Avalokiteßvara in China
Guang Xing∗
1. Introduction
Avalokiteßvara is known in China as Guanyin 觀音 (Kuanyin 1 , Perceiver of Sounds), Guanshiyin 觀 世 音 (Kuan-shih-yin,
Perceiver of the World’s Sounds), the Bodhisattva of Compassion,
who has been worshipped throughout the Buddhist world. The
Bodhisattva Avalokiteßvara was introduced to China from India,
and it has become popular in China from the time of the Northern
and Southern dynasties (420-589). The great popularity of Guanyin
amongst Chinese people is evidenced by the saying “Everybody
chants Amituofo (Amitabha) and every household worshipped
Guanyin.” Today, there are two sacred places associated with
Guanyin in China. The first one is Mt. Putuo, a small island in
Zhejiang province in southeast of China, one of the four sacred
Buddhist mountains in China. The other is Potala in Lhasa.
Recently there is also a giant Guanyin statue built in the southern
part of Hainan Island for world peace. The belief in Guanyin is not
confined to Buddhists in China but non-Buddhist people also
believe in Guanyin. For instance, Guanyin is also found in the
Daoist temples and many public places. We see more of Guanyin
in Chinese arts which always depict the Bodhisattva in female form
found in many homes in China.
2. The Origin of Avalokiteßvara
Concerning the origin and date of the appearance of
worship of Bodhisattva Avalokiteßvara in India, it is still a subject
of debate amongst scholars. Some scholars such as Gregory
Schopen who has used epigraphic material suggests that the cult of
∗
1
Centre of Buddhist Studies, The University of Hong Kong.
Email guangxingsu@gmail.com.
This is the old system of phonetic transcription of Chinese characters used in
early writings. But now the Pinyin system is accepted by both scholars and
ordinary people in their writings worldwide. So throughout this paper I will
use the Pinyin System.
2
The Indian International Journal of Buddhist Studies 12, 2011
Avalokiteßvara appeared in the fifth century at earliest as showed
in inscriptions from northern India. While others such as
Chutiwongs points out that archaeological evidence provides
strong proof that Avalokiteßvara’s images were first cheated in
Gandhåra and Mathurå by the second century soon after the rise of
Mahåyåna and the beginning of the making of Buddhist icons (Yü,
2001: 7).
Before the fifth century, Bodhisattva Avalokiteßvara
appeared as one of the two accompany bodhisattvas of the Buddha,
the other being Vajrapåˆi. Avalokiteßvara represents compassion
and Vajrapåˆi wisdom and the latter was later replaced by
Mañjußr¥ who is renowned for his wisdom in Mahåyåna. After the
fifth century, Bodhisattva Avalokiteßvara became so popular in
India that there are 110 his images found at Ellora and in the six
century Avalokiteßvara appeared to have attained the independent
principle deity who had his own retinue and was worshipped for
specific purposes. During the sixth century CE, while Indian artists
were carving mural sculptures of Avalokiteßvara as saviour from
perils in the Western Indian religious sites of Ajantå, Kanher¥,
Ellorå, and Aurangåbad, Chinese painters started to manufacture
representations of the Guanyin chapter. In Dunhuang, among the
492 documented grottoes, no less than 28 mural paintings, ranging
from the early seventh to the eleventh centuries, depict different
themes from the Universal Gate of the Lotus SËtra. Illustrated
handwritten copies of the Guanyin SËtra started to circulate at the
end of the Tang dynasty. The didactic illustrated booklets of the
sËtra, dating from the tenth century, that were discovered in the
Dunhuang library cave.
3. The introduction of Avalokiteßvara to China
The belief of Avalokiteßvara or Guanyin was introduced
into China together with the translation of Buddhist sËtras such as
the Chengju guangming dingyi jing《成具光明定意經》(SËtra on the
Mental Fixation of Integral illumination)2 and Vimalak¥rtinirdeßa
SËtra and the Longer Sukhåvat¥vyËha SËtra as early as the second
2
CBETA, T15, No. 630. According to The Korean Buddhist Canon: A
Descriptive Catalogue edited by Lewis R. Lancaster in Collaboration with
Sung-bae Park (London: University of California Press, 1979), the text was
translated into Chinese by Zhi Yao in 179 of Latter Han dynasty (25-220
CE).
Avalokiteßvara in China
3
century CE. 3 However, the Bodhisattva Guanyin in these sËtras
plays a subordinate role, as an attendant of a Buddha such as
Amitåbha. The introduction and description of the bodhisattva is
also limited. It was only with the introduction of the Lotus SËtra
(Saddharmapuˆ∂ar¥ka SËtra) which was translated into Chinese
six times and only three versions are preserved that the Bodhisattva
Guanyin was given a full description and the role has also been
changed to a saviour.
The first version of the Lotus SËtra《正法華經》which was
translated by DharmarakΣa in 286 contains the chapter 23 entitled
“Guangshiyin pumenpin” 光 世 音 普 門 品 , which means the
“Universal Gate of Avalokiteßvara”. Here Avalokiteßvara was
translated as Guangshiyin 光世音 . Soon after its translation, the
belief of Guanyin became popular. This is tested by the Xian Fu’s
謝敷 (lived during Eastern Jin 317-420) Guangshiyin yingyan ji《光
世音應驗記》(Record of Guangshiyin’s Responsive Manifestations),
which is lost but seven stories found in Lu Gao’s 陸杲 (lived during
Nanqi Dynasty 479-502) Xi Guanshiyin Yingyan ji《繫觀世音應驗
記 》 (Continuation of Record of Guangshiyin’s Responsive
Manifestations). This book is included in Dong Zhiqiao’s 董志翹
“Guanshiyin ying yan ji san zhong” yi zhu 《觀世音應驗記三種譯
注 》 (Three Versions of Guanshiyin’s Responsive Manifestations
edited with notes) published in 2002.
Later when Kumåraj¥va translated another version of the
Lotus SËtra in 406 CE, it immediately became popular and widely
circulated because it is easy to read. The “Universal Gate”
(Pumenpin 普門品), which is the twenty-fifth chapter, is devoted to
Guanshiyin, Avalokiteßvara. 4 The Chapter opens with a question
why the Bodhisattva is named Guanshiyin. The answer is that he is
3
The first translation of the Vimalak rtinirde a S tra (CBETA, T38, no.475)
was done by a lay Buddhist named Zhi Qian 支謙 in Wu dynasty (223-228
CE) and the second version (CBETA, T38, no.476) was done by Kum raj va
in 406 and the third version by Xuanzang in 650. The Longer
Sukh vat vy ha S tra (CBETA, T38, no.361) was first translated into
Chinese by LokakΣema in second century, the second version (CBETA, T38,
no.360) also by Zhi Qian 支謙 in Wu dynasty (223-228 CE), and the third
version (CBETA, T38, no.362) was translated by Sa∫ghavarman in 252 CE.
Later there are more translations.
4
The arrangement of chapters are different in Kum raj va’s and
DharmarakΣa’s translations of the Lotus S tra. So the chapter on
Avalokite vara is also different.
4
The Indian International Journal of Buddhist Studies 12, 2011
named Guanshiyin because even if billions of people who call his
name single-mindedly when they are in danger will be saved by the
Bodhisattva. As such, the “Universal Gate” was taken out from the
Lotus SËtra and circulated as an independent SËtra named Guanyin
Jing (Scripture of Guanyin). We will name it as Guanyin SËtra for
convenience sake.
According to the Biography of Master Zhiyi, 《隋天臺智者
大師別傳》compiled by his disciple Guangdin, Zhiyi liked to visit
monasteries at the age of seven and could remember the Pumenpin
普門品 (Guanyin SËtra) when the Buddhist monks taught him after
the first time. 5 The great master Zhiyi 智 顗 (538-597) who
established the Tiantai School also wrote two books based on the
Pumenpin 普門品, the Profound Meaning of Guanyin 《觀音玄義》6
and the Exegesis of Guanyin 《觀音義疏》.7 According to Master
Zhiyi’s Profound Meaning of Guanyin, there were many different
version of the Guanyin SËtra《觀音經》 during his time.8 Such as
the Qing Guan- shiyin Jing 《請觀世音經》 (Scripture of Inviting
Avalokiteßvara), the Guanyin Shouji Jing《觀音授記經》(Scripture
of Avalokiteßvara’s Prediction [of Enlightenment]), the Guanyin
Chanhui Jing 《 觀 音 懺 悔 經 》 (Scripture of Avalokiteßvara’s
Repentance), the Guanyin Sanmei Jing 《觀音三昧經》(Scripture of
Avalokiteßvara’s Attainment of Samadhi), the Dabei Xiongmen
《 大 悲 雄 猛 觀 世 音 經 》 (Scripture of Great
Guanshiyin Jing
Compassionate and Brave Avalokiteßvara).9 The last two versions
are apocryphal texts that may be written in China during the
Northern and Southern dynasties.
Another source for the popularity of Avalokiteßvara or
Guanyin belief is the Avata◊saka SËtra《大方廣佛華嚴經》in which
the place where Avalokiteßvara resides is described. There are three
translations of this text and the earliest is translated by
5
Biography of Tiantai Great Master Zhizhe (Zhiyi) of Sui Dynasty 《隋天臺智
者大師別傳》 , “When he was seven and visited a monastery, a Buddhist
monk taught him the Pumenpin (Guanyin SËtra) once only and he
remembers it.” (CBETA, T50, no. 2050, p. 191, b9-10)
6
CBETA, T34, no. 1726.
CBETA, T34, no. 1728.
7
8
CBETA, T34, no. 1726, p. 891, c11-19.
9
These texts are lost.
Avalokiteßvara in China
5
Buddhabhadra in 422 CE. 10 According to this sËtra, Sudhana, a
young man, visited the place where the Bodhisattva Guanyin lived
in order to learn from him. Thus, later on Mt. Putou in Zhejiang
Province was identified according to the description.
The popularity of Guanyin belief before Tang dynasty was
tested by the appearance of many books recording the miraculous
stories of those who believed in Guanyin’s saving power and other
Buddhist deities such Liu Yiqing’s 劉義慶 (403-444) Xuanyanji《宣
驗記》(Record of the Miraculous Stories), Wangyan’s 王琰 (lived
during 479-502) Mingxiangji《冥祥記》(Record of Lucky Stories in
Other World), Hou Bai’s 侯 白 Jingyiji 《 旌 異 記 》 (Record of
Manifestation of Miraculous) etc. The most popular story in this
time is the story of Guˆabhadra found in Huijiao’s 慧皎 (497-554)
the Gaosengzuan (Biographies of Eminent Monks).
A prince invited Guˆabhadra to deliver a talk on the
Avata◊saka SËtra, but he was afraid that he was not fluent in
Chinese so he prayed for Guanyin to help. In the night he dreamt a
person who brought a head to him and changed his with it.
Guˆabhadra suddenly woke up and felt so happy and became
fluent in Chinese for preaching.11
The recorded stories about those have been saved by
Guanyin are similar in nature with that of the stories found in the
“Universal Gate” (Pumenpin 普門品 ) of the Lotus SËtra and the
Avata◊saka SËtra. This shows that both the “Universal Gate” of
the Lotus SËtra and the Avata◊saka SËtra are responsible for the
popularity of Bodhisattva Guanyin belief in China.
According to the Kaiyuan Shijiao Lu (Kaiyuan Buddhist
Catalogue) there appeared many apocryphal scriptures related to
Guanyin before the Tang dynasty. Such as the Guanshiyin sanmei
jing《觀世音三昧經》(Guanyin Samådhi SËtra), the Mile xiasheng
qian Guanshiyin Dashizhi quanhua zhongsheng she zhuoshan
shoulou jing 《彌勒下生遣觀世音大勢至勸化眾生舍惡作善壽樂經》
(SËtra of the Maitreya’s descend to dispatch Avalokiteßvara and
Mahåsthåmapråpta to persuade sentient beings to abandoning evil
10
11
The second version was translation by ÍikΣånanda in 695-699 CE and the
third is a partial translation, namely the Gaˆ∂avyËha by Prajñå in 796-798
CE.
Huijiao’s 慧皎 Gaosengzhuan 《高僧傳》 (Biographies of Eminent Monks)
CBETA, T50, no. 2059, p. 344, b10-17.
6
The Indian International Journal of Buddhist Studies 12, 2011
deeds and perform good for happiness and long life), the Gaowang
Guanshiyin jing 《 高 王 觀 世 音 經 》 (SËtra of the High King
Avalokiteßvara), the Guanshiyin shidayuan jing《觀世音十大願經》
(SËtra of the Ten Great Vows of Avalokiteßvara), the Mile xiasheng
Guanshiyin shi zhubao jing《彌勒下生觀世音施珠寶經》(SËtra of the
Maitreya’s descend and Avalokiteßvara’s offering of Treasures),
the Guanshiyin yongtuosheng jing 《 觀世 音詠託 生經 》 , the Xing
Guanshiyin Jing 《 新 觀 世 音 經 》 (New Avalokiteßvara SËtra), the
Rizang Guanshiyin Jing 《 日 藏 觀 世 音 經 》 (SËtra of Sun like
Avalokiteßvara), the Guanshiyin wuwei lun 《 觀 世 音 無 畏 論 》
(Treatise on the Fearless Avalokiteßvara). 12
Japanese Buddhist scholar Kamata Shigeo 鎌田茂雄 says
that the following three are also apocryphal sËtras appeared before
Tang dynasty. The Guanshiyin Chanhui chuzui zhou jing 《觀世音
懺悔除罪呪經》 (Dhåraˆ¥ SËtra of Avalokiteßvara’s repentance for
elimination of sins), the Guanshiyin pusa jiuku jing 《觀世音菩薩 救
苦經》(又名《救苦觀世音經》 ) (SËtra of Avalokiteßvara’s saving
suffering people) and the Guanshiyin pusa wangsheng jingtu
benyuan jing 《觀世音菩薩往生淨土本緣經》(SËtra on the Causes of
Avalokiteßvara’s Birth in Pure Land). 13
The most popular sËtras are the Avalokiteßvara Samadhi
SËtra 《觀世音三昧經》 and the SËtra of High King Avalokiteßvara
《高王觀世音經》 . Sun Changwu 孫昌武 , a specialist in Chinese
Buddhist literature, comments on the first one that the text is a
simple narrative of miraculous story to emphasize the merit of
reciting the text, but not doctrinal teaching. This shows that the text
is for ordinary people and Guanyin belief is popular amongst
ordinary people of the time (Sun Changwu, 1996: 89).
The SËtra of High King Avalokiteßvara 《高王觀世音經》
became popular perhaps because it is related to the story that an
eminent Confucian scholar named Lu Jingyu 盧 景 裕 who was
rescued from the execution ground through reciting the Guanyin
Jing after told in a dream by a Buddhist monk who later identified
as Guanyin in disguise.
12
All the titles of these apocryphal texts are recorded in the last chapter on
“Doubtable Scriptures” in the Kaiyuan Buddhist Catalogue.
13
Kamata, 1993: Vol. 4, pp. 265-273.
Avalokiteßvara in China
7
This story was so popular that it is found in the official
historical books such as the Wei Shu 《魏書卷八十四》(History of
Wei Dynasty) and Bei Shi 《 北 史 卷 三 十 》 (History of Northern
Dynasty).14 According to these two historical books, Lu Jingyu 盧景
裕 was a learned Confucian scholar who even served as official in
the courts of emperors Feidi 廢帝 and Xiao Jingdi 孝敬帝.
Thus, Guanyin belief became quite popular and wide spread
in China during Northern and Southern dynasties. People who
believed in Avalokiteßvara were not only confined to ordinary
people but also learnt scholars and officials as well. They linked
Avalokiteßvara belief together with filial piety. The following
examples are taken from both the Buddhist records and official
documents. First, Zhongbin ( 宗炳 375-443), who was a learned
scholar and artist also believed in Avalokiteßvara. He said in his
work entitled “Elucidation of Buddhism” (明佛論) that “if there is
danger, one should call upon Guanyin single minded so that all
wishes will be fulfilled.”15
According to the Liang Shu 《 梁 書 》 (History of Liang
Dynasty), Liu Ji 劉 霽 was a great Confucian scholar who also
believed in Avalokiteßvara. “His mother Ming was ill, Ji was
already fifty, but he recited the Guanyin SËtra (for his mother) for
more than ten thousands times in seventy days without taken off
his cloth. So one night he dreamt of a Buddhist monk who told him
‘Your mother’s life span comes to an end but because you are so
pious so her life span is extended.’” 16 This kind of scripture
recitation practice amongst Buddhists even influenced the
Confucians. In the same Liang Shu 《 梁 書 》 (History of Liang
Dynasty), a person named Huang Kan 皇 侃 , also a learned
Confucian scholar, recited the Xiao Jing 《 孝 經 》 twenty times
imitating the Guanshiyin SËtra《觀世音經》for his mother. Thus is the
popularity of the belief in Avalokiteßvara. 17
14
Wei Shu, Vol.5, 1860. Bei Shi, Vol. 4, 1099.
15
Zhongbin “If there is a danger, one should single mindedly call Guanshiyin
(Avalokiteßvara), no one will not be responded to, all calls will be answered
and if one dies one will be reborn in heaven.” Sengyou’s 僧祐 Hongming Ji
《弘明集》(CBETA, T52, no. 2102, p. 16, a2-7).
16
Liang Shu《梁書》, Vol. 3, 657; Nan Shi 《南史》, Vol.4, 1222.
17
Liang Shu, Vol. 3, 680.
8
The Indian International Journal of Buddhist Studies 12, 2011
4. The Development of Avalokiteßvara Belief
Tang dynasty (618-907) is the golden age in the Chinese
history. Buddhism also developed to its height and many schools
have been formulated and flourished. The belief of Avalokiteßvara
has been further developed and widely spread in Chinese society.
First, Guanyin or Avalokiteßvara belief developed together with the
spread and popularity of Pure Land Buddhism. At the beginning of
Tang dynasty, Patriarch Daozhuo 道綽 (562-645) started to spread
the Pure Land belief. He lectured on the Amitåyur-buddhånusm®tisËtra two hundred times in his life-time so that the voice of nearby
people’s reciting the name of Amitåbha rose to the sky and echoed
from the surrounding mountains.18
Following his steps, Shandao 善導 (613-681) also devoted
his life to the spread of Pure Land belief that he copied the
Sukhåvat¥vyËha SËtra a hundred thousand times and got Pure Land
SËtra illustrations painted on three hundred walls. Thus, even
Emperor Gaozong 高 宗 appointed him to be in-charge of the
construction of Longmen Grottoes and built a monastery there.
There are also many other great teachers devoted their life
to the spread of this school so that it became quite popular in
China. As a result Guanyin belief also became popular because
Guanyin is the Retinue of Amitåbha and was always depicted
together with Amitåbha in murals and paintings.
Second, Guanyin belief developed together with the spread
and popularity of the Lotus SËtra. The popularity of the Lotus SËtra
during the Tang dynasty is tested by the two books recording the
people who recited the text and practiced accordingly. Hui Xiang’s
惠詳 Hongzhan Fahua zhuan 《弘贊法華傳》(Biographies of those
recited the Lotus SËtra with grant praise) composed in 706 and it
provides an account of the dissemination of the Lotus SËtra from
the Eastern Jin (316-420) to the Tang (618-907) dynasties in terms
of images, translations, lectures and commentaries, visualization
meditation, self-immolation, memorization, recitation and copying
of the text. 19 In a similar way, Seng Xiang’s 僧詳 Fahua zhuanji
18
Daoxuan’s 道 宣 Xu Gaosengzhuan 《 續 高 僧 傳 》 (Continuation of the
Biographies of Eminent Monks), Biography of Daozhuo 道綽 (CBETA, T 50,
no. 2060, p. 593, c23-28).
19
CBETA, T51, no. 2067.
Avalokiteßvara in China
9
《法華傳記》 (Biographies of those recited the Lotus SËtra) also
records the believers of Guanyin. 20
Third, Guanyin belief developed together with the
introduction of Tantrayåna Buddhism. Tantrayåna was introduced
into China by three great masters Íubhåkarasi◊ha (637-735),
Vajrabodhi (671-741) and Amoghavajra (705-774), who had
translated many Tantric scriptures and amongst which there are
many sËtras related to Guanyin. According to Li Li-an 李立安 ,
there are as many as 108 texts related to Guanyin translated during
Tang and Song dynasties (Li, 2008: 340).
With the introduction of Tantrayåna, Avalokiteßvara belief
became complex and many different forms of Avalokiteßvara
appeared such as Eleven-faced (ekådaßa-mukha) Avalokiteßvara,
Avalokiteßvara with thousand arms and eyes, Horse-head
(Hayagr¥va) Avalokiteßvara, Ruyilun Avalokiteßvara (with the
wheel, holding the pearl in his hand symbolizing a response to
every prayer), Cunda Avalokiteßvara, Amoghapåßa (never empty)
Avalokiteßvara, Óryåvalokiteßvara (Sacred Guanyin), Six forms of
Avalokiteßvara which include the following:
Great Compassionate Avalokiteßvara;
1.
Great Merciful Avalokiteßvara;
2.
3.
Fearless Lion-like Avalokiteßvara;
4.
Universally Shining Great Light Avalokiteßvara;
5.
Leader amongst gods and men Avalokiteßvara;
Great Omnipresent Brahmå Avalokiteßvara.
6.
Amongst these, Avalokiteßvara with thousand arms and
eyes became quite popular. There are 24 Tang dynasty mural
paintings of Avalokiteßvara with thousand arms and eyes in
Dunhuang alone. Avalokiteßvara with thousand arms and eyes
became popular because it symbolizes that even if a thousand
people call his name, he would response to all of them.
Fourth, the Guanyin belief became so popular that Chinese
people also created many different forms of Guanyin for different
purposes such as Water-Moon Guanyin 水月觀音, Guanyin with a
20
CBETA, T51, no. 2068.
10
The Indian International Journal of Buddhist Studies 12, 2011
fish-basket 魚籃觀音 , Clam Guanyin 蛤蜊觀音 , and Child-Giving
Guanyin 送子觀音, the Legend of Miaoshan 妙善公主, etc.
Water-Moon Guanyin 水 月 觀 音 , according to Zhang
Yanyuan’s 張彥遠 (815-907) well known book Lidai Minghua Ji
《歷代名畫記》(Famous Paintings through History), first appeared
in Tang dynasty. 21 A famous artist named Zhou Fang 周昉 , who
lived in the eighth century and specialized in figure drawing,
created the first Water-Moon Guanyin. Later many Chinese artists
imitated his drawing and thus Water-Moon Guanyin became very
popular in Tang dynasty.
The other evidence for the existence of Water-Moon
Guanyin during the Tang dynasty is the apocryphal text Foshuo
Suiyue Guang Guanyin Pusa Jing 《 佛 說 水 月 光 觀 音 菩 薩 經 》
(Moonlight in water Guanyin Bodhisattva SËtra spoken by the
Buddha). 22 This text is one of the ten sËtras copied by an
unidentified scribe in Dunhuang commissioned by a local official
in the year 958. This means that the appearance of Water-Moon
Guanyin must be earlier than the copying of the text. People of
Tang dynasty already knew it well.
Water-Moon Guanyin was a popular subject for Dunguang
painters. The complete catalogue of 1982 listing the contents of the
caves at Dunhuang identified fifteen wall paintings of the WaterMoon Guanyin, six were done in the tenth century, and the others
from the eleventh to thirteenth century. Some other scholars say the
number even to 30 (Yü, 2001: 235).
Guanyin with a fish-basket 魚 籃 觀 音 , also known as
Guanyin of Ma’s wife, became popular in Tang dynasty. According
to the Guanyin ganyin zhuan (Biographies of Those Responded
from Guanyin)《觀音感應傳》, at the beginning of ninth century a
girl who lived in present Shanxi was a fish vendor and she always
carried her fish in a basket. Because she was beautiful so many
young men came to ask her for marriage. She said that she would
marry the one who could recite the Guanyin SËtra and the
following day, twenty people could recite it. Then she said that she
21
It records that Zhou Fang painted Water-Moon Guanyin on the walls of
Eastern courtyard of Shengguang Monastery. Okamura Shigeru 岡村繁,
184.
22
Fang Guangchang 方廣錩 1995: 349-353.
Avalokiteßvara in China
11
would marry the one who could recite the Diamond SËtra and then
ten could recite it in the following morning. Then she said that she
would marry the one who could recite the Lotus SËtra and then
after three days, only Mr. Ma could recite it. So she prepared to
marry Mr. Ma, but she died on the same day and was buried. A few
days later, a monk came and opened her tomb but found only a
skeleton bound with gold, so he told the people that she was none
other than Guanyin. The monk flew away after said this.
There is a second version of the story, which is as follows:
A woman of Yanzhou lived in the Eastern part of Shaaxi during the
Dali era (766-779). She had sex with any man who asked for it. But
whoever had sex with her was said to become free from sexual
desire forever. She died at the age of twenty-four and was buried in
a common grave by the roadside. A foreign monk from the western
region later came, offered incense and paid respect to her at her
grave. When asked by villagers why he should bother with this
woman of loose virtue, he told them that she acted out of
compassion to save people. He predicted that her bones would be
found to be chained together, and when her grave was opened, the
bones of her entire body were indeed linked together like a chain.23
Clam Guanyin 蛤 蜊 觀 音 also appeared in Tang dynasty.
According to Fozhu Tongji 《 佛 祖 統 紀 》 (History of Chinese
Buddhism) written by Zhipan 志磐 (roughly lived in 1195-1274),
Emperor Wenzhong of Tang 唐文宗 liked to eat clam. One day
when the chef tried with great strength to open a clam but he could
not open it, so he reported it to the emperor who burnt incense and
prayed for it. Then the clam opened itself and Guanyin appeared
there. Then the emperor invited Chan master Wei Zheng 惟政 to
interpret it and the latter told the emperor that it taught him not to
eat clam in the future, but to believe in Guanyin.24
Child-Giving Guanyin 送 子 觀 音 is perhaps created
according to the Guanyin SËtra of the Lotus SËtra. It says: If there
is a woman who seeks to give birth to a son, she should make
reverence and offerings to Observer of the World's Sounds
23
Here I have just cited the summery of the story from Yü Chün-fang, 1994:
167. This story is also recorded in the Long-xing fojiao bian-nian tonglun
《隆興佛教編年通論》(Longxing Buddhist Chronicle) written in 1164 by Zuxiu 祖琇.
24
CBETA, X75, no. 1512, p. 231, a20-b4.
12
The Indian International Journal of Buddhist Studies 12, 2011
Bodhisattva. She will then give birth to a son endowed with
blessings, virtue and wisdom. If she wishes to give birth to a
daughter, she shall give birth to a daughter who is well-formed and
possessed of the proper features. She will have planted the roots of
virtue in the past and so will be loved and respected by many
people. As early as before Tang dynasty, in Northern and Southern
dynasties, there were already stories about people who prayed and
asked Guanyin for help in giving birth to children. This is
evidenced by the above mentioned book such as Liu Yiqing’s 劉義
慶 (403-444) Xuanyanji 《宣驗記》.
According to Zhannin’s 贊寧 Song Gaoseng zhuan 《宋高僧
傳 》 (Song Biographies of Eminent Monks), even during Tang
dynasty there were many women who also believed in and prayed
for Child-giving Guanyin. According to the biography of Daopei 釋
道丕, his mother wished to have a child so she always recited the
Guanyin SËtra or “Pumenping” of the Lotus SËtra and as a result
she gave birth to a son. 25 But the belief in Child-Giving Guanyin 送
子觀音 became very popular during the Song dynasty. There are
many stories about women who got their desired children after
praying Guanyin for help.
5. Sinification of Avalokiteßvara
After the Tang dynasty, Buddhism developed further
amongst the common Chinese people and penetrated into the
ordinary Chinese society. However the philosophical study of
Buddhist doctrines declined. But on the other hand, the popular
belief such as Guanyin developed in Song dynasty (960-1279).
First, Guanyin has been completely transformed into a
Chinese deity by the identification of it with a Chinese legend of
Miaoshan 妙善 . Glen Dudbridge (1978) has made a meticulous
study of the legend of Miaoshan. If Guanyin was worshipped
before and during Tang dynasty as an Indian god, then from Song
dynasty onwards, Guanyin has been completely sinicized as a
Chinese deity who was born and lived in China.
According to the Legend of Miaoshan, in the distance past,
there was a king named Miao Zhuang who had three daughters and
the youngest was named Miaoshan. She refused to get married
25
CBETA, T50, no. 2061, p. 818, c15-19.
Avalokiteßvara in China
13
when she grew up which totally upset her father who first confined
her in the backyard garden and later sent her to the White Sparrow
Nunnery for hard labour as punishment. But she did not change her
mind. Then her father burned the nunnery and five hundreds nuns
died except Miaoshan. At last, she was executed by her father’s
order, but her body was brought by a mountain spirit to the forest
of dead bodies. Bodhisattva Dizang guided her to tour the hells and
she saved many suffering beings there by preaching. After
returning to the world, Miaoshan went to Fragrant Mountain and
practiced meditation for nine years and attained enlightenment. At
this time, her father, the king, got ill with a mysterious disease as a
punishment of his bad deeds that his whole body was corrupted and
suppurating. None of the doctors could cure him and he was about
to die. Then Miaoshan disguised as a monk appeared before her
father telling him that his disease could be cured with a kind of
medicine made of the arms and eyes of one who is totally free from
anger. Then Miaoshan instructed him where to find the medicine.
The king sent messengers to the Fragrant Mountain and Miaoshan
willingly offered her eyes and hands. Her father recovered after
taking the medicine. The king and his wife came to Fragrant
Mountain to offer thanks to his saviour, but they recognized that
the sage without eyes and arms was none other than their third
daughter. Overwhelmed with remorse, the king and his family
became Buddhist followers and prayed for his saviour’s full
recovery of arms and eyes. Then Miaoshan transformed herself into
her true form of a Bodhisattva with a thousand arms and a
thousand eyes standing on the altar.
According to Glen Dudbridge, the cult to Miaoshan at
Fragrant Mountain Monastery ( 香山 寺 Xiang shan si) was first
made public in an inscription written by Jiang Zhiqi 蔣之奇 (10311104) in 1100. It is named as the Dabei pusan zhuan〈大悲菩薩傳〉
(Biography of the Bodhisattva of Great Compassion). The full
story of Miaoshan is preserved in a chronicle of Buddhism in
China, the Long-xing fojiao bian-nian tong-lun 《隆興佛教編年通
論》, written by Zu-xiu 祖琇, a Buddhist monk in Southern Song
dynasty, in 1164.26
26
CBETA, X75, no. 1512, p. 175, a18-p. 176, a16 .
14
The Indian International Journal of Buddhist Studies 12, 2011
This is also referred to in Zhu Bian’s 朱弁 (1085-1144)
Quwei Jiuwen 《曲洧舊聞》 in which it mentions the story:27
Jiang Yinshu 蔣穎叔 (another name for Jiang Zhiqi 蔣之奇),
in the days when he was the Prefect of Ruzhou, on the invitation of
the Buddhist monk Huai Zhou 懷晝 of Mt. Xiangshan (Fragrant
Mountain), developed into a life story by taking for his subject a
divine spirit’s account of great compassion written down by Yi
Chang 義常, a disciple of a Vinaya teacher (Daoxuan 道宣) of Tang
dynasty. It was recorded that in the past, there was a king name
Zhang 莊 of an unknown kingdom, who had three daughters, the
youngest was named Miaoshan who offered her hands and eyes to
save her father when he was sick.
When Jiang Zhiqi 蔣 之 奇 was appointed as prefect of
Hangzhou in 1102, he also had his account inscribed in stone at the
local Upper Tianzhu Monastery, which is famous for its WhiteRobed Guanyin statue. This contributes further to the rapid
popularization of this legend over many areas in China. Then the
legend was enriched and developed into Xiang Shan Bao Juan《香
山寶卷》 (Precious Scrolls of Xiangshan). The story was further
elaborated and developed into The Complete Story of Guanyin of
the South Sea 《南海觀音全傳》 in Ming dynasty (1368-1644). It
was also on the basis of this book that the story was turned into
Beijing opera Story of Xiangshan (Da Xiangshan).
It is also on the basis of the story Miaoshan, today Buddhist
monasteries in China celebrate the Guanyin’s birthday on February
19 of Lunar calendar, which is the birthday of Miaoshan in the
story, Guanyin’s attainment of enlightenment on June 19,
Guanyin’s leaving home on September 19.
The Fragrant Mountain Monastery ( 香山寺 Xiangshan Si)
was famous for its grand statue of Guanyin with a thousand arms
and thousand eyes even before Jiang Zhiqi 蔣之奇 came to write
the story in eleventh century. So Xiangshan Si 香山寺 known as Da
Xiangshan 大 香 山 (Great Fragrant Mountain) became the holy
mountain for Guanyin and many pilgrimages come to visit it every
year.
27
Zhu Bian 朱弁, 2002. Quwei Jiuwen 《曲洧舊聞》, edited by Kong Fanli
(Beijing: Zhonghua shuju), 169-170.
孔凡禮,
Avalokiteßvara in China
15
Second, Guanyin with a fish-basket 魚籃觀音 originated in
Tang dynasty, but it became popular from the Song dynasty. It
became a favourite subject for painters. Many pictures of Guanyin
with a fish basket came into being in Song dynasty. For instance,
the well known painter and calligrapher Zhao Menfu 趙孟頫 (12541322) also painted such a picture which is still preserved in
Taiwan’s national museum. Song Lian (1310-1381), a great
historian and litterateur of the Ming dynasty and also served as a
minister, wrote “Poem of Praise for Guanyin with a fish basket” 28.
Putuoshan 普陀山 or Mt. Putuo, a small island in Zhejiang
province, which is the holy mountain of Guanyin, is another
evidence of sinicization of the bodhisattva. Each year tens and
thousands of people come to the small island to pay their respect to
Guanyin.
However, Mt. Putuo became the holy mountain late
compared with other three holy mountains in China. Others are:
Mt. Wutai 五臺山, the holy place for Bodhisattva Wenshu 文殊
(Mañjußr¥), Mt. Emei 峨 眉 山 is for Bodhisattva Puxian 普 賢
(Samantabhadra) and Mt. Jiuhua 九華山 is for Bodhisattva Dizang
地藏 (KΣitigarbha).
According to the final section of Avataµsaka SËtra, the
young student Sudhana in his quest for wisdom visits fifty-four
teachers for instructions. One of these teachers whom are consulted
by Sudhana is the Bodhisattva Avalokiteßvara, who is portrayed as
seated atop the Potalaka Rock at the edge of the world. So as early
as the eleventh and twelfth centuries, Mt. Putuo was identified as
the Potalaka of Guanyin’s residence by both monks and literati.
We find in both Daoyin’s 道因 Caoanlu 《草菴錄》(The Record of
Stray Hut) and Zhipan’s the Fozu Tongji《佛祖統紀》which were
written in Song dynasty the description of Mt Putuo as follows:
During the Tang dynasty, a Japanese Buddhist monk named
Hui-e 慧鍔 came to visit Mt. Wutai and got a statue of Guanyin. So
he took the statue and started his journey back to Japan by way of
Mt. Putuo where he encountered difficulties on the sea. So he
prayed that if the statue of Guanyin would not like to leave he
would leave it on the mountain and then the boat moved. So he
together with the statue stayed there and he built a hut to enshrine
it.
28
It is found in the Song Xueshi Wenji 《宋學士文集》, scroll 51.
16
The Indian International Journal of Buddhist Studies 12, 2011
Thus Daoyin said, “Mt. Putuo is in the great ocean. It is
situated southeast of Yin (鄞) [Ningpo] about six hundred miles by
water route. It is no other than the mountain called Potalaka which
is described in the Huayan Jing as the isolated place at the end of
Southern Sea where Guanyin Bodhisattva lives. It is also described
in the Dabei Jing as the Mt. Potalaka in which the palace of
Guanyin situates and where Íåkyamuni Buddha reveals the heartseal of the mantra of Great Compassion”. 29
The same book also tells us that Daoyin wrote his Caoanlu
《草菴錄》around 1165-1173. And according to Chünfang Yü, from
Song dynasty onwards, many important officials and famous
people came to the island and some even left their essays and
poems about their visits and description of the place. Hence there
came up many miraculous stories of Guanyin associated with Mt.
Putuo. However, Mt. Putuo did not become popular until the
sixteenth century that Emperor Wanli and his mother promoted the
island as a sacred mountain. Then during the Qing dynasty
emperors continued their support to the island of Putuo and thus it
becomes well known. The reasons for the late popularity of Mt.
Putuo are perhaps due to the frequent invasion of Japanese pirates
to the small island until sixteenth century. Today Mt. Putuo is
visited by millions of pilgrimage every year from all over the
world.
Thus, from Ming dynasty onwards, Guanyin belief became
so popular that it was expressed in many different forms such as
literature, novels, and drama etc.: the Biography of Avalokiteßvara
《觀音傳》written by Zhu Dingcheng 朱鼎臣, the novel Journey to
the West 《 西 遊 記 》 written by Wu Chengen 吳 承 恩 , drama
Jinyuwen’s Attainment of Enlightenment 《 金 魚 翁 證 果 魚 兒 佛 》
written by Zhanran 湛然, and many Precious Scrolls about Guanyin
such as the Great Compassion Precious Scroll 《 大 悲 寶 卷 》 ,
Coloured Lotus Precious Scroll《彩蓮寶卷》, Fish-Basket Precious
Scroll《魚籃寶卷》, Saving Sufferings Precious Scroll《救苦寶卷》,
Putuo Precious Scroll《普陀寶卷》, Rare Precious Scroll《希奇寶
卷》, Original Vows of Avalokiteßvara Saving Precious Scroll《觀
音濟度本願真經》, the Record of Avalokiteßvara Bodhisattva FishBasket 《 觀 音 菩 薩 魚 籃 記 》 , the Causes of Avalokiteßvara in
Xiangshan 《 觀 音 菩 薩香 山 因 緣 》 and the White-Coloured Robe
29
CBETA, T49, no. 2035, p. 388, b16-c5.
Avalokiteßvara in China
17
Avalokiteßvara Giving Child Precious Scroll《銷釋白衣觀音菩薩送嬰
兒下生寶卷》.
6. Sex Transformation of Guanyin
Avalokiteßvara was a male Bodhisattva in India and it
continued to be a male when it was introduced in China in the first
few centuries as evidenced from many scriptural sources and art
works. But since the period of Five Dynasties, around the 10th
century, Avalokiteßvara or Guanyin has been increasingly
represented as a feminine Bodhisattva and by the Ming dynasty,
the bodhisattva was transformed into a “goddess of mercy” (Yü,
1997: 445). Many modern scholars have tried to explain the
reasons why Guanyin bodhisattva changed sex. Japanese scholar
Kobayashi Taichiro 小林 太市郎, for instance, suggests that it might
be influenced by the Chinese goddess Queen Mother of the West
( 女 媧 Nuwa), but there is no further elaboration in his paper
according to Chünfang Yü, (2001: 408). Some western feminist
scholars thought that it is a positive religious symbol of the
feminine while others think it is a symbol for the mother for
wisdom. While still others think that it was mainly promoted by
women in late imperial China (Yü 2001: 418).
All these suggestions and ideas have no scriptural support,
but only some thoughts. However, we find in the Guanyin SËtra,
the twenty-fifth chapter of the Lotus SËtra, which mentions that
Guanyin may manifest in thirty-two different forms to help others.
Amongst these thirty-two forms, there are the following female
forms: nun (BhikΣuˆ¥), lay woman (Upåsikå), wife, daughter, and
girl. In the Sura∫gama SËtra, a sËtra particularly popular since the
Song dynasty, Guanyin appears in thirty-two forms, of which there
are six feminine: nun, laywoman, queen, princess, noble lady, and
virgin maiden.
According to the Buddhist teaching, great bodhisattvas such
as Guanyin could use skilful means (upåya) to save people, which
is one of their important perfections. So Guanyin could manifest
himself in whatever the forms he wishes in accordance with the
situation. Feminine form is perhaps one of the most important
forms. It was on such scriptural basis that as early as in the six
dynasties, there were already people dreamt of Guanyin appeared
in female form to response to their call for help. Thus, many forms
of Guanyin in feminine came into being from the five dynasties. I
18
The Indian International Journal of Buddhist Studies 12, 2011
believe that one of the main reasons for the sex transformation of
Guanyin is the success of the stories such as the legend of Princess
Miaoshan as a manifestation of Guanyin and Guanyin with a fishbasket or Mr. Ma’s wife. These stories became so successful in
Ming and Qing dynasties that ordinary people knew nothing about
the male Guanyin Bodhisattva but the legend Miaoshan and
Guanyin with a fish-basket.
The reasons for the success of these stories are as follows:
First, these stories are easy to understand for ordinary people and
also dramatic. So people like the stories and spread it with the help
of those learnt people who wrote and expanded the stories. Second,
the legend of Miaoshan also advocates the important Chinese idea
of filial piety. The idea of filial piety in turn also helps to
popularize the legend of Miaoshan. Guanyin with a fish-basket or
Mr. Ma’s wife, on the other hand, became popular because it is
dramatic combining a holy Bodhisattva with a prostitute which
ordinary Chinese people never heard of. Thus, most of the images
of Avalokitßvara in China and also in other East Asian countries
are in feminine forms.
7. Guanyin in Daoism and Popular Belief
After its introduction and assimilation in China, Guanyin
belief has become so popular that the bodhisattva appears in Daoist
monasteries as well as in many public places of folk religions.
According to Christine Mollier, Avalokiteßvara became the
prototype of a number of “new” Chinese divinities over the
centuries such as the Princess of Azure Clouds (Bixia Yuanjun 碧霞
元君), the Unborn Mother (Wusheng laomu 無生老母), and as early
as in the sixth century, in the Daoists of the Lingbao 靈寳 texts or
school Jiuku Tianzun 救苦天尊 (the Heavenly Venerable Saviour
from Suffering) was created by imitation of the Buddhist Guanyin
(Mollier, 2008:177). She says, “Nevertheless, it was assuredly to
the bodhisattva Guanyin that the Heavenly Venerable Saviour from
Suffering owed the most salient features of his personality. His
names, titles, and personal qualities as recapitulated in the Lingbao
Scripture of Karmic Retribution (太上洞玄靈寳業報因緣經) leave no
doubt that Jiuku Tianzun was, from the beginning of his career,
already conceived on the model of Guanyin” (Mollier, 2008:178179).
Avalokiteßvara in China
19
This is because, as she explains, “Mahåyåna notions of
compassion, universal salvation, redemption, and the transfer of
merit had already been thoroughly integrated into early Taoism, in
particular in the Lingbao (Numinous Treasure) tradition, but the
need to compete with prominent and widely venerated bodhisattvas
was certainly still strongly felt”. (Mollier, 2008:178-179)
Guanyin found in Daoist tradition quite early as early as the
sixth century as Zheng Luan 甄鸞 (535-556) says in his Laughing
at the Dao that Daoists made status of Laozi with two bodhisattva
retinues Jingangzang 金剛藏 (Vajragarbha) and Guanshiyin 觀世音
(Avalokiteßvara).30
Second, according to Gu Xijia’s 顧希佳 Pusan Waizhuan
《菩薩外傳》(Different Biography of the Bodhisattva), one of the
folk believes is that Laozi’s disciple Yi Xi 尹喜 went to west and
became Guanyin. This is certainly linked with Laozi huahu jing
《 老 子 化 胡 經 》 (Laozi Converted the Barbarians) which was
written by Daoists to defame Buddhism. The origin of this story
was quite early as far back as the third century with Daoist Wang
Fu. According to the Laozi huahu jing, Laozi went to the West and
became the Buddha and taught the barbarians Buddhism. Thus
Laozi was the teacher of Buddhism.
Third example, Wang Fenghsien (835-885) was an
important Daoist woman saint whose life is recorded by the late
Tang Daoist Master Du Guangting (850-933) in a collection of
hagiographical accounts of female Daoist holy women. According
to this account, Wang Fenghsien, after embarked on her religious
practice, she did not eat for a year or more, but she became ever
strong and lustrous with bright eyes. Her appearance was like a
heavenly person so the people of the south of Yangze River called
her Guanyin. (Yü 2001: 302)
From the Song dynasty onwards the syncretism of three
religions Confucianism, Buddhism and Daoism became the main
stream of thought in China so that the emphasis was on the
similarities rather than differences in the three. Thus we see in
Sichuan even today Confucius, Buddha and Laozi are depicted in
the same cave. This trend continued in Ming and Qing dynasties.
Thus, Daoist acceptance of Buddhist Guanyin is not a surprise at
all. So today we can see Guanyin in many Daoist temples, but the
30
CBETA, T52, no. 2103, p. 146, b12-c1.
20
The Indian International Journal of Buddhist Studies 12, 2011
name is changed a little as the True Man of Compassion 慈航真人,
Great Person of Compassion 慈 航 大 士 . This belief of Guanyin
spreads all over China and there are many temples dedicated to
Guanyin in countryside but they are neither Buddhist nor Daoist,
but are managed and looked after by local people.
Thus, Guanyin belief spreads widely amongst ordinary
Chinese people in folk religions and has been shaped by Confucian
thought of filial piety, posterity and benevolence as well as the
Daoist idea of longevity and performance of good, but it still
retains its Buddhist ideas of saving the suffering people through
different manifestations and the teaching of karmic retribution. So
Guanyin or Avalokiteßvara is a typical production of the exchange
of Indian and Chinese culture and beliefs.
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