BUDDHIST STATUES AND THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT: POKCHANG AS THE BUDDHA-MOTHER AND MANDALA IN LATE CHOSŎN PERIOD KOREA Abstract Individual items chosen to be installed inside a Buddhist statue combine meaningfully and express religious significance. Only when these objects are combined in a specific way based on a proper ritual can they turn into efficacious pokchang objects that endow the statue with sacredness. The pokchang ritual tranforms a material statue into a Buddha. The ritual is not a simple act of installing votive items inside Buddhist statues. Correct recitation of dhāraṇīs and the inscription of siddhaṃ letters are essential to guaranteeing the sacralization of a Buddhist statue. During the late Chŏson period, the Sūtras on the Production of Buddhist Images (K. Chosang gyŏng) became the ritual manual for the practice of the pokchang ritual. Throughout this essay, I explain three main points. First, the cosmology of Esoteric Buddhism is reflected in the items installed inside a throat-bell container, the five grouping of these items, the five mirrors symbolizing the Buddha’s five kinds of wisdom, and siddhaṃ letters. Second, the inscription of the five-wheel seed syllables from the throat-bell container and the Dhāraṇī of the Jewel Casket Seal enshrined in pokchang deposits symbolize the wholebody relics of the Buddha, which transcend the three bodies of the Buddha, as well as the Buddhas of the past, present, and future. The whole-body relics surpass other relics of the Buddha. Thus, the Dhāraṇī of the Jewel Casket Seal becomes the result of the Buddha’s nirvana, and the throat-bell container symbolizes the Buddha-mother or the begetter of all Buddhas (K. pulmo). Third, the correct performance of the rite of the altar for the three-siddhi, a rite included in the pokchang ritual, is required for the completed pokchang deposit to properly function as a sacred entity that represents Buddhist cosmology. Through the particular combinations of siddhaṃ letters and dhāraṇī inscriptions, pokchang rituals play a central role in transforming ordinary materials into sacred beings. Key Words Pokchang, Chosŏn, Sūtras on the Production of Buddhist Images (K. Chosang gyŏng), whole-body relics, Dhāraṇī of the Jewel Casket Seal, Esoteric Buddhism, Three Bodies 1 of the Buddha, the Buddhas of the Three Times Pokchang: The Breath of Life Blown Into the Buddha Body How can the materiality of a Buddhist image, made of raw materials such as wood, rock, or clay, turn into the embodiment of the sacred? Materiality is not compatible with divinity. In a way, materiality and divinity appear to be opposites. In Buddhist terms, materials correspond to “form” (Skt. rūpa, Ch. se 色) among the five skandhas (Ch. wuyun 五蘊). Attachment to “form” constitutes the craving for the entire five skandhas, which creates more suffering. The only way to attain nirvana is to dispel both our attachment to the five skandhas and the false view that the five skandhas exist. Unenlightened human beings, however, still tend to cling to material form. Humans living in this world desire to make images of the Buddha out of various materials and worship them. Even though such images have the anthropomorphic form of an icon, its form and materiality is not sufficient to make them object of veneration. In Korean Buddhism, interring pokchang 腹藏 items is a representative method to endow these images with the sacred. Pokchang refers to objects placed inside of Buddhist images. The individual pokchang items possess neither independent significance, nor religious relations between them. Only when these things are combined in a specific way through a particular ritual can they serve as the medium of the sacred. In other words, it is the pokchang ritual that is responsible for the radical transformation that turns a Buddhist image into the Buddha. This paper demonstrates that the pokchang ritual is the core component of the 2 sacralization of Buddhist images. After a Buddhist statue is produced it is not yet considered to be an object of veneration. Only after the performance of the pokchang ritual, which transforms the inert material image into a sacred image, is it considered to be animated with the living presence of a deity. The consecration ritual is a two-step process: first, all the items that are to be placed inside of the icon are consecrated; and second, these sacralized objects are interred inside of the statue, transforming it into a living image. The specially assembled pokchang items are thoroughly transformed in this ritual; on a symbolic level, a Buddha’s abdomen becomes a womb, and the items placed inside it through the ritual become an umbilical cord that brings forth the life into the image. In this way, one can say that the consecration ritual gives birth to the Buddha statue. A mundane material is now revered as a divine being. Creating the Sacred In India, for about five hundred years after the death of the Buddha he was only represented aniconically through symbolic forms. When the first anthropomorphic representations of the Buddha began to appear, various ways were devised to consecrate them. During the earliest phase, people began to enshrine relics of the Buddha inside the uṣṇīṣa (Ch. rouji 肉髻) or between the feet of the anthropomorphized Buddha statue.1 Later, replicas of human organs (the five viscera and six entrails, Ch. wuzang liufu 五 1 The practice of enshrining the Buddha’s relics in a small hole drilled into the top of the uṣṇīṣa first developed in Gandhāra. Some sculptures of the Buddha made in Andhra shows traces of having enshrined relics of the Buddha between the Buddha’s feet. Such a practice of enshrining the relics inside images was a good means to transform an image of the Buddha into a living Buddha without much resistance from Buddhists. This practice was transmitted to parts of Central Asia, China and Korea. 3 臟六腑) were encased inside images, as found inside of the famous Śākyamuni statue at Seiryōji 淸凉寺 in Kyoto, Japan.2 In that case, the replicas of internal organs served as a substitution for relics of the Buddha. In a way, the conceptual basis of the former is more or less the same as the latter, because in both cases, the statue of the Buddha is perceived as the actual body of the Buddha. However, the practice of installing pokchang inside Buddhist statues that began in Korea during the Koryŏ period is rather different from the two earlier methods of consecrating statues. During the late Chŏson period, the Korean Sūtras on the Production of Buddhist Images (K. Chosang gyŏng 造像經) served as the manual for pokchang rituals. Although the literal meaning of the title refers to the methods to create images, in fact, this apocryphal text intends to provide instructions for how to “awake” the divine through installing objects inside the statue. More precisely, it is a cycle of ritual manuals and instructions grouped under the aforementioned title for rites to sacralize images. Pokchang items include a variety of objects, such as a throat-bell container (K. huryŏng t’ong 喉鈴筒) symbolizing the Buddha’s voice, various Buddhist scriptures, five kinds of grains, and prayer texts. Once the throat-bell container is decorated with the five-wheel seed syllables (K. oryun chongja 五輪種字) of the five Buddhas that 2 This model of internal organs was discovered from inside the Śakyamuni Buddha image created in 985, and has received much scholarly attention. See Gregory Henderson and Leon Hurvitz, “The Buddha of Seiryōji: New Finds and New Theory,” Artibus Asiae 19, no. 1 (1956), 4–55; and Hosaka Saburo 保坂三郞, “Kyōzō kō” 鏡像考, Kokka 國華 841 (1965), 153–154. 4 symbolize the five kinds of wisdom (Ch. wuzhi 五智), it is ready to be installed where the heart of the statue is located (Fig. 1). The ritual placement of the throat-bell container brings Buddhist cosmological associations into the body of the Buddha image and, now as a cosmic being, it transforms itself into the Buddha-Mother (Ch. fomu 佛 母), or the mother of all Buddhas. Since the 1960s, numerous pokchang deposits began to be examined, but from the 1990s to the present new research and new discoveries increased dramatically, leading to increased interest.3 Many of the previous studies focused on explaining the motivation for the production of the image, and information about donors and monk artisans based on the analysis of prayer texts recovered from the inside of statues.4 3 The first research article published on pokchang was Min Yŏng-gyu (Min Younggyu) 閔泳珪, “Changgoksa Koryŏ ch’ŏlbul pokchang yumul” 長谷寺 高麗鐵佛 腹藏遺物, Inmun kwahak 人文科學 14/15 (1966), 237–247. More research on pokchang has been published since the 1990s, and most of it focused on the Buddhist sculptures of the late Chosŏn period. The following book contributed much to promoting studies of pokchang: Onyang minsok pangmulgwan 溫陽民俗博物館, ed., 1302-nyŏn Amit’a pulbokchangmul ŭi chosa yŏn’gu 1302年 阿彌陀佛腹藏物의 調査硏究 (Seoul: Kyemongsa, 1991). For a systematic and comprehensive study of pokchang, see Yi Sŏn-yong (Lee Seonyong) 李宣鎔, “Pulbokchangmul kusŏng hyŏngsik e kwanhan yŏn’gu” 佛腹藏物 구성형식에 관한 연구, Misulsahak yŏn’gu 美術史學硏究 261 (2009), 77–104. 4 Ch’oe In-sŏn (Choi Insun) 최인선, “Kangjin Ongnyŏnsa mokcho Sŏkkayŏrae chwasang kwa pokchang” 康津 玉蓮寺 木造釋迦如來坐像과 腹藏, Munhwa 5 Other studies have examined individual pokchang items, relevant ritual procedures and their relationship with the Sūtras on the Production of Buddhist Images,5 and the textiles and clothing included in the pokchang items.6 Philologists also studied the scriptures and dhāraṇī found inside of the Buddhist images.7 sahak 文化史學 1 (1994), 129–158; Ch’oe Sŏng-ŭn (Choe Songeun), “13-segi Koryŏ mokcho Amit’a pulsang kwa pokchang muksŏmyŏng” 13세기 고려목조아 미타불상과 복장묵서명, Han’guksa hakpo 한국사학보 30 (2008), 111–151; Ŏm Ki-p’yo (Eom Gi Pyo) 엄기표, “Sunch’ŏn Songgwangsa mokcho Kwanŭmbosal chwasang pokchangmul chosa wa ŭiŭi” 順天 松廣寺 木造觀音菩薩坐像 腹藏物 調査와 意義, Munhwa sahak 37 (2012), 127–155; and Chŏng Ŭn-u (Jeong Eunwoo) 정은우, “1662-nyŏn Songgwangsa Kwanŭmjŏn mokcho Kwanŭmbosal chwasang kwa chogaksŭng Hyehŭi” 1662年 松廣寺 觀音殿 木造觀音菩薩坐像 彫刻僧 慧 熙, Munhwasahak 39 (2013), 5–23. 5 T’aegyŏng sŭnim 泰炅스님, Chosang gyŏng: Pulbokchang ŭi chŏlch’a wa kŭ soge tamgin sasang 造像經: 佛腹藏의 節次와 그 속에 담긴 思想 (Seoul: Unjusa, 2006); and Paekp’a Kŭngsŏn, Chakpŏp kwigam 작법귀감, trans. Kim Tu-jae (Seoul: Tongguk taehakkyo ch’ulp’anbu, 2010). 6 Yi Ŭn-ju (Lee Eun Joo) 이은주, “Sunch’ŏn Songgwangsa mokcho Kwanŭmbosal chwasang pokchang poksik e kwanhan koch’al” 順天 松廣寺 木造觀音菩薩坐像 腹藏 服飾에 관한 考察, Munhwa sahak 37 (2012), 157–184; Song Mi-gyŏng (Song Mi Kyung) 송미경 and Pae Sun-hwa (Bae Soon-Wha) 배순화, “Sokch’o Pogwangsa mokcho Chijangbosal chwasang pokchang chingmul e kwanhan koch’al” 속초 보광사 목조지장보살좌상 복장 직물에 관한 고찰 Hanbok munhwa 한 복문화 16/2 (2013), 5–15; and Sim Yŏn-ok (Sim Yeon Ok) 심연옥 and Yi Sŏnyong, “Pulbokchang ŭi obangsaek yŏn’gu” 불복장의 오방색 연구, Hanbok munhwa 17/2 (2014), 87–103. 7 Nam Kwŏn-hŭi (Nam Kwon-hee) 남권희, “12-segi kanhaeng ŭi Pulgyo charyo ŭi 6 To sum up the major findings from previous studies, firstly, the pokchang ritual started in China around the tenth century. Secondly, the practice rapidly became popular during the Koryŏ period. Thirdly, the preferred items for enshrinement changed over time from relics to internal organs and then to the pokchang centering on the throat-bell container. The practice of enshrining relics and the replication of the internal organs have similar but different hermeneutical contexts: if relics were chosen, it was meant to emphasize the authenticity of the Buddha body; but if symbolic internal organs were used, they were intended to replicate the human body of the Buddha.8 However, the Korean practice of pokchang fundamentally departs from earlier practices of interring relics and organs since the pokchang ritual allow the statue to attain the Buddha nature (Ch. foxing 佛性). Esoteric Aspects of the Pokchang Ritual and the Sūtras on the Production of yŏn’gu” 12세기 간행의 불교자료의 연구, Sŏjihak yŏn’gu 書誌學硏究 17 (1999), 373–420; Nam Kwŏn-hŭi, “Koryŏ sidae Milgyo taejang kwŏn-9 ŭi sŏjijŏk yŏn’gu” 고려시대 밀교대장 권9의 서지적 연구, Sŏjihak yŏn’gu 58 (2014), 5– 54; Song Il-gi (Song Il-gie) 宋日基, “Kwangju Chaunsa mokcho Amit’abul chwasang ŭi pokchang chŏnjŏk ko” 광주 자운사 목조아미타불좌상의 복장전적 고, Sŏji hakpo 서지학보 28 (2004), 79–114. 8 The “Chosang p’um” section in the Sūtras on the Production of Buddhist Images includes a quotation from Record of the Transmission of the Lamp Published in the Jingde Era (Ch. Jingde chuandeng lu 景德傳燈錄), which reads, “[He] was reprimanded because [he] burned a wooden statue. However, what harm would have been done when there were no relics [inside the statue.]” This quotation helps us understand the relationship between the relics and the statue.. [[We need to have the full proper citation that includes the juan and/or page number]] 7 Buddhist Images The origin of the pokchang tradition may be traced back to the early Koryŏ period, for the ritual of installing pokchang inside Buddhist images had already taken root in the late Koryŏ period, which predates the compilation of the Sūtras on the Production of Buddhist Images. In this essay, I focus on the late Chŏson period because it was the time when a massive amount of Buddhist images were created within a short time in order to recover from the major losses caused by the Japanese Invasion of Korea (1592– 98) and the Qing Invasion of Chŏson (1636–37). The great majority of new Buddhist statues of this period were produced in the 17th century. For the restoration project, it was imperative to set a protocol, and the Sūtras on the Production of Buddhist Images is the most representative ritual manual compiled during this time period. All too often, previous scholarship simply used this ritual manual as a reference point to check whether or not newly discovered pokchang deposits faithfully followed its instructions. Previous studies have also illuminated philological aspects of the text in which different editions were compared to analyze the placement, color allocations, and shapes of different buddhas and bodhisattvas. 9 Scholars have also analyzed the practice of enshrining Buddha relics inside statues and how it differed from the pokchang practice, and studied the religious meaning of pokchang by analyzing the directional meaning of the throat-bell container.10 9 10 For a comparative study between actual pokchang and different editions of the Sūtras on the Production of Buddhist Images, see Yi Sŏn-yong, “Pulbokchangmul kusŏng hyŏngsik e kwanhan yŏn’gu,” 80–83. Yi Sŭng-hye (Lee Seunghye) 이승혜, “Pulsang ŭi sŏngmul pong’an” 불상의 성물 봉안, Chŏngsin munhwa yŏn’gu 정신문화연구 38 (2015), 31–62; and Yi Sŏn-yong, “Pulbokchangmul kusŏng hyŏngsik e kwanhan yŏn’gu,” 95–96. 8 Six different editions of the Sūtras on the Production of Buddhist Images are extant, including handwritten manuscripts (Table 1). The earliest edition among the six is the Yongch’ŏnsa 龍泉寺 edition, dated to 1575. However, the term “Chosang gyŏng” was first used as a title in the Kimnyŏngsa 金龍寺edition published in 1746. This suggests that while the contents are more or less the same, different titles may have been used for the earlier editions. For this reason, it is not easy to find this sūtra before the Chŏson period, although the practice of interring pokchang had already existed in the Koryŏ period. While surviving editions have different titles, all of them are ritual manuals composed of citations culled from Buddhist scriptures. Their contents are similar as they cited same group scriptures, and they were written in classical Chinese, Sanskrit siddhaṃ characters, and Korean vernacular scripts. Table 1. Extant Editions of the Sūtras on the Production of Buddhist Images Publicatio Edition Title Holding Institution n Date Yongch’ŏnsa 龍泉寺 1575 Taejang illam gyŏng 大藏一覽經 Wŏngaksa Nŭnggasa 楞伽寺 1677 Kwansang ŭigwe 觀想儀軌 Dongguk University Hwajangsa 華莊寺 1720 Hwaŏm chosang 華嚴造像 Taewŏnjŏngsa Kimnyŏngsa 金龍寺 1746 Chosang gyŏng Dongguk University Yujŏmsa 楡岾寺 1824 Chosang gyŏng DonggukUniversity The scriptures cited in the Sūtras on the Production of Buddhist Images include several 9 quintessential esoteric Buddhist texts (see Table 2). Sometimes there are overlaps and repetitions among the texts. In general it does not simply instruct how to create images (e.g. following the 32 major and 80 minor marks of the Buddha), but rather how to animate Buddhist statues and paintings to transform them into a living entity. To achieve this clearly defined goal, a list of pokchang objects, a manual of how to apply siddhaṃ script, a list of dhāraṇī to be put inside, and different kinds of dhāraṇī to be recited during the consecration process are explained. A detailed manual and its precise performance ensured the efficacy of the ritual. Table 2. Buddhist Sutras Compiled in the Sūtras on the Production of Buddhist Images Translator/ Compiler Chenshi 陳實 Maitrībhadra (Ch. Cixian) 慈賢 Section Title(s) Taejang illam chip 大藏一覽集11 Myogilsang taegyowang kyŏng 妙吉祥大敎王 Main Content Explanatory Notes Explanations for the Motivation of Production List of Items to Be Interred in Buddhist Statue 經 11 The Dazang yilan jing 大藏一覽經 is included in the Dazang yilan ji 大藏一覽集. The “Zaoxiang pin” 造像品 chapter from the Dazang yilan jing was included in the Korean Sūtras on the Production of Buddhist Images. Ch’oe Yŏng-ho (Choy YoungHo) 최영호, “Haeinsa sojang-pon Taejang illam chip kaksŏng sigi ŭi chaegŏmt’o wa p’an’gak ŭi hyŏnsilgwan” 海印寺 所藏本 『大藏一覽集』 刻成時期의 재검 토와 판각의 현실관, Han’guk chungsesa yŏn’gu 한국중세사연구 6 (1999), 212–246. 10 Misattributed to Śubhakarasiṃha (Ch. Shanwuwei 善無畏) Sam silchi tan sŏk 三悉地壇釋 (Full Title) Foding zunsheng xin po diyu zhuan yezhang chu sanjie mimi sanshen fogua sanzhong xidi zhenyan yigui Litanies for Interring items inside Buddhist Statue 佛頂尊勝心破地獄轉業 障出三界秘密三身佛果 三種悉地眞言儀軌 (also known as Sanz ong xidi yigui 三種悉地 儀軌) Dānapāla (Ch. Shihu 施護) Bulmo panya paramilda tamyŏng kwansang ŭigwe Manual for the Visua lization of the Perfec tion of Wisdom, the Buddha-Mother 佛母般若波羅 Great Mantra 大明呪 蜜多大明觀想 儀軌 Among these texts, the San xidi tan shi deserves our special attention. This is a sutra about the three siddhis, or three attainments, or perfect achievement. As implied in its full title, the Foding zunsheng xin po diyu zhuan yezhang chu sanjie mimi sanshen fogua sanzhong xidizhenyan yigui, this ritual manual explains how to invoke the three bodies of the Buddha (Skt. trikāya) in order to attain (Skt. siddhi) good karma and to avoid hell. The perfection of the three siddhis (Ch. sanzhong xidi 三種悉地) involves: the entering-siddhi (Ch. ruxidi 入悉地), the producing-siddhi (Ch. chuxidi 出悉地), and the secret-siddhi (Ch. mimixidi 秘密悉地), each of which symbolizes the Buddha’s 11 reward body (Skt. saṃbhoga-kāya, 報身), the transformation body (Skt. nirmāṇakāya 化身) and the dharma body (Skt. dharma-kāya 法身), respectively. Each mantra for the respective three siddhi consists of five siddhaṃ letters. Each mantra corresponds to three aspects of the five Buddhas: the reward body of the five Buddhas, the transformation body of the five Buddhas, and the dharma body of the five Buddhas, all of whose ideas are found in the Vajraśekhara Sūtra (Ch. Jingang ding jing 金剛頂經). Considering the larger context of applying this particular doctrine here, it could mean that those animated Buddhas perfected these three bodies and gained perfect attainment. The two major esoteric Buddhist texts— the Mahāvairocana Sūtra (Ch. Dari jing 大日經) and the Vajraśekhara Sūtra—provide a doctrinal foundation for the usage of mantras and seed letters for the Sūtras on the Production of Buddhist Images. The Mahāvairocana Sūtra, for instance, instructs that the principle of the cosmos consists of the five seed syllables (Ch. wuzi 五字), the five elements (Ch. wuda 五大), and the five forms (Ch. wuxing 五形), while the Vajraśekhara Sūtra lists the five seed groups (Ch. wubu 五部), the five Buddhas (Ch. wufo 五佛), and the five wisdoms (Ch. wuzhi 五智) as the basis of the cosmos, which are also connected to the doctrinal structure of the five directional Buddhas in the Diamond World Maṇḍala (Skt. Vajradhātu-maṇḍala, 金剛界曼荼羅).12 The Yujŏmsa edition of the Sūtras on the Production of Buddhist 12 Kim Yŏng-dŏk (Kim Young-duk) 김영덕, “Kŭmganggye mandara ŭi Han’gukchŏk 12 Images includes a section titled, “Commentary on the Three Siddhis Altar and the Method of Pokchang” (K. Sam silji dansŏk ch’a yŏk pokchang sa 三悉地壇釋此亦腹藏事) that teaches the use of five siddhaṃ letters: aṁ-vāṁ-rāṁhāṁ-khāṁ, explaining that the secret-siddhi made of these five letters is the original five dharma bodies. The following passage of the section explains the five directional Buddhas: The East corresponds to Akṣobhya Buddha, the Lord of the Vajra Class（Ch. Jingang buzhu Achufo 金剛部主 阿閦佛）; the South corresponds to Ratnasaṃbhava Buddha, the Lord of the Jewel-Nature Class (Ch. Baoxing buzhu Baoshengfo 寶性部主 寶生佛); the West corresponds to Amitābha Buddha, the Lord of the Lotus Class (Ch. Lianhua buzhu Wuliangshoufo 蓮華部主 無量壽佛) ; the North corresponds to Amoghasiddhi Buddha, the Lord of the Karma Class (Ch. Jiemo buzhu Bukong chengjiufo 羯摩部主 不空成就佛); and the Center corresponds to Vairocana Buddha, the Lord of the Tathāgata Class (Ch. Rulai buzhu Piluzhenafo 如來部主 毘盧遮那佛). This grouping of the five Buddhas matches with the five directional Buddhas from the Vajraśekhara Sūtra. The impact of esoteric Buddhism, however, was pyŏnyong e kwanhan yŏn’gu” 金剛界曼茶羅의 韓國的 變容에 관한 硏究, Pulgyo yŏn’gu 佛敎硏究 34 (2011), 147–173; Ch’oe Sŏng-gyu (Choi Sung-kyu) 최성규, “Kŭmganggye 37-chondo ŭi Han’guk chŏk chŏn’gae e taehan yŏn’gu” 金剛 界37尊圖의 韓國的 展開에 대한 연구, Hoedang hakpo 회당학보 16 (2011), 192–249. 13 not profound. The section also contains other mantras for well-known esoteric deities such as Acala (Ch. Budong mingwang 不動明王), Cundi (Ch. Zhunti 準提), or seed letters for the Eight Great Bodhisattvas. Yet, the Korean pokchang ritual specialists did not seem to be very interested in these divinities. Thus, we do not have any images or mandalas dedicated to these divinities included in the pokchang ritual. This phenomenon suggests that Buddhism practiced in the late Chosŏn period was exoteric in nature, within which the Sŏn Buddhist tradition constituted the mainstream. The Korean Buddhism of the time only borrowed the ritual system from esoteric Buddhism. In the section entitled “Deposited Items for the Pokchang” (K. Pokchang so’ip che saek 腹藏所入諸色) the Sūtras on the Production of Buddhist Images lists all the pokchang items. According to the Yongch’ŏnsa edition, six items are listed whereas the Yujŏmsa edition lists nine items. In the course of time, the number of items enshrined increased. All enshrinement deposits are organized into five sets: the five mirrors 五鏡, the five treasure bottles 五寶甁, the five grains 五穀, the five incenses 五香, the five medicines 五藥, the five auspicious grasses 五吉祥草, the five offerings 五供養, the five-wheel seed syllables, and the five canopies 五傘蓋.13 The five kinds of items make a complete set. The altar for the pokchang ritual is aligned with the five directions. The number five here points to the five Buddhas and its corresponding directions in esoteric Buddhism. All together, these pokchang items reflect the material form of the 13 The Yujŏmsa edition (1824) of Chosang kyŏng. The five auspicious grasses, the fivewheel seed syllables, and the five canopies are missing in the Yongch’ŏnsa edition. 14 principle of the Vajraśekhara Sūtra, the fundamental tenet of the esoteric Buddhist tradition. How are these five groups of objects connected with the Vajraśekhara Sūtra? I will take the five mirrors as an example. A mirror, whether it is a real mirror or a replacement made of paper or fabric, was an essential pokchang item. Each of the five mirrors has an established ritual protocol linking it to a corresponding direction, color, and shape. Respective mirrors also symbolize the wisdom of the corresponding five directional Buddhas.14 The five colors of the mirror come from traditional Chinese color symbolism, whereas the different shapes of each mirror appear to be a Korean invention. Instructions for installing the mirrors are as follows: After installing the relevant objects inside the throat-bell container, a mirror is placed outside of the container on each of the five directions. Then, parts of the five colored threads that are wrapped around the five treasure bottles (K. obobyŏng 五寶甁) in the throat-bell 14 The Yujŏmsa edition (1824) of Chosang kyŏng. “五鏡 表五智 謂尊勝儀云 東方 大圓鏡智 南方平等性智 西方妙觀察智 北方成所作智 中方方便究竟智 華嚴 經中普賢入如來藏身三昧觀.” “Zunsheng yi” 尊勝儀 refers to the Zunsheng foding xiu yuqie fa yigui 尊勝佛頂脩瑜伽法儀軌 translated into Chinese by Śubhakarasiṃha (637–735). The five kinds of wisdom respectively correspond to the wisdom of the Buddhas of the five directions in Esoteric Buddhism. They are also viewed as a transformed form of the fifth consciousness (i.e. wisdom with unrestricted activity 成所作智), sixth consciousness (i.e. marvelous observing wisdom 妙觀察智), seventh consciousness (i.e. impartial wisdom 平等性智), eighth consciousness (i.e. great perfect mirror wisdom 大圓鏡智), and ninth consciousness (i.e. paramount wisdom with great skillful means 方便究竟智) in the Yogācāra doctrinal system. 15 container are pulled outside the container. With the mirrors aligned with the five directions, the strings are tied to the container. In the case of the mirror in the center, it is put underneath the container. Afterwards, the container with the five mirrors is wrapped in a yellow cloth (K. hwangch’o pokcha 黃綃幅子). As the five mirrors symbolize the wisdom of the five directional Buddhas, they constitute a crucial pokchang item (Table 3). Table 3. Five Directional Mirrors: Shape, Color, and Symbolism Corresponding Direction Wisdom East Great Perfect Mirror Wisdom 大圓鏡智 West Impartial Wisdom Siddhaṃ for Siddhaṃ for Transformat Reward Body ion Body Color Shape BlueGreen Square ā a White Circle rā pa Red Triangle vā ra Black Half-Moon hā ca Yellow Circle/Doublesided khā na 平等性智 South Marvelous Observing Wisdom 妙觀察智 North Wisdom with Unrestricted Activity 成所作智 Center Paramount Wisdom with Great Skillful Means 方便究竟智 16 This five-color scheme is also found in other groups of pokchang items.15 A flexible interpretation of colors is applied to the five grains, as there is no blue grain. However, the exact color code is applied to most of the item sets, including the five treasure bottles and five colored threads. A more liberal interpretation is made for the objects in the inner space. Although the five treasure bottles, which signify the abdomen, chest, mouth, forehead, and top of the Buddha’s head, could have been inserted in the anatomically correct location, all the five treasure bottles are put together in the throat-bell container. These five treasure bottles symbolize the five viscera, and the throat-bell container functions as the heart and vocal chords. Since the container is considered the heart of the living image, it is wrapped with paper on which a dhāraṇī is printed and is installed in the middle of the statue’s interior. This throat-bell container, thus, becomes the essence of the consecration ritual that enlivens the statue. The five directional colors are based on the Chinese esoteric Buddhist paradigm, which correlates them with a corresponding siddhaṃ letter and particular form of wisdom of the five directional Buddhas. Therefore, the five mirrors that are put in the eight-petaled container should be inscribed with the five-wheel seed syllables and the siddhaṃ characters for the reward body and the transformation body. Mirrors appear at the beginning of the list in the “All the Objects to Be Interred in the Abdominal Storehouse” section of the Sūtras on the Production of Buddhist Images, and they are the key objects forming the throat-bell container. Once inscribed with siddhaṃ characters, the mirrors become the embodiment of the reward body and the 15 For a study that compares the five directional colors of pokchang and the five directional colors of the Korean tradition, see Sim Yŏn-ok and Yi Sŏn-yong, “Pulbokchang ŭi obangsaek yŏn’gu,” 87–103. 17 transformation body of the Buddha, and the siddhaṃ characters of these two Buddha bodies respectively transform into the entering-siddhi (K. ipsilchi 入悉地) and the producing-siddhi (K. ch’ulsilchi 出悉地).16 Lastly, the secret-siddhi (K. pimilsilchi 秘 密悉地) is written on the five colored strings pulled out of the throat-hole (K. huhyŏl 喉穴), the hole drilled in the lid of the throat bell container. In sum, the five mirrors and the siddhaṃ seed syllables written on five strings symbolize the reward body, the transformation body, and the dharma body. These three bodies, in turn, symbolize the perfect union among the entering-siddhi, the producing-siddhi, and the secret-siddhi. Consequently, these items are meant to manifest the cosmic principle that transcends our mundane realm. And yet, one might find this whole process paradoxical because it ultimately aims to visualize an invisible being and illustrate the realm of emptiness through tangible materials. The Sacred and the Profane, Rituals and Mantras: Communication Between Deities and Human Beings Pokchang are not merely things installed inside a Buddhist statue, but votive objects that should be interred during a proper ritual. Through appropriate ritual steps items used as pokchang are transformed into sacred objects. Let us examine part of such a 16 The spelling for the producing-siddhi is a-ra-va-ca-na. The producing-siddhi means the achievement of the transformation body, and “producing” (K. ch’ul 出) here means to arouse all the wisdom. The spell for the entering-siddhi consists of ā-vā-rāhā-khā. This signifies the achievement of the reward body, and “entering” (K. ip 出) here means to enter the dharma-realm (Ch. fajie 法界) of the Buddha. The secretsiddhi, which signifies the dharma body, consists of aṁ-vāṁ-rāṁ-hāṁ-khāṁ. 18 ritual process from the “Great King of Tantras of the Triumphant Meditation” (K. Myogilyang daegyo wang gyŏng 妙吉祥大敎王經) section of the Sūtras on the Production of Buddhist Images. There is an intriguing passage from that section which states: “The eastern blue agate bottle signifies Vajrapāramitā Bodhisattva. Thus, one should recite the Mantra of Vajrapāramitā Bodhisattva 108 times.” Immediately after this passage we find the mantra of the bodhisattva . The list goes on as follows: The southern yellow jewel bottle signifies Ratnasaṃbhava pāramitā Bodhisattva; the western red coral bottle signifies Padma pāramitā Bodhisattva; the northern green glass bottle is Karma pāramitā Bodhisattva; and the central white jewel bottle signifies Vajra mūla pāramitā Bodhisattva. Each list is accompanied by its own mantra.17 Other sets of pokchang items are also installed inside the statue accompanied by the recitation of relevant mantras. The pokchang ritual transforms these items into sacred objects that manifest the fundamental principle of the Buddhist cosmos. A section titled “Altar Ritual of Interring Objects within [Images of] All the Buddhas and Bodhisattvas” (K. chebul pokchang tan ŭisik 諸佛腹藏壇儀式) in the Nŭnggasa edition of the Sūtras on the Production of Buddhist Images states: “A Maṇḍala is the unsurpassed reality that generates all the Buddhas, and these Buddhas, in 17 The Yujŏmsa edition (1824) of Chosang kyŏng. This account of the five treasure bottes in the Yujŏmsa edition is found in the Great King of Tantras of the Triumphant Meditation of Secrets of the Auspicious Equality (Ch. Miaojixiang pingdeng mimi zuishang guanmen dajiaowang jing 妙吉祥平等秘密最上觀門大敎 王經). 19 turn, appear as a condition of the equality principle of the dharma realm.”18 Here, the creation of the pokchang ritual altar is compared to a maṇḍala, and the pokchang ritual is connected to the process of giving birth to all Buddhas. As I explained earlier, this process is completed by enshrining the throat-bell container based on esoteric Buddhist conceptualizations. The Sūtras on the Production of Buddhist Images further explains other five groups of votive items such as the five bottles, the five medicines, and the five treasures, pairing each item with a specific Buddha or a bodhisattva. Installing these items inside a statue, the ritual performer should visualize the relevant Buddha or bodhisattva and recite the corresponding mantra. All of this suggests that the consecrated throat-bell container itself becomes a maṇḍala. The sacred mantras allow the individual pokchang items to become sacralized. The recitation of mantras is accompanied by other ritual acts such as the sprinkling of sacred water.19 Performing the correct ritual protocols ensures secure communication between the material and divine realms, and transforms the meaninglessness of the mundane world into the meaningfulness of the formless world. It is rituals that mediate between the Buddha and worldly beings. In this sense, the Korean Sūtras on the Production of Buddhist Images can be deemed a ritual manual for divine communication. 18 See the Nŭnggasa edition (1697) of Chosang kyŏng: “太一經云 曼陀羅者 發生諸 佛 極無比義 諸佛依此 一味法界.” The Taiyi jing 太一經 could be a Daoist text, 19 but the Yujŏmsa edition of the Sūtra on the Production of Buddhist Images identifies this text as the Dari jing . However, curiously, this passage does not appear in the Dari jing. The Korean Sūtras on the Production of Buddhist Images instructs one to chant mantras while performing a consecration ritual or sprinkling pure water. 20 The late Chosŏn period witnessed frequent performances of ceremonies for the deceased (K. ch’ŏndo chae 遷度齋) due to the large number of deaths caused by the Japanese and Qing invasions. It was also the time when Buddhist temples, statues, and paintings that had been destroyed were restored on a large scale. Compared to the early Chosŏn period when performing Buddhist rituals was strictly regulated, Buddhist rituals and devotional activities were more welcomed and frequently practiced at this time. A number of ritual manuals for the ch’ŏndo chae ceremony and the Vulture Peak ceremony (K. Yŏngsan chae 靈山齋) were published, and these manuals standardized the performance of the rituals.20 Ritual standardization was necessary to ensure ritual efficacy. In this milieu, a variety of rituals were practiced, and ritual manuals and dhāraṇī sheets were reprinted.21 Prefaces to these reprinted texts allow us to see the motives behind their production. For instance, “the Preface to the Reissued Chosang gyŏng” (K. Chung’gan Chosang gyŏng sŏ 重刊造像經序) in the Sūtras on the Production of Buddhist Images 20 For a study of the publication and circulation of Esoteric Buddhist sūtras, and the anthologies of mantras from the Chosŏn period, see U Chin-ung (Woo Jin-Woong) 禹秦雄, “Chosŏn sidae Milgyo kyŏngjŏn ŭi kanhaeng e taehan yŏn’gu” 朝鮮時代 密敎經典의 刊行에 대한 연구, Sŏjihak yŏn’gu 49 (2011), 235–273. 21 As for the publication of dhāraṇī sutras during the Chosŏn period, 25 kinds were published in the fifteenth century, 21 in the sixteenth century, 19 in the seventeenth century, and 16 in the eighteenth century. As for ritual manuals, 20 kinds were published in the fifteenth century, 78 in the sixteenth century, 114 in the seventeenth century, and 49 in the eighteenth century. Although the number of the dhāraṇī texts produced is relatively small compared to that of the ritual manuals, considering the inclusion of dhāraṇī in these manual texts, the number is still significant. See U Chin-ung, “Chosŏn sidae Milgyo kyŏngjŏn ŭi kanhaeng e taehan yŏn’gu,” 255. 21 explains the reason for its republication as follows: “The [previous edition] of the sūtra has been badly damaged. Also, mantras in the sūtra contained errors in the transliteration and in the transcription, which made it difficult for nonspecialists.”22 The Buddhist monk, Myŏngan 明眼, who wrote the preface to “The Revised Compilation of the Siddhaṃ Pronunciations Used for the Ritual of All Beings of Heaven and Earth, This World, the Netherworld, Water, and Land” (K. Ch’ŏnji myŏngyang suryuk cheŭi pŏmŭm sanbo chip 天地冥陽水陸齋儀梵音刪補集), mentions that the publication of that compilation was meant to correct the mispronunciation of Sanskrit syllables and to align important ritual manuals for Buddhist pŏmp’ae 梵唄 music, or the verses sung in praise of the Buddha.23 The purpose of correcting Sanskrit pronunciations was to ensure correct communication between the Buddha and the ritual performer. In other words, the success of a ritual is dependent on the knowledge of the exact pairing between the script and the sound. When the signifier fails to be matched with the signified, the proper result cannot be achieved. The reproduction of ritual manuals and dhāraṇī texts during the late Chosŏn was aimed at ensuring the accurate practice of rituals and knowledge of the correct recitation methods of Sanskrit letters and mantras. The semantic value of the Sanskrit siddhaṃ is established only when it is recited in 22 T’aegyŏng sŭnim, Chosang gyŏng, pp. 110–111. 23 Yi Ki-un (Lee Ki Woon) 이기운, “Chosŏn hugi Suryukchae ŭi sŏrhaeng kwa Ch’ŏnji yangmyŏng suryuk cheŭi pŏmŭm sanbo chip ŭi p’yŏnch’an ŭido” 조선후기 수륙재의 설행과 天地冥陽水陸齋儀梵音刪補集의 편찬 의도, Pulgyo hakpo 73 (2015), 165–194 and 185–186. 22 ritual or when written correctly.24 During the Koryŏ period, with direct influence from Indian and Tibetan Buddhist monks, there must have been more people well versed in siddhaṃ. However, in the late Chosŏn period, these siddhaṃ letters were exclusively used among a small group of Buddhist monks. As these letters are designed for a special ritual purpose, one had to follow the exact pronunciation according to proper ritual protocol. When it comes to the pokchang ritual, the correct writing of the siddhaṃ characters is required to ensure the successful animation of the ritual objects. The printed dhāraṇī prints used to wrap the throat-bell container also require our analysis. These single-page dhāraṇī sheets printed from a woodblock with cinnabar ink usually do not have bibliographical information, donor names, or publication date. Although these prints have not received much academic attention so far, I believe that they could provide us with significant information given the importance of the dhāraṇī in the pokchang ritual.25 These prints are mostly written in siddhaṃ script, but in some cases classical Chinese or Korean letters are written next to the siddhaṃ script. These prints include the Mantra for the Great Heroic Valor (K. Taebul sunŭngŏm sinju 大佛 首楞嚴神呪), the five-wheel seed syllables, the Mantra of the Jewel Casket Seal (K. Pohyŏp chin’ŏn 寶篋眞言), and the Six-syllable Mantra of the Vidyārsāja (K. Yukcha 24 In rare cases, siddhaṃ letters themselves were used for the visualization as a type of esoteric Buddhist practice. See Cho Kŭm-ja (Cho Geum-ja) 조금자, “Pulsang kwa Milgyo suhaengbŏp ŭi hyŏngsŏng” 불상과 밀교 수행법의 형성, Hoedang hakpo 18 (2013), 477–478. 25 An Chu-ho (Ahn Joohoh) 안주호, “Pulbokchang munhŏn charyo ŭi p’yogi yangsang yŏn’gu” 佛腹藏 문헌자료의 표기 양상 연구, Ŏmunhak 어문학 88 (2005), 29–52. 23 taemyŏng’wang chin’ŏn 六字大明王眞言). When mentioning these mantras and dhāraṇīs, the Sūtras on the Production of Buddhist Images usually explains where and how to use them. One section instructs the dharma master to recite a particular mantra 108 times or inscribe it on a specific pokchang item.26 Further research on these dhāraṇī prints is necessary, but it is highly possible that they are either involved with the performance of pokchang ritual or the most popular dhāraṇī were chosen to print on the yellow cloth used to wrap the throat-bell container. Dhāraṇī of the Jewel Casket Seal and the Completion of the Pokchang Several kinds of pokchang items, such as Buddhist texts, woodblock prints, cloth, and silk also function as the filler for the remaining space inside a statue. Among these objects, I would like to focus on the inscriptions of dhāraṇī known as Mantra of the Jewel Casket of the Whole-body Relic of All Tathāgatas (Ch. Yiqie rulai quanshen sheli baoqie zhenyan 一切如來全身舍利寶篋眞言, hereafter the Dhāraṇī of the Jewel Casket Seal). Multiple sheets of this single-page dhāraṇī, composed in siddhaṃ letters and printed with cinnabar ink, are often found entangled in the pokchang deposit. Dozens of these dhāraṇī prints were found during research conducted on two Buddhist statues at Samgyŏngsa 三暻寺 (established in 1954) in Chŏnju, South Korea in 2003.27 26 An Chu-ho, “Pulbokchang munhŏn charyo ŭi p’yogi yangsang yŏn’gu,” 32. Also, the Lengyan zhou 楞嚴呪, the three siddhis (Ch. san xidi 三悉地), and the five-wheel seed syllables are found in pokchang. 27 Ch’oe In-sŏn (Choi In Sun) 최인선, “Chŏnju Samgyŏngsa mokcho bulsang 2-ku wa pokchangmul” 全州 三暻寺 木造佛像 2軀와 腹藏物, Munhwa sahak 21 (2004), 24 Among the two statues, the smaller one contained a prayer text and a silver cylindershaped throat-bell container (h. 8.2 cm). According to the prayer text, Pŏpchong 法宗, a monk sculptor, carved this wooden Amitābha Buddha statue in 1708 as an offering to a hall named Hasŏjŏn 下西殿 at an unknown temple. The outside of the throat-bell container was wrapped with five colored strings and two different shapes of mirror—a half-moon shape and a triangular shape. Inside of the container, the five treasure bottles made of five colored cloth were discovered, and these cloth-bottles were also wrapped with five colored strings.28 As shown in this case, a throat-bell container and the Dhāraṇī of the Jewel Casket Seal are often found together. A large quantity of the Dhāraṇī of the Jewel Casket Seal prints were also found inside the wooden statue of Avalokiteśvara (completed in 1649) at Puramsa 佛巖寺 located in Namyangju, South Korea. The “All the Objects to Be Interred in the Abdominal Storehouse” section (K. Pokchang so’ip chesaek 腹藏所入諸色) in the Sūtras on the Production of Buddhist Images instructs that one should put the five mirrors in a throat-bell container and write the Dhāraṇī of the Jewel Casket Seal on white silk with golden ink. The text also states that the five-wheel seed syllables should be written on five wheels (K. ryun 輪) made of raw silk in five different colors. Then, these five wheels are glued to the container in line with the correct direction, and the outer surface of the container is inscribed with 28 855–873. Ch’oe In-sŏn, “Chŏnju Samgyŏngsa mokcho bulsang 2-ku wa pokchangmul,” 857– 862. 25 the Spells of the Four Directions (K. Sabang chu 四方呪). Some have suggested that the inclusion of the Dhāraṇī of the Jewel Casket Seal was meant to protect the enshrined items. However, I argue that it would be more useful to think about the reasoning in terms of a whole-body relic.29 In the Sūtra of the Dhāraṇī of the Seal on the Jewel Casket of the Secret Whole-body Relic of the Essence of All Tathāgatas (Ch. Yiqie rulaixin mimi quanshen sheli baoqieyin tuoluoni jing 一切如來心祕密全身舍利 寶篋印陀羅尼經), there is a passage in which the Buddha tells Vajrapāṇi that: “The bodily relics (Ch. shen sheli 身舍利) of all Tathāgatas—the past, present, and future Buddhas—reside in the Dhāraṇī of the Jewel Casket Seal. The three bodies of Tathāgatas are all contained in it.”30 According to this explanation, the Dhāraṇī of the Jewel Casket Seal contains all the relics of the past, present, and future Buddhas. Relics are material evidence of the enlightenment and the parinirvāṇa of the Buddha. In other words, relics are equal to the attainment of ultimate wisdom. A Śākyamuni stūpa from the Liao dynasty (916–1125), currently located in Balinyouqi in the city of Chifeng, Inner Mongolia, has the inscription, “whole-body relics” (Ch. quanshen sheli 全身舍 利).31 This inscription suggests that the concept of whole-body relics developed in the 29 30 An Chu-ho, “Pulbokchang munhŏn charyo ŭi p’yogi yangsang yŏn’gu,” 31. For the cited passage, see Yiqie rulaixin mimi quanshen sheli baoqieyin tuoluo ni jing 一切如來心袐密全身舍利寶篋印陀羅尼經, T 1022, 19: 711. 31 The concept of the whole-body relic is borrowed from Hsueh-Man Shen’s study. See Hsueh-Man Shen, “Realizing the Buddha’s Dharma Body during the Mofa Period: A Study of Liao Buddhist Relic Deposits,” Artibus Asiae 61, no. 2 (2001), pp. 263–303. 26 Wuyue kingdom (907–978) in Southern China and Liao since the 10th century when the Dhāraṇī of the Jewel Casket Seal became popular. Also, copies of the Dhāraṇī of the Jewel Casket Seal have been found inside of some Liao pagodas decorated with reliefs of the Eight Great Stūpas (Ch. Bada lingta 八大靈塔) and the four directional Buddhas from Esoteric Buddhism, which exhibits a similar idea that can be compared with that of a throat-bell container from Korea. These examples further suggest that the conceptual equation between the Dhāraṇī of the Jewel Casket Seal and the whole-body relics can be traced back to the Liao period. While the Dhāraṇī of the Jewel Casket Seal expresses the temporal structure of the whole-body relics of the Buddhas of the past, present, and future, the idea of the three bodies of the Buddhas is found in the “Commentary on the Three Siddhis Altar” section from the Sūtras on the Production of Buddhist Images. Among the three siddhis, the secret-siddhi surpasses the power of the other two siddhis. According to the Manual of Mantras of the Three Siddhis Out of the Secret Results of the Three Bodies for the Destruction of Hell, the Transformation of Karmic Hindrances, and the Liberation from the Three Conditioned Worlds (Ch. Foding zunsheng xin po diyu zhuan yezhang chu sanjie mimi sanshen fogua sanzhong xidi zhenyan yigui 佛頂尊勝心破地獄轉業障出 三界祕密三身佛果三種悉地眞言儀軌), the merit of reciting the supreme-siddhi (Ch. suxidi 蘇悉地) just once, which is none other than the secret-siddhi, equals reciting all other Buddhist scriptures one million times. It further compares each siddhi to the body of the Buddha: the secret-siddhi accords with the section from the top of the Buddha’s 27 head to the heart, meaning the attainment of the dharma body;32 the entering-siddhi corresponds with the section from the heart to the navel, meaning the attainment of the reward body; and the producing-siddhi coincides with the section from the waist to the feet, the attainment of the transformation body.33 The aforementioned “Commentary on the Three Siddhis Altar” instructs how these siddhis should be used during the pokchang ritual: for the dharma body the secret-siddhi, “aṁ-vāṁ-rāṁ-hāṁ-khāṁ” is recited; for the reward body the entering-siddhi, “ā-vā-rā-hā-khā” is recited; and lastly for the transformation body the producing-siddhi, “a-ra-va-ca-na” is recited. The seed syllables of the secret-siddhi are the five-wheel syllables that are explained to be seed letters of the dharma body, and these letters are written on the five colored threads, and then pulled out of the throat-bell container, which completes the process. In short, the whole ritual results in the creation of the origin of all Buddhas by combining the two sets of three Buddhas: 1) the three bodies of the Buddha manifested in the construction of the throat-bell container and pokchang deposit, and 2) the Buddhas of the past, present, and future, contained in the Dhāraṇī of the Jewel Casket Seal. A simple preparation of the items explained in the Sūtras on the Production of 32 Foding zunsheng xin po diyu zhuan yezhang chu sanjie mimi sanshen fogua sanzhon g xidi zhenyan yigui 佛頂尊勝心破地獄轉業障出三界袐密三身佛果三種悉地眞 言儀軌, T 906, 18: 913. 33 Foding zunsheng xin po diyu zhuan yezhang chu sanjie mimi sanshen fogua sanzhon g xidi zhenyan yigui, T 906, 18:913. “萬事通用是名出悉地 能生根莖遍滿四方 誦 一遍如轉藏經一百遍 出悉地從足至腰阿微羅吽佉 大日如來眞言中品悉地是名 入悉地能生枝葉 又入悉地者從齊至心 遍滿四方光明晃曜 入佛法界名入悉地 若誦一遍如轉藏經一千遍.” 28 Buddhist Images does not guarantee the success of the pokchang ritual. Rather, the correct recitation of dhāraṇīs and the correct writing of seed syllables according to proper ritual procedures are what ensures its success. In conclusion, three points can be summarized for the pokchang ritual of the late Chosŏn period. First, the cosmology of Esoteric Buddhism is reflected in all the items installed inside a throat-bell container organized in the five groupings of objects, the eight-petaled container, and the five mirrors symbolizing the Buddha’s five kinds of wisdom. Second, the inscription of the five-wheel seed syllables from the throat-bell container and the Dhāraṇī of the Jewel Casket Seal enshrined in the pokchang deposit symbolize the whole-body relics of the Buddha, which transcend the three bodies of the Buddha, as well as the Buddhas of the past, present, and future. The whole-body relics surpass other relics of the Buddha, such as his teachings, and they are equal to the combination of the bodily relics of all Buddhas. Consequently, the Dhāraṇī of the Jewel Casket Seal becomes the result of the Buddha’s nirvana, and the throat-bell container symbolizes the Buddha-mother or the begetter of all Buddhas. Third, the correct performance of the rite of the altar for the three-siddhi, performed as part of the pokchang ritual, is required to transform those pokchang items into sacred things that represent the entire Buddhist cosmology. The key to the pokchang ritual is the creation of a sacred being through the combination of a statue, various enshrined objects, dhāraṇī, and seed syllables. This symbolic “birth” of a Buddhist statue brings into being a divine manifestation of the ultimate being. This manifestation can be in the form of different Buddhas such as Śākyamuni, Amitabha, and Vairocana, or of bodhisattvas. And yet, regardless of their individual materiality and iconography, carefully arranged and ritually combined materials can become the Buddha. Through the whole-body relics of 29 the Buddhas of the three times and the seed syllables of the three bodies of the Buddha, pokchang objects are turned into the origin of the life of all Buddhas who manifest the reality of the dharma-realm, or the entire cosmos. 30