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Avalokiteßvara in China Guang Xing∗ 1. Introduction Avalokiteßvara is known in China as Guanyin 觀音 (Kuanyin 1 , Perceiver of Sounds), Guanshiyin 觀 世 音 (Kuan-shih-yin, Perceiver of the World’s Sounds), the Bodhisattva of Compassion, who has been worshipped throughout the Buddhist world. The Bodhisattva Avalokiteßvara was introduced to China from India, and it has become popular in China from the time of the Northern and Southern dynasties (420-589). The great popularity of Guanyin amongst Chinese people is evidenced by the saying “Everybody chants Amituofo (Amitabha) and every household worshipped Guanyin.” Today, there are two sacred places associated with Guanyin in China. The first one is Mt. Putuo, a small island in Zhejiang province in southeast of China, one of the four sacred Buddhist mountains in China. The other is Potala in Lhasa. Recently there is also a giant Guanyin statue built in the southern part of Hainan Island for world peace. The belief in Guanyin is not confined to Buddhists in China but non-Buddhist people also believe in Guanyin. For instance, Guanyin is also found in the Daoist temples and many public places. We see more of Guanyin in Chinese arts which always depict the Bodhisattva in female form found in many homes in China. 2. The Origin of Avalokiteßvara Concerning the origin and date of the appearance of worship of Bodhisattva Avalokiteßvara in India, it is still a subject of debate amongst scholars. Some scholars such as Gregory Schopen who has used epigraphic material suggests that the cult of ∗ 1 Centre of Buddhist Studies, The University of Hong Kong. Email guangxingsu@gmail.com. This is the old system of phonetic transcription of Chinese characters used in early writings. But now the Pinyin system is accepted by both scholars and ordinary people in their writings worldwide. So throughout this paper I will use the Pinyin System. 2 The Indian International Journal of Buddhist Studies 12, 2011 Avalokiteßvara appeared in the fifth century at earliest as showed in inscriptions from northern India. While others such as Chutiwongs points out that archaeological evidence provides strong proof that Avalokiteßvara’s images were first cheated in Gandhåra and Mathurå by the second century soon after the rise of Mahåyåna and the beginning of the making of Buddhist icons (Yü, 2001: 7). Before the fifth century, Bodhisattva Avalokiteßvara appeared as one of the two accompany bodhisattvas of the Buddha, the other being Vajrapåˆi. Avalokiteßvara represents compassion and Vajrapåˆi wisdom and the latter was later replaced by Mañjußr¥ who is renowned for his wisdom in Mahåyåna. After the fifth century, Bodhisattva Avalokiteßvara became so popular in India that there are 110 his images found at Ellora and in the six century Avalokiteßvara appeared to have attained the independent principle deity who had his own retinue and was worshipped for specific purposes. During the sixth century CE, while Indian artists were carving mural sculptures of Avalokiteßvara as saviour from perils in the Western Indian religious sites of Ajantå, Kanher¥, Ellorå, and Aurangåbad, Chinese painters started to manufacture representations of the Guanyin chapter. In Dunhuang, among the 492 documented grottoes, no less than 28 mural paintings, ranging from the early seventh to the eleventh centuries, depict different themes from the Universal Gate of the Lotus SËtra. Illustrated handwritten copies of the Guanyin SËtra started to circulate at the end of the Tang dynasty. The didactic illustrated booklets of the sËtra, dating from the tenth century, that were discovered in the Dunhuang library cave. 3. The introduction of Avalokiteßvara to China The belief of Avalokiteßvara or Guanyin was introduced into China together with the translation of Buddhist sËtras such as the Chengju guangming dingyi jing《成具光明定意經》(SËtra on the Mental Fixation of Integral illumination)2 and Vimalak¥rtinirdeßa SËtra and the Longer Sukhåvat¥vyËha SËtra as early as the second 2 CBETA, T15, No. 630. According to The Korean Buddhist Canon: A Descriptive Catalogue edited by Lewis R. Lancaster in Collaboration with Sung-bae Park (London: University of California Press, 1979), the text was translated into Chinese by Zhi Yao in 179 of Latter Han dynasty (25-220 CE). Avalokiteßvara in China 3 century CE. 3 However, the Bodhisattva Guanyin in these sËtras plays a subordinate role, as an attendant of a Buddha such as Amitåbha. The introduction and description of the bodhisattva is also limited. It was only with the introduction of the Lotus SËtra (Saddharmapuˆ∂ar¥ka SËtra) which was translated into Chinese six times and only three versions are preserved that the Bodhisattva Guanyin was given a full description and the role has also been changed to a saviour. The first version of the Lotus SËtra《正法華經》which was translated by DharmarakΣa in 286 contains the chapter 23 entitled “Guangshiyin pumenpin” 光 世 音 普 門 品 , which means the “Universal Gate of Avalokiteßvara”. Here Avalokiteßvara was translated as Guangshiyin 光世音 . Soon after its translation, the belief of Guanyin became popular. This is tested by the Xian Fu’s 謝敷 (lived during Eastern Jin 317-420) Guangshiyin yingyan ji《光 世音應驗記》(Record of Guangshiyin’s Responsive Manifestations), which is lost but seven stories found in Lu Gao’s 陸杲 (lived during Nanqi Dynasty 479-502) Xi Guanshiyin Yingyan ji《繫觀世音應驗 記 》 (Continuation of Record of Guangshiyin’s Responsive Manifestations). This book is included in Dong Zhiqiao’s 董志翹 “Guanshiyin ying yan ji san zhong” yi zhu 《觀世音應驗記三種譯 注 》 (Three Versions of Guanshiyin’s Responsive Manifestations edited with notes) published in 2002. Later when Kumåraj¥va translated another version of the Lotus SËtra in 406 CE, it immediately became popular and widely circulated because it is easy to read. The “Universal Gate” (Pumenpin 普門品), which is the twenty-fifth chapter, is devoted to Guanshiyin, Avalokiteßvara. 4 The Chapter opens with a question why the Bodhisattva is named Guanshiyin. The answer is that he is 3 The first translation of the Vimalak rtinirde a S tra (CBETA, T38, no.475) was done by a lay Buddhist named Zhi Qian 支謙 in Wu dynasty (223-228 CE) and the second version (CBETA, T38, no.476) was done by Kum raj va in 406 and the third version by Xuanzang in 650. The Longer Sukh vat vy ha S tra (CBETA, T38, no.361) was first translated into Chinese by LokakΣema in second century, the second version (CBETA, T38, no.360) also by Zhi Qian 支謙 in Wu dynasty (223-228 CE), and the third version (CBETA, T38, no.362) was translated by Sa∫ghavarman in 252 CE. Later there are more translations. 4 The arrangement of chapters are different in Kum raj va’s and DharmarakΣa’s translations of the Lotus S tra. So the chapter on Avalokite vara is also different. 4 The Indian International Journal of Buddhist Studies 12, 2011 named Guanshiyin because even if billions of people who call his name single-mindedly when they are in danger will be saved by the Bodhisattva. As such, the “Universal Gate” was taken out from the Lotus SËtra and circulated as an independent SËtra named Guanyin Jing (Scripture of Guanyin). We will name it as Guanyin SËtra for convenience sake. According to the Biography of Master Zhiyi, 《隋天臺智者 大師別傳》compiled by his disciple Guangdin, Zhiyi liked to visit monasteries at the age of seven and could remember the Pumenpin 普門品 (Guanyin SËtra) when the Buddhist monks taught him after the first time. 5 The great master Zhiyi 智 顗 (538-597) who established the Tiantai School also wrote two books based on the Pumenpin 普門品, the Profound Meaning of Guanyin 《觀音玄義》6 and the Exegesis of Guanyin 《觀音義疏》.7 According to Master Zhiyi’s Profound Meaning of Guanyin, there were many different version of the Guanyin SËtra《觀音經》 during his time.8 Such as the Qing Guan- shiyin Jing 《請觀世音經》 (Scripture of Inviting Avalokiteßvara), the Guanyin Shouji Jing《觀音授記經》(Scripture of Avalokiteßvara’s Prediction [of Enlightenment]), the Guanyin Chanhui Jing 《 觀 音 懺 悔 經 》 (Scripture of Avalokiteßvara’s Repentance), the Guanyin Sanmei Jing 《觀音三昧經》(Scripture of Avalokiteßvara’s Attainment of Samadhi), the Dabei Xiongmen 《 大 悲 雄 猛 觀 世 音 經 》 (Scripture of Great Guanshiyin Jing Compassionate and Brave Avalokiteßvara).9 The last two versions are apocryphal texts that may be written in China during the Northern and Southern dynasties. Another source for the popularity of Avalokiteßvara or Guanyin belief is the Avata◊saka SËtra《大方廣佛華嚴經》in which the place where Avalokiteßvara resides is described. There are three translations of this text and the earliest is translated by 5 Biography of Tiantai Great Master Zhizhe (Zhiyi) of Sui Dynasty 《隋天臺智 者大師別傳》 , “When he was seven and visited a monastery, a Buddhist monk taught him the Pumenpin (Guanyin SËtra) once only and he remembers it.” (CBETA, T50, no. 2050, p. 191, b9-10) 6 CBETA, T34, no. 1726. CBETA, T34, no. 1728. 7 8 CBETA, T34, no. 1726, p. 891, c11-19. 9 These texts are lost. Avalokiteßvara in China 5 Buddhabhadra in 422 CE. 10 According to this sËtra, Sudhana, a young man, visited the place where the Bodhisattva Guanyin lived in order to learn from him. Thus, later on Mt. Putou in Zhejiang Province was identified according to the description. The popularity of Guanyin belief before Tang dynasty was tested by the appearance of many books recording the miraculous stories of those who believed in Guanyin’s saving power and other Buddhist deities such Liu Yiqing’s 劉義慶 (403-444) Xuanyanji《宣 驗記》(Record of the Miraculous Stories), Wangyan’s 王琰 (lived during 479-502) Mingxiangji《冥祥記》(Record of Lucky Stories in Other World), Hou Bai’s 侯 白 Jingyiji 《 旌 異 記 》 (Record of Manifestation of Miraculous) etc. The most popular story in this time is the story of Guˆabhadra found in Huijiao’s 慧皎 (497-554) the Gaosengzuan (Biographies of Eminent Monks). A prince invited Guˆabhadra to deliver a talk on the Avata◊saka SËtra, but he was afraid that he was not fluent in Chinese so he prayed for Guanyin to help. In the night he dreamt a person who brought a head to him and changed his with it. Guˆabhadra suddenly woke up and felt so happy and became fluent in Chinese for preaching.11 The recorded stories about those have been saved by Guanyin are similar in nature with that of the stories found in the “Universal Gate” (Pumenpin 普門品 ) of the Lotus SËtra and the Avata◊saka SËtra. This shows that both the “Universal Gate” of the Lotus SËtra and the Avata◊saka SËtra are responsible for the popularity of Bodhisattva Guanyin belief in China. According to the Kaiyuan Shijiao Lu (Kaiyuan Buddhist Catalogue) there appeared many apocryphal scriptures related to Guanyin before the Tang dynasty. Such as the Guanshiyin sanmei jing《觀世音三昧經》(Guanyin Samådhi SËtra), the Mile xiasheng qian Guanshiyin Dashizhi quanhua zhongsheng she zhuoshan shoulou jing 《彌勒下生遣觀世音大勢至勸化眾生舍惡作善壽樂經》 (SËtra of the Maitreya’s descend to dispatch Avalokiteßvara and Mahåsthåmapråpta to persuade sentient beings to abandoning evil 10 11 The second version was translation by ÍikΣånanda in 695-699 CE and the third is a partial translation, namely the Gaˆ∂avyËha by Prajñå in 796-798 CE. Huijiao’s 慧皎 Gaosengzhuan 《高僧傳》 (Biographies of Eminent Monks) CBETA, T50, no. 2059, p. 344, b10-17. 6 The Indian International Journal of Buddhist Studies 12, 2011 deeds and perform good for happiness and long life), the Gaowang Guanshiyin jing 《 高 王 觀 世 音 經 》 (SËtra of the High King Avalokiteßvara), the Guanshiyin shidayuan jing《觀世音十大願經》 (SËtra of the Ten Great Vows of Avalokiteßvara), the Mile xiasheng Guanshiyin shi zhubao jing《彌勒下生觀世音施珠寶經》(SËtra of the Maitreya’s descend and Avalokiteßvara’s offering of Treasures), the Guanshiyin yongtuosheng jing 《 觀世 音詠託 生經 》 , the Xing Guanshiyin Jing 《 新 觀 世 音 經 》 (New Avalokiteßvara SËtra), the Rizang Guanshiyin Jing 《 日 藏 觀 世 音 經 》 (SËtra of Sun like Avalokiteßvara), the Guanshiyin wuwei lun 《 觀 世 音 無 畏 論 》 (Treatise on the Fearless Avalokiteßvara). 12 Japanese Buddhist scholar Kamata Shigeo 鎌田茂雄 says that the following three are also apocryphal sËtras appeared before Tang dynasty. The Guanshiyin Chanhui chuzui zhou jing 《觀世音 懺悔除罪呪經》 (Dhåraˆ¥ SËtra of Avalokiteßvara’s repentance for elimination of sins), the Guanshiyin pusa jiuku jing 《觀世音菩薩 救 苦經》(又名《救苦觀世音經》 ) (SËtra of Avalokiteßvara’s saving suffering people) and the Guanshiyin pusa wangsheng jingtu benyuan jing 《觀世音菩薩往生淨土本緣經》(SËtra on the Causes of Avalokiteßvara’s Birth in Pure Land). 13 The most popular sËtras are the Avalokiteßvara Samadhi SËtra 《觀世音三昧經》 and the SËtra of High King Avalokiteßvara 《高王觀世音經》 . Sun Changwu 孫昌武 , a specialist in Chinese Buddhist literature, comments on the first one that the text is a simple narrative of miraculous story to emphasize the merit of reciting the text, but not doctrinal teaching. This shows that the text is for ordinary people and Guanyin belief is popular amongst ordinary people of the time (Sun Changwu, 1996: 89). The SËtra of High King Avalokiteßvara 《高王觀世音經》 became popular perhaps because it is related to the story that an eminent Confucian scholar named Lu Jingyu 盧 景 裕 who was rescued from the execution ground through reciting the Guanyin Jing after told in a dream by a Buddhist monk who later identified as Guanyin in disguise. 12 All the titles of these apocryphal texts are recorded in the last chapter on “Doubtable Scriptures” in the Kaiyuan Buddhist Catalogue. 13 Kamata, 1993: Vol. 4, pp. 265-273. Avalokiteßvara in China 7 This story was so popular that it is found in the official historical books such as the Wei Shu 《魏書卷八十四》(History of Wei Dynasty) and Bei Shi 《 北 史 卷 三 十 》 (History of Northern Dynasty).14 According to these two historical books, Lu Jingyu 盧景 裕 was a learned Confucian scholar who even served as official in the courts of emperors Feidi 廢帝 and Xiao Jingdi 孝敬帝. Thus, Guanyin belief became quite popular and wide spread in China during Northern and Southern dynasties. People who believed in Avalokiteßvara were not only confined to ordinary people but also learnt scholars and officials as well. They linked Avalokiteßvara belief together with filial piety. The following examples are taken from both the Buddhist records and official documents. First, Zhongbin ( 宗炳 375-443), who was a learned scholar and artist also believed in Avalokiteßvara. He said in his work entitled “Elucidation of Buddhism” (明佛論) that “if there is danger, one should call upon Guanyin single minded so that all wishes will be fulfilled.”15 According to the Liang Shu 《 梁 書 》 (History of Liang Dynasty), Liu Ji 劉 霽 was a great Confucian scholar who also believed in Avalokiteßvara. “His mother Ming was ill, Ji was already fifty, but he recited the Guanyin SËtra (for his mother) for more than ten thousands times in seventy days without taken off his cloth. So one night he dreamt of a Buddhist monk who told him ‘Your mother’s life span comes to an end but because you are so pious so her life span is extended.’” 16 This kind of scripture recitation practice amongst Buddhists even influenced the Confucians. In the same Liang Shu 《 梁 書 》 (History of Liang Dynasty), a person named Huang Kan 皇 侃 , also a learned Confucian scholar, recited the Xiao Jing 《 孝 經 》 twenty times imitating the Guanshiyin SËtra《觀世音經》for his mother. Thus is the popularity of the belief in Avalokiteßvara. 17 14 Wei Shu, Vol.5, 1860. Bei Shi, Vol. 4, 1099. 15 Zhongbin “If there is a danger, one should single mindedly call Guanshiyin (Avalokiteßvara), no one will not be responded to, all calls will be answered and if one dies one will be reborn in heaven.” Sengyou’s 僧祐 Hongming Ji 《弘明集》(CBETA, T52, no. 2102, p. 16, a2-7). 16 Liang Shu《梁書》, Vol. 3, 657; Nan Shi 《南史》, Vol.4, 1222. 17 Liang Shu, Vol. 3, 680. 8 The Indian International Journal of Buddhist Studies 12, 2011 4. The Development of Avalokiteßvara Belief Tang dynasty (618-907) is the golden age in the Chinese history. Buddhism also developed to its height and many schools have been formulated and flourished. The belief of Avalokiteßvara has been further developed and widely spread in Chinese society. First, Guanyin or Avalokiteßvara belief developed together with the spread and popularity of Pure Land Buddhism. At the beginning of Tang dynasty, Patriarch Daozhuo 道綽 (562-645) started to spread the Pure Land belief. He lectured on the Amitåyur-buddhånusm®tisËtra two hundred times in his life-time so that the voice of nearby people’s reciting the name of Amitåbha rose to the sky and echoed from the surrounding mountains.18 Following his steps, Shandao 善導 (613-681) also devoted his life to the spread of Pure Land belief that he copied the Sukhåvat¥vyËha SËtra a hundred thousand times and got Pure Land SËtra illustrations painted on three hundred walls. Thus, even Emperor Gaozong 高 宗 appointed him to be in-charge of the construction of Longmen Grottoes and built a monastery there. There are also many other great teachers devoted their life to the spread of this school so that it became quite popular in China. As a result Guanyin belief also became popular because Guanyin is the Retinue of Amitåbha and was always depicted together with Amitåbha in murals and paintings. Second, Guanyin belief developed together with the spread and popularity of the Lotus SËtra. The popularity of the Lotus SËtra during the Tang dynasty is tested by the two books recording the people who recited the text and practiced accordingly. Hui Xiang’s 惠詳 Hongzhan Fahua zhuan 《弘贊法華傳》(Biographies of those recited the Lotus SËtra with grant praise) composed in 706 and it provides an account of the dissemination of the Lotus SËtra from the Eastern Jin (316-420) to the Tang (618-907) dynasties in terms of images, translations, lectures and commentaries, visualization meditation, self-immolation, memorization, recitation and copying of the text. 19 In a similar way, Seng Xiang’s 僧詳 Fahua zhuanji 18 Daoxuan’s 道 宣 Xu Gaosengzhuan 《 續 高 僧 傳 》 (Continuation of the Biographies of Eminent Monks), Biography of Daozhuo 道綽 (CBETA, T 50, no. 2060, p. 593, c23-28). 19 CBETA, T51, no. 2067. Avalokiteßvara in China 9 《法華傳記》 (Biographies of those recited the Lotus SËtra) also records the believers of Guanyin. 20 Third, Guanyin belief developed together with the introduction of Tantrayåna Buddhism. Tantrayåna was introduced into China by three great masters Íubhåkarasi◊ha (637-735), Vajrabodhi (671-741) and Amoghavajra (705-774), who had translated many Tantric scriptures and amongst which there are many sËtras related to Guanyin. According to Li Li-an 李立安 , there are as many as 108 texts related to Guanyin translated during Tang and Song dynasties (Li, 2008: 340). With the introduction of Tantrayåna, Avalokiteßvara belief became complex and many different forms of Avalokiteßvara appeared such as Eleven-faced (ekådaßa-mukha) Avalokiteßvara, Avalokiteßvara with thousand arms and eyes, Horse-head (Hayagr¥va) Avalokiteßvara, Ruyilun Avalokiteßvara (with the wheel, holding the pearl in his hand symbolizing a response to every prayer), Cunda Avalokiteßvara, Amoghapåßa (never empty) Avalokiteßvara, Óryåvalokiteßvara (Sacred Guanyin), Six forms of Avalokiteßvara which include the following: Great Compassionate Avalokiteßvara; 1. Great Merciful Avalokiteßvara; 2. 3. Fearless Lion-like Avalokiteßvara; 4. Universally Shining Great Light Avalokiteßvara; 5. Leader amongst gods and men Avalokiteßvara; Great Omnipresent Brahmå Avalokiteßvara. 6. Amongst these, Avalokiteßvara with thousand arms and eyes became quite popular. There are 24 Tang dynasty mural paintings of Avalokiteßvara with thousand arms and eyes in Dunhuang alone. Avalokiteßvara with thousand arms and eyes became popular because it symbolizes that even if a thousand people call his name, he would response to all of them. Fourth, the Guanyin belief became so popular that Chinese people also created many different forms of Guanyin for different purposes such as Water-Moon Guanyin 水月觀音, Guanyin with a 20 CBETA, T51, no. 2068. 10 The Indian International Journal of Buddhist Studies 12, 2011 fish-basket 魚籃觀音 , Clam Guanyin 蛤蜊觀音 , and Child-Giving Guanyin 送子觀音, the Legend of Miaoshan 妙善公主, etc. Water-Moon Guanyin 水 月 觀 音 , according to Zhang Yanyuan’s 張彥遠 (815-907) well known book Lidai Minghua Ji 《歷代名畫記》(Famous Paintings through History), first appeared in Tang dynasty. 21 A famous artist named Zhou Fang 周昉 , who lived in the eighth century and specialized in figure drawing, created the first Water-Moon Guanyin. Later many Chinese artists imitated his drawing and thus Water-Moon Guanyin became very popular in Tang dynasty. The other evidence for the existence of Water-Moon Guanyin during the Tang dynasty is the apocryphal text Foshuo Suiyue Guang Guanyin Pusa Jing 《 佛 說 水 月 光 觀 音 菩 薩 經 》 (Moonlight in water Guanyin Bodhisattva SËtra spoken by the Buddha). 22 This text is one of the ten sËtras copied by an unidentified scribe in Dunhuang commissioned by a local official in the year 958. This means that the appearance of Water-Moon Guanyin must be earlier than the copying of the text. People of Tang dynasty already knew it well. Water-Moon Guanyin was a popular subject for Dunguang painters. The complete catalogue of 1982 listing the contents of the caves at Dunhuang identified fifteen wall paintings of the WaterMoon Guanyin, six were done in the tenth century, and the others from the eleventh to thirteenth century. Some other scholars say the number even to 30 (Yü, 2001: 235). Guanyin with a fish-basket 魚 籃 觀 音 , also known as Guanyin of Ma’s wife, became popular in Tang dynasty. According to the Guanyin ganyin zhuan (Biographies of Those Responded from Guanyin)《觀音感應傳》, at the beginning of ninth century a girl who lived in present Shanxi was a fish vendor and she always carried her fish in a basket. Because she was beautiful so many young men came to ask her for marriage. She said that she would marry the one who could recite the Guanyin SËtra and the following day, twenty people could recite it. Then she said that she 21 It records that Zhou Fang painted Water-Moon Guanyin on the walls of Eastern courtyard of Shengguang Monastery. Okamura Shigeru 岡村繁, 184. 22 Fang Guangchang 方廣錩 1995: 349-353. Avalokiteßvara in China 11 would marry the one who could recite the Diamond SËtra and then ten could recite it in the following morning. Then she said that she would marry the one who could recite the Lotus SËtra and then after three days, only Mr. Ma could recite it. So she prepared to marry Mr. Ma, but she died on the same day and was buried. A few days later, a monk came and opened her tomb but found only a skeleton bound with gold, so he told the people that she was none other than Guanyin. The monk flew away after said this. There is a second version of the story, which is as follows: A woman of Yanzhou lived in the Eastern part of Shaaxi during the Dali era (766-779). She had sex with any man who asked for it. But whoever had sex with her was said to become free from sexual desire forever. She died at the age of twenty-four and was buried in a common grave by the roadside. A foreign monk from the western region later came, offered incense and paid respect to her at her grave. When asked by villagers why he should bother with this woman of loose virtue, he told them that she acted out of compassion to save people. He predicted that her bones would be found to be chained together, and when her grave was opened, the bones of her entire body were indeed linked together like a chain.23 Clam Guanyin 蛤 蜊 觀 音 also appeared in Tang dynasty. According to Fozhu Tongji 《 佛 祖 統 紀 》 (History of Chinese Buddhism) written by Zhipan 志磐 (roughly lived in 1195-1274), Emperor Wenzhong of Tang 唐文宗 liked to eat clam. One day when the chef tried with great strength to open a clam but he could not open it, so he reported it to the emperor who burnt incense and prayed for it. Then the clam opened itself and Guanyin appeared there. Then the emperor invited Chan master Wei Zheng 惟政 to interpret it and the latter told the emperor that it taught him not to eat clam in the future, but to believe in Guanyin.24 Child-Giving Guanyin 送 子 觀 音 is perhaps created according to the Guanyin SËtra of the Lotus SËtra. It says: If there is a woman who seeks to give birth to a son, she should make reverence and offerings to Observer of the World's Sounds 23 Here I have just cited the summery of the story from Yü Chün-fang, 1994: 167. This story is also recorded in the Long-xing fojiao bian-nian tonglun 《隆興佛教編年通論》(Longxing Buddhist Chronicle) written in 1164 by Zuxiu 祖琇. 24 CBETA, X75, no. 1512, p. 231, a20-b4. 12 The Indian International Journal of Buddhist Studies 12, 2011 Bodhisattva. She will then give birth to a son endowed with blessings, virtue and wisdom. If she wishes to give birth to a daughter, she shall give birth to a daughter who is well-formed and possessed of the proper features. She will have planted the roots of virtue in the past and so will be loved and respected by many people. As early as before Tang dynasty, in Northern and Southern dynasties, there were already stories about people who prayed and asked Guanyin for help in giving birth to children. This is evidenced by the above mentioned book such as Liu Yiqing’s 劉義 慶 (403-444) Xuanyanji 《宣驗記》. According to Zhannin’s 贊寧 Song Gaoseng zhuan 《宋高僧 傳 》 (Song Biographies of Eminent Monks), even during Tang dynasty there were many women who also believed in and prayed for Child-giving Guanyin. According to the biography of Daopei 釋 道丕, his mother wished to have a child so she always recited the Guanyin SËtra or “Pumenping” of the Lotus SËtra and as a result she gave birth to a son. 25 But the belief in Child-Giving Guanyin 送 子觀音 became very popular during the Song dynasty. There are many stories about women who got their desired children after praying Guanyin for help. 5. Sinification of Avalokiteßvara After the Tang dynasty, Buddhism developed further amongst the common Chinese people and penetrated into the ordinary Chinese society. However the philosophical study of Buddhist doctrines declined. But on the other hand, the popular belief such as Guanyin developed in Song dynasty (960-1279). First, Guanyin has been completely transformed into a Chinese deity by the identification of it with a Chinese legend of Miaoshan 妙善 . Glen Dudbridge (1978) has made a meticulous study of the legend of Miaoshan. If Guanyin was worshipped before and during Tang dynasty as an Indian god, then from Song dynasty onwards, Guanyin has been completely sinicized as a Chinese deity who was born and lived in China. According to the Legend of Miaoshan, in the distance past, there was a king named Miao Zhuang who had three daughters and the youngest was named Miaoshan. She refused to get married 25 CBETA, T50, no. 2061, p. 818, c15-19. Avalokiteßvara in China 13 when she grew up which totally upset her father who first confined her in the backyard garden and later sent her to the White Sparrow Nunnery for hard labour as punishment. But she did not change her mind. Then her father burned the nunnery and five hundreds nuns died except Miaoshan. At last, she was executed by her father’s order, but her body was brought by a mountain spirit to the forest of dead bodies. Bodhisattva Dizang guided her to tour the hells and she saved many suffering beings there by preaching. After returning to the world, Miaoshan went to Fragrant Mountain and practiced meditation for nine years and attained enlightenment. At this time, her father, the king, got ill with a mysterious disease as a punishment of his bad deeds that his whole body was corrupted and suppurating. None of the doctors could cure him and he was about to die. Then Miaoshan disguised as a monk appeared before her father telling him that his disease could be cured with a kind of medicine made of the arms and eyes of one who is totally free from anger. Then Miaoshan instructed him where to find the medicine. The king sent messengers to the Fragrant Mountain and Miaoshan willingly offered her eyes and hands. Her father recovered after taking the medicine. The king and his wife came to Fragrant Mountain to offer thanks to his saviour, but they recognized that the sage without eyes and arms was none other than their third daughter. Overwhelmed with remorse, the king and his family became Buddhist followers and prayed for his saviour’s full recovery of arms and eyes. Then Miaoshan transformed herself into her true form of a Bodhisattva with a thousand arms and a thousand eyes standing on the altar. According to Glen Dudbridge, the cult to Miaoshan at Fragrant Mountain Monastery ( 香山 寺 Xiang shan si) was first made public in an inscription written by Jiang Zhiqi 蔣之奇 (10311104) in 1100. It is named as the Dabei pusan zhuan〈大悲菩薩傳〉 (Biography of the Bodhisattva of Great Compassion). The full story of Miaoshan is preserved in a chronicle of Buddhism in China, the Long-xing fojiao bian-nian tong-lun 《隆興佛教編年通 論》, written by Zu-xiu 祖琇, a Buddhist monk in Southern Song dynasty, in 1164.26 26 CBETA, X75, no. 1512, p. 175, a18-p. 176, a16 . 14 The Indian International Journal of Buddhist Studies 12, 2011 This is also referred to in Zhu Bian’s 朱弁 (1085-1144) Quwei Jiuwen 《曲洧舊聞》 in which it mentions the story:27 Jiang Yinshu 蔣穎叔 (another name for Jiang Zhiqi 蔣之奇), in the days when he was the Prefect of Ruzhou, on the invitation of the Buddhist monk Huai Zhou 懷晝 of Mt. Xiangshan (Fragrant Mountain), developed into a life story by taking for his subject a divine spirit’s account of great compassion written down by Yi Chang 義常, a disciple of a Vinaya teacher (Daoxuan 道宣) of Tang dynasty. It was recorded that in the past, there was a king name Zhang 莊 of an unknown kingdom, who had three daughters, the youngest was named Miaoshan who offered her hands and eyes to save her father when he was sick. When Jiang Zhiqi 蔣 之 奇 was appointed as prefect of Hangzhou in 1102, he also had his account inscribed in stone at the local Upper Tianzhu Monastery, which is famous for its WhiteRobed Guanyin statue. This contributes further to the rapid popularization of this legend over many areas in China. Then the legend was enriched and developed into Xiang Shan Bao Juan《香 山寶卷》 (Precious Scrolls of Xiangshan). The story was further elaborated and developed into The Complete Story of Guanyin of the South Sea 《南海觀音全傳》 in Ming dynasty (1368-1644). It was also on the basis of this book that the story was turned into Beijing opera Story of Xiangshan (Da Xiangshan). It is also on the basis of the story Miaoshan, today Buddhist monasteries in China celebrate the Guanyin’s birthday on February 19 of Lunar calendar, which is the birthday of Miaoshan in the story, Guanyin’s attainment of enlightenment on June 19, Guanyin’s leaving home on September 19. The Fragrant Mountain Monastery ( 香山寺 Xiangshan Si) was famous for its grand statue of Guanyin with a thousand arms and thousand eyes even before Jiang Zhiqi 蔣之奇 came to write the story in eleventh century. So Xiangshan Si 香山寺 known as Da Xiangshan 大 香 山 (Great Fragrant Mountain) became the holy mountain for Guanyin and many pilgrimages come to visit it every year. 27 Zhu Bian 朱弁, 2002. Quwei Jiuwen 《曲洧舊聞》, edited by Kong Fanli (Beijing: Zhonghua shuju), 169-170. 孔凡禮, Avalokiteßvara in China 15 Second, Guanyin with a fish-basket 魚籃觀音 originated in Tang dynasty, but it became popular from the Song dynasty. It became a favourite subject for painters. Many pictures of Guanyin with a fish basket came into being in Song dynasty. For instance, the well known painter and calligrapher Zhao Menfu 趙孟頫 (12541322) also painted such a picture which is still preserved in Taiwan’s national museum. Song Lian (1310-1381), a great historian and litterateur of the Ming dynasty and also served as a minister, wrote “Poem of Praise for Guanyin with a fish basket” 28. Putuoshan 普陀山 or Mt. Putuo, a small island in Zhejiang province, which is the holy mountain of Guanyin, is another evidence of sinicization of the bodhisattva. Each year tens and thousands of people come to the small island to pay their respect to Guanyin. However, Mt. Putuo became the holy mountain late compared with other three holy mountains in China. Others are: Mt. Wutai 五臺山, the holy place for Bodhisattva Wenshu 文殊 (Mañjußr¥), Mt. Emei 峨 眉 山 is for Bodhisattva Puxian 普 賢 (Samantabhadra) and Mt. Jiuhua 九華山 is for Bodhisattva Dizang 地藏 (KΣitigarbha). According to the final section of Avataµsaka SËtra, the young student Sudhana in his quest for wisdom visits fifty-four teachers for instructions. One of these teachers whom are consulted by Sudhana is the Bodhisattva Avalokiteßvara, who is portrayed as seated atop the Potalaka Rock at the edge of the world. So as early as the eleventh and twelfth centuries, Mt. Putuo was identified as the Potalaka of Guanyin’s residence by both monks and literati. We find in both Daoyin’s 道因 Caoanlu 《草菴錄》(The Record of Stray Hut) and Zhipan’s the Fozu Tongji《佛祖統紀》which were written in Song dynasty the description of Mt Putuo as follows: During the Tang dynasty, a Japanese Buddhist monk named Hui-e 慧鍔 came to visit Mt. Wutai and got a statue of Guanyin. So he took the statue and started his journey back to Japan by way of Mt. Putuo where he encountered difficulties on the sea. So he prayed that if the statue of Guanyin would not like to leave he would leave it on the mountain and then the boat moved. So he together with the statue stayed there and he built a hut to enshrine it. 28 It is found in the Song Xueshi Wenji 《宋學士文集》, scroll 51. 16 The Indian International Journal of Buddhist Studies 12, 2011 Thus Daoyin said, “Mt. Putuo is in the great ocean. It is situated southeast of Yin (鄞) [Ningpo] about six hundred miles by water route. It is no other than the mountain called Potalaka which is described in the Huayan Jing as the isolated place at the end of Southern Sea where Guanyin Bodhisattva lives. It is also described in the Dabei Jing as the Mt. Potalaka in which the palace of Guanyin situates and where Íåkyamuni Buddha reveals the heartseal of the mantra of Great Compassion”. 29 The same book also tells us that Daoyin wrote his Caoanlu 《草菴錄》around 1165-1173. And according to Chünfang Yü, from Song dynasty onwards, many important officials and famous people came to the island and some even left their essays and poems about their visits and description of the place. Hence there came up many miraculous stories of Guanyin associated with Mt. Putuo. However, Mt. Putuo did not become popular until the sixteenth century that Emperor Wanli and his mother promoted the island as a sacred mountain. Then during the Qing dynasty emperors continued their support to the island of Putuo and thus it becomes well known. The reasons for the late popularity of Mt. Putuo are perhaps due to the frequent invasion of Japanese pirates to the small island until sixteenth century. Today Mt. Putuo is visited by millions of pilgrimage every year from all over the world. Thus, from Ming dynasty onwards, Guanyin belief became so popular that it was expressed in many different forms such as literature, novels, and drama etc.: the Biography of Avalokiteßvara 《觀音傳》written by Zhu Dingcheng 朱鼎臣, the novel Journey to the West 《 西 遊 記 》 written by Wu Chengen 吳 承 恩 , drama Jinyuwen’s Attainment of Enlightenment 《 金 魚 翁 證 果 魚 兒 佛 》 written by Zhanran 湛然, and many Precious Scrolls about Guanyin such as the Great Compassion Precious Scroll 《 大 悲 寶 卷 》 , Coloured Lotus Precious Scroll《彩蓮寶卷》, Fish-Basket Precious Scroll《魚籃寶卷》, Saving Sufferings Precious Scroll《救苦寶卷》, Putuo Precious Scroll《普陀寶卷》, Rare Precious Scroll《希奇寶 卷》, Original Vows of Avalokiteßvara Saving Precious Scroll《觀 音濟度本願真經》, the Record of Avalokiteßvara Bodhisattva FishBasket 《 觀 音 菩 薩 魚 籃 記 》 , the Causes of Avalokiteßvara in Xiangshan 《 觀 音 菩 薩香 山 因 緣 》 and the White-Coloured Robe 29 CBETA, T49, no. 2035, p. 388, b16-c5. Avalokiteßvara in China 17 Avalokiteßvara Giving Child Precious Scroll《銷釋白衣觀音菩薩送嬰 兒下生寶卷》. 6. Sex Transformation of Guanyin Avalokiteßvara was a male Bodhisattva in India and it continued to be a male when it was introduced in China in the first few centuries as evidenced from many scriptural sources and art works. But since the period of Five Dynasties, around the 10th century, Avalokiteßvara or Guanyin has been increasingly represented as a feminine Bodhisattva and by the Ming dynasty, the bodhisattva was transformed into a “goddess of mercy” (Yü, 1997: 445). Many modern scholars have tried to explain the reasons why Guanyin bodhisattva changed sex. Japanese scholar Kobayashi Taichiro 小林 太市郎, for instance, suggests that it might be influenced by the Chinese goddess Queen Mother of the West ( 女 媧 Nuwa), but there is no further elaboration in his paper according to Chünfang Yü, (2001: 408). Some western feminist scholars thought that it is a positive religious symbol of the feminine while others think it is a symbol for the mother for wisdom. While still others think that it was mainly promoted by women in late imperial China (Yü 2001: 418). All these suggestions and ideas have no scriptural support, but only some thoughts. However, we find in the Guanyin SËtra, the twenty-fifth chapter of the Lotus SËtra, which mentions that Guanyin may manifest in thirty-two different forms to help others. Amongst these thirty-two forms, there are the following female forms: nun (BhikΣuˆ¥), lay woman (Upåsikå), wife, daughter, and girl. In the Sura∫gama SËtra, a sËtra particularly popular since the Song dynasty, Guanyin appears in thirty-two forms, of which there are six feminine: nun, laywoman, queen, princess, noble lady, and virgin maiden. According to the Buddhist teaching, great bodhisattvas such as Guanyin could use skilful means (upåya) to save people, which is one of their important perfections. So Guanyin could manifest himself in whatever the forms he wishes in accordance with the situation. Feminine form is perhaps one of the most important forms. It was on such scriptural basis that as early as in the six dynasties, there were already people dreamt of Guanyin appeared in female form to response to their call for help. Thus, many forms of Guanyin in feminine came into being from the five dynasties. I 18 The Indian International Journal of Buddhist Studies 12, 2011 believe that one of the main reasons for the sex transformation of Guanyin is the success of the stories such as the legend of Princess Miaoshan as a manifestation of Guanyin and Guanyin with a fishbasket or Mr. Ma’s wife. These stories became so successful in Ming and Qing dynasties that ordinary people knew nothing about the male Guanyin Bodhisattva but the legend Miaoshan and Guanyin with a fish-basket. The reasons for the success of these stories are as follows: First, these stories are easy to understand for ordinary people and also dramatic. So people like the stories and spread it with the help of those learnt people who wrote and expanded the stories. Second, the legend of Miaoshan also advocates the important Chinese idea of filial piety. The idea of filial piety in turn also helps to popularize the legend of Miaoshan. Guanyin with a fish-basket or Mr. Ma’s wife, on the other hand, became popular because it is dramatic combining a holy Bodhisattva with a prostitute which ordinary Chinese people never heard of. Thus, most of the images of Avalokitßvara in China and also in other East Asian countries are in feminine forms. 7. Guanyin in Daoism and Popular Belief After its introduction and assimilation in China, Guanyin belief has become so popular that the bodhisattva appears in Daoist monasteries as well as in many public places of folk religions. According to Christine Mollier, Avalokiteßvara became the prototype of a number of “new” Chinese divinities over the centuries such as the Princess of Azure Clouds (Bixia Yuanjun 碧霞 元君), the Unborn Mother (Wusheng laomu 無生老母), and as early as in the sixth century, in the Daoists of the Lingbao 靈寳 texts or school Jiuku Tianzun 救苦天尊 (the Heavenly Venerable Saviour from Suffering) was created by imitation of the Buddhist Guanyin (Mollier, 2008:177). She says, “Nevertheless, it was assuredly to the bodhisattva Guanyin that the Heavenly Venerable Saviour from Suffering owed the most salient features of his personality. His names, titles, and personal qualities as recapitulated in the Lingbao Scripture of Karmic Retribution (太上洞玄靈寳業報因緣經) leave no doubt that Jiuku Tianzun was, from the beginning of his career, already conceived on the model of Guanyin” (Mollier, 2008:178179). Avalokiteßvara in China 19 This is because, as she explains, “Mahåyåna notions of compassion, universal salvation, redemption, and the transfer of merit had already been thoroughly integrated into early Taoism, in particular in the Lingbao (Numinous Treasure) tradition, but the need to compete with prominent and widely venerated bodhisattvas was certainly still strongly felt”. (Mollier, 2008:178-179) Guanyin found in Daoist tradition quite early as early as the sixth century as Zheng Luan 甄鸞 (535-556) says in his Laughing at the Dao that Daoists made status of Laozi with two bodhisattva retinues Jingangzang 金剛藏 (Vajragarbha) and Guanshiyin 觀世音 (Avalokiteßvara).30 Second, according to Gu Xijia’s 顧希佳 Pusan Waizhuan 《菩薩外傳》(Different Biography of the Bodhisattva), one of the folk believes is that Laozi’s disciple Yi Xi 尹喜 went to west and became Guanyin. This is certainly linked with Laozi huahu jing 《 老 子 化 胡 經 》 (Laozi Converted the Barbarians) which was written by Daoists to defame Buddhism. The origin of this story was quite early as far back as the third century with Daoist Wang Fu. According to the Laozi huahu jing, Laozi went to the West and became the Buddha and taught the barbarians Buddhism. Thus Laozi was the teacher of Buddhism. Third example, Wang Fenghsien (835-885) was an important Daoist woman saint whose life is recorded by the late Tang Daoist Master Du Guangting (850-933) in a collection of hagiographical accounts of female Daoist holy women. According to this account, Wang Fenghsien, after embarked on her religious practice, she did not eat for a year or more, but she became ever strong and lustrous with bright eyes. Her appearance was like a heavenly person so the people of the south of Yangze River called her Guanyin. (Yü 2001: 302) From the Song dynasty onwards the syncretism of three religions Confucianism, Buddhism and Daoism became the main stream of thought in China so that the emphasis was on the similarities rather than differences in the three. Thus we see in Sichuan even today Confucius, Buddha and Laozi are depicted in the same cave. This trend continued in Ming and Qing dynasties. Thus, Daoist acceptance of Buddhist Guanyin is not a surprise at all. So today we can see Guanyin in many Daoist temples, but the 30 CBETA, T52, no. 2103, p. 146, b12-c1. 20 The Indian International Journal of Buddhist Studies 12, 2011 name is changed a little as the True Man of Compassion 慈航真人, Great Person of Compassion 慈 航 大 士 . This belief of Guanyin spreads all over China and there are many temples dedicated to Guanyin in countryside but they are neither Buddhist nor Daoist, but are managed and looked after by local people. Thus, Guanyin belief spreads widely amongst ordinary Chinese people in folk religions and has been shaped by Confucian thought of filial piety, posterity and benevolence as well as the Daoist idea of longevity and performance of good, but it still retains its Buddhist ideas of saving the suffering people through different manifestations and the teaching of karmic retribution. So Guanyin or Avalokiteßvara is a typical production of the exchange of Indian and Chinese culture and beliefs. 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