient Manipuri Martial Art ● Lathi: Lathi is an ancient armed martial art of India. It also refers one of the world’s oldest weapons used in martial arts. Lathi or stick martial arts practiced in Punjab and Bengal region of India. ● Mardani Khel: Mardani Khel is an armed method of martial art created by the Maratha. ● Pari-Khanda: Pari-khandaa style of sword and shield fighting from Bihar. ● Thoda: Thoda martial art also known as the dance of archery from Himachal Pradesh is the talent with the bow and arrow. ● Huyen Langlon: Huyen Langlon martial art from Manipur consists of two main components, armed combat and unarmed fighting, thang-ta and sarit sarak. Miscellaneous Information on Art and Culture 113 Sarees and Styles and Location (Production) Central Styles Eastern Styles Western Styles Northern Styles ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● Chanderi saree – Madhya Pradesh Maheshwari – Maheshwar, Madhya Pradesh Kosa silk – Chhattisgarh Dhokra silk - Madhya pradesh Tangail Tant Saree – Bangladesh Jamdani – Bangladesh Muslin – Bangladesh Rajshahi silk (Eri Silk) – Bangladesh Tussar silk saree - Rajshahi Bangladesh Dhakai Katan - Bangladesh Khadi saree - Comilla Bangladesh Jute cotton - Bangladesh Mooga silk – Assam Mekhla Cotton - Assam Dhaniakhali Cotton – West Bengal Shantipuri cotton- Shantipur, West Bengal Phulia Cotton - Phulia, West Bengal Begumpur Cotton - Begumpur, West Bengal Garad Saree (Korial) - Murshidabad, West Bengal Tant Saree - Farshganj, West Bengal Murshidabad Silk – West Bengal Baluchari Silk – Bishnupur, Bankura West Bengal Kantha silk & cotton saree – West Bengal & Bangladesh Batic Saree - West Bengal & Bangladesh Sambalpuri Silk & Cotton Saree – Sambalpur, Odisha Ikkat Silk & Cotton Saree – Bargarh, Odisha Bomkai Silk & Cotton Saree - Bomkai, Ganjam, Odisha Khandua Silk & Cotton Saree – Nuapatna, Cuttack, Odisha Sonepuri Silk & Cotton Saree – Subarnapur, Odisha Berhampuri silk– Behrampur, Odisha Mattha Silk Saree – Mayurbhanj, Odisha Bapta Silk & Cotton Saree – Koraput, Odisha Tanta Cotton Saree – Balasore, Odisha Manipuri Tant Saree – Manipur Paithani – Maharashtra Bandhani – Gujarat, Rajasthan, Pakistan Kota doria – Rajasthan, Pakistan Lugade – Maharashtra Patola – Gujarat, Pakistan Bagru – Rajasthan, Pakistan Banarasi – Uttar Pradesh Shalu – Uttar Pradesh Tanchoi – Uttar Pradesh Contii... 114 Master Series : Art and Culture Southern Styles ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● Mysore silk – Karnataka Ilkal Saree – Karnataka Molakalmuru Saree – Karnataka Venkatagiri – Andhra Pradesh Mangalagiri Silk Sarees – Andhra Pradesh Uppada Silk Sarees – Andhra Pradesh Chirala Sarees – Andhra Pradesh Bandar Sarees – Andhra Pradesh Bandarulanka – Andhra Pradesh Kuppadam Sarees – Andhra Pradesh Dharmavaram silk saree – Andhra pradesh Kanchipuram saree (locally called Kanjivaram pattu) – Tamil Nadu Kasaragod sarees – Kerala Kumbakonam – Tamil Nadu Thirubuvanam – Tamil Nadu Coimbatore cotton Tamil Nadu Chinnalampattu or Sungudi Tamil Nadu Balarampuram – Kerala Mundum Neriyathum – Kerala Mayilati silk –Kerala Kannur cotton–Kerala Kalpathi silk sarees –Kerala Maradaka silk – Kerala Samudrikapuram silk and cotton – Kerala Pochampally Saree or Puttapaka saree – Telangana Gadwal saree – Telangana Narayanpet – Telangana or Maharashtra Foreign travelers in India Megasthenes • Megasthenes was a Greek historian who came to India in the fourth century B.C. as a representative or ambassador of Seleucus Nicator. • He lived in the court of Chandragupta Maurya for about five years (302-298 B.C.). • Megasthenes has written an account of India and also that of Chandragupta’s reign in his book entitled “INDIKA”. Megasthenes on Mauryan Administration: Megasthenes has given us the following useful information regarding the Mauryan administration. (a) About the King: Megasthenes gives a detailed description of the personal life of Chandragupta Maurya. He led a very splendid life and his palace was unique in its beauty. The king did not sleep in one room for two continuous days. He did not favor meeting the people too much. (b) About Civil Administration: Megasthenes has written a lot about the civil administration of Chandragupta Maurya. He writes that the king was an autocrat and he was the master of unlimited powers. He kept himself fully aware of the main events of his empire through his spies. (c) About the Indian Society: Besides dealing with the Mauryan administration Megasthenes has provided us very valuable Miscellaneous Information on Art and Culture 115 information regarding the Indian society in the Mauryan period. Fa-hien Fahien was a Chinese monk who travelled India during the age of Chandra Gupta Vikramaditya. He travelled during C 399-414. Fa-Hien started from China in 399 A.D. and covering all the way through the deserts came up to Peshawar. Here he changed his way and went South East covering Taxila, Mathura, Kanauj, Kosambi, Kashi, Kusinara, Saraswati, Kapilvastu, Vaishali, Patliputra and Nalanda. He went to Bengal and from there he took a sea voyage for his journey back home visiting on the way Ceylone and Java. He took 15 years in the whole of his journey and reached China in 414. Out of these 15 years, he spent 7 years in India alone. For three years, he was in Patliputra, learning Sanskrit and writing his memoirs of the journey. Fahien on Indian society a. Political Condition and Administration: Fa-hien did not record anything specifically about the political condition of India. He did not mention even the name of Chandra Gupta II in whose dominion he must have lived for more than five years. It is inferred that the administration of the Guptas was liberal, the people enjoyed economic prosperity and the burden of taxes on them was not heavy. There were a few quarrels or disputes and the people rarely felt the necessity to approach the judiciary. Mostly, corporal punishment was avoided and usually fines were exacted from the offenders according to the nature of their offence. Those who attempted repeated offences against the state were punished severely and in that case their right hands were cut off. It suggests that the offences were few and minor and, probably, death penalty was absent. The primary source of income of the state was land-revenue. The people were free to move from one land to another. The government servants were paid in cash and they were barred from taking presents or bribery from the people. Monasteries, Sanghas, temples and their property and other reli- gious endowments were free from government taxes. The public highways were secure and free from the menace of thieves and dacoits. b. The Social Condition: The people were prosperous and content with their lives. Public morality was high. Mostly the people were vegetarians and avoided meat and onions in their meals. They did not use alcohol and other intoxicants. Only Chandalas (Untouchables), who lived outside cities, engaged in hunting and fishing and were meat eaters. c. The Religious Condition: Buddhism and Hinduism were the most popular religions at that time. Buddhism was more popular in Punjab, Bengal and the region around Mathura. In Mathura, there were many Buddhist monasteries and even government servants respected Buddhist monks. The Hindu religion was more popular in the ‘middle kingdom’ (Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and a part of Bengal) which formed the heart of Chandra Gupta II’s dominions. d. The City of Pataliputra: Fa-hien lived in Pataliputra for nearly three years and studied the Sanskrit language. He described that there were separate Sanghas both of the Hinayana and Mahayana sects, which provided education to students gathered from all parts of India. The Palace of Emperor Asoka also existed at that time, about which Fa-hien remarked that “it might have been built not by men but by gods’. e. Trade and Sea Voyages: Fi-hien described internal and foreign trade of India as well as its ports. According to him, both internal and external trade of India was in a progressive stage and the Indians carried on sea-voyages. According to him India had trade relations with China, countries of south-east Asia and western Asia as well as with Europe. On its western sea-coast, India had ports like Cambay, Sopara and Baroach while on its eastern coast Tamralipti was a famous port from w here Fa-hien went to Sri Lanka on an Indian ship. Hiuen Tsang • Hiuen Tsang came from China to India in search of Buddhist belief and practice. He 116 Master Series : Art and Culture has been described as the “prince of pilgrims” and his accounts carry a lot of information on the political, social and religious set up of India. • The Chinese traveller Hiuen Tsang visited India during the period of emperor Harsha. • Hiuen Tsang visited Kashmir, Punjab and proceeded to Kapilavastu, Bodh-Gaya, Sarnath, and Kusinagara. • He studied in the University of Nalanda and travelled through the Deccan, Orissa and Bengal. Since he stayed in India for 14 long years, his accounts reflect what ancient India must have been once. • Social structure: He wrote that caste-system was rigid. There was no purdah-system and women were provided education. However, the practice of sati prevailed. In general, the common people were simple and honest. They used simple garments and avoided meat, onions and liquor in their food and drinks. They observed high morality in their social and personal lives. The rich people dressed well, lived in comfortable houses and enjoyed all comforts and amenities of life. Al Beruni • Al Beruni was an Islamic scholar who was “commissioned” by Mahmud of Ghazni to write his monumental commentary on Indian philosophy and culture Kitab fi tahqiq ma li’l-hind. • Born in Uzbekistan, this traveler remained in India for thirteen long years to understand its culture and literature. • He studied Sanskrit with a view to read the philosophical and religious books of the Hindus. Hiuen Tsang account on India • City structure: Hiuen Tsang described the city-life of India. The information we gather from his account is that the houses were of varied types and were constructed with wood, bricks and dung. The city-streets were circular and dirty. Many old cities were in ruins while new cities had grown up. Prayag was an important city while the importance of Pataliputra was replaced by Kannauj. Sravasti and Kapilvastu had lost their religious importance. Instead, Nalanda and Valabhi were the centres of Buddhist learning. Hiuen Tsang described Kannauj as a beautiful city. • About Harsha: He described him as a laborious king who travelled far and wide and contacted his subjects personally to look after their welfare and supervise his administration. According to him, Harsha used to spend 3/4th of the state-income for religious purposes. He described that the kingdom was well-governed; it was- free from revolts; there were a few cases of law-breaking; offenders were given physical punishments and tortured as well to extract the truth from them while the traitors were given death sentence or turned out of the kingdom. The burden of taxation was not heavy on the subjects; they were free from the oppression of the government servants and were, thus, happy. The state used to record its every activity. Account on India • Social conditions: Indian society was cast-ridden. Several evil practices like child marriage, prohibition of widow marriage, ‘Sati’ and ‘Jauhar’ existed in the Hindu society. Only the Brahmans had the right to attain salvation. People had a very narrow outlook. • Religious conditions: Idol worship was prevalent. Brahamans had the sole privilege of reading the Hindu scriptures. • Political conditions: Alberuni informs as that the feeling of nationalism among the Indians was almost absent. The country was fragmented into a number of independent states. These states were jealous of each other and constantly engaged in fights against one another. • Legal system: According to Alberuni, criminal law was very mild in India. The Brahmanas were exempted from death punishment. The limbs of serious offenders were amputated. Miscellaneous Information on Art and Culture 117 • Economic conditions: King was not the owner of the land. He took land tax from the peasants at the rate of one-sixth of the produce. Ibn Battuta describes Indian cities • Ibn Battuta found cities in the subcontinent full of exciting opportunities , resources and skills. They were densely populated and prosperous, except for the occasional disruptions caused by wars and invasions. • Most cities had crowded streets and bright and colourful markets that were stacked with a wide variety of goods. Ibn Battuta described Delhi and Daulatabad as vast cities, with a great population, the largest in India. • The bazaars were not only places of economic transactions, but also the hub of social and cultural activities. Most bazaars had a mosque and a temple, and in some of them at least, spaces were marked for public performances by dancers, musicians and singers. • Ibn Battuta explains that towns derived a significant portion of their wealth through the appropriation of surplus from villages because of the fertility of the soil, which allowed farmers to cultivate two crops a year. • He also noted that the subcontinent was well integrated with inter-Asian networks of trade and commerce, with Indian manufactures being in great demand in both West Asia and Southeast Asia, fetching huge profits for artisans and merchants. Indian textiles, particularly cotton cloth, fine muslin, silks, brocade and satin, were in great demand. Ibn Battuta • Ibn Battuta was a Moroccan explorer. He is known for the account of his journeys called the Rihla («Voyage»). • He travelled for nearly 30 years and covered most of the Islamic world. He also explored West Africa, Southern and Eastern Europe, South Asia, Central Asia, Southeast Asia and China. • • • Ibn Battuta arrived in India in 1333. In Delhi, he met the sultan Muhammad ibn Tughluq in the Hall of a Thousand Pillars in one of his palaces in Jahanpanah. The sultan was surrounded by dozens of chamberlains, officials and slaves, including the “keeper of the fly whisk.” In attendance were 200 armored soldiers, 60 horses in royal harnesses and 50 elephants dressed in silk and gold. [Source: Thomas Abercrombie, National Geographic, December 1991] Ibn Battuta was employed by the Sultan of Delhi, who he described as generous, pious, courageous and unpredictable and “of all men the most addicted to the making of gifts and the shedding of blood. His gate is never without some poor man being enriched, or some living man executed...Every time he said any encouraging word I kissed his hand.” Ibn Battuta also described how the sultan killed his father by using elephants to collapse a pavilion on top of him. Ibn Battuta served for seven years as judge for the sultan and was rescued by the sultan from debt but was almost arrested and executed for his association with a rebellious Sufi mystic. “I fasted for five days, reciting the Koran cover to cover each day” as repentance. In the end the mystic was spared and Ibn Battuta was selected ro represent the sultan as an ambassador to China. Marco Polo • Marco Polo was perhaps the earliest western traveller to journey on the Silk Route. • Probably the earliest and most famous western traveller to visit Golconda taking on the Silk Route was Marco Polo (1254-1324). Account on India • Marco Polo arrives on the Coromandel Coast of India in a typical merchant ship with over 118 Master Series : Art and Culture sixty cabins and up to 300 crewmen. He enters the kingdom of the Tamil Pandyas near modern day Tanjore, where, according to custom, ‘the king and his barons and everyone else all sit on the earth.’ He asks the king why they ‘do not seat themselves more honorably.’ The king replies, ‘To sit on the earth is honorable enough, because we were made from the earth and to the earth we must return.’ • The sole local grain produced here is rice. People use only their right hand for eating, saving the left for sundry ‘unclean’ tasks. Most do not consume any alcohol, and drink fluids ‘out of flasks, each from his own; for no one would drink out of another’s flask.’ Nor do they set the flask to their lips, preferring to ‘hold it above and pour the fluid into their mouths.’ They are addicted to chewing a leaf called tambur, sometimes mixing it with ‘camphor and other spices and lime’ and go about spitting freely, using it also to express serious offense by targeting the spittle at another’s face, which can sometimes provoke violent clan fights. According to Marco Polo, the pearls found in the kingdom are fine and great. He speaks of the port of Kayal in glowing terms and says that it was visited by Arabian and Persian ships laden with horses and other things for sale. He praises the king for his good administration and for his generous treatment of foreign merchants. • As regards the social life of the people he refers to the polygamy of the kings, the prevalence of Sati, the popular belief in omens and astrology. • Marco Polo also visited Warangal and speaks of Queen Rudrama Devi as a lady of much discretion, who administered her realm with justice and equity. He says that the country produced the finest muslins and other costly fabrics. • Marco Polo praised the merchants of Gujarat as being the best and the most truthful in the world. Cultural Awards Janpith Award Sahitya Academy Fellowship Sahitya Akademy Award Dadasaheb Phalke Award Jnanpith Award which is also as Gyanpeeth Award was established in the year 1961. Awarded by the Gyanpeeth Trust, this award is the highest literary award in India. It is conferred to only those Indian citizens who have worked in any of the languages recognized in the Indian Constitution. Bestowed by Sahitya Akademi, this award is stated to be the highest honour by the Government of India. The Akademi confers this award on a writer is by electing him as its Fellow. The awards are presented for immortal literary works by the writers in any of 22 officially approved languages(including English). This award is given annually to the Indian writers by Sahitya Akademi, Government of India. Established in 1954, Sahitya Akademi Award is conferred for works written in any of the 22 languages recognized by the Indian Constitution (though Rajasthani is not one of the 22 official languages but the award has been given in this language). The writer is provided a cash prize of 1 lakh rupees along with a bronze plaque. Dadasaheb Phalke Award is one of the highest and most prestigious awards that is given in the field of cinema. The award, which was instituted in 1969 in honour of Dadasaheb Phalke, an Indian filmmaker who is regarded as “the father of Indian cinema”. Contii... Miscellaneous Information on Art and Culture 119 Kalidas Samman The Kalidas Samman is a prestigious arts award presented annually by the government of Madhya Pradesh in India. The award is named after Kālidāsa, a renowned Classical Sanskrit writer of ancient India. The Kalidas Samman was first awarded in 1980. It was initially conferred in alternate years in the fields of Classical Music, Classical Dance, Theatre and Plastic Arts. From 1986-87 onwards, the awards were presented in all four fields every year. The award is presented for outstanding achievement in one of the four categories. As a tribute to the memory of the late Prime Minister Shri Jawaharlal Nehru Nehru Award and to his life-long dedication to the cause of world peace and international understanding, the Government of India instituted the Jawaharlal Nehru Award for International Understanding in 1965. Given annually, for outstanding contribution to the promotion of international understanding, goodwill, and friendship among peoples of the world, the Award carries Rupees 2.5 million in cash (convertible into foreign currency) and a citation. The Award may be divided between two persons who are considered by the Jury to be equally deserving of recognition in a given year. It is open to all persons regardless of nationality, race, creed or sex, but an association, institution or organization is not eligible for the Award. To be considered for the Award, it would ordinarily be necessary that a person be recommended in writing by someone with the competence thereof The Grammy Award is given outstanding achievement in the mainly EngGrammy Award lish-language music industry by ‘The Recording Academy’ to recognize. It is also called as Gramophone Award. The prime motive of giving awards to recognise the positive impact of the lives of musicians, industry members and society at large. Find out the winners of 60th Grammy Awards with all categories of awards. The Pulitzer Prize is given for the outstanding contribution in books, drama, Pulitzer Prize music and Journalism. It was instituted 1917 on the provisions in the will of Hungarian- American Joseph Pulitzer who had made his fortune as a newspaper publisher under the administration of Columbia University in New York City. DSC Prize for South Asian The DSC Prize for South Asian Literature is a literary award given to the writer of any ethnicity or nationality whose theme of writing is revolving Literature around culture, politics, history, or people about South Asia. The British Academy of Film and Television Arts is popularly called as BAFTA awards BAFTA is an independent charity that supports, develops and promotes the art forms of the moving image by identifying and rewarding excellence, inspiring practitioners and benefiting the public. 120 Master Series : Art and Culture 8.4. World Heritage Site 5.1 Religions in India s (India) World Heritage Sites of India Sl.No. 1. World Heritage Site Agra Fort Near the gardens of the Taj Mahal stands the important 16th-century Mughal Year of Declaration 1983 monument known as the Red Fort of Agra. This powerful fortress of red sandstone encompasses, within its 2.5-km-long enclosure walls, the imperial city of the Mughal rulers. It comprises many fairy-tale palaces, such as the Jahangir Palace and the Khas Mahal, built by Shah Jahan; audience halls, such as the Diwan-i-Khas; and two very beautiful mosques. 2. Ajanta Caves The first Buddhist cave monuments at Ajanta date from the 2nd and 1983 1st centuries B.C. During the Gupta period (5th and 6th centuries A.D.), many more richly decorated caves were added to the original group. The paintings and sculptures of Ajanta, considered masterpieces of Buddhist religious art, have had a considerable artistic influence. 3. Buddhist Monuments at Sanchi On a hill overlooking the plain and about 40 km 1989 from Bhopal, the site of Sanchi comprises a group of Buddhist monuments (monolithic pillars, palaces, temples and monasteries) all in different states of conservation most of which date back to the 2nd and 1st centuries B.C. It is the oldest Buddhist sanctuary in existence and was a major Buddhist centre in India until the 12th century A.D. 4. Champaner-Pavagadh Archaeological Park A concentration of largely 2004 unexcavated archaeological, historic and living cultural heritage properties cradled in an impressive landscape which includes prehistoric (chalcolithic) sites, a hill fortress of an early Hindu capital, and remains of the 16th-century capital of the state of Gujarat. The Kalikamata Temple on top of Pavagadh Hill is considered to be an important shrine, attracting large numbers of pilgrims throughout the year. The site is the only complete and unchanged Islamic pre-Mughal city. 5. Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus (Formerly Victoria Terminus) The Chhatrapati 2004 Shivaji Terminus, formerly known as Victoria Terminus Station, in Mumbai, is an outstanding example of Victorian Gothic Revival architecture in India, blended with themes deriving from Indian traditional architecture. The building, designed by the British architect F. W. Stevens, was built over 10 years, starting in 1878. Its remarkable stone dome, turrets, pointed arches and eccentric ground plan are close to traditional Indian palace architecture. It is an outstanding example of the meeting of two cultures, as British architects worked with Indian craftsmen to include Indian architectural tradition and idioms thus forging a new style unique to Bombay. 6. Churches and Convents of Goa The churches and convents of Goa, the former 1986 capital of the Portuguese Indies – particularly the Church of Bom Jesus, which contains the tomb of St Francis-Xavier – illustrate the evangelization of Asia. These monuments were influential in spreading forms of Manueline, Mannerist and Baroque art in all the countries of Asia where missions were established. 7. Elephanta Caves The 'City of Caves', on an island in the Sea of Oman close to Bombay, contains a collection of rock art linked to the cult of Shiva. Here, Indian art has found one of its most perfect expressions, particularly the huge high reliefs in the main cave. 1987 Contii... Miscellaneous Information on Art and Culture 121 8. Ellora Caves These 34 monasteries and temples, extending over more than 2 km, 1983 were dug side by side in the wall of a high basalt cliff, not far from Aurangabad, in Maharashtra. Ellora, with its uninterrupted sequence of monuments dating from A.D. 600 to 1000, brings the civilization of ancient India to life. Not only is the Ellora complex a unique artistic creation and a technological exploit but, with its sanctuaries devoted to Buddhism, Hinduism and Jainism, it illustrates the spirit of tolerance that was characteristic of ancient India. 9. Fatehpur Sikri Built during the second half of the 16th century by the Emperor Akbar, 1986 Fatehpur Sikri (the City of Victory) was the capital of the Mughal Empire for only some 10 years. The complex of monuments and temples, all in a uniform architectural style, includes one of the largest mosques in India, the Jama Masjid. 10. Great Living Chola Temples The Great Living Chola Temples were built by kings of the Chola Empire, which stretched over all of south India and the neighbouring islands. The site includes three great 11th- and 12th-century Temples: the Brihadisvara Temple at Thanjavur, the Brihadisvara Temple at Gangaikondacholisvaram and the Airavatesvara Temple at Darasuram. The Temple of Gangaikondacholisvaram, built by Rajendra I, was completed in 1035. Its 53-m vimana (sanctum tower) has recessed corners and a graceful upward curving movement, contrasting with the straight and severe tower at Thanjavur. The Airavatesvara temple complex, built by Rajaraja II, at Darasuram features a 24-m vimana and a stone image of Shiva. The temples testify to the brilliant achievements of the Chola in architecture, sculpture, painting and bronze casting. 1987 11. Group of Monuments at Hampi The austere, grandiose site of Hampi was the last capital of the last great Hindu Kingdom of Vijayanagar. Its fabulously rich princes built Dravidian temples and palaces which won the admiration of travellers between the 14th and 16th centuries. Conquered by the Deccan Muslim confederacy in 1565, the city was pillaged over a period of six months before being abandoned. 1986 12. Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram This group of sanctuaries, founded 1984 by the Pallava kings, was carved out of rock along the Coromandel coast in the 7th and 8th centuries. It is known especially for its rathas (temples in the form of chariots), mandapas (cave sanctuaries), giant open-air reliefs such as the famous 'Descent of the Ganges', and the temple of Rivage, with thousands of sculptures to the glory of Shiva. 13. Group of Monuments at Pattadakal Pattadakal, in Karnataka, represents the 1987 high point of an eclectic art which, in the 7th and 8th centuries under the Chalukya dynasty, achieved a harmonious blend of architectural forms from northern and southern India. An impressive series of nine Hindu temples, as well as a Jain sanctuary, can be seen there. One masterpiece from the group stands out – the Temple of Virupaksha, built c. 740 by Queen Lokamahadevi to commemorate her husband's victory over the kings from the South. 14. Hill Forts of Rajasthan The serial site, situated in the state of Rajastahan, includes six majestic forts in Chittorgarh; Kumbhalgarh; Sawai Madhopur; Jhalawar; Jaipur, and Jaisalmer. The ecclectic architecture of the forts, some up to 20 kilometres in circumference, bears testimony to the power of the Rajput princely states that flourished in the region from the 8th to the 18th centuries. Enclosed within defensive walls are major urban centres, palaces, trading centres and other buildings including temples that often predate the fortifications within which developed an elaborate courtly culture that supported learning, music and the arts. Some of the urban centres enclosed in the fortifications have survived, as have many of the site's temples and other sacred buildings. The forts use the natural defenses offered by the landscape: hills, deserts, rivers, and dense forests. They also feature extensive water harvesting structures, largely still in use today. 2013 Contii... 122 Master Series : Art and Culture 15. Humayun's Tomb, Delhi This tomb, built in 1570, is of particular cultural 1993 significance as it was the first garden-tomb on the Indian subcontinent. It inspired several major architectural innovations, culminating in the construction of the Taj Mahal. 16. Khajuraho Group of Monuments The temples at Khajuraho were built during 1986 the Chandella dynasty, which reached its apogee between 950 and 1050. Only about 20 temples remain; they fall into three distinct groups and belong to two different religions – Hinduism and Jainism. They strike a perfect balance between architecture and sculpture. The Temple of Kandariya is decorated with a profusion of sculptures that are among the greatest masterpieces of Indian art. 17. Mahabodhi Temple Complex at Bodh Gaya The Mahabodhi Temple Complex 2002 is one of the four holy sites related to the life of the Lord Buddha, and particularly to the attainment of Enlightenment. The first temple was built by Emperor Asoka in the 3rd century B.C., and the present temple dates from the 5th or 6th centuries. It is one of the earliest Buddhist temples built entirely in brick, still standing in India, from the late Gupta period. 18. Mountain Railways of India This site includes three railways. The Darjeeling 1999 Himalayan Railway was the first, and is still the most outstanding, example of a hill passenger railway. Opened in 1881, its design applies bold and ingenious engineering solutions to the problem of establishing an effective rail link across a mountainous terrain of great beauty. The construction of the Nilgiri Mountain Railway, a 46-km long metre-gauge single-track railway in Tamil Nadu State was first proposed in 1854, but due to the difficulty of the mountainous location the work only started in 1891 and was completed in 1908. This railway, scaling an elevation of 326 m to 2,203 m, represented the latest technology of the time. The Kalka Shimla Railway, a 96-km long, single track working rail link built in the mid-19th century to provide a service to the highland town of Shimla is emblematic of the technical and material efforts to disenclave mountain populations through the railway. All three railways are still fully operational. 18. Qutb Minar and its Monuments, Delhi Built in the early 13th century a few 1993 kilometres south of Delhi, the red sandstone tower of Qutb Minar is 72.5 m high, tapering from 2.75 m in diameter at its peak to 14.32 m at its base, and alternating angular and rounded flutings. The surrounding archaeological area contains funerary buildings, notably the magnificent Alai-Darwaza Gate, the masterpiece of Indo-Muslim art (built in 1311), and two mosques, including the Quwwatu'l-Islam, the oldest in northern India, built of materials reused from some 20 Brahman temples. 19. Rani-ki-Vav (the Queen’s Stepwell) at Patan, Gujarat Rani-ki-Vav, on the banks of the Saraswati River, was initially built as a memorial to a king in the 11th century AD. Stepwells are a distinctive form of subterranean water resource and storage systems on the Indian subcontinent, and have been constructed since the 3rd millennium BC. Rani-ki-Vav was built at the height of craftsmens’ ability in stepwell construction and the Maru-Gurjara architectural style, reflecting mastery of this complex technique and great beauty of detail and proportions. Designed as an inverted temple highlighting the sanctity of water, it is divided into seven levels of stairs with sculptural panels of high artistic quality; more than 500 principle sculptures and over a thousand minor ones combine religious, mythological and secular imagery, often referencing literary works. The fourth level is the deepest and leads into a rectangular tank. 2014 20. Red Fort Complex The Red Fort Complex was built as the palace fort of Shahjahanabad – the new capital of the fifth Mughal Emperor of India, Shah Jahan. Named for its massive enclosing walls of red sandstone, it is adjacent to an older fort, the Salimgarh, built by Islam Shah Suri in 1546, with which it forms the Red Fort Complex. The private apartments consist of a row of pavilions connected by a continuous water channel, known as the Nahr-i-Behisht (Stream of Paradise). The planning of the palace is based on Islamic prototypes, but each pavilion reveals architectural elements typical of Mughal building, reflecting a fusion of Persian, Timurid and Hindu traditions. 2007 Contii... Miscellaneous Information on Art and Culture 123 21. Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka The Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka are in the foothills 2003 of the Vindhyan Mountains on the southern edge of the central Indian plateau. Within massive sandstone outcrops, above comparatively dense forest, are five clusters of natural rock shelters, displaying paintings that appear to date from the Mesolithic Period right through to the historical period. The cultural traditions of the inhabitants of the twentyone villages adjacent to the site bear a strong resemblance to those represented in the rock paintings. 22. Sun Temple, Konârak On the shores of the Bay of Bengal, bathed in the rays of the 1984 rising sun, the temple at Konarak is a monumental representation of the sun god Surya's chariot; its 24 wheels are decorated with symbolic designs and it is led by a team of six horses. Built in the 13th century, it is one of India's most famous Brahman sanctuaries. 23. Taj Mahal An immense mausoleum of white marble, built in Agra between 1631 and 1983 1648 by order of the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan in memory of his favourite wife, the Taj Mahal is the jewel of Muslim art in India and one of the universally admired masterpieces of the world's heritage. 24. The Jantar Mantar, Jaipur The Jantar Mantar, in Jaipur, is an astronomical 2010 observation site built in the early 18th century. It includes a set of some 20 main fixed instruments. Designed for the observation of astronomical positions with the naked eye, they embody several architectural and instrumental innovations. Natural Sites of India 25. Great Himalayan National Park Conservation Area This National Park in the 2014 western part of the Himalayan Mountains in the northern Indian state of Himachal Pradesh is characterized by high alpine peaks, alpine meadows and riverine forests. The 90,540 ha property includes the upper mountain glacial and snow meltwater sources of several rivers, and the catchments of water supplies that are vital to millions of downstream users. The GHNPCA protects the monsoon-affected forests and alpine meadows of the Himalayan front ranges. It is part of the Himalaya biodiversity hotspot and includes twenty-five forest types along with a rich assemblage of fauna species, several of which are threatened. This gives the site outstanding significance for biodiversity conservation. 26. Kaziranga National Park In the heart of Assam, this park is one of the last areas 1985 in eastern India undisturbed by a human presence. It is inhabited by the world's largest population of one-horned rhinoceroses, as well as many mammals, including tigers, elephants, panthers and bears, and thousands of birds. 27. Keoladeo National Park This former duck-hunting reserve of the Maharajas is 1985 one of the major wintering areas for large numbers of aquatic birds from Afghanistan, Turkmenistan, China and Siberia. Some 364 species of birds, including the rare Siberian crane, have been recorded in the park. 28. Manas Wildlife Sanctuary On a gentle slope in the foothills of the Himalayas, where wooded hills give way to alluvial grasslands and tropical forests, the Manas sanctuary is home to a great variety of wildlife, including many endangered species, such as the tiger, pygmy hog, Indian rhinoceros and Indian elephant. 29. Nanda Devi and Valley of Flowers National Parks Nestled high in West Himalaya, India’s Valley of Flowers National Park is renowned for its meadows of endemic alpine flowers and outstanding natural beauty. This richly diverse area is also home to rare and endangered animals, including the Asiatic black bear, snow leopard, brown bear and blue sheep. The gentle landscape of the Valley of Flowers National Park complements the rugged mountain wilderness of Nanda Devi National Park. Together they encompass a unique transition zone between the mountain ranges of the Zanskar and Great Himalaya, praised by mountaineers and botanists for over a century and in Hindu mythology for much longer. 1988 1985 Contii... 124 Master Series : Art and Culture 30. Sundarbans National Park The Sundarbans covers 10,000 km2 of land and water 1987 (more than half of it in India, the rest in Bangladesh) in the Ganges delta. It contains the world's largest area of mangrove forests. A number of rare or endangered species live in the park, including tigers, aquatic mammals, birds and reptiles. 31. Western Ghats Older than the Himalaya mountains, the mountain chain of the 2012 Western Ghats represents geomorphic features of immense importance with unique biophysical and ecological processes. The site’s high montane forest ecosystems influence the Indian monsoon weather pattern. Moderating the tropical climate of the region, the site presents one of the best examples of the monsoon system on the planet. It also has an exceptionally high level of biological diversity and endemism and is recognized as one of the world’s eight ‘hottest hotspots’ of biological diversity. The forests of the site include some of the best representatives of non-equatorial tropical evergreen forests anywhere and are home to at least 325 globally threatened flora, fauna, bird, amphibian, reptile and fish species. Latest Additions in Natural Sites A. Khangchendzonga National Park ● Located at the heart of the Himalayan range in northern India (State of Sikkim), the Khangchendzonga National Park includes a unique diversity of plains, valleys, lakes, glaciers and spectacular, snow-capped mountains covered with ancient forests, including the world’s third highest peak, Mount Khangchendzonga. Mythological stories are associated with this mountain and with a great number of natural elements (caves, rivers, lakes, etc.) that are the object of worship by the indigenous people of Sikkim. The sacred meanings of these stories and practices have been integrated with Buddhist beliefs and constitute the basis for Sikkimese identity. B. The Architectural Work of Le Corbusier (Chandigarh) ● Chosen from the work of Le Corbusier, the 17 sites comprising this transnational serial property are spread over seven countries and are a testimonial to the invention of a new architectural language that made a break with the past. They were built over a period of a half-century, in the course of what Le Corbusier described as “patient research”. The Complexe du Capitole in Chandigarh (India), the National Museum of Western Art, Tokyo (Japan), the House of Dr Curutchet in La Plata (Argentina) and the Unité d’habitation in Marseille (France) reflect the solutions that the Modern Movement sought to apply during the 20th century to the challenges of inventing new architectural techniques to respond to the needs of society. These masterpieces of creative genius also attest to the internationalization of architectural practice across the planet. C. Archaeological Site of Nalanda Mahavihara (Nalanda University)at Nalanda, Bihar ● The Nalanda Mahavihara site is in the State of Bihar, in north-eastern India. It comprises the archaeological remains of a monastic and scholastic institution dating from the 3rd century BCE to the 13th century CE. It includes stupas, shrines, viharas (residential and educational buildings) and important art works in stucco, stone and metal. Nalanda stands out as the most ancient university of the Indian Subcontinent. It engaged in the organized transmission of knowledge over an uninterrupted period of 800 years. The historical development of the site testifies to development of Buddhism into a religion and the flourishing of monastic and educational traditions. D. Historic City of Ahmadabad ● The walled city of Ahmadabad, founded by Sultan Ahmad Shah in the 15th century, on the Miscellaneous Information on Art and Culture 125 eastern bank of the Sabarmati river, presents a rich architectural heritage from the sultanate period, notably the Bhadra citadel, the walls and gates of the Fort city and numerous mosques and tombs as well as important Hindu and Jain temples of later periods. The urban fabric is made up of densely-packed traditional houses (pols) in gated traditional streets (puras) with characteristic features such as bird feeders, public wells and religious institutions. The city continued to flourish as the capital of the State of Gujarat for six centuries, up to the present. UNESCO List of Intangible Cultural Heritage ● With the aim of ensuring better protection of important intangible cultural heritages across the world and in order to create awareness of their significance, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, a specialized agency of the United Nations (UN) based in Paris (UNESCO) established the intangible cultural heritages list. ● UNESCO General Conference adopted the Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Heritage as an international treaty acknowledging that cultural heritage is more than tangible objects, monuments and places. ● It also encompasses living expressions and traditions. Intangible cultural heritage means the skills, knowledge, expressions, representations, practices – as well as the artifacts, objects, instruments, and cultural spaces associated with them that various groups, communities and in certain cases individuals recognise as a part of their cultural heritage. This list is published by the Intergovernmental Committee for the Safeguarding of Intangible Cultural Heritage. Its members are elected by State parties meeting in the United Nations General Assembly. It aims at drawing attention to importance of safeguarding the cultural heritage and is a repository of cultural diversity and creative expression. ● India, known for its heritage and cultural diversity has 13 cultural heritages in the UNESCO’s intangible cultural heritages list. “Kumbh Mela” was the latest addition to the list. Kumbh Mela was inscribed on the Representative List of Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity during the 12th session held at Jeju, South Korea. UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritages from India 1. Koodiyattam: A Sanskrit theatrical tradition practised in a province of Kerala, traditionally performed in theatres called as Kuttampalams located in the hindu temples. 2. Vedic Chanting: The tradition of Vedic chanting, chanted during sacred rituals and recited daily by the Vedic communities known not only for the rich content of its oral literature but also for the ingenious techniques employed by the Brahmin priests. 3. Ramlila: The traditional performance of Ramayana performed across North India during the festival of Dussehra. Most representative are those performed in Sattna, Vrindavan, Varanasi and Ramnagar . 4. Ramman: A religious festival in honour of the tutelary god, Bhumiyal Devta practised in the villages of Saloor-Dungra in the state of Uttarakhand. Each of the caste and occupational groups has distinctive roles in the festival. 5. Mudiyettu: A ritual dance drama from the state of Kerala based on a mythological tale of battle between Darika – the demon and goddess Kali. 6. Kalbelia: A folk song and dance form of Rajasthan. ‘Khanjari’ percussion instrument and the ‘Poongi’, a woodwind instrument are used during the performance. Kalbelia songs disseminate mythological knowledge through stories. At times, the lyrics are spontaneously composed and improvised during the performance. 7. Chhau Dance: A tradition from eastern India that enacts episodes from epics including 126 Master Series : Art and Culture the Mahabharata and Ramayana, local folklore and abstract themes. It is closely connected to the regional festivals specifically the Chaitra Parva. 8. Buddhist Chanting: The sacred texts chanted by the Buddhist lamas (priests) in the Ladakh region. Each of the Buddhist sects has several forms of chanting. 9. Sankirtana: Includes a set of arts performed to mark religious occasions and various stages in the life of the Vaishnava people of the Manipur plains. Sankirtana encompasses an array of arts performed to mark religious occasions and various stages in the life of the Vaishnava people of the Manipur plains. Sankirtana practices centre on the temple, where performers narrate the lives and deeds of Krishna through song and dance. ● ● ● 10. Traditional brass and copper craft of utensil making: The craft of the Thatheras of Jandiala Guru constitutes the traditional technique of manufacturing brass and copper utensils in Punjab. 11. Yoga: The art of unifying the mind with body and soul for greater spiritual, mental and physical well-being. It consists of a series of poses, meditation, controlled breathing, word chanting etc. 12. Nawrouz: The Persian New year celebrated worldwide. It invloves street performances of music and dance, public rituals involving water and fire, traditional sports and the making of handicrafts. 13. Kumbh Mela: The festival of a sacred pitcher where the piligrims bathe or take dip in the sacred river. It is one of the largest human congregations in the world. It is held in pilgrimage places on the sacred rivers in Haridwar, Allahabad, Ujjain and Nashik every four years by rotation. GI (Geographical Indication) Tag ● A Geographical Indication (GI) is primarily an agricultural, natural or a manufactured product (handicrafts and industrial goods) originating from a definite geographical ● territory. Typically, such a name conveys an assurance of quality and distinctiveness, which is essentially attributable to the place of its origin. Some of the examples of registered Indian GIs are Darjeeling Tea, Tirupathi Laddu, Kangra Paintings, Nagpur Orange, Kashmir Pashmina etc. GIs are not only part of our rich culture and collective intellectual heritage, but they also supplement the incomes of our rural farmers, weavers, artisans and craftsmen across the country. The promotion of GIs is in line with the Government of India’s ‘Make in India’ campaign and therefore, it is our responsibility to preserve and protect them. A geographical indication right enables those who have the right to use the indication to prevent its use by a third party whose product does not conform to the applicable standards. For example, in the jurisdictions in which the Darjeeling geographical indication is protected, producers of Darjeeling tea can exclude use of the term “Darjeeling” for tea not grown in their tea gardens or not produced according to the standards set out in the code of practice for the geographical indication. However, a protected geographical indication does not enable the holder to prevent someone from making a product using the same techniques as those set out in the standards for that indication. Protection for a geographical indication is usually obtained by acquiring a right over the sign that constitutes the indication. Benefits of Geographical Indication ● It confers legal protection. ● Prevents unauthorised use of a Registered Geographical Indication by others. ● It provides legal protection to Indian Geographical Indications which in turn boost exports. ● It promotes economic prosperity of producers of goods produced in a geographical territory. Miscellaneous Information on Art and Culture 127 Examples of Geographical Indications in India 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. Jammu & Kashmir Himachal Pradesh Sikkim Arunachal Pradesh Nagaland Assam Manipur Tripura West Bengal Bihar Uttar Pradesh Pashmina, Hand-Knotted Carpet, Papier Mache, Walnut Wood Carving 12. Rajasthan Blue Pottery of Jaipur, Kathputlis, Sanganeri Hand-Block PrintingBlue Pottery of Jaipur, Kathputlis, Sanganeri Hand-Block Printing 13. 14. 15. 16. Gujarat Madhya Pradesh Chattisgarh Odisha Agates of Cambay, Kutch Embroidery, Patan Patola 17. 18. Maharashtra Telangana Puneri Pagadi, Nashik Valley Wine, Mahabaleshwar Strawberry, Warli Painting 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. Goa Karnataka Andhra Pradesh Puducherry Tamil Nadu Feni 24. Kerala Aranmula Kannadi, Palakkadan Matta Rice, Balaramapuram Saris and Fine Cotton Fabrics Kangra Paintings, Kullu Shawl, Chamba Rumal Large Cardamom Arunachal Orange Naga Mircha, Chakshesang Shawl, Naga Tree Tomato Muga Silk, Joha Rice, Tezpur Litchi Shaphee Lanphee, Wangkhei Phee, Moirang Phee, Kachai Lemon Tripura Queen Pineapple Darjeeling Tea, Santiniketan, Leather Goods, Khirsapati (Himsagar), Mango Madhubani Paintings, Bhagalpur Silk, Sikki Grass Work of Bihar Varanasi Glass Beads, Lucknow Chikan Craft, Mango Malihabadi Dusseheri, Banaras Brocades and Saris Chanderi Fabric, Leather Toys of Indore, Ratlami Sev Bastar Dhokra, Bastar Wooden Craft, Bastar Iron Craft Konark Stone Carving, Pattachitra, Ganjam Kewda Flower Silver Filigree of Karimnagar, Hyderabad Haleem, Narayanpet, Handloom Sarees Channapatna Toys & Dolls, Mysore Sandal Soap, Mysore Jasmine Pochampalli Ikat, Kondapalli Bommallu, Tirupathi Laddu Villianur Terracotta Works Kancheepuram Silk, Coimbatore Wet Grinder, Thanjavur Paintings, Temple Jewellery of Nagercoil 128 Master Series : Art and Culture Art and Culture Master Exercise 8 MCQs for Preliminary Examination 1. (d) Stupa at Sanchi is the oldest stone composition in India and was originally commissioned by the emperor Bindusara. Where is the The Great Himalayan National Park (GHNP)? (a) Himachal Pradesh (b) Jammu & Kashmir 5. (c) Uttrakhand (d) Sikkim 2. (a) Kumbh Mela Which of the following is not matched correctly? (b) Sankirtana (a) Kaziranga National Park: Assam (c) Yoga (b) Nanda Devi National Park: H.P. (d) Santhara (c) Keoladeo National Park: Rajasthan (d) Dachigam National Park: Jammu & Kashmir 3. Which of the following statement is not true about Manas Wild Life Sanctuary? (a) It is located at the Bhutan-Himalayas in the state of Assam Subjectve type questions for Main Examination 1. Write short note on the following: i. Red Fort ii. Qutub Minar (b) It is very rich in the population of Royal Bengal Tigers. 4. Which of the following is not inscribed in UNESCO’s Intangible cultural heritage from India? iii. Ashoka’s Rock Edict of Junagarh (c) It is the first reserve included in the network of tiger reserve under Project tiger in 1965. 2. Safeguarding the Indian art heritage is the need of the moment. Discuss. (d) East Himalayan mixed Moist and Dry Deciduous forests (the most common type). 3. Discuss the Ancient India’s contributions to astronomy. Which of the following statement is not true about Sanchi Stupa? 4. Does making singing of national anthem mandatory in Cinema Halls against judicial activism? (a) It is situated at Sanchi in Raisen district of Madhya Pradesh. (b) It is situated in Aurangabad district of Maharashtra. (c) Sanchi tagged as the World Heritage site by UNESCO in 1989. Answers to MCQs 1. (a) 2. (b) 3. (c) 4. (c) 5. (d)