Architecture & Divinity-Celestial
Mysteries
Consulting Editor Ms. Srishti Dokras-ARCHITECT
Dr Uday Dokras
Indo Nordic Author’s Collective, Stockholm SWEDEN,Tampere FINLAND and Nagpur INDIA
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Consulting Editor Ms. Srishti Dokras-ARCHITECT
Dr Uday Dokras
ARCHITECT
C
Celestial Mysteries of Divinitty &
Architecture
Dr. Uday Dokras
B.Sc., B.A. (managerial economics) LL.B. Nagpur University, INDIA
Graduate Studies, Queen’s University, Kingston, CANADA
MBA CALSATATE USA
Graduate Diploma in Law, Stockholm University, SWEDEN
Ph.D. Stockholm University, SWEDEN
Indo Swedish Author’s Collective, Stockholm SWEDEN and Nagpur INDIA
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Indo Swedish Author’s Collective. STOCKHOLM.SWEDEN
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Gautama Buddha-Hindu version
rst Edition 2020
Copyright 2020 Uday Dokras. All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a
retrieval system, transmitted in any form or by means of electronic, mechanical, photocopy, micro-film, recording
or otherwise, without prior permission of the copyright holder.
ISBN No. applied for.
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Cost US $150. I N R 1500/- Euro 120
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CONTENTS 8
Acknowledgement 9
CHAPTER I I N T R O D U C T I O N-God and architecture 9
CHAPTER II-Divine Character: The Evolution of Religious Architecture Claudio Nieto: 34
BOOK I-ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE 48
Introduction to this Section 49
CHAPTER III-THE CONCEPT OF HOUSE INTERIORS IN ISLAM 51
CHAPTER IV-(“ ISLAMIC”) MATHEMATICS AS ART 57
Chapter V Architecture of Al-Masjid an-Nabawī,TheMosque of the Prophet 68
CHAPTER VI-The Architecture of Al Hambra 88
CHAPTER VII-Arabesque in Islamic Architecture 105
PART III HINDU DIVINITY THROUGH ARCHITECTURE OF ITS TEMPLES pages 111
Introduction to Part III 111
INTRODUCTION to INDIAN ARCHITECTURE – Takio Kamia
What is Hindu Architecture 123
Chapter VII-Design Elements.towards Divinity 151
Architecture of a Hindu temple 180
CHAPTER VIII-ELEMENTS OF INDIAN TEMPLES 184
CHAPTER IX-Acoustics(SACRED SOUND) IN HINDU TEMPLE 195
PART IV-BOOK IV-LOCAL DESIGN ELEMENTS OF DIVINITY 291
Chapter X GANESH STATHPANA-Idol Worship at Home in Maharashtra during Ganesh
Chaturthi in August 292
CHAPTER XI Gauri or Laxmi Puja 317
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Acknowledgement
To all the Gods of all Religions. Turn a Kind eye to our writings
INTRODUCTION
God and architecture
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Abstract: A temple/Church (from the Latin word templum) is a building reserved
for religious or spiritual rituals and activities such as prayer and sacrifice. It is typically used for
such buildings belonging to all faiths where a more specific term such
as church, mosque or synagogue is not generally used in English. These
include Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism among religions with many modern followers, as
well as other ancient religions such as Ancient Egyptian religion.
The form and function of temples is thus very variable, though they are often considered by
believers to be in some sense the "house" of one or more deities.
The word comes from Ancient Rome, where a templum constituted a sacred precinct as defined
by a priest, or augur. It has the same root as the word "template", a plan in preparation of the
building that was marked out on the ground by the augur.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth.
And the earth was without form, and void; and darkness was upon the face of the deep.
And the Spirit of God moved upon the face of the waters.
And God said, Let there be light: and there was light.
And God saw the light, that it was good: and God divided the light from the darkness.
And God called the light Day, and the darkness he called Night.
And the evening and the morning were the first day.
And God said, Let there be a firmament in the midst of the waters, and let it divide the waters
from the waters.
And God made the firmament, and divided the waters which were under the firmament from the
waters which were above the firmament: and it was so.
And God called the firmament Heaven. And the evening and the morning were the second day.
And God said, Let the waters under the heaven be gathered together unto one place, and let the
dry land appear: and it was so. And God called the dry land Earth; and the gathering together
of the waters called he Seas: and God saw that it was good.
Genesis 1 (Bible: King James Version)
For millennia, houses are being built not only as dwellings but also places where one could
keep God- a dwelling place for God. In fact, amongst the Hindu Temples, there is a presumption
that the diety is living and needs to sleep eat and rest. However since long places of worship
channelised the design and construction talents of the populations onto their love of God.
Traditional religious architecture is above all an architecture of life, from the overall form down
to the smallest ornamental detail, because God is identified with life and with love. The need to
provide shelter from the elements and serve everyday needs led to the construction of roofs and
walls that defined spaces adapted to human use. Traditional buildings and cities were assemblies
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of such basic components, put together in ways that had been found to promote particular and
overall functioning. More importantly, going beyond mere function, those structures combined
ornament and other details that somehow seemed necessary. Even when structures were
designed as a whole, their form and organization followed the evolved principles that had led to
successful construction in the past. The results included the great historical styles of
architecture, and the most-loved and most functional buildings and cities East and West.
According to Christianity, God is an architect. After darkness and chaos God swept across the
formless void and lifted up an enormous dome to separate water from water, thereby opening up
space for all living things to become. Without the help of the sun or stars, God commanded light
to pierce the solid darkness. With Spirit alone, God brought order to the universe. Then, within
an ordered universe, intelligent life—society, civilization— could begin. When finished, God
was satisfied and observed that it was very good. Humanity reflects the image of the Great
Architect who set the earth on its foundation (Ps 104:5). Psalm 104:5 He set the earth on its
foundations; it can never be moved.
Just as God set the foundation of Earth, Architecture defines how we live and expresses our
thoughts. It reflects our shaping of the world in order to inhabit it, and the geometry of what we
build is far from neutral. The built environment, like the biological and other natural systems
that it engages, needs to function reliably in complex and adaptive ways on many different
levels. Such adaptive and sustainable systems have similar characteristics that, despite distinct
origins, develop in a broadly similar manner.
There is then, a heightened sensitivity for faithful architecture in what one might call sacred
space; the physical localization wherein God’s presence is guaranteed. The ideology of
contemporary architecture is detached from nature and from God. It creates buildings that are
dangerously detached from human beings. Traditional religions, despite periodic failings and
fanaticisms, arose out of the evolution of human culture, and are thus far more grounded in real
human needs. More importantly, they celebrate humans as rich and complex beings, with
capabilities far beyond those of a machine. This makes religions more rational, and less divisive,
than pseudo-religions based on irrational will. A Greek or Hindu temple, a sixteenth-century
mosque, or a Gothic cathedral connects us to each other, to the past, and to the world. A
modernist building or urban design does not. Even someone from a different civilization and
religious tradition can tell the difference.
"
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I have purposely written the “a” of architecture in the title of this Chapter in ‘small’ and not
‘CAPS ‘ because architecture will always be sunservient to Divinity and in fact the reason for its
existence is the attracton towards the divine. Sacred places are often pictorial reflections of the
universe and its design and partake of its holiness. The domes of Christian churches are symbols
of heaven, the altar a symbol of Christ, the Holy of Holies of the Temple of Jerusalem a symbol
of the Lord, the Holy of Holies in Hindu shrines (Temples) a symbol of the divinity, and
the prayer niches in mosques a symbol of the presence of Allah. As soon as the early Christians
were at liberty to build churches according to their own mind, they took pains to make them
significant of their religion. Probably at first the Christians took for the purposes of their
worship such buildings as they could get, adapting them to their uses as best they might. But
when they grew strong enough and independent enough to build as the heart and imagination
dictated, then they showed themselves careful to make their houses of God in shape and
dimension suggestive of what they believed." These old builders were Churchmen, and made
their Churchmanship and their belief felt in their work. A deep and true symbolism was carried
out in the plan and construction of their churches. Thus Christian churches at an early day came
to be built in the form of a cross. This was not only the most ornamental form of structure; it
was much more: it made the very fabric of the church the symbol of our faith in Christ crucified.
Some chancels of old churches were even built with a slight deflection from the line of direction
of the nave, thus representing the inclination of our Saviour's head upon the Cross. It made also
the gathering together of each congregation of His Church -- which is His mystical Body -- the
symbol of that body itself: that part in the nave representing His body, that in the transepts His
outstretched arms, that in the choir His head. And so, also, "the united prayers and praises of the
congregation make, as it were, in their very sound the sign of the Cross."
When human architects set out to create sacred space, we look to breach the chaos and give
order to our lives. As modern people, we are constantly bombarded by information, noise, and
news and aggressively marketed to by those who want to sell us something. Sacred space can lift
up a dome of silence and hold back the tide of modern life. A sacred space can allow
contemplation, reflection, and the overview required to make moral choices.
Moreover, architecture is not only a means by which humans communicate and relate to one
another; architecture is the avenue by which God and His creation relate to one another. Let us
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Temples are the focal points of religious worship. Through architectural representation they can
express religious ideology. From the late Dark Ages to the Classical Period and beyond,
humanity had been consistently struggling with their understanding of God, divinity, and the
world around them. In the historic and prehistoric evidence of humanity we see a constant
attempt to understand the nature of the world around us and how it interacts with us. One of the
most ancient understandings of the nature of the world and all within it comes through the
notion of divinity. Harboring a belief in the divine is an effort to understand not only the world,
but also its relation to us. Religion is the organization and patterning of a conception of divinity.
In many historical civilizations we see the reflection of religion in human creations. Temple
architecture is only one creation through which religion and divinity are expressed, but it is
potentially a powerfully persuasive medium, which can support tremendous intricacy of
expression. Through an understanding of temple architecture, we can hope to have an insight
into the nature of divinity in a particular religion.1
Architecture has always had a role to play in religious worship - here's our pick of the best
modern religious buildings, from one of the largest mosques in the world to a diminutive chapel
built to honour a 15th-century hermit. The mainland Greeks expressed their conception of
divinity in many ways through the design and function of Archaic and Classical temples of the
Doric order. As the Islamic religious calendar is based on the lunar cycle, the moon became a
source of inspiration and a unifying element of the design. The building of somemosques such
as
-The Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan al Nahyan Mosque- alters character as the lunar cycle
progresses, bathed in cool white light at the full moon, but shifting colour every two evenings,
and growing gradually bluer as the moon wanes. On the fourteenth evening the mosque is lit in
deepest blue to signify darkness - yet the viewer is never able to perceive the building changing
from one colour to the next.
Church Architecture:The church architecture refers to the buildings of Christian churches. It
has evolved over the two thousand years of the Christian religion, partly by innovation and
partly by imitating other architectural styles as well as responding to changing beliefs, practices
and local traditions. From the birth of Christianity to the present, the most significant objects of
transformation for Christian architecture and design were the great churches of Byzantium,
the Romanesque abbey churches, Gothic cathedrals and Renaissance basilicas with its emphasis
on harmony. These large, often ornate and architecturally prestigious buildings were dominant
features of the towns and countryside in which they stood. However, far more numerous were
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the parish churches in Christendom, the focus of Christian devotion in every town and village.
While a few are counted as sublime works of architecture to equal the great cathedrals and
churches, the majority developed along simpler lines, showing great regional diversity and often
demonstrating local vernacular technology and decoration.
With the rise of distinctively ecclesiastical architecture, church buildings came to influence
secular ones which have often imitated religious architecture. In the 20th century, the use of new
materials, such as steel and concrete, has had an effect upon the design of churches. The history
of church architecture divides itself into periods, and into countries or regions and by religious
affiliation
From house church to church
From the first to the early fourth centuries most Christian communities worshipped in private
homes, often secretly. Some Roman churches, such as the Basilica of San Clemente in Rome,
are built directly over the houses where early Christians worshipped. Other early Roman
churches are built on the sites of Christian martyrdom or at the entrance to catacombs where
Christians were buried.
With the victory of the Roman emperor Constantine at the Battle of Milvian Bridge in 312 AD,
Christianity became a lawful and then the privileged religion of the Roman Empire. The faith,
already spread around the Mediterranean, now expressed itself in buildings. Christian
architecture was made to correspond to civic and imperial forms, and so the Basilica, a large
rectangular meeting hall became general in east and west, as the model for churches, with
a nave and aisles and sometimes galleries and clerestories. While civic basilicas had apses at
either end, the Christian basilica usually had a single apse where the bishop and presbyters sat in
a dais behind the altar. While pagan basilicas had as their focus a statue of the emperor,
Christian basilicas focused on the Eucharist as the symbol of the eternal, loving and forgiving
God.
The first very large Christian churches, notably Santa Maria Maggiore, San Giovanni in
Laterano, and Santa Costanza, were built in Rome in the early 4th century.
Characteristics of the early Christian church building
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Plan
of
Old St
Peter's
Basilica,
showing atrium (courtyard), narthex (vestibule),
central nave with double aisles, a bema for the clergy extending into a transept, and
an exedra or semi-circular apse.
The church building as we know it grew out of a number of features of the Ancient
Roman period:
The house church
The atrium
The basilica
The bema
The mausoleum: centrally-planned building
The cruciform ground plan: Latin or Greek cross
Atrium
When Early Christian communities began to build churches they drew on one particular feature
of the houses that preceded them, the atrium, or courtyard with a colonnade surrounding it. Most
of these atriums have disappeared. A fine example remains at the Basilica of San Clemente in
Rome and another was built in the Romanesque period at Sant'Ambrogio, Milan. The
descendants of these atria may be seen in the large square cloisters that can be found beside
many cathedrals, and in the huge colonnaded squares or piazza at the Basilicas of St Peter's in
Rome and St Mark's in Venice and the Camposanto (Holy Field) at the Cathedral of Pisa.
Basilica
Early church architecture did not draw its form from Roman temples, as the latter did not have
large internal spaces where worshipping congregations could meet. It was the Roman basilica,
used for meetings, markets and courts of law that provided a model for the large Christian
church and that gave its name to the Christian basilica.
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Both Roman basilicas and Roman bath houses had at their core a large vaulted building with a
high roof, braced on either side by a series of lower chambers or a wide arcaded passage. An
important feature of the Roman basilica was that at either end it had a projecting exedra, or apse,
a semicircular space roofed with a half-dome. This was where the magistrates sat to hold court.
It passed into the church architecture of the Roman world and was adapted in different ways as a
feature of cathedral architecture.
The earliest large churches, such as the Cathedral of San Giovanni in Laterano in Rome,
consisted of a single-ended basilica with one apsidal end and a courtyard, or atrium, at the other
end. As Christian liturgy developed, processions became part of the proceedings. The
processional door was that which led from the furthest end of the building, while the door most
used by the public might be that central to one side of the building, as in a basilica of law. This
is the case in many cathedrals and churches.
Bema
As numbers of clergy increased, the small apse which contained the altar, or table upon which
the sacramental bread and wine were offered in the rite of Holy Communion, was not sufficient
to accommodate them. A raised dais called a bema formed part of many large basilican
churches. In the case of St. Peter's Basilica and San Paolo Fuori le Mura (St Paul's outside the
Walls) in Rome, this bema extended laterally beyond the main meeting hall, forming two arms
so that the building took on the shape of a T with a projecting apse. From this beginning, the
plan of the church developed into the so-called Latin Cross which is the shape of most Western
Cathedrals and large churches. The arms of the cross are called the transept.
Mausoleum
One of the influences on church architecture was the mausoleum. The mausoleum of a noble
Roman was a square or circular domed structure which housed a sarcophagus. The Emperor
Constantine built for his daughter Costanza a mausoleum which has a circular central space
surrounded by a lower ambulatory or passageway separated by a colonnade.Santa Costanza's
burial place became a place of worship as well as a tomb. It is one of the earliest church
buildings that was central, rather than longitudinally planned. Constantine was also responsible
for the building of the circular, mausoleum-like Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem,
which in turn influenced the plan of a number of buildings, including that constructed in Rome
to house the remains of the proto-martyr Stephen, San Stefano Rotondo and the Basilica of San
Vitale in Ravenna.
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The circular or polygonal form lent itself to those buildings within church complexes that
perform a function in which it is desirable for people to stand, or sit around, with a centralized
focus, rather than an axial one. In Italy, the circular or polygonal form was used throughout the
medieval period for baptisteries, while in England it was adapted for chapter houses. In France,
the aisled polygonal plan was adopted as the eastern terminal and in Spain, the same form is
often used as a chapel.
Other than Santa Costanza and San Stefano, there was another significant place of worship in
Rome that was also circular, the vast Ancient Roman Pantheon, with its numerous statue-filled
niches. This too was to become a Christian church and lend its style to the development of
Cathedral architecture.
Latin cross and Greek cross
Most cathedrals and great churches have a cruciform groundplan. In churches of Western
European tradition, the plan is usually longitudinal, in the form of the so-called Latin Cross,
with a long nave crossed by a transept. The transept may be as strongly projecting as at York
Minster or not project beyond the aisles as at Amiens Cathedral.
Many of the earliest churches of Byzantium have a longitudinal plan. At Hagia Sophia, Istanbul,
there is a central dome, the frame on one axis by two high semi-domes and on the other by low
rectangular transept arms, the overall plan being square. This large church was to influence the
building of many later churches, even into the 21st century. A square plan in which the nave,
chancel and transept arms are of equal length forming a Greek cross, the crossing generally
surmounted by a dome became the common form in the Eastern Orthodox Church, with many
churches throughout Eastern Europe and Russia being built in this way. Churches of the Greek
Cross form often have a narthex or vestibule which stretches across the front of the church. This
type of plan was also to later play a part in the development of church architecture in Western
Europe, most notably in Bramante's plan for St. Peter's Basilica.
Comparative plans
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Early Christian: House Church at Dura, Syria, domestic rooms around a courtyard were adapted
as a meeting place and baptistry.
Byzantine: Chora Church, Istanbul: a domed church with an apsidal chancel, galleries at either
side and a narthex. A modified cross-in-square plan.
Romanesque: Eschau Church, France: a cruciform plan with apse and aisles, west portal, and
side entrance.The division of the Roman Empire in the fourth century AD, resulted in Christian
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ritual evolving in distinctly different ways in the eastern and western parts of the empire. The
final break was the Great Schism of 1054.
Eastern Orthodoxy and Byzantine architecture
Eastern Christianity and Western Christianity began to diverge from each other from an early
date. Whereas the basilica was the most common form in the west, a more compact centralized
style became predominant in the east. These churches were in origin martyria, constructed as
mausoleums housing the tombs of the saints who had died during the persecutions which only
fully ended with the conversion of Emperor Constantine. An important surviving example is
the Mausoleum of Galla Placidia in Ravenna, which has retained its mosaic decorations. Dating
from the 5th century, it may have been briefly used as an oratory before it became a mausoleum.
These buildings copied pagan tombs and were square, cruciform with shallow projecting arms or
polygonal. They were roofed by domes which came to symbolize heaven. The projecting arms
were sometimes roofed with domes or semi-domes that were lower and abutted the central block
of the building. Byzantine churches, although centrally planned around a domed space,
generally maintained a definite axis towards the apsidal chancel which generally extended
further than the other apses. This projection allowed for the erection of an iconostasis, a screen
on which icons are hung and which conceals the altar from the worshippers except at those
points in the liturgy when its doors are opened.
The architecture of Constantinople (Istanbul) in the 6th century produced churches that
effectively combined centralized and basilica plans, having semi-domes forming the axis, and
arcaded galleries on either side. The church of Hagia Sophia (now a museum) was the most
significant example and had an enormous influence on both later Christian and Islamic
architecture, such as the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem and the Umayyad Great Mosque in
Damascus. Many later Eastern Orthodox churches, particularly large ones, combine a centrally
planned, domed eastern end with an aisled nave at the west.
A variant form of the centralized church was developed in Russia and came to prominence in the
sixteenth century. Here the dome was replaced by a much thinner and taller hipped or conical
roof which perhaps originated from the need to prevent snow from remaining on roofs. One of
the finest examples of these tented churches is St. Basil's in Red Square in Moscow.
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Medieval West
Participation in worship, which gave rise to the porch church, began to decline as the church
became increasingly clericalized; with the rise of the monasteries church buildings changed as
well. The 'two-room' church' became, in Europe, the norm. The first 'room', the nave, was used
by the congregation; the second 'room', the sanctuary, was the preserve of the clergy and was
where the Mass was celebrated. This could then only be seen from a distance by the
congregation through the arch between the rooms (from late mediaeval times closed by a
wooden partition, the Rood screen), and the elevation of the host, the bread of the communion,
became the focus of the celebration: it was not at that time generally partaken of by the
congregation. Given that the liturgy was said in Latin, the people contented themselves with
their own private devotions until this point. Because of the difficulty of sight lines, some
churches had holes, 'squints', cut strategically in walls and screens, through which the elevation
could be seen from the nave. Again, from the twin principles that every priest must say his mass
every day and that an altar could only be used once, in religious communities a number of altars
were required for which space had to be found, at least within monastic churches.
Apart from changes in the liturgy, the other major influence on church architecture was in the
use of new materials and the development of new techniques. In northern Europe, early churches
were often built of wood, for which reason almost none survive. With the wider use of stone by
the Benedictine monks, in the tenth and eleventh centuries, larger structures were erected.
The two-room church, particularly if it were an abbey or a cathedral, might acquire transepts.
These were effectively arms of the cross which now made up the ground plan of the building.
The buildings became more clearly symbolic of what they were intended for. Sometimes this
crossing, now the central focus of the church, would be surmounted by its own tower, in
addition to the west end towers, or instead of them. (Such precarious structures were known to
collapse – as at Ely – and had to be rebuilt.) Sanctuaries, now providing for the singing of the
offices by monks or canons, grew longer and became chancels, separated from the nave by a
screen. Practical function and symbolism were both at work in the process of development.
Factors affecting Church Architecture
Across Europe, the process by which church architecture developed and individual churches
were designed and built was different in different regions, and sometimes differed from church
to church in the same region and within the same historic period.
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Local Issues: Among the factors that determined how a church was designed and built are the
nature of the local community, the location in city, town or village, whether the church was an
abbey church, whether the church was a collegiate church, whether the church had the patronage
of a bishop, whether the church had the ongoing patronage of a wealthy family and whether the
church contained relics of a saint or other holy objects that were likely to draw pilgrimage.
Collegiate churches and abbey churches, even those serving small religious communities,
generally demonstrate a greater complexity of form than parochial churches in the same area and
of a similar date.Churches that have been built under the patronage of a bishop have generally
employed a competent church architect and demonstrate in the design refinement of style unlike
that of the parochial builder.
Many parochial churches have had the patronage of wealthy local families. The degree to which
this has an effect on the architecture can differ greatly. It may entail the design and construction
of the entire building having been financed and influenced by a particular patron. On the other
hand, the evidence of patronage may be apparent only in accretion of chantry chapels, tombs,
memorials, fittings, stained glass, and other decorations.
Churches that contain famous relics or objects of veneration and have thus become pilgrimage
churches are often very large and have been elevated to the status of basilica. However, many
other churches enshrine the bodies or are associated with the lives of particular saints without
having attracted continuing pilgrimage and the financial benefit that it brought.
The popularity of saints, the veneration of their relics, and the size and importance of the church
built to honor them are without consistency and can be dependent upon entirely different factors.
After the second world war, modern materials and techniques such as concrete and metal panels
were introduced in many such places some even in reinforced concrete.
American church architecture
The split between Eastern and Western Church Architecture extended its influence into the
churches we see in America today as well. America's churches are an amalgamation of the many
styles and cultures that collided here.There are remnants of the Byzantine inspired architecture
in many of the churches, such as the large domed ceilings, extensive stonework, and a
maximizing of space to be used for religious iconography on walls and such.
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Churches classified as Ukrainian or Catholic also seem to follow the trend of being overall
much more elaborately decorated and accentuated than their Protestant counterparts, in which
decoration is simple.
Church architecture shows the values and personal beliefs of the architects who created them,
while also showcasing Texan cultural history. Both the Catholic and Protestant buildings
showed things such as the architectural traditions, economic circumstances, religious
ordinances, and aesthetic tastes of those involved. The movement to keep ethnicities segregated
during this time was also present in the very foundations of this architecture. Their physical
appearances vary wildly from area to area though, as each served its own local purpose, and as
mentioned before, due to the multitude of religious groups, each held a different set of beliefs.
English church architecture
The history of England's churches is extensive, their style has gone through many changes and
has had numerous influences such as 'geographical, geological, climatic, religious, social and
historical, shape it. One of the earliest style changes is shown in the Abbey Church of
Westminster, which was built in a foreign style and was a cause for concern for many as it
heralded change. A second example is St Paul's Cathedral, which was one of the earliest
Protestant Cathedrals in England. There are many other notable churches that have each had
their own influence on the ever-changing style in England, such as Truro, Westminster
Cathedral, Liverpool and Guildford. Between the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, the style of
church architecture could be called 'Early English' and 'Decorated'. This time is considered to be
when England was in its prime in the category of a church building. It was after the Black
Death that the style went through another change, the 'perpendicular style', where ornamentation
became more extravagant.
An architectural element that appeared soon after the Black Death style change and is observed
extensively in Medieval English styles is fan vaulting, seen in the Chapel of Henry VII and
the King's College Chapel in Cambridge. After this, the prevalent style was Gothic for around
300 years but the style was clearly present for many years before that as well. In these late
Gothic times, there was a specific way in which the foundations for the churches were built.
First, a stone skeleton would be built, then the spaces between the vertical supports filled with
large glass windows, then those windows supported by their own transoms and mullions.[16] On
the topic of church windows, the windows are somewhat controversial as some argue that the
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church should be flooded with light and some argue that they should be dim for an ideal praying
environment. Most church plans in England have their roots in one of two styles, Basilican and
Celtic and then we see the later emergence of a 'two-cell' plan, consisting of nave and sanctuary.
In the time before the last war, there was a movement towards a new style of architecture, one
that was more functional than embellished. There was an increased use of steel and concrete and
a rebellion against the romantic nature of the traditional style. This resulted in a 'battle of the
styles' in which one side was leaning towards the modernist, functional way of design, and the
other was following traditional Romanesque, Gothic, and Renaissance styles, as reflected in the
architecture of all buildings, not just churches.
Gothic era architecture originated in France during the 12th century. Gothic architecture is a
style where curves, arches, and complex geometry are highly emphasized. This emphasis came
about because of the true feat it was to be able to create such intricate structures where large
amounts of engineers and planning were involved. Creating this feat was meant to be a tribute to
god, the more astonishing the church the more commendable.
Characteristics
The characteristics of a Gothic style church are largely in congruence with the ideology that the
more breath-taking a church is the better it represents god. This was accomplished through
clever math and engineering. In a time period where complex shapes, especially in huge
cathedrals, were not typically found in structures. Through this newly implemented skill of
being able to design complex shapes churches consisted of namely pointed arches, curved lights
and windows, and rib vaults. Since these newly popular designs were implemented with respect
to the width of the church rather than height, width was much more desired rather than height.[20]
Art Gothic architecture in churches had a heavy emphasis on art. Just like the structure of the
building, there was an emphasis on complex geometric shapes. An example of this is stained
glass windows, which can still be found in modern churches. Stained glass windows were both
artistic and functional in the way that they allowed colored light to enter the church and create a
heavenly atmosphere. Other popular art styles in the Gothic era were sculptures. Creating
lifelike depictions of figures, again with the use of complex curves and shapes. Artists would
include a high level of detail to best preserve and represent their subject.
Time periods and styles
23
The Gothic era began in 12th-century France. It was first coined by historiographer Giorgio
Vasari. The era began in north-eastern France and slowly spread throughout the rest of Europe.
Multiple styles of Gothic architecture occurred, notably Rayonnant in the 13th century. A style
known for its exaggerated geometrical features, making everything as astounding and eyecatching as possible. Shortly after an emerging style was born known as decorated gothic where
these geometrical features were being applied to already complex structural forms. Nearing the
end of the Gothic period the art style had transcended to being just churches attempting to align
themselves with god. Residences, guilds, government buildings all adopted this new
architectural style.
Reformation : In the early 16th century, the Reformation brought a period of radical change to
church design. On Christmas Day 1521, Andreas Karlstadtperformed the
first reformed communion service. In early January 1522, the Wittenberg city council authorized
the removal of imagery from churches and affirmed the changes introduced by Karlstadt on
Christmas. According to the ideals of the Protestant Reformation, the spoken word, the sermon,
should be central act in the church service. This implied that the pulpit became the focal point of
the church interior and that churches should be designed to allow all to hear and see the minister.
Pulpits had always been a feature of Western churches. The birth of Protestantism led to
extensive changes in the way that Christianity was practiced (and hence the design of churches).
During the Reformation period, there was an emphasis on "full and active participation". The
focus of Protestant churches was on the preaching of the Word, rather than a sacerdotal
emphasis. Holy Communion tables became wood to emphasise that Christ's sacrifice was made
once for all and were made more immediate to the congregation to emphasise man's direct
access to God through Christ. Therefore catholic churches were redecorated when they became
reformed: Paintings and statues of saints were removed and sometimes the altar table was placed
in front of the pulpit, as in Strasbourg Cathedral in 1524. The pews were turned towards the
pulpit. Wooden galleries were built to allow more worshippers to follow the sermon.
Modernism:The idea that worship was a corporate activity and that the congregation should be
in no way excluded from sight or participation derives from the Liturgical Movement. Simple
one-room plans are almost of the essence of modernity in architecture. In France and Germany
between the first and second World Wars, some of the major developments took place.
.
Postmodern movements : As with other Postmodern movements, the Postmodern movement
in architecture formed in reaction to the ideals of modernism as a response to the perceived
24
blandness, hostility, and utopianism of the Modern movement. While rare in designs of church
architecture, there are nonetheless some notable examples as architects have begun to recover
and renew historical styles and "cultural memory" of Christian architecture.Architects
rediscovered the expressive and symbolic value of architectural elements and forms that had
evolved through centuries of building—often maintaining meaning in literature, poetry and art—
but which had been abandoned by the modern movement.
The Church
The Christian Church has many denominations. Churches and chapels have diverse features and
worshipping practices, but all value the importance of prayer – both private and communal.
Church architecture refers to the architecture of buildings of Christian churches. It has evolved
over the two thousand years of the Christian religion, partly by innovation and partly by
imitating other architectural styles as well as responding to changing beliefs, practices and local
traditions. From the birth of Christianity to the present, the most significant objects of
transformation for Christian architecture and design were the great churches of Byzantium,
the Romanesque abbey churches, Gothic cathedrals and Renaissance basilicas with its emphasis
on harmony. These large, often ornate and architecturally prestigious buildings were dominant
features of the towns and countryside in which they stood. However, far more numerous were
the parish churches in Christendom, the focus of Christian devotion in every town and village.
While a few are counted as sublime works of architecture to equal the great cathedrals and
churches, the majority developed along simpler lines, showing great regional diversity and often
demonstrating local vernacular technology and decoration.
Buildings were at first from those originally intended for other purposes but, with the rise of
distinctively ecclesiastical architecture, church buildings came to influence secular ones which
have often imitated religious architecture. In the 20th century, the use of new materials, such
as steel and concrete, has had an effect upon the design of churches. The history of church
architecture divides itself into periods, and into countries or regions and by religious affiliation.
25
The matter is complicated by the fact that buildings put up for one purpose may have been reused for another, that new building techniques may permit changes in style and size, that
changes in liturgical practice may result in the alteration of existing buildings and that a building
built by one religious group may be used by a successor group with different purposes.
Features of churches
Churches and chapels have many different internal features, which are designed to help people
worship. The features and layout of different denominations can differ somewhat.
Catholic churches
Catholic churches are traditionally built in the shape of a cross with the top of the cross facing
Jerusalem.
The east end of the church is called the sanctuary and contains:
the altar – a table where the bread and wine are blessed during the Eucharist
the lectern – a stand where the Bible is read from
the pulpit – where the priest delivers sermons
a crucifix – a cross with Jesus on
There is a rail which acts to separate the sanctuary from the place where the congregations sits,
known as the nave. In the nave there are often rows of pews where the congregation sit in rows
on benches.
Around the church there are 14 framed pictures, known as the Stations of the Cross, which show
the events of Jesus’ crucifixion.
Other features that can be found in the Catholic Church include:
a font – a large stone bowl containing holy water used to baptise babies
a stoup – usually a small basin containing holy water, which Catholics dip their hand in to
make the sign of the cross to renew their baptism promises
statues of religious figures, eg Christ, Mary or saints
stained glass windows – often depicting biblical stories or religious teachings
candles – often lit by Catholics when they are praying
an organ to be played during hymn singing
a confessional – a small enclosed cupboard or cabinet, where Catholics can confess their sins
to the priest
Anglican churches
The inside of Anglican churches can be similar in appearance to Catholic churches. Anglican
churches are also often in the shape of a cross, with a sanctuary at the east end.
26
Anglican churches are often a lot plainer than Catholic churches, and have fewer statues and
candles.
An Anglican church will usually have a simple cross displayed rather than a crucifix. Although
there may be a font, there won't be a stoup containing holy water.
The nave at Llandaff Cathedral in south Wales is, unusually, dominated by a large concrete arch,
which supports the organ case
Features of chapels
Non-conformist chapels are much simpler buildings than churches.
Outside, they tend not to have spires on the roofs. Inside, they may have a balcony between the
floor and the ceiling to allow more room for the congregation to sit.
The internal layout of the chapel serves the main purpose of hearing God's word and singing his
praises.
At one end is the pulpit or lectern, from where the minister will read the Bible. In front of the
pulpit will be a small table used for Holy Communion.
The organ is an important part of every chapel. It is used to accompany hymn singing.
There is also the baptistery pool in Baptist chapels. The baptistery is situated in front of the pews
with a door covering it. This is where adults are baptised.
Sacred or religious architecture is sometimes called sacred space.
Architect Norman L. Koonce has suggested that the goal of sacred architecture is to make
"transparent the boundary between matter and mind, flesh and the spirit." In discussing sacred
architecture, Protestant minister Robert Schuller suggested that "to be psychologically healthy,
human beings need to experience their natural setting—the setting we were designed for, which
is the garden." Meanwhile, Richard Kieckhefer suggests that entering into a religious building is
a metaphor for entering into spiritual relationship. Kieckhefer suggests that sacred space can be
analyzed by three factors affecting spiritual process: longitudinal space emphasizes the
procession and return of sacramental acts, auditorium space is suggestive of proclamation and
27
response, and new forms of communal space designed for gathering and return depend to a great
degree on minimized scale to enhance intimacy and participation in worship.
Sacral architecture (also known as sacred architecture or religious architecture) is
a religious architectural practice concerned with the design and construction of places of
worship or sacred or intentional space, such as churches, mosques, stupas, synagogues,
and temples. Many cultures devoted considerable resources to their sacred architecture and
places of worship. Religious and sacred spaces are amongst the most impressive and
permanent monolithic buildings created by humanity. Conversely, sacred architecture as a locale
for meta-intimacy may also be non-monolithic, ephemeral and intensely private, personal and
non-public.
Sacred, religious and holy structures often evolved over centuries and were the largest buildings
in the world, prior to the modern skyscraper. While the various styles employed in sacred
architecture sometimes reflected trends in other structures, these styles also remained unique
from
the
contemporary
of Christianity and Islam,
architecture
used
in
religious
buildings
other
structures.
increasingly
With
became
the
rise
centres
of worship, prayer and meditation.[
The Western scholarly discipline of the history of architecture itself closely follows the history
of religious architecture from ancient times until the Baroque period, at least. Sacred
geometry, iconography, and the use of sophisticated semiotics such as signs, symbols and
religious motifs are endemic to sacred architecture.
Temple architecture
A Hindu temple is a symbolic house, seat and body of god. It is a structure designed to bring
human beings and gods together, using symbolism to express the ideas and beliefs
of Hinduism. The symbolism and structure of a Hindu temple are rooted in Vedic traditions,
deploying circles and squares. It also represents recursion and equivalence of the macrocosm
and the microcosm by astronomical numbers, and by "specific alignments related to the
geography of the place and the presumed linkages of the deity and the patron". A temple
incorporates all elements of Hindu cosmos—presenting the good, the evil and the human, as
well as the elements of Hindu sense of cyclic time and the essence of life—symbolically
presenting dharma, kama, artha, moksa, and karma.
28
The spiritual principles symbolically represented in Hindu temples are given in the ancient
Sanskrit texts of India (for example, Vedas and Upanishads), while their structural rules are
described in various ancient Sanskrit treatises on architecture (Brhat Samhita, Vastu
Sastras). The layout, the motifs, the plan and the building process recite ancient rituals,
geometric symbolisms, and reflect beliefs and values innate within various schools of
Hinduism. A Hindu temple is a spiritual destination for many Hindus, as well as landmarks
around which ancient arts, community celebrations and economy have flourished.
Temple architecture of high standard developed in almost all regions during ancient India. The
distinct architectural style of temple construction in different parts was a result of geographical,
climatic, ethnic, racial, historical and linguistic diversities. Ancient Indian temples are
classified in three broad types. This classification is based on different architectural styles,
employed in the construction of the temples. Three main style of temple architecture are the
Nagara or the Northern style, the Dravida or the Southern style and the Vesara or Mixed style.
But at the same time, there are also some regional styles of Bengal, Kerala and the Himalayan
areas.
One important part of the ancient Indian temples was their decoration. It is reflected in the
multitude details of figured sculpture as well as in the architectural elements. Another
important component of Indian temples was the garbha-griha or the womb chamber, housing
the deity of the temple. The garbha-griha was provided with a circumambulation passage
around. However, there are also many subsidiary shrines within temple complexes, more
common in the South Indian temple.
In the initial stages of its evolution, the temples of North and South India were distinguished
on the basis of some specific features like sikhara and gateways. In the north Indian temples,
the sikhara remained the most prominent component while the gateway was generally
unassuming. The most prominent features of South Indian temples were enclosures around
the temples and the Gopurams (huge gateways). The Gopurams led the devotees into the
sacred courtyard. There were many common features in the Northern and the Southern styles.
These included the ground plan, positioning of stone-carved deities on the outside walls and
the interior, and the range of decorative elements.
Design
29
The very essence of a Hindu temple is believed to have developed from the ideology that all
things are one and everything is associated. The four essential and significant principles
which are also aims of human life according to Indian philosophy are the quests for artha wealth and prosperity; kama - sex and pleasure; dharma - moral life and virtues; and moksha self knowledge and realisation. The mathematically structured spaces, intricate artworks,
decorated and carved pillars and statues of Hindu temples illustrate and revere such
philosophies. A hollow space without any embellishments situated at the centre of the temple,
usually below the deity, may also be at the side or above the deity symbolises the complex
concept of Purusha or Purusa meaning the Universal principle, Consciousness, the cosmic
man or self without any form, however, omnipresent and associates all things. The Hindu
temples suggest contemplations, encouragement and further purification of mind and prompt
the process of self-realisation in devotees; however the preferred process is left to the
convention of individual devotees.
Site
The areas of Hindu temple sites are usually vast with many of them built near water bodies, in
the lap of nature. This is probably because according to ancient Sanskrit texts the most
suitable site for a Hindu temple referred as ‘Mandir’ is at close proximity to water bodies and
gardens where flowers blossom, chirping of birds and sounds of ducks and swans can be
heard and animals can rest without any fear. These places exhibiting peace and tranquillity
are recommended by the texts for building Hindu temples elucidating that Gods reside in such
places. Although, leading Hindu temples are suggested near natural water bodies like
confluence of rivers, river banks, seashores and lakes, according to the ‘Puranas’ and ‘Bharat
Samhita’, Mandirs can even be constructed in sites devoid of natural water bodies. However,
such suggestions include building up of a pond with water gardens in front of the ‘Mandir’ or
towards left. In the absence of both natural and man-made water bodies, water remains
typically present during consecration of the deity or the Mandir. Part III of Chapter 93 of the
Hindu text Vishnudharmottara Purana also recommends building of temples within caves and
chiselled out stones; atop hills amidst spectacular and serene views; within hermitages and
forests; beside gardens; and at the upper end of a street of a town.
Layout
Layout of a Hindu temple pursues a geometrical design known as vastu-purusha-mandala, the
name of which is derived from the three vital components of the design namely Vastu
meaning Vaas or a place of dwelling; Purusha, meaning the Universal principle; and Mandala
30
meaning circle. Vastupurushamandala is a mystical diagram referred in Sanskrit as a Yantra.
The symmetrical and self-repeating model of a Hindu temple demonstrated in the design is
derived from the primary convictions, traditions, myths, fundamentality and mathematical
standards.
According to Vastupurushamandala, the most sacred and typical template for a Hindu temple
is the 8x8 (64) grid Manduka Hindu Temple Floor Plan also referred as Bhekapada and Ajira.
The layout displays a vivid saffron centre with intersecting diagonals which according to
Hindu philosophy symbolises the Purusha. The axis of the Mandir is created with the aid of
the four fundamentally significant directions and thus, a perfect square is created around the
axis within the available space. This square which is circumscribed by the Mandala circle and
divided into perfect square grids is held sacred. On the other hand, the circle is regarded as
human and worldly that can be perceived or noticed in daily life such as the Sun, Moon,
rainbow, horizon or water drops. Both the square and the circle support each other. The
model is usually seen in large temples while an 81 sub-square grid is observed in ceremonial
temple superstructures.
Each square within the main square referred as ‘Pada’ symbolise a specific element that can
be in the form of a deity, an apsara or a spirit. The primary or the innermost square/s of the 64
grid model called Brahma Padas is dedicated to Brahman. The Garbhagruha or centre of the
house situated in the Brahma Padas houses the main deity. The outer concentric layer to
Brahma Padas is the Devika Padas signifying facets of Devas or Gods which is again
surrounded by the next layer, the Manusha Padas, with the ambulatory. The devotees
circumambulate clockwise to perform Parikrama in the Manusha Padas with Devika Padas in
the inner side and the Paishachika Padas, symbolising facets of Asuras and evils, on the outer
side forming the last concentric square. The three outer Padas in larger temples generally
adorn inspirational paintings, carvings and images with the wall reliefs and images of
different temples depicting legends from different Hindu Epics and Vedic stories. Illustrations
of artha, kama, dharma and moksha can be found in the embellished carvings and images
adorning the walls, ceiling and pillars of the temples.
Pillared outdoor halls or pavilions called Mandapa meant for public rituals with the ones in
the east serving as waiting room for devotees adorns the large temples. The Mandir’s spire,
usually a tapering conical or pyramidal superstructure with a dome designed adhering
principles of concentric squares and circles and referred in North India as Shikhaa and
Vimana in South India is symmetrically aligned exactly above the Brahma Pada or the central
core of the Mandir. Compounds of many larger temples house smaller temples and shrines
31
that also follow fundamental aspects of grids, symmetry and mathematical perfection.
Repetition and mirroring of fractal-like design structure forms a significant principle of Hindu
temple designs.
The manuals comprising of Hindu temple layouts elucidates plans with squares in the count
of 1, 4, 9, 16, 25 and thus, reaching up to 1024. Each plan of different Padas has individual
significance, for instance in one pada plan the pada is regarded as the seat for a devotee or
hermit to perform yoga, meditation or offer Vedic fire; a four Padas plan, also a meditative
design represents a core at the center; and a nine Padas layout that generally forms model of
smallest temples has a divine surrounded centre. Although the perfect square grid principle is
primarily found in different temples of India, some others hold exception such as the Teli-kamandir and the Naresar temple in Madhya Pradesh and the Nakti-Mata temple in Rajasthan,
indicating that Hinduism welcomed flexibility, creativity and aesthetic independence of
artists.
he Nagara style that is palpable in different parts of India with varied elaborations in different
localities has two particular features. The first being presence of several graduated projections
or rathakas in the centre of all sides of the square temple, thus bearing a cross-shape with
several re-entrant angles on all sides. The second feature includes design of the spire or
Shikhara that follow principles of concentric squares and circles and gradually taper in a
convex curve while stretching upwards. The Kandariya Mahadeva Temple in Khajuraho in
Madhya Pradesh is a fine example of this style.
Dravidian
Dravidian temple architecture evolved in South India predominantly comprise of temples
built of sandstone, soapstone or granite. The square-shaped temple called Vimana has one or
more storied pyramidal roof while its cell houses the image or emblem of the God. The
Mandapas/Mandapams or porches are built in such a way that these precede and cover the
door that leads to the cell. The Gopurams/Gopuras or elaborate gateway-towers or gatepyramids encloses the temples. The Chaultris or pillared halls employed for different
purposes forms one of the principal and constant features of this style. Temple tanks, wells,
abodes of priests and other important buildings form part of this temple style. The famous
Thanjavur temple of Tamil Nadu typifies this style.
Badami-chalukya
ndian architecture saw an illustrious phase during the Badami Chalukyas rule. The foundation
of cave temple architecture was laid by them on the banks of Malaprabha River in Karnataka
during 500 and 757 CE. The Badami Cave temples situated in the town of Badami in northern
32
Karnataka dating back to the 6th century is one of the finest examples of this architecture that
consist of decorative pillars, finely chiselled ceiling panels and sculptures. More than 150
temples in the historic temple complex situated in the village of Aihole called ‘Cradle of
Indian architecture’ and also Group of Monuments of Pattadakal are marked by UNESCO as
World Heritage site comprising of architectural edifices like the Virupaksha temple and the
Mallikarjuna temple are also brilliant examples of this style.
Gadag
he Western Chalukya architecture or Gadag style of architecture is a specific style of
decorative architecture that originated from the old dravida style and defines the Karnata
dravida tradition. Evolved during 11th century it prospered for around 150 years till 1200 CE
during the reign of Western Chalukya Empire in the Tungabhadra region of Karnataka and
saw construction of around 50 temples. A distinct feature of this style was articulation.
Kasivisvesvara Temple at Lakkundi and Saraswati temple in the temple complex of
Trikuteshwara at Gadag are some of the temples that illustrate this style.
Kalinga
This style having three specific types of temples prospered in Odisha and Northern Andhra
Pradesh. The three styles are Pidha Deula, Rekha Deula and Khakhara Deula with the first
two linked with Shiva, Surya and Vishnu and the latter is predominantly associated with
Goddesses Durga and Chamunda. Again the first type comprises of outer halls for offerings
and dancing while the latter two comprise of the sanctum sanctorum. The word Deula means
temple. The famous Jagannath Temple of Puri and Lingaraj Temple of Bhubaneswar portray
Rekha Deula style while Vaital Deula of Bhubaneswar typifies Khakhara Deula and the Sun
Temple at Konark remains a prominent example of Pidha Deula.
Maru-Gurjara
This temple architecture with two notable styles namely Maru-Gurjara and Maha-Maru
originated in Rajasthan and its vicinity sometime around 6th century. M?ru-Gurjara temple
architecture is considered by scholars as an exclusive Western Indian architectural style that
differs distinctly from temple architecture of North India. However, it is regarded to have
some associative features with Hoysala temple architecture as sculpturally rich architecture is
palpable in both the styles. The Nagda temple in Rajasthan illustrates this style.
33
CHAPTER II
Divine Character
The Evolution of Religious Architecture Claudio Nieto:
Since the beginnings of civilisation, the temple has
been the architectural representation of society’s
conception of divinity. Several of the greatest construction achievements of all times were
accomplished through these buildings. Even though there are plenty of studies on this particular
kind of structure, most of them do not consider time as a key element to understand the
refinement sequence the temple has experienced. In consequence, this research is primarily
based on Julien-David Le Roy’s Plate 1 from The Ruins of the Most Beautiful Monuments of
Ancient Greece, which acknowledges the chronological development of temples as the
appropriate way to grasp how these buildings evolved. At the time the plate was published, it
caused a major revolution on how ‘type’ in Architecture was understood, given that it actually
recognised the relevance of ‘time’ for a building’s typological analysis. As a result, studying the
plate made possible to critically assess Le Roy’s discourse and determine the accuracy of his
principles. Though his analysis is more likely to be based on genre than on type, it provides
relevant information about the temple’s evolution which is used as the framework to address the
relationship between this kind of building and its progressive architectural sophistication. An
enquiry which makes possible to observe how the refinement of the temple is directly related to
the way it is occupied. As it became a more public building, it acquired a higher degree of
complexity, implicating that the temple’s character is expressed
Temple classification by civilisation.
Sorted following description from e Ruins of the Most Beautiful Monuments of Greece.
34
Influence exchange among temples.
Relationships and development sequence as framed in e Ruins of the Most Beautiful Monuments of Greece.
Evolution timeline of the temple.
The progressive development timeline clearly shows an increasing level of sophistication in structural systems
and architectural configurations.
The origins of history and theory of architecture go back to the 18th century during the
Enlightenment period. The ideological discourse of this era was founded on the idea that
reasoning was the way in which people could understand the universe and therefore improve
themselves. This idea and usage of reasoning was first explored by the ancient Greeks, who
were considered as a model civilisation. In consequence, intellectuals adopted their heritage in
order to establish the new rules of their new ideology. It was within this collective thinking that
35
Neoclassicism as an artistic movement was born, being architecture one of its most
representative expressions.1 The ways in which architecture was taught and practiced
experienced revolutionary changes – France’s Académie Royale d’Architecture became the most
influential school of architecture in Europe. Also, many expeditions to Greece took place at the
time. Normally, all the information gathered within these expeditions was later organised and
published in books. Among others, Richard Pocoke’s A description of the East and some other
Countri , Frederic Louis Norden’s Voyage d’E pt et de Nubie, James Stuart & Nicholas
Revett’s The Antiqu of Athens, and Julien-Davide Le Roy’s The Ruins of the Most Beautiful
Monuments of Ancient Greece (also referred as The Ruins), embody the effort to explore, study,
and share with the world the main source of the time’s ideology.
Many of the books written about this topic focused their narrative on the classic orders and how
to use them properly.2 However, Le Roy offered a new vision on the subject, a vision which
would cause a major revolution, he built an argument based on the relationships that all the
buildings he registered had between them, giving less priority to the accuracy of the drawings.
This position caused a lot of controversy, his competitors did not receive it in a positive way
and tried to affect his career in several ways. On the other hand, French scholars considered the
discourse revolutionary and rewarded Le Roy with a position in l’Académie Royale
d’Architecture. His work would later influence very important figures such as Jean-Nicolas
Durand, Sir John Soane and Quatrèmer de Quincy.3 It was until the second edition of The
Ruins (1770) that the Comparative Plate of Temples – Plate 1 – appeared. The use of this kind
of drawings was not new at the time it was included in The Ruins (Figure 1-1). For instance,
Jacques Tarade, in 1713, made several plates comparing St. Peter’s Basilica in Rome and Notre
Dame in Paris. Le Roy first used the plate when he published Histoire de la disposition et d form
di érents que l chrétiens ont donné à leurs templ (also referred as Histoire). He made a historical
analysis on the evolution of christian churches. His first approach to this kind of representation
got expanded and perfected afterwards in the second edition of The Ruins. Plate 1 strengthened
and presented in a far clearer way what Le Roy’s ‘Essay on the History of Architecture’ stated
since the first edition of the book. A couple of decades later.
Perhaps the reason behind the great success and influence that Le Roy’s Plate 1 achieved is that
it constitutes one of the first studies of Architecture through type. It had something that its
predecessors did not, it was drawn following two ideas: first, the comparative layouts that
evidenced architectural elements as well as design premises, and second, the chronological
display through three progressive columns.4 Moreover, the two driving ideas combined
explained the relationships between the buildings, and how Architecture evolved from a simple
36
hut to a highly refined church. As Robin Middleton’s Introduction to the contemporary version
of The Ruins expresses:
The new plate illustrating the historical evolution of sacred architecture now has three distinct
lines of development: the Phoenicians, the Egyptians, and Hebrews are in one track; the Greeks
and Romans in another; the Christians in a third. The aim, though unstated, was to separate the
Greeks from the Egyptians and to distinguish the Christians from all the rest. However, the lines
of development do follow on, one from another. Continuities are indicated.5
In summary, the ideological discourse of the Enlightenment, together with the collective effort
by intellectuals of the time to understand the architectural principles of the ancient world, set the
perfect scenario for comparative plates to thrive as the standard mean for analysing architecture.
Le Roy’s Plate 1 constitutes a major reference of architectural history and theory during the
18th century, and, according to him, it focuses on the type of building that holds the highest
level of perfection and produced the finest innovations in architecture: the temple.6 The plate is
taken as the starting point for this research, revising, correcting and completing it. Afterwards,
selected case studies, taken from it, will be analysed in detail in order to assess Le Roy’s
discourse and study the relations between the selected buildings through a type and genre
perspective.
The concept of type, as described by Quatrèmere, did not exist until de early 19th century.
Therefore, Le Roy’s Plate 1 was no subject of any defined notion of this idea by the time it was
produced. Perhaps the plate would have been quite different if a proper conception of type had
existed. By analysing Plate 1, the first thing to be pointed out is that it constitutes a study of
genre. Nonetheless, at the same time it includes several groups of buildings that can be
considered as types, such as the basilica or the cross-plan church. This overlapping of concepts
is what makes Plate 1 such a remarkable architectural study and, at the same time, it is what Le
Roy failed to acknowledge in his discourse, being the major cause of its inconsistencies.
Attempting to define temples of several eras and civilisations as a single type of building is a
very difficult task, considering that its architecture changed drastically as it followed different
religious logics. However, studying the plate through a genre perspective, clearly identifying all
the types contained in it, allowed to identify the typological problems of each type which
contributed to the overall sophistication of the temple.
37
Temple of Horus: Massing, Structural analysis, Programmatic analysis
Temple of Artemis Ephesus: Massing, Structural analysis, Programmatic analysis
Old St. Peter’s Basilica: Massing, Structural analysis, Programmatic analysis -St. Peter’s Basilica: Massing,
Structural analysis, Programmatic analysis
The comparative analysis reflects that case studies share some common characteristics between
them. Yet, these aspects do not work as a rule and therefore cannot be defined as a characteristic
of type. For instance, the precinct is an element present in almost all the cases, but it must not be
considered as a characteristic of type by itself. In this particular case, a gathering space adjacent
to the temple would be a typological problem, an element that was sometimes addressed in an
urban scale rather than with an enclosure. Therefore, analysing the urban emplacement of the
temple would make possible to detect and understand more of its typological problems. By
taking Le Roy’s methodology as the framework for research, the relationship of the buildings
with the city was not considered for this study. However, the analysis suggests that an extensive
investigation towards this matter would provide a deeper understanding of the temple and its
role in society.
38
Comparative analysis of structural systems
Above all, despite there are several architectural types involved in the analysis, it is possible to
identify a common typological problem among them: the quest for the most possible
sophisticated roof. This ‘problem’ produced more advanced and complex architectural elements
throughout the evolution sequence of the temple, being the driving idea behind it. Furthermore,
the classification of buildings by their ritual performance made possible to identify the reasons
that caused this constant typological problem. From the analysis, two outstanding concepts that
thrived though the temple’s development history shall be pointed out, symbolism and
sophistication. As religious rituals evolved and became more public, symbolism and
sophistication increased, being the first one expressed through the parti and the second one
through the structure. In other words, it can be concluded that the parti is the mean by which the
temple reflects its religious and symbolic significance, while the structure is the mean for
expressing its character.
Posted by AAPC on December 14, 2015 | Comments Offon Divine Character: The Evolution of
Religious Architecture http://projectivecities.aaschool.ac.uk/portfolio/divine-character-theevolution-of-religious-architecture/
Indian architecture is related to the history and religions of the time periods as well as to the
geography and geology of the Indian subcontinent. India was crisscrossed by trading routes of
merchants from as far away as Siraf and China as well as weathering invasions by foreigners,
resulting in multiple influences of foreign elements on native styles. The diversity of Indian
culture is represented in its architecture. Indian architecture comprises a blend of ancient and
varied native traditions, with building types, forms and technologies from West, Central Asia,
and Europe.
39
Hinduism
The Brihadeeswarar Temple, Tanjavur, built in the Dravidian style
Hindu temple architecture is based on Sthapatya Veda and many other ancient religious texts
like the Brihat Samhita, Vastu Shastra and Shilpa Shastras in accordance to the design
principles and guidelines believed to have been laid by the divine architect Vishvakarma. It
evolved over a period of more than 2000 years. The Hindu architecture conforms to strict
religious models that incorporate elements of astronomy and sacred geometry. In Hindu belief,
the temple represents the macrocosm of the universe as well as the microcosm of inner space.
While the underlying form of Hindu temple architecture follows strict traditions, considerable
variation occurs with the often intense decorative embellishments and ornamentation.
Main article: Hindu temple architecture
Hindu temple architecture is based on Sthapatya Veda and many other ancient religious texts
like the Brihat Samhita, Vastu Shastra and Shilpa Shastras in accordance to the design
principles and guidelines believed to have been laid by the divine architect Vishvakarma. It
evolved over a period of more than 2000 years. The Hindu architecture conforms to strict
religious models that incorporate elements of astronomy and sacred geometry. In Hindu belief,
the temple represents the macrocosm of the universe as well as the microcosm of inner space.
While the underlying form of Hindu temple architecture follows strict traditions, considerable
variation occurs with the often intense decorative embellishments and ornamentation.
Buddhism
Buddhist architecture developed in South Asia beginning in the third century BCE. Two types of
structures are associated with early Buddhism: viharas and stupas. Originally, Viharas were
temporary shelters used by wandering monks during the rainy season, but these structures later
developed to accommodate the growing and increasingly formalized Buddhist monasticism. An
existing example is at Nalanda (Bihar).
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The initial function of the stupa was the veneration and safe-guarding of the relics of
the Buddha. The earliest existing example of a stupa is in Sanchi (Madhya Pradesh). In
accordance with changes in religious practice, stupas were gradually incorporated into chaityagrihas (stupa halls). These reached their highpoint in the first century BCE, exemplified by the
cave complexes of Ajanta and Ellora (Maharashtra).
The pagoda is an evolution of the Indian stupa that is marked by a tiered tower with
multiple eaves common in China, Japan, Korea, Nepal and other parts of Asia. Buddhist
temples were developed rather later and outside South Asia, where Buddhism gradually declined
from the early centuries CE onwards, though an early example is that of the Mahabodhi
Temple at Bodh Gaya in Bihar. The architectural structure of the stupa spread across Asia,
taking on many diverse forms as details specific to different regions were incorporated into the
overall design. It was spread to China and the Asian region by Araniko, a Nepali architect in the
early 13th century for Kublai Khan.
A Hindu Temple on the other hand., should be designed to maintain its ancient aesthetics,
mysticism, philosophy, design principle, components, quality, nature and comfort. This can be
done with incorporating the Vaastu in building Hindu Temples. In Malaysia, there are no rules
to govern the religious buildings. Therefore there are no scale to measure the quality of Hindu
Temples. The existing Hindu Temples in Malaysia are of many scales; from icons under trees to
medium scale temples. This dissertation, A Study on Hindu Temple Planning, Construction and
The Vaastu is to analyse the relevance of Vaastu in building a Hindu Temple, with three temples
in Pulau Pinang, Malaysia as the case study. Vaastu is a study related to Building Science hence
can be called Science of Building Technology of ancient time, which is also very similar to the
modem one. This Science is Universal therefore can be applied to other buildings as well. Latest
technology on materials and construction can be incorporated in a Hindu Temple, as long as it
does not affect the Vaastu. In order to understand this study, the beliefs of Hinduism, types and
characteristics and the components of Hindu Temples are discussed. The study is analysed
according to the Primary and Secondary Data. The case studies, the Primary Data are analysed
according to The Site and The Temple Design. The analysis of The Site consists of The Sun
Movement, The Slope and The Substructures.
The Temple design consists of Shapes and Proportion, Measurements, Materials,Construction
Principles and Services. All these criteria are then compared among the three temples and with
the ancient temple. Other Primary Data are interviews with various individuals related to the
study and the data from internal publications. The Secondary Data are accumulated from
41
articles, newspapers, brochures, magazines, books, other related dissertations, websites and egroups. Vaastu, the science applied in Architecture is explained in detail emphasising on the
basis of Vaastushastra, which makes the criteria for the analysis. Other fields, which are of nonarchitectural matters but related to the Vastu; Astronomy, Astrology and Ritual Performances
correlation and their importance, are explained briefly.
The site analysis according to Vaastu is basically good and would reap benefits. But the building
itself and the materials do not comply fully to the rules and regulation of the Vaastu. The
analysis proves that The Mariamman Temple is the best as per Vaastu. The Sundaresvarar
Temple, a recently built temple does not fully incorporate Vaastu in its design. The existing
shrine of Thirumurugan Temple is recently being constructed as per Vaastu. The temple built
according to Vaastu should be able to provide psychological needs like peace and tranquillity to
the visitors. The case studies prove that Vaastu is important but is not fully incorporated in
planning and construction of the temples in Malaysia. This study is hoped to bring the
awareness of the importance of Vaastu, which is gaining recognition nowadays.2
Defining Islamic Architecture
What exactly is Islamic architecture? It might at first seem like a simple question, but in fact
scholars have debated its meaning until today. Does it refer to specific architectural features,
such as the dome, arch, or vault? Does it imply that only Muslims design, build, and occupy
these buildings? Are only religious buildings included in this categorization or does it also
include secular buildings used for everyday functions? The answer, is all of the above.
Islamic architecture includes religious buildings intended for worship by Muslims and secular
buildings built in a predominately Islamic region or used by Muslims. In this lesson, we'll
provide a broad overview of historic Islamic architecture, touching on its origin and history, and
discuss certain defining styles of buildings and designs commonly associated with it.
History as a Distinct Style
What is often referred to as Islamic architecture stems from Christian, Persian, and Indian roots.
More specifically, the architectural forms and styles came largely from
the Byzantine and Sassanian Empires.
Interestingly, as Muslims conquered different regions once controlled by other cultures, their
early buildings were either renovations of existing buildings or new buildings constructed from
the ruins of older buildings. Actually, it was common for Islamic architecture to be quite unique
to its location while following certain styling common to Islamic art.
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Building Types
Islamic architecture can include buildings used by Muslims for religious purposes or secular
buildings built in a predominately Islamic region. The most important building type in Islamic
architecture is the mosque, which is the center of Islamic culture and society. Not only is it a
religious space intended for worship, it is also a place for lively discussion about topics relevant
to daily life. The first mosque was the Prophet Muhammad's house, which contained many basic
design features that were included in later mosques.
Two types of mosques are the congregational mosque, which is built to accommodate an entire
community, and the smaller type that is intended for a particular ethnic group. While there is no
overall unifying style for mosques, they can be generally divided into regional categories.
The hypostyle mosque became one of the main styles to emerge. It has a courtyard surrounded
by colonnades on three sides. A covered sanctuary at the far end of the courtyard showcases a
directional wall that shows a religious practitioner which way to pray.
Historically, the next most significant building after the mosque was the religious school; an
educational center separate from the mosque. This architectural type slowly transformed from
the houses of teachers to eventually incorporate functions such as lecture halls, libraries,
residences, baths, and a courtyard. However, there are only a few of these religious school
buildings left in existence today.
Secular buildings historically included mostly residential structures ranging from palaces to
simple houses. Architecturally, there was much focus placed on the separation between private
and public space. Houses were inwardly focused dwellings with the private spaces devoted to
family life. Palaces included many public spaces for meetings. Other public buildings included
public bathhouses, as well as buildings intended for travelers who wanted to rest.
Characteristics and Styles
While there is much diversity in Islamic architecture, several main design concepts and styles
are present in almost all examples of this type of architecture. Let's cover these in a little more
detail, one at a time.
Focus on interior
In general, Islamic buildings have limited architectural expression on the exterior; instead the
focus is on the interior. Most of the decoration will be on the inside of the building.
Courtyard
Another common characteristic is the courtyard, which is both within the walls of the building
and open to the sky, providing a private, yet outdoor, space. Not surprisingly, another phrase to
43
describe this architectural idea is 'the architecture of the veil.' It is sometimes also referred to as
'hidden architecture' or 'private,' protecting inhabitants and visitors from the outside world.
Islamic architecture comprises the architectural styles of buildings associated with Islam. It
encompasses both secular and religious styles from the early history of Islam to the present day.
Early Islamic architecture was influenced
by Roman, Byzantine, Persian, Mesopotamian architecture and all other lands which the Early
Muslim conquests conquered in the seventh and eighth centuries. Further east, it was also
influenced by Chinese and Mughal architecture as Islam spread to Southeast Asia. Later it
developed distinct characteristics in the form of buildings, and the decoration of surfaces
with Islamic calligraphy and geometric and interlace patterned ornament. New architectural
elements like cylindrical minarets, muqarnas, arabesque, multifoil were invented. The principal
Islamic architectural types for large or public buildings are: the mosque, the tomb, the palace,
and the fort. From these four types, the vocabulary of Islamic architecture is derived and used
for other buildings such as public baths, fountains and domestic architecture.
Many of the buildings which are mentioned in this article are listed as World Heritage Sites.
Some of them, like the Citadel of Aleppo, have suffered significant damage in the
ongoing Syrian Civil War and other wars in the Middle East.
From the eighth to the 11th century, Islamic architectural styles were influenced by two
different ancient traditions:
1. Greco-Roman tradition: In particular, the regions of the newly conquered Byzantine
Empire (Southwestern Anatolia, Syria, Egypt and the Maghreb) supplied architects,
masons, mosaicists and other craftsmen to the new Islamic rulers. These artisans were
trained in Byzantine architecture and decorative arts, and continued building and
decorating in Byzantine style, which had developed out of Hellenistic and ancient
Roman architecture.
2. Eastern tradition: Mesopotamia and Persia, despite adopting elements of Hellenistic
and Roman representative style, retained their independent architectural traditions,
which derived from Sasanian architecture and its predecessors.[6]
The transition process between late Antiquity, or post-classical, and Islamic architecture is
exemplified by archaeologic findings in North Syria and Palestine, the Bilad al-Sham of the
Umayyad and Abbasid dynasties. In this region, late antique, or Christian, architectural
traditions merged with the pre-Islamic Arabian heritage of the conquerors. Recent research on
the history of Islamic art and architecture has revised a number of colonialistic ideas.
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Specifically, the following questions are currently subject to renewed discussions in the light of
recent findings and new concepts of cultural history:
1. the existence of a linear development within the Islamic architecture;
2. the existence of an inter- and intracultural hierarchy of styles;
3. questions of cultural authenticity and its delineation.
4.
Some characteristics of Islamic architecture were inherited from pre-Islamic architecture of
that region while some characteristics like minarets, muqarnas, arabesque, Islamic geometric
pattern, pointed arch, multifoil arch, onion dome and pointed dome developed later.
Paradise garden
Gardens and water have for many centuries played an essential role in Islamic culture, and are
often compared to the garden of Paradise. The comparison originates from the Achaemenid
Empire. In his dialogue "Oeconomicus", Xenophon has Socrates relate the story of the Spartan
general Lysander's visit to the Persian prince Cyrus the Younger, who shows the Greek his
"Paradise at Sardis".The classical form of the Persian Paradise garden, or the Charbagh,
comprises a rectangular irrigated space with elevated pathways, which divide the garden into
four sections of equal size:
One of the hallmarks of Persian gardens is the four-part garden laid out with axial paths that
intersect at the garden's centre. This highly structured geometrical scheme, called the chahar
bagh, became a powerful metaphor for the organization and domestication of the landscape,
itself a symbol of political territory.
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A Charbagh from Achaemenid time has been identified in the archaeological excavations
at Pasargadae. The gardens of Chehel Sotoun (Isfahan), Fin Garden (Kashan), Eram
Garden (Shiraz), Shazdeh Garden (Mahan), Dowlatabad Garden (Yazd), Abbasabad
Garden(Abbasabad), Akbarieh Garden (South Khorasan Province), Pahlevanpour Garden, all
in Iran, form part of the UNESCO World Heritage.[29] Large Paradise gardens are also found at
the Taj Mahal (Agra), and at Humayun's Tomb (New Delhi), in India or at
the Alhambra and Generalife in Granada, Spain
Courtyard (Sehan)
The traditional Islamic courtyard, a sehan is found in secular and religious structures.
1. When within a residence or other secular building is a private courtyard and walled
garden. It is used for the aesthetics of plants, water, architectural elements, and natural
light; for cooler space with fountains and shade, and source of breezes into the structure,
during summer heat; and a protected and proscribed place where the women of the
house need not be covered in the hijab clothing traditionally necessary in public.
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2. A sehan – courtyard is in within almost every mosque in Islamic architecture. The
courtyards are open to the sky and surrounded on all sides by structures with halls and
rooms, and often a shaded semi-open arcade. Sehans usually feature a centrally
positioned ritual cleansing pool under an open domed pavilion called a howz. A mosque
courtyard is used for performing ablutions, and a patio for rest or gathering.
Hypostyle hall
A hypostyle, i.e., an open hall supported by columns combined with a reception hall set at right
angle to the main hall, is considered to be derived from architectural traditions of Achaemenid
period Persian assembly halls (apadana). This type of building originated from the Romanstyle basilica with an adjacent courtyard surrounded by colonnades, like Trajan's Forum in
Rome. The Roman type of building has developed out of the Greek agora. In Islamic
architecture, the hypostyle hall is the main feature of the hypostyle mosque. One of the earliest
hypostyle mosques is the Tarikhaneh Mosque in Iran, dating back to the eighth century.
Vaulting
In Islamic buildings, vaulting follows two distinct architectural styles: While Umayyad
architecture continues Syrian traditions of the sixth and seventh century, Eastern Islamic
architecture was mainly influenced by Sasanian styles and forms.
REFERENCES
1.The Greek Conception of Divinity,Expressed through Mainland,Temple Architecture,
Lucas Livingston,November 28,
1998 https://www.saic.edu/~llivin/research/greek_divinity/ConceptionofDivinity.html
2. A STUDY ON HINDU TEMPLE PLANNING, CONSTRUCTION AND THE V AASTU by
SUJATAVANIGUNASAGARAN-Thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of Masters of Science Building Technology l\1ac 2002, Uni of Malaysia at Kuala
Lumpur
47
الفن العربي
BOOK I
ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE
48
Introduction to this Section
This section aims to discuss the meaning, functions and salient characteristics of Islamic
architecture. The discussion will be divided into the following sections: (1) the meaning of
Islamic architecture; (2) the object of Mathematics and Arabesque into Islamic architecture and
what they seeks to achieve; (3) the house and the mosque as examples of Islamic architecture;
(4) pragmatism and Islamic architecture of olden times as brought about by the architecture of
Al Hambra.We, here seek, to enhance the awareness, both of the professionals and general
readership, as to the importance of correctly conceptualizing the theme of Islamic architecture,
especially at the present when the signs of a Muslim cultural and civilizational re-awakening are
becoming increasingly evident. The nature of the article, along with its content, methodology
and conclusions, is conceptual and philosophical, rather than empirical.
Islamic architecture, building traditions of Muslim populations of the Middle East and elsewhere
from the 7th century on. Islamic architecture finds its highest expression in religious buildings
such
as
the mosque and madrasah.
Early
Islamic
religious
architecture,
exemplified
by Jerusalem’s Dome of the Rock (AD 691) and the Great Mosque (705) in Damascus, drew on
Christian architectural features such as domes, columnar arches, and mosaics but also included
large courts for congregational prayer and a mihrab. From early times, the characteristic
semicircular horseshoe arch and rich, nonrepresentational decoration of surfaces were employed.
Religious architecture came into its own with the creation of the hypostyle mosque
(see hypostyle hall) in Iraq and Egypt. In Iran a mosque plan consisting of four eyvans (vaulted
halls) opening onto a central court was used. These brick-built mosques also incorporated domes
and
decorated
squinches
(see Byzantine
architecture)
across
the
corners
of
the
rooms. Persian architectural features spread to India, where they are found in the Taj
Mahal and Mughal
palaces.
Ottoman
architecture,
derived
from
Islamic
and Byzantine traditions, is exemplified by the Selimiye Mosque (1575) at Edirne, Tur., with its
great central dome and slender minarets. One of the greatest examples of secular Islamic
architecture is the Alhambra. For full treatment of the subject, see Islamic arts.Divine
Inspiration: Seven Principles of Islamic Architecture
27 Nov 2008 – 28 Feb 2009.
Divine Inspiration; Seven Principles of Islamic Architecture is an exhibition that aims to
illustrate the intrinsic relationship between Muslims, their beliefs and how these manifest
49
themselves in everyday architecture. Islam embodies a way of life and serves as a cohesive force
amongst ethnically and culturally diverse peoples. There is no essential difference between
spiritual and secular art in Islam, allowing the virtues of Islamic architecture to transcend mere
form and function.
Through the study of seven key Islamic beliefs a cross section of not only Islamic life and
practice will be discussed but also the corresponding architectural principles which range from
urban planning to detailed ornamentation. The exhibition begins with the primary Islamic belief
Tawhid – the concept of Unity and Oneness of God – from this the structure and components of
the Islamic city will be unveiled. As the exhibition progresses, it delves into more architectural
detail. For example, Muslims are encouraged to be in a state of Dhikr; Remembrance of God,
this is illustrated beautifully in the rhythmic chanting, found in the stuccowork and muqarnas
(stalactites) vaults of the Alhambra.
Each of the key beliefs explored; Tawhid (Unity), Ihtiram (Respect), Ikhlas (Sincerity), Iqtisad
(Moderation/ Humility), Haya’ (Modesty), ‘Ilm (Pursuit of Knowledge), Dhikr (Remembrance),
will contextualise and shed light on the visible and invisible nature of both the Islamic belief
discussed and its corresponding architectural principle. Covering examples from across the
globe – discussing their cosmic dimensions – this exhibition will highlight the long interrupted
tradition of sacred and scientific knowledge that has gained Islamic architecture a well-deserved
reputation of outstanding nobility.
The Italian philosopher Umberto Eco once said ‘An aesthetic pleasure arises when the soul finds
its own inner harmony duplicated in its object’. This exhibition will demonstrate how that inner
harmony is achieved in Islamic architecture, an art form that has consistently retained an
intrinsic quality and unique identity, transcending cultural contexts and architectural functions.
The physical origins of these characteristics are beautifully illustrated in a series of biomorphic
drawings commissioned for the exhibition from the Prince’s School of Traditional Arts.
REFERENCES
Towards Understanding Islamic Architecture,SPAHIC OMER,Islamic Studies
Vol. 47, No. 4 (Winter 2008), pp. 483-510 (28 pages),Published By: Islamic Research Institute,
International Islamic University, Islamabad
50
CHAPTER III
THE CONCEPT OF HOUSE INTERIORS IN ISLAM
ABSTRACT
The house of a Muslim accounts as a dwelling place for righteousness, dynamism and confidence. In
short, it functions as a mosque, i.e., the place of worship.
Angels are supposed to patronize it; Satan runs away from it. The house of a believer is a source, or a
cause, of his happiness and fortune. It is a symbol of his robust civilizational awareness, strength and
achievements. It is a symbol of his graceful role on earth.
What then are the characteristics of anIslamic House? Let us scratch the surface of this Ocean of
knowledge about Islamic Interiors
Islamic interior designing is about blending art with function. The concept which has its root in
the phenomenal structure of Al-Masjid-Al-Nabawi (the second mosque built in the history of
Islam), is also a unique blend of designs and patterns of Roman, Byzantine, Persian, Indian and
Chinese- regions which were conquered by the Muslims. This very universal blend of concepts
makes Islamic interiors a much replicated and celebrated form across the globe. To admire
Islamic interiors and their concept one needs to know the various elements that make a building
truly Islamic.
Islamic architecture encompasses a wide range of both secular and religious styles from the
foundation of Islam to the present day. Whilst it does have unique characteristics like its
geometric and interlace patterned ornaments, it does draw some influence from Persian, Roman,
Byzantine Chinese as Indian architectures as Islam was present from the Near East & North
51
Africa to East Asia.This architectural tradition is predominantly found in two types of
places: Muslim-majority countries and lands conquered by Muslims during the Middle Ages. In
addition to Arab states—like Algeria, Egypt, and Iraq—Islamic architecture is also prevalent in
European regions with Moorish roots, including parts of Spain, Portugal, Italy, and
Malta.Though often associated with the Islamic mosque—Muslims’ place of worship—this
approach to architecture is also apparent in other edifices, from palaces and public
buildings to tombs, forts and houses.
Whether religious or secular, however, the splendid style is defined by several common
characteristics.Islam as a comprehensive way of life influenced the planning and designing of
the houses of its adherents. Not only that, Islam also laid a solid foundation, in some instances in
form of laws, for creating what came to be known as the phenomenon of Islamic housing.The
Holy Qur’an furnishes Muslims with a comprehensive conceptual framework for housing. The
Prophet provided scores of lessons in Islamic housing to his followers while developing the city
of Madinah aftermigrating there from Makkah.This framework has been first applied, explained
and further enriched by him as revelations came upon him. Such lessons are to be held by
Muslims as both universal and everlastingas he is considered as the last and only Messenger of
Allah to mankind. And are a part of the sunnah which each and every Muslim is required to
follow to whatever extent possible.
Islamic Ummah : The” house” occupies an extraordinary place in Islam. It is a family
developmentcentre where individuals and families breed and nurture as units of the
Islamic ummah (community). In Islam, the house is a place to rest, relax the body and mind, and
enjoy legitimate worldly delights. Within the realm of their houses, Muslims also worship,
teach, learn and propagate the message of Islam.
While the mosque is probably the most important venue in Islam, the house is more than just a
place to live. It's regarded as an intimate place of worship, and many aspects of the design and
decoration of Islamic houses are done with religious precepts in mind. The Islamic design is not
merely a style for decoration; it involves respect for a deeply spiritual way of life. Therefore,
there's a difference between Islamic interiors and Islamic-inspired decoration.Most Muslims
consider their home an important place of worship and design it accordingly. In this lesson,
learn about the main features of Islamic house design and explore some of the most important
decorative elements that are used.Elaborate ornamentation, Persian rugs, and wooden lattice
52
windows are all elements of Islamic decoration that have prevailed over time, not only because
of their beauty but for their cultural and religious significance. They're conceived in a way to
show respect for Allah (God) and the values of Islam.
House Design
The Quran provides an outline of how a Muslim home should be. Similarly, the prophets have
set the example of many different features that should be respected and included in every home.
Houses should be as ample and comfortable as possible, and effective ventilation and lighting
are very important. Incorporating nature is also appreciated, so gardens and fountains have been
part of the Islamic tradition for centuries. Gardens are often seen as representations of paradise,
with abundant water and vegetation. Unlike Western gardens, they are for contemplation rather
than recreation.
The inner courtyard is a common feature in large houses, and it provides natural ventilation,
lighting, and also the perfect location for a private intimate garden.
Islamic houses as places of worship
Inside every Muslim house, there's a space for praying. It can be an entire room or just a little
corner but is always away from the busy areas and ideally pointed towards Mecca. A place for
studying the Quran is also common and is generally close to the praying area.It was for the
reason that the house should function as a leading social institution and a dynamic family
development centre, the compulsory prayers, all the rewards that men can procure while
performing them in mosques, women at home too.
The Hadith literature provides further extensive collection of such statements with Islamic house
content. Muslims follow the Hadith with full acceptance as these are the authentic holy sayings
and their companions.Even though praying Salah in designated mosque is the norm for
contentment in their lives, Muslims do keep a place for prayer in the houses.
Rules to Reach a Modern Islamic Interior Design
1. Spatial Planning: Islamic teaching does not provide any direct guiding principle for the
placement of the different spaces but focuses on performance of tasks, which inspire
spatial planning. Praying five times a day is highly appreciated in Islamic religion and
attention to the spatial planning could be influenced by this.
53
2. Zones:The house planning is divided into three major zones according to the privacy
requirement including public zone, semi-public zone and private zone.
3. Banned Figurative objects:Rule number one is not to include any figurative objects
in the design plan. This means no art with human or animal shapes as well as no freestanding statues or animal figures in furniture or accessories. They decorate with abstract
art, landscape or Islamic calligraphy art instead.
4. Colour:Islamic interior design is popular around the world. A large number of Muslims
consider the colour green as an Islamic colour. Also, many Muslims prefer brown over
black as their choice for a neutral colour. Black is usually associated with funerals and
death whereas brown is warm and inviting navy blue, grey and black home decor are the
most popular in the Arabic-Islamic modern style homes.
5. Delicate Fixture and Texture:Calligraphy of Quranic verses has had a perennial effect
on Islamic design followed by extremely detailed friezes of flowers and geometric
patterns.
6. Geometric Patterns: Some distinctive features of modern Islamic architecture include
geometric patterns and bright colors, most notably in the tiles known as Zelij. Also,
ornamental Islamic calligraphy, open courtyards with lush gardens, and U-shaped entries
as well as large domes.
7. Privacy of Homes: Privacy is of utmost importance in a Muslim home. That is why
window shades that allow light to penetrate while providing privacy should be selected.
In order to bring a shading decorated with Islamic geometric patterns, we add an Islamic
vibe to the design of the room. A laser cut screen has been used not just as a functional
window, but also to enhance the room.Houses usually have separate bedrooms for the
parents, one for female children, and one for male children. Inside each one, the bed is
commonly oriented so that the person faces the direction of Mecca when sleeping on the
right side or, at least, in a way that the head points towards it.
8. Toilets: When using the toilet, Muslims shouldn't face Mecca nor turn their back to it,
and running water is important for cleansing. This led to the development of large
bathhouses in ancient times. In modern days, hand showers are often installed next to the
toilet.
9. Arched doorways: Arched doorways is the most striking and prominent element of
Islamic architecture. The arches (also called the horseshoe arches) can be either round,
54
lobed or pointed, each one adding a spacious feel to the interiors in its own way. These
are often ornate with minute embellishments and patterns.
10. Doors should be inward so that the location of bed is not visible from the door to provide
privacy among family members. Islamic religion strictly enforces segregation of nonmehram male from female members to maintain privacy.
11. Separate doors are provided for private and public zones. This tradition is adopted in
almost all the Muslim countries and separate doors are provided in the main entrance
lobby for public space i.e. drawing room; semi-private i.e., living room and kitchen
public spaces and private spaces i.e., bedrooms as shown in figure
12. Drawing Rooms: Drawing room is especially reserved for non-mehram33 guest to serve
the purpose of hosting. It is placed at an isolated space within a Muslim house so that the
women can perform their tasks within a house.
13. Washroom design plays a very important role in Islamic Architectures as certain values
are related to its placement. Muslims faces Qibla during prayer, this means that toilet/
WC should not be placed on that direction
14. Windows: Islamic traditions do not allow Muslims to violate visual privacy by looking
into neighbour houses through windows, small window have been provided
15. Terraced courtyard is a distinguished feature in house planning of Pakistan. It is
provided in some of the contemporary houses to facilitate the female users of the house
to enjoy the outdoor environment without sacrificing their privacy.
16. Bedroom. Islamic teaching doesn’t give us any guidelines regarding the interior design
of bedroom. But there are some social and ethical guidelines that can lead to better
design of bedrooms. Islam religion gives guideline for the placement of bed in a Muslim
house. It should be facing Qibla i.e. 260.527164 Clockwise.
17. The concept of Mushrabiya which is an architectural element characteristic of Arabic
residences used since the Middle Ages up to the mid-20th century. It is a type of
projecting oriel window enclosed with carved wood latticework located on the second
story of a building or higher, often lined with stained glass, commonly used on the street
side of the building; however, it may also be used internally on the sahn (courtyard)
side. The style may be informally known as a "harem window" in English. In many cases
today, this has been replaced with modern drawing room in which male and female
guests sits together, but not in Arabic countries where they are provided separately. A
typical house in Saudi Arabi is known to have:
55
1. First floor is reserved for female family members.
2. Public area i.e., drawing room is connected with semi-public area.
3. Public area is kept separated from semi-public and private areas.
4. Non-hierarchical design of privacy zones. Hierarchical design of privacy zones.
5. Having guest room in semi-public zone. Having guest room in public zone.
6. Have dining room in semi-public layer. Have dining room in public layer.
7. Have one staircase for family and guest. Have two staircases
18. Worship:This precept obviously requires that there should be inside the house a space,
irrespective of its size and position, which will be earmarked to function as a place for
conducting certain worship activities, both individually and collectively. The followers
of Islam are encouraged to have designated spaces in their houses. In short, the house of
a believer functions as a form of the mosque, as it were, i.e., the place of worship.
Angels patronize it; Satan runs away from it. The house of a believer is a source, or a
cause, of his happiness and fortune.
Due to the relationships of Islamic countries with the west, Islamic Architecture has been
influenced not only by modern technology, new materials and construction methods leading to
erosion of some principles in Islamic Architecture.
__________________________________________________________________________________
56
CHAPTER IV
(“ ISLAMIC”) MATHEMATICS AS ART
ABSTRACT
The arabesques and geometric patterns of Islamic art are often said to arise from the Islamic view of
the world. These patterns are derived from Geometry, either singly or combined, adorn all types of
surfaces, forming intricate and complex arrangements. While geometric ornamentation may have
reached a pinnacle in the Islamic world, sources for the basic shapes and intricate patterns already
existed in late antiquity. This paper examines the role mathematics played in creating what is known as
ISLAMIC ART.
Foreword: Mathematics and art are related in a variety of ways. Mathematics has itself been described
as
an art motivated
by
beauty.
Mathematics
can
be
discerned
in
arts
such
as music, dance, painting, architecture, sculpture, and textiles. Mathematics has directly influenced art
with conceptual tools such as linear perspective, the analysis of symmetry, and mathematical objects
such as polyhedral and the Möbius strip. The Islamic Empire established across Persia, the Middle East,
Central Asia, North Africa, Iberia and parts of India from the 8th Century onwards made significant
contributions towards mathematics. They were able to draw and fuse together the mathematical
developments of both Greece and India. One consequence of the Islamic prohibition on depicting the
human form was the extensive use of complex geometric patterns to decorate their buildings, raising
mathematics to the form of an art. In fact, over time, Muslim artists discovered all the different forms
of symmetry that can be depicted on a 2-dimensional surface.
57
Islamic craftsmen turned geometry into an art form because pictures of people were not allowed in holy
places. apart from the algebra, the trigonometry, the optics, the astronomy and the many other
scientific advances and inventions of the Islamic Golden Age. Stunning patterns grace
mosques, madrasas and palaces around the world. The mathematical elegance of these designs
is that no matter how elaborate they are, they are always based on grids constructed using only
a ruler and a pair of compasses. Islamic design is based on Greek geometry, which teaches us
that starting with very basic assumptions, we can build up a remarkable number of proofs
about shapes. Islamic patterns provide a visual confirmation of the complexity that can be
achieved with such simple tools.
Introduction to Geometric Design in Islamic Art: The principles and teachings of Islam as a
way of life, a religious code, and a legal system were promulgated by Muhammad (ca. 570–632
A.D.), an Arab merchant from Mecca. These teachings were revealed to him over a period of many
years beginning in 610 and were subsequently codified in the text known as the Qur’an. The word
of God, as set out in the Qur’an and handed down in the sayings of Muhammad (known as hadith,
or Traditions), forms the core of the religion. The primary premise of the Islamic faith is
monotheism, a renunciation of all deities except one, Allah, who alone is the creator, sustainer, and
destroyer of life. Islam is Arabic for” submission, “here to the single entity of Allah. The
recognition of Muhammad as Allah’s last prophet, a prophet like Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and the
others that preceded Muhammad, is also a key element of the belief. Neither the Qur’an nor the
Traditions contain specific mandates against figural representation in art. However, both sources
take a firm stance against idolatry and the worship of images. These precepts were interpreted
strictly by early Islamic religious leaders and exegetes as an injunction against the depiction of
human or animal figures, although extant examples of architectural decoration, objects in all
58
media, and illustrated manuscripts belie that stricture. Four types of ornamentation can be found
in Islamic art: calligraphy, figural forms (human and animal), vegetal motifs, and geometric
patterns.
These patterns, either singly or combined, adorn all types of surfaces, forming intricate and
complex arrangements. While geometric ornamentation may have reached a pinnacle in the
Islamic world, sources for the basic shapes and intricate patterns already existed in late antiquity in
the Byzantine and Sasanian empires. Islamic artists appropriated key elements from the classical
tradition, then elaborated upon them to invent a new form of decoration that stressed the
importance of unity, logic, and order. Essential to this unique style were the contributions made by
Islamic mathematicians, astronomers, and other scientists, whose ideas and technical advances are
indirectly reflected in the artistic tradition. The basic instruments for constructing geometric
designs were a compass and ruler. The circle became the foundation for Islamic pattern, in part a
consequence of refinements made to the compass by Arabic astronomers and cartographers. The
circle is often an organizing element underlying vegetal designs; it plays an important role in
calligraphy, which the Arabs defined as “the geometry of the line”; and it structures all the
complex Islamic patterns using geometric shapes.
The geometric designs in Islamic art are often built on combinations of repeated squares and
circles, which may be overlapped and interlaced, as can arabesques (with which they are often
combined), to form intricate and complex patterns, including a wide variety of tessellations.
These may constitute the entire decoration, may form a framework for floral or calligraphic
embellishments, or may retreat into the background around other motifs. The complexity and
variety of patterns used evolved from simple stars and lozenges in the ninth century, through a
variety of 6- to 13-point patterns by the
13th century, and finally to include also 14- and 16-point stars in the sixteenth century. Patterns
occur in a variety of form in Islamic art including carpets known as kilims, Persian girih
and Moroccan zellige tilework, muqarnas decorative vaulting, jali pierced stone screens, ceramics,
leather, stained glass, woodwork, and metalwork. Interest in Islamic geometric patterns is
increasing in the West, both among craftsmen and artists including M. C. Escher in the twentieth
century, and among mathematicians and physicists including Peter J. Lu and Paul Steinhardt who
controversially claimed in 2007 that tiling at the Darb-e Imam shrine in Isfahan could generate
quasi-periodic patterns like Penrose tiling.
59
These patterns have three basic characteristics:
1. They are made up of a small number of repeated geometric elements. The simple forms of the
circle, square, and straight line are the basis of the patterns. These elements are combined,
duplicated,interlaced, and arranged in intricate combinations. Most patterns are typically based on
one of two types of grid—one composed of equilateral triangles, the other of squares. A third type
of grid, composed of hexagons, is a variation on the triangular schema. The mathematical term for
these grids is “regular tessellation” (deriving from Latin tesserae, i.e., pieces of mosaic), in which
one regular polygon is repeated to tile the plane.
2. They are two-dimensional. Islamic designs often have a background and foreground pattern.
The placement of pattern upon pattern serves to flatten the space, and there is no attempt to create
depth. Vegetal patterns are may be set against a contrasting background in which the plant -like
forms interlace, weaving over and under in a way that emphasizes the foreground decoration. In
other instances, the background is replaced by a contrast between light and shade. Sometimes it is
impossible to distinguish between foreground and background. Some geometric designs are
created by fitting all the polygonal shapes together like the pieces of a puzzle, leaving no gaps and,
therefore, requiring no spatial interplay between foreground and background. The mathematical
term for this type of construction is “tessellation.” The conception of space in Islamic art is
completely different from Western models, which usually adopt a linear perspective and divide the
picture space into foreground, middle ground, and background. Artists of the Islamic world were
largely uninterested in linear perspective. Of the various styles of Islamic art, it was in Persian
painting that a type of three-dimensional space was used in which figures could interact, but this
space presented multiple viewpoints and simultaneously featured bird’s-eye and worm’s-eye
views.
3. They are not designed to fit within a frame. Geometric ornamentation in Islamic art suggests
a remarkable degree of freedom. The complex arrangements and combinations of elements are
infinitely expandable; the frame surrounding a pattern appears to be arbitrary and the basic
arrangement sometimes provides a unit from which the rest of the design can be both predicted
and projected.
60
Pattern formation
Further information: Mathematics and art and Girih
Many Islamic designs are built on squares and circles, typically repeated, overlapped and interlaced to form
intricate and complex patterns. A recurring motif is the 8-pointed star, often seen in Islamic tilework; it is
made of two squares, one rotated 45 degrees with respect to the other. The fourth basic shape is the
polygon, including pentagons and octagons. All of these can be combined and reworked to form
complicated patterns with a variety of symmetries including reflections and rotations. Such patterns can be
seen as mathematical tessellations, which can extend indefinitely and thus suggest infinity. They are
constructed on grids that require only ruler and compass to draw. Artist and educator Roman Verostko
argues that such constructions are in effect algorithms, making Islamic geometric patterns forerunners of
modern algorithmic art.
The circle symbolizes unity and diversity in nature, and many Islamic patterns are drawn starting with a
circle. For example, the decoration of the 15th-century mosque in Yazd, Persia is based on a circle, divided
into six by six circles drawn around it, all touching at its centre and each touching its two neighbours'
centres to form a regular hexagon. On this basis is constructed a six-pointed star surrounded by six smaller
irregular hexagons to form a tessellating star pattern. This forms the basic design which is outlined in white
on the wall of the mosque. That design, however, is overlaid with an intersecting tracery in blue around tiles
of other colours, forming an elaborate pattern that partially conceals the original and underlying design. A
similar design forms the logo of the Mohammed Ali Research Center.
61
One of the early Western students of Islamic patterns, Ernest Hanbury Hankin, defined a "geometrical
arabesque" as a pattern formed "with the help of construction lines consisting of polygons in contact." He
observed that many different combinations of polygons can be used as long as the residual spaces between
the polygons are reasonably symmetrical. For example, a grid of octagons in contact has squares (of the
same side as the octagons) as the residual spaces. Every octagon is the basis for an 8-point star, as seen at
Akbar's tomb, Sikandra (1605–1613). Hankin considered the "skill of the Arabian artists in discovering
suitable combinations of polygons almost astounding." He further records that if a star occurs in a corner,
exactly one quarter of it should be shown; if along an edge, exactly one half of it.
inscription was added during the reign of Sultan Ahmed III. The tile panels on either side of the door were
TOPKAPI
PALACE
On the lacquered ceiling of the throne, studded with jewels, are foliage patterns accompanied by the
depiction of the fight of a dragon, symbol of power, with simurg, a mythical bird. On the throne
there is a cover made of several pieces of brocade on which emerald and ruby plaques and pearls
are sown. Embossed inscriptions at the main visitors' door, dating from 1856, contain laudatory
words for Sultan Abdülmecid I. The main door is surmounted by an embossed besmele, the common
placed during later repair work
.
The Tiled Pavilion is the earliest building of Topkapi Palace, built by Mehmet II (the Conqueror). The
striking tiles which adorn the entire building still display strong traces of Seljuk Turkish art in both the
designs and the predominance of blue and turquoise. It is for this reason that the building has been
transformed into a ceramics museum, where the finest examples of Turkish ceramics from the 12th
century to the present day are on display. At the entrance to G’lhane Park is the Alay K÷sk’ (meaning
Ceremonial Pavilion) dating from the reign of Mahmud II (1808-1839) who watched various parades and
processions from this vantage point.
62
The Topkapı Scroll, made in Timurid dynasty Iran in the late-15th century or beginning of the 16th
century, contains 114 patterns including coloured designs for girih tiling and muqarnas quarter or semi
domes.
The mathematical properties of the decorative tile and stucco patterns of the Alhambra palace in
Granada, Spain have been extensively studied. Some authors have claimed on dubious grounds to have
found most or all of the 17 wallpaper groups there. Moroccan geometric woodwork from the 14th to 19th
centuries makes use of only 5 wallpaper groups, mainly p4mm and c2mm, with p6mm and p2mm
occasionally and p4gm rarely; it is claimed that the "Hasba" (measure) method of construction, which starts
with n-fold rosettes, can however generate all 17 groups.
Two-dimensional designs for two quarter-dome muqarnas – as a seashell (top), as a fan (bottom).
Topkapı Scroll, 15th century
Girih tiling in the decagonal pattern on a spandrel from the Darb-e Imam shrine
63
Construction of girih pattern in Darb-e Imam spandrel (yellow line). Construction decagons blue, bowties
red. The strapwork cuts across the construction tessellation.
Analysis of octagonal patterns in Mughal architecture by Ernest Hanbury Hankin, 1925. 8-pointed stars
emerge (lower right) where heavy black lines cross.
Decoration in Tomb of I'timād-ud-Daulah, Agra, showing correct treatment of sides and corners. A quarter of
each 6-point star is shown in each corner; half stars along the sides.
Architectural drawing for brick vaulting, Iran, probably Tehran, 1800–70 1
The four basic shapes, or “repeat units,” from which the more complicated patterns are
constructed are: circles and interlaced circles; squares or four-sided polygons; the ubiquitous star
pattern, ultimately derived from squares and triangles inscribed in a circle; and multisided
polygons. It is clear, however, that the complex patterns found on many objects include a number
of different shapes and arrangements, allowing them to fit into more than one category.
regional influence and the prevailing lifestyles during ruling dynasties determined the diversity of Islamic
ornaments and geometrical patterns. For example, basic 6- and 8-point geometrical patterns, introduced
during the late 9th century, are the most pervasive Islamic ornaments. Aside from their originality, the
simplicity in construction of these patterns drove architects to use such ornaments in almost all building
64
elements, from floor finishes to minaret surfaces. Whilst the difficulty of the abstract and the complexity of
non-constructible geometrical patterns limited their application to accessible elements (Qibla walls, window
screens), particularly in Iran and central Asia. Another interesting result is that in contrast to the architects
and artisans from other Islamic states, those from Anatolia paid less attention to ornaments and geometrical
patterns; they focused more extensively on other aspects of architecture, such as form and master planning.
For this reason, only a few examples of complex and sophisticated patterns (aside from the simplest ones)
can be found in Anatolia.
The relatively stable government and economy during the Mamluk period encouraged architects to design
very fine and detailed ornaments that are unique in terms of complexity. The intricate 16-point
patterns remained popular in North Africa and Islamic Spain, but only minimally influenced eastern
regions, such as Persia, Anatolia, and the Mughal region.
Simpler patterns were popular in the Indian subcontinent, which may be attributed to the passion of Indian
artisans for symmetrical designs and their insistence on covering all exterior surfaces with ornaments. Such
coverage would be difficult to achieve when complex patterns are used. For centuries, Islamic geometrical
patterns (IGPs) have been used as decorative elements on walls, ceilings, doors, domes, and minarets.
However, the absence of guidelines and codes on the application of these ornaments often leads to
inappropriate use in terms of time scale accuracy and architectural matching.
Planar symmetries
Powerful presence: carpet with double medallion. Central Anatolia (Konya – Karapınar), turn of the
16th/17th centuries. Alâeddin Mosque
Planar symmetries have for millennia been exploited in artworks such as carpets, lattices, textiles
65
and tiling. Many traditional rugs, whether pile carpets or flatweave kilims, are divided into a
central field and a framing border; both can have symmetries, though in handwoven carpets these
are often slightly broken by small details, variations of pattern and shifts in colour introduced
by the weaver. In kilims from Anatolia, the motifs used are themselves usually symmetrical. The
general layout, too, is usually present, with arrangements such as stripes, stripes alternating with
rows of motifs, and packed arrays of roughly hexagonal motifs. The field is commonly laid out as
a wallpaper with a wallpaper group such as pmm, while the border may be laid out as a frieze of
frieze group pm11, pmm2 or pma2.
Turkish and Central Asian kilims often have three or more borders in different frieze groups.
Weavers certainly had the intention of symmetry, without explicit knowledge of its
mathematics. The mathematician and architectural theorist Nikos Salingaros suggests that the
"powerful presence" (aesthetic effect) of a "great carpet" such as the best Konya two- medallion
carpets of the 17th century is created by mathematical techni ques related to the theories of the
architect Christopher Alexander. These techniques include making opposites couple; opposing
colour values; differentiating ar eas geometrically, whether by using complementary shapes or
balancing the directionality of sharp angles; providing small - scale complexity (from the knot
level upwards) and both small- and large-scale symmetry; repeating elements at a hierarchy of
different scales (with a ratio of about 2.7 from each level to the next). Salingaros argues that "all
successful carpets satisfy at least nine of the above ten rules", and suggests that it might be
possible to create a metric from these rules. Elaborate lattices are found in Indian Jali work,
carved in marble to adorn tombs and palaces they often have mirror, double mirror, or rotational
symmetry. Some have a central medallion, and some have a border in a frieze group.
Girih tiles
Islamic art exploits symmetries in many of its artforms, notably in girih tiling. These are formed using a set
of five tile shapes, namely a regular decagon, an elongated hexagon, a bow tie, a rhombus, and a regular
pentagon. All the sides of these tiles have the same length; and all their angles are multiples of 36° (π/5
radians), offering fivefold and tenfold symmetries. The tiles are decorated
with strapwork lines (girih), generally more visible than the tile boundaries. In 2007, the physicists
Peter Lu and Paul Steinhardt argued that girih resembled quasi-crystalline Penrose tiling. Elaborate
geometric zellige tilework is a distinctive element in Moroccan architecture. Muqarnas vaults are
three-dimensional but were designed in two dimensions with drawings of geometrical cells
Symmetries
are
prominent
in textile
arts including quilting, knitting, cross- stitch,
crochet, embroidery and weaving, where they may be purely decorative or may be marks of status.
Rotational symmetry of Islamic designs is found in circular structures such as domes; these are
66
sometimes elaborately decorated with symmetric patterns inside and out, as
Sheikh Lotfollah Mosque in Isfahan. Items
of
leafy
at
the 1619
embroidery and lace work such as
tablecloths and table mats, made using bobbins or by tatting,
can have a wide variety of
reflectional and rotational symmetries which are being explored mathematically.
Islamic art exploits symmetries in many of its artforms, notably in girih tiling. These are formed
using a set of five tile shapes, namely a regular decagon, an elongated hexagon, a bow tie, a
rhombus, and a regular pentagon. All the sides of these tiles have the same length;
and all their angles are multiples of 36° (π/5 radians), offering fivefold and tenfold symmetries.
The tiles are decorated with strapwork lines (girih), generally
more
visible than the tile
boundaries. In 2007, the physicists Peter Lu and Paul Steinhardt argued that girih resembled
quasi-crystalline Penrose tiling. Elaborate geometric zellige tilework is a distinctive element in
Moroccan architecture. Muqarnas vaults are three-dimensional but were designed in two
dimensions with drawings of geometrical cells.
The visual intricacy of Islamic mathematical structures have inspired a variety of artwork -mathematical and
otherwise.
REFERENCES
1. Freely adopted from Wikipedia.
67
CHAPTER V
Medina Architecture of
Al-Masjid an-Nabawī – TheMosque of the Prophet
َ
نَ َب عن
َ نا
َ
َ ن
م
ََ َلع
َ م
َ م
َ َ َ سل
َ ن َو
َ بَ َنى
َعلَ َي ه َال
فا
ََ َ َج َََن ة فَ يَل
َ
َ َل
َ ه َقا
َ َر سو ل قا
َ ال
َ
س ج َث
صل َ َى ََ اَ لَل
ل
َ
َ
َ
َ
َ
َ
للِ َم ثل ه م دا
الَل بَ َنى
“Whoever builds a mosque for God, even the size of a sand-grouse nest,
based on piety, [God will build for him a palace in Paradise].”
The Prophet( blessings and peace be upon him)
68
A B S T R A CT
The Prophet’s Mosque is one of the largest mosques in the world and the second holiest site in Islam
after the Grand Mosque in Makkah. Located in Madinah, it was built by Prophet Muhammad in the
year 1 AH (622 AD) near his home after building the Quba Mosque,the first mosque in Islam at
Mecca. The mosque was expanded many times over the years, in the reign of the Caliphs and the
Umayyad, Abbasid and Ottoman states, and then finally in the span of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in
1994 when the largest expansion operation took place. The Prophet’s Mosque is considered to be the
first place in the Arabian Peninsula to be lit electrically using light-bulbs in 1327 AH (1909). The
original mosque was an open-air building, and served as a community center, a Court and a religious
school. The mosque is also home to the tomb of Prophet Muhammad and it is a significant Islamic site
to pilgrims for its strong affiliation and connection to the life of the Prophet.
Many pilgrims who perform Hajj also travel to Al-Madinah to visit the Prophet’s mosque to
performed the ritual of “Itikaaf” (Seclusion and staying in the mosque with the intention of
worshipping). Many hotels and local/traditional markets can be found near the mosque. One of the
mosque’s most prominent features is the Green Dome; it is built above the prophet’s tomb and the
tombs of early Muslim caliphs Abu Bakr As-Siddiq and Omar bin Al-Khattab. The Green Dome is in
the Prophet’s Mosque, and was first painted green in 1837, becoming known
thereafter as “The Green Dome.”
al-Madīnah al-Munawwarah
Medina-The Enlightened City
The Life of the Prophet: The life of the prophet Muhammad has a direct bearing on the mosque at
Medina.The evolution of the concept of mosques as propounded by the Prophet took place with the
first and second mosques. His life was full of challenges and it is believed that the God was testing him
for an onerous task that would be bestowed upon him later on. His father, Abdullah, died almost six
months before Muhammad was born. According to Islamic tradition, Muhammad was sent to live with
a Bedouin family in the desert, as desert life was considered healthier for infants. Muhammad stayed
with his foster mother, Halimah bint Abi Dhuayb, and her husband until he was two years old. At the
age of six, Muhammad lost his biological mother, Amina, to illness and was raised by his paternal
grandfather, Abd al-Muttalib, until
69
he died when Muhammad was eight. He then came under the care of his uncle Abu Talib, the new
leader of Banu Hashim.
Adolescence and Early Adulthood
While still in his teens, Muhammad accompanied his uncle on trading journeys to Syria, gaining
experience in commercial trade, which was the only career open to him as an orphan. Islamic tradition
states that when Muhammad was either nine or twelve, while accompanying a caravan to Syria he met
a Christian monk or hermit named Bahira, who is said to have foreseen Muhammed’s career as a
prophet of God. As available information is fragmented, it is difficult to separate history from legend
and so little is known of Muhammad during his later youth; but it is said that he became a merchant and
“was involved in trade between the Indian ocean and the Mediterranean Sea.” Due to his upright
character during this time, he acquired the nickname “al-Amin,” meaning “faithful, trustworthy,” and
“al-Sadiq,” meaning “truthful.”
Muhammad worked as a trader for Khadija, a widow, until he married her in 595 CE at the age of 25.
The marriage lasted for 25 years and was reported to be a happy one. Muhammad relied upon Khadija
and did not enter into a marriage with another woman during his first marriage. After Khadija’s death,
Khawla bint Hakim suggested that Muhammad that should marry Sawda bint Zama, a Muslim widow,
or Aisha, daughter of Um Ruman and Abu Bakr of Mecca. Muhammad is said to have asked for
arrangements to marry both. He unified Arabia into a single religious polity under Islam. Muslims and
Bahá’ís believe he is a messenger and prophet of God. The Hegira or Hijrah, is the migration or journey
of the Islamic prophet Muhammad and his followers from Mecca to Medina, in the year 622.The
Quran, the central religious text in Islam, alludes to Muhammad’s life which is traditionally defined
into two periods: pre-hijra (emigration) in Mecca (from 570 to 622 CE) and post-hijra in Medina
(from 622 until 632 CE). While non-Muslims regard Muhammad as the founder of Islam, Muslims
consider him to have restored the unaltered original monotheistic faith of Adam, Noah, Abraham,
Moses, Jesus, and other prophets.
Muhammad’s First Revelations
According to Muslim tradition, Muhammad’s wife Khadija was the first to believe he was a prophet.
She was followed by Muhammad’s ten-year-old cousin Ali ibn Abi Talib, close friend Abu Bakr, and
adopted son Zaid. Around 613, Muhammad began to preach to the public. Most Meccans ignored and
mocked him, but he did begin to gain followers. As Islam spread in Mecca, the ruling tribes began to
oppose Muhammad‘s preaching and his condemnation of idolatry. In 622 CE, Muhammad and his
followers migrated to Medina in the Hijra to escape persecution, renaming the city Medina in honour of
the prophet. Among the first things Muhammad did to ease the longstanding grievances among the
tribes of Medina was draft a document known as the Constitution of Medina.
70
Opposition in Mecca
According to Ibn Sad, one of Muhammad’s companions, the opposition in Mecca started when
Muhammad delivered verses that condemned idol worship and polytheism. The ruling tribes of Mecca
perceived Muhammad as a danger that might cause tensions similar to the rivalry of Judaism and
Bedouin Polytheism in Yathrib ( latger to be named medina). The powerful merchants in Mecca
attempted to convince Muhammad to abandon his preaching by offering him admission into the inner
circle of merchants and an advantageous marriage. However, Muhammad turned down both offers.
At first, the opposition was confined to ridicule and sarcasm, but later morphed into active
persecution. clan’s protection from Muhammad was withdrawn in Mecca, endangering him and his
followers. Muhammad took this opportunity to look for a new home for himself and his followers.
After several unsuccessful negotiations, he found hope with some men from Yathrib (later called
Medina). The Arab population of Yathrib were familiar with monotheism and were prepared for the
appearance of a prophet because a Jewish community existed there as well. They also hoped, by the
means of Muhammad and the new faith, to gain supremacy over Mecca; the Yathrib were jealous of
its importance as the place of pilgrimage. Converts to Islam came from nearly all Arab tribes in
Medina; by June of the subsequent year, seventy-five Muslims came to Mecca for pilgrimage and to
meet Muhammad. A delegation from Medina, consisting of the representatives of the twelve
important clans of Medina, invited Muhammad as a neutral outsider to serve as the chief arbitrator for
the entire community. They pledged themselves and their fellow citizens to accept Muhammad into
their community and physically protect him as one of their own.
The Hijra in 622 CE
The Hijra is the migration of Muhammad and his followers from Mecca to Medina, 320 kilometers
(200 miles) north, in 622 CE. This marks an important point in the history of Islam. Muhammad had
earlier on, instructed his followers to emigrate to Medina until nearly all of them left Mecca.
According to tradition, the Meccans, alarmed at the departure, plotted to assassinate Muhammad. In
June 622, when he was warned of the plot, Muhammad slipped out of Mecca with his friend Abu Bakr.
He stopped at a place called Quba, some miles from the main city, and established a mosque there.
After a fourteen-days stay at Quba, Muhammad started for Medina, participating in his first Friday
prayer on the way, and upon reaching the city was greeted cordially.
71
The 1st Mosque built by the Prophet at Quba
Madinah is also known as Madinah An-Nabi (The City of the Prophet) or Madinah Al- Munawwarah
(The Enlightened City), or Medina. In ancient times, the city was known as Yathrib. Located 450
kilometers (200+ miles) north of Makkah, Yathrib was an agricultural center in the harsh desert landscape
of the Arabian Peninsula. Blessed with an abundant water supply, the city of Yathrib became a stopping
point for caravans passing through, and its citizens were heavily involved in trade. So significant was this
migration that the Islamic calendar begins counting time from the year of the Hijrah.
Upon arrival in Madinah, one of the first things the Prophet Muhammad wished to do was build a
mosque. The story is told that the Prophet Muhammad let his camel loose, and waited to see where it
would wander and then stop to rest. The place where the camel stopped was selected as the location of
the mosque, which is known as the "Prophet's Mosque" (Masjed An-Nawabi). The entire Muslim
community (original residents of Madinah, as well as the migrants who had moved from Makkah)
came together to help build the mosque out of mud bricks and tree trunks. The Prophet Muhammad's
apartment was constructed on the eastern side, adjacent to the mosque.
The new mosque soon became the center of the city's religious, political, and economic life.
Throughout Islamic history, the mosque has been expanded and improved upon, until it is now 100
times larger than its original size and can accommodate more than half a million worshippers at a time.
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A large green dome now covers the Prophet Muhammad's residential quarters, where he is buried
along with the first two Caliphs, Abu Bakr and Omar. Over two million Muslim pilgrims visit the
Prophet's Mosque each year.
Al-Masjid an-Nabawī : ٱ ِل ِمس ِجد ٱلنِِ ِب ِويis a mosque established and built by the Islamic prophet
Muhammad,
situated in the city of Medina in the Hejaz region of Saudi Arabia. It is one of the first mosques built
by
Muhammad, and is now one of the largest mosques in the world. It is the second-holiest site in Islam,
after the Great Mosque in Mecca.It is always open, regardless of date or time.
The site was originally adjacent to Muhammad's house; he settled there after his migration from
Mecca to Medina in 622. He shared in the heavy work of construction. The original mosque was an
open-air building. The mosque served as a community center, a court, and a religious school. There
was a raised platform for the people who taught the Quran. Subsequent Islamic rulers greatly
expanded and decorated it. In 1909, it became the first place in the Arabian Peninsula to be provided
with electrical lights.[4] The mosque is under the control of the Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques.
The mosque is located in what was traditionally the center of Medina, with many hotels and old
markets nearby. It is a major pilgrimage site. Many pilgrims who perform the Hajj go on to Medina to
visit the mosque, due to its connection to Muhammad.
After an expansion during the reign of the Umayyad caliph Al-Walid I, it now incorporates the final
resting place of Muhammad and the first two Rashidun caliphs Abu Bakr and Umar. One of the most
notable features of the site is the Green Dome in the south-east corner of the mosque, originally Aisha's
house, where the tomb of Muhammad is located. In 1279, a wooden cupola was built over the tomb
which was later rebuilt and renovated multiple times in late 15th century and once in 1817. The current
dome was added in 1818 by the Ottoman sultan Mahmud II, and it was first painted green in 1837,
hence becoming known as the "Green Dome".It is made with limestone.
The mosque was built by Muhammad in the first year of the Hijrah (c. 622 CE), after his arrival in
Medina. Riding on a camel called Qaswa he arrived at the place where this mosque was built. The
land was owned by Sahal and Suhayl, partly as a place for drying dates, and at one end had been
previously used as a burial ground. Refusing to "accept the land as a gift", he bought the land and it took
seven months to complete the construction of the mosque. It measured 30.5 m × 35.62 m (100.1 ft ×
116.9 ft).[8] The roof which was supported by palm trunks was made of beaten clay and palm leaves. It
was at a height of 3.60 m (11.8 ft). The three doors of the mosque were Bab-al-Rahmah to the south,
Bab-al-Jibril to the west and Babal-Nisa to the east.
After the Battle of Khaybar, the mosque was "enlarged".The mosque extended for 47.32 m (155.2 ft)
on each side and three rows of columns were built beside the west wall, which became the place of
praying.
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Second Expansion by Umar
The second caliph Umar demolished all the houses around the mosque except that of Muhammad's
wives to expand it. The new mosque's dimensions became 57.49 m × 66.14 m (188.6 ft × 217.0 ft).
Sun-dried mud bricks were used to construct the walls of the enclosure. Besides strewing pebbles on
the floor, the roof's height was increased to 5.6 m (18 ft). Umar moreover constructed three more
gates for entrance. He also added the Al-Butayha for people to recite poetry.
Third Expansion by Uthman
The third caliph Uthman demolished the mosque in 649. Ten months were spent in building the new
rectangular shaped mosque whose face was turned towards the Kaaba in Mecca. The new mosque
measured
81.40 m × 62.58 m (267.1 ft × 205.3 ft). The number of gates as well as their names remained the
same. The enclosure walls were made of stones laid in mortar. The palm trunk columns were replaced
by stone columns which were joined by iron clamps. Teakwood was used in reconstructing the ceiling
filza.
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Al-Masjid an-Nabawi during
the Ottoman Era, 19th century
In 707, the Umayyad caliph al-Walid ibn Abd al-Malik (r. 705–715) renovated the mosque. It took
three years for the work to be completed. Raw materials were procured from the Byzantine Empire.
The area of the mosque was increased from 5,094 square metres (54,830 sq ft) of Uthman's time to
8,672 square metres (93,340 sq ft). A wall was built to segregate the mosque and the houses of the
wives of Prophet Muhammad. The mosque was reconstructed in a trapezoid shape with a length of
101.76 metres (333.9 ft). For the first time, porticoes were built in the mosque connecting the northern
part of the structure to the sanctuary. For the first time, minarets were built in Medina as he
constructed four minarets around it.
Abbasid caliph al-Mahdi (r. 775–785) extended the mosque to the north by 50 metres (160 ft). His
name was also inscribed on the walls of the mosque. He also planned to remove six steps to the minbar,
but abandoned this idea, owing to this causing damage of the woods on which they were built.
According to an inscription of Ibn Qutaybah, the caliph al-Ma'mun (r. 813–833) did "unspecified
work" on the mosque. Al- Mutawakkil (r. 847–861)
Muhammad's
tomb
lined
the
enclosure
of
Prophet
with marble. The Mamluk sultan al-Ashraf Qansuh al-Ghawri (r. 1501–1516)
built a dome of stone over his grave in 1476.
The Green Dome, in Richard Francis Burton's Pilgrimage, ca. 1850 CE
Mahmud II's successor, Abdul Majid I (r. 1839–1861), took thirteen years to rebuild the mosque,
beginning in 1849. Red stone bricks were used as the main material in reconstruction of the mosque.
The floor area of the mosque was increased by 1,293 square metres (13,920 sq ft). On the walls, verses
from the Quran were inscribed in Islamic calligraphy. In the northern side of the mosque, a madrasah
was built for "teaching Quranic lessons".
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Saudi Era: View of Masjid-e-Nabawi Gate 21, 22 as seen from the north, the gate with two minarets is Bāb AlMalik Fahd (Arabic: ِباب ا ِل ِم ِلك فِ ِهد, lit. 'Gate of the King Fahd')
When Saud bin Abdul-Aziz took Medina in 1805, his followers, the Wahhabis, demolished nearly every
tomb dome in Medina in order to prevent their veneration, and the Green Dome is said to have narrowly
escaped the same fate. They considered the veneration of tombs and places thought to possess supernatural
powers as an offence against tawhid. Prophet Muhammad's tomb was stripped of its gold and jewel
ornaments, but the dome was preserved either because of an unsuccessful attempt to demolish its hardened
structure, or because some time ago Ibn Abd al-Wahhab wrote that he did not wish to see the dome destroyed
despite his aversion to people praying at the tomb. Similar events took place in 1925 when the Saudi ikhwans
retook—and this time managed to keep—the city.
After the foundation of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in 1932, the mosque underwent several major
modifications. In 1951 King Ibn Saud (1932–1953) ordered demolitions around the mosque to make way for
new wings to the east and west of the prayer hall, which consisted of concrete columns with pointed arches.
Older columns were reinforced with concrete and braced with copper rings at the top. The Suleymaniyya and
Majidiyya minarets were replaced by two minarets in Mamluk revival style. Two additional minarets were
erected to the northeast and northwest of the mosque. A library was built along the western wall to house
historic Qurans and other religious texts.
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In 1974, King Faisal added 40,440 square metres to the mosque. The area of the mosque was also expanded
during the reign of King Fahd in 1985. Bulldozers were used to demolish buildings around the mosque.[32] In
1992, when it was completed, the area of the mosque became 1.7 million square feet. Escalators and 27
courtyards were among the additions to the mosque.
A $6 billion project for increasing the area of the mosque was announced in September 2012. After
completion, it could accommodate between 1.6 million[34] to 2 million worshippers. In March of the
following year, Saudi Gazette reported that demolition work had been mostly complete, including the
demolition of ten hotels on the eastern side, in addition to houses and other utilities.
Architecture
The mosque, masjid in Arabic, is the Muslim gathering place for prayer. Masjid simply means “place of
prostration.” Though most of the five daily prayers prescribed in Islam can take place anywhere, all men are
required to gather together at the mosque for the Friday noon prayer.
Mosques are also used throughout the week for prayer, study, or simply as a place for rest and reflection. The
main mosque of a city, used for the Friday communal prayer, is called a jami masjid, literally meaning
“Friday mosque,” but it is also sometimes called a congregational mosque in English. The style, layout, and
decoration of a mosque can tell us a lot about Islam in general, but also about the period and region in which
the mosque was constructed.
Diagram reconstruction of the Prophet's House, Medina, Saudi Arabia
The home of the Prophet Muhammad is considered the first mosque. His house, in Medina in modern-day
Saudi Arabia, was a typical 7th-century Arabian style house, with a large courtyard surrounded by long
rooms supported by columns. This style of mosque came to be known as a hypostyle mosque, meaning
“many columns.” Most mosques built in Arab lands utilized this style for centuries.
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Common features
The architecture of a mosque is shaped most strongly by the regional traditions of the time and place where it
was built. As a result, style, layout, and decoration can vary greatly. Nevertheless, because of the common
function of the mosque as a place of congregational prayer, certain architectural features appear in mosques
all over the world.
Sahn (courtyard)
The most fundamental necessity of congregational mosque architecture is that it be able to hold the entire
male population of a city or town (women are welcome to attend Friday prayers, but not required to do
so).To that end congregational mosques must have a large prayer hall. In many mosques this is adjoined to
an open courtyard, called a sahn. Within the courtyard one often finds a fountain, its waters both a welcome
respite in hot lands, and important for the ablutions (ritual cleansing) done before prayer.
Another essential element of a mosque’s architecture is a mihrab—a niche in the wall that indicates the
direction of Mecca, towards which all Muslims pray. Mecca is the city in which the Prophet Muhammad was
born, and the home of the most important Islamic site, the Kaaba. The direction of Mecca is called the
qibla, and so the wall in which the mihrab is set is called the qibla wall. No matter where a mosque is, its
mihrab indicates the direction of Mecca (or as near that direction as science and geography were able to
place it). Therefore, a mihrab in India will be to the west, while a one in Egypt will be to the east. A mihrab is
usually a relatively shallow niche, as in the example from Egypt, above. In the example from Spain, shown
left, the mihrab’s niche takes the form of a small room, this is more rare.
Minaret (tower)
One of the most visible aspects of mosque architecture is the minaret, a tower adjacent or attached to a
mosque, from which the call to prayer is announced.
Qubba (dome)
Most mosques also feature one or more domes, called qubba in Arabic. While not a ritual requirement like
the mihrab, a dome does possess significance within the mosque—as a symbolic representation of the vault
of heaven. The interior decoration of a dome often emphasizes this symbolism, using intricate geometric,
stellate, or vegetal motifs to create breathtaking patterns meant to awe and inspire. Some mosque types
incorporate multiple domes into their architecture, while others only feature one. In mosques with only a
single dome, it is invariably found surmounting the qibla wall, the holiest section of the mosque. Because it
is the directional focus of prayer, the qibla wall, with its mihrab and minbar, is often the most ornately
decorated area of a mosque.
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Furnishings
There are other decorative elements common to most mosques. For instance, a large calligraphic frieze or a
cartouche with a prominent inscription often appears above the mihrab. In most cases the calligraphic
inscriptions are quotations from the Qur’an, and often include the date of the building's dedication and the
name of the patron. Light is an essential feature for mosques, since the first and last daily prayers occur
before the sun rises and after the sun sets. Before electricity, mosques were illuminated with oil lamps.
Hundreds of such lamps hung inside a mosque would create a glittering spectacle, with soft light emanating
from each, highlighting the calligraphy and other decorations on the lamps’ surfaces. Although not a
permanent part of a mosque building, lamps, along with other furnishings like carpets, formed a significant—
though ephemeral—aspect of mosque architecture.
The two tiered mosque has a rectangular plan. The Ottoman prayer hall lies towards the south. It has a flat
paved roof topped with 27 sliding domes on square bases. Holes pierced into the base of each dome
illuminate the interior. The roof is also used for prayer during peak times, when the domes slide out on metal
tracks to shade areas of the roof, creating light wells for the prayer hall. At these times, the courtyard of the
Ottoman mosque is also shaded with umbrellas affixed to freestanding columns. The roof is accessed by
stairs and escalators. The paved area around the mosque is also used for prayer, equipped with umbrella
tents. Sliding domes and retractable umbrella-like canopies were designed by the German architect
Mahmoud Bodo Rasch, his firm SL Rasch GmbH, and Buro Happold. ( See later)
The Rawdah Today or the Garden
The boundaries of the Rawdah today are marked according to the first opinion i.e. the Rawdah is the area
between the tomb of the Prophet of his pulpit inside Masjid Nabawi. The Rawdah is rectangular in shape and
measures 26.5 metres in length from east to west, although part of it lies in the Sacred Chamber so the
accessible area is 22 metres long. From north to south, it measures 15 metres. The total area of the Rawdah is
approximately 397.5 square metres.This area was adorned significantly during the Ottoman era in an effort to
sanctify and highlight its significance. Today, the colour of the carpet defining the area of the Rawdah is
light green and has a floral design, in contrast to the rest of the masjid, which has red carpeting. Part of the
Rawdah also lies inside the Sacred Chamber of the Prophet beyond the gold grill and is inaccessible to the
public. There are also six pillars within the Rawdah which hold special significance.There are two entrances to
the Rawdah which are normally guarded by police officers. The area is only able to hold several hundred at
once.The Rawdah area is also accessible to women at certain points in the day.
Dimensions
The Rawdah is rectangular in shape and measures 26.5 metres in length from east to west, although part of it
lies in the Sacred Chamber so the accessible area is 22 metres long. From north to south, it measures 15
metres. The total area of the Rawdah is approximately 397.5 square metres. As previously mentioned, there
79
are six sacred pillars inside the Rawdah area. There are also another two pillars inside the Sacred Chamber
which are inaccessible to the public. The six in the Rawdah are marked by large green circles with gold
inscriptions. These are:
1. Perfumed Pillar (Ustuwanah al-Mukhallaqah; )المخلقة اسطوانة/ Weeping Pillar (Ustuwanah alHannana; )الحنانة اسطوانة
2. Pillar of the Bed (Ustuwanah al-Sarir; )السرير اسطوانة
3. Pillar of the Guard (Ustuwanah al-Haras; )الحرس اسطوانة/ Pillar of Ali ibn Abi Talib (Ustuwanah Ali ibn Ali
Talib; )طالب أبي بن علي اسطوانة
4. Pillar of Delegations (Ustuwanah al-Wufud; )الوفود اسطوانة
5. Pillar of Repentance (Ustuwanah al-Tawbah; )التوبة اسطوانة/ Pillar of Abu Lubabah (Ustuwana Abu
Lubabah; )لبابة ابو اسطوانة
6. Pillar of Aisha (Ustuwanat Aisha; )عائشة السيدة اسطوانة/ Pillar of Casting Lots (Ustuwanah al- Qur’ah;
)ال ٌقرعة اسطوانة/ Pillar of the Emigrants (Ustuwanah al-Muhajireen; )المهاجرين اسطوانة. Each of these
pillars has special importance, explained above.
Boundaries of the Rawdah
Scholars have disagreed about the boundaries of the Rawdah. There are several hadiths that define the During
the life of Prophet his houses were situated from the south eastern corner of Masjid Nabawi, where visitors
now stand facing the Muwajaha to greet him and his companions, up to the north eastern corner of the
mosque. Therefore, they extended along the entire eastern wall of the mosque.From the north eastern corner,
they further extended along the northern wall up to the north western corner. The Rawdah would then extend
from the pulpit, positioned about midway along the Southern (Qibla) wall of the mosque, up to his houses,
which were spread along the eastern and northern walls, until the old Bab al-Rahmah (Door of
Mercy).Furthermore, some scholars opine that the narration which reads “Between my house and my pulpit is
one of the gardens of Paradise”, the word “house” should be interpreted to mean all of the houses of the
Prophet, rather than only Aisha’s house, which later came to contain his grave.
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Conclusion
In the many Hadith’s not quoted here- the Prophet describes the garden of Paradise, which extends
throughout all of the areas. But is the Rawdah “Gardens of Paradise”? Should the hadiths regarding this
sacred area be taken literally or metaphorically? Some scholars are of the opinion that the Rawdah is like the
Gardens of Paradise, in that the peace and tranquillity one feels when worshipping in the Rawdah resembles
the peace and tranquillity of Paradise. Others have said that this area is a gateway to the gardens of Paradise
and the Pool of al-Kawthar for those perform good deeds in the Rawdah. In other words,worshippers are
urged to perform righteous acts within the Rawdah so they will be able to drink from al-Kawthar and attain
Paradise on the Day of Judgement. Other scholars have interpreted the Rawdah as being parallel to a garden
above it in Paradise. According to other scholars, this very tract of land was bought to the earth from Paradise
and will be returned to Paradise after the Day of Judgement.
Green Dome
It was constructed in 1817 CE during the reign of the Ottoman sultan Mahmud II and painted green in 1837
CE.The chamber adjacent to the Rawdah holds the tombs of Prophet Muhammad and two of his
companions, father-in-laws and caliphs, Abu Bakr and Umar ibn al-Khattab. A fourth grave is reserved for ‘Īsā
or Jesus, as it is believed that he will return and will be buried at the site. The site is covered by the Green
Dome. The dome is located in the south-east corner of the mosque. The structure dates back to 1279 CE,
when an unpainted wooden cupola was built over the tomb. It was later rebuilt and painted using different
colours twice in the late 15th century and once in 1817.
Built in 1279 CE or 678 AH during the reign of Mamluk Sultan Al Mansur Qalawun, the original structure was
made out of wood and was colourless, painted white and blue in later restorations. After a serious fire
struck the Mosque in 1481, the mosque and dome had been burnt and a restoration project was initiated by
Sultan Qaitbay who had most of the wooden base replaced by a brick structure in order to prevent the
collapse of the dome in the future, and used plates of lead to cover the new wooden dome. The building,
including the Tomb of the Prophet, was extensively renewed through Qaitbay's patronage. The current dome
was added in 1818 by the Ottoman Sultan Mahmud II. The dome was first painted green in 1837.
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Tomb of The Prophet
The Prophet’s grave lies within the confines of what used to be his and his wife Aisha's house, the Hujra.
During his lifetime it adjoined the mosque. The mosque was expanded during the reign of Caliph al-Walid I
to include his tomb. Muhammad's grave is an important reason for the particular high sanctity of the mosque,
as the Dome of the Prophet marks the location of the tomb. Millions visit it every year, since it is a tradition
to visit the mosque after the pilgrimage to Mecca.The first two Caliphs, Abu Bakr and Umar are buried next
to Muhammad. Umar was given a spot next to Muhammad by Aisha, which had originally been intended for
her. Muhammad's grave itself cannot be seen as the area is cordoned off by a gold mesh and black curtain.
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Mihrab is a semicircular niche in the wall of a mosque that indicates the qibla; that is, the direction of the
Kaaba in Mecca and hence the direction that Muslims should face when praying. The wall in which a
mihrab appears is thus the "qibla wall". Mihrab should not be confused with the minbar, which is the raised
platform from which an Imam (leader of prayer) addresses the congregation. The mihrab is located to the left
of the minbar. The word mihrab originally had a non-religious meaning and simply denoted a special room in
a house; a throne room in a palace, for example. The Fath al-Bari, on the authority of others, suggests the
mihrab is "the most honorable location of kings" and "the master of locations, the front and the most
honorable." The Mosques in Islam, in addition to Arabic sources, cites Theodor Nöldeke and others as
having considered a mihrab to have originally signified a throne room. The term was however subsequently
used by the prophet to denote his own private prayer room. The room additionally provided access to the
adjacent mosque, and the Prophet would enter the mosque through this room. This original meaning of
mihrab – i.e. as a special room in the house – continues to be preserved in some forms of
Judaism where mihrabs are rooms used for private worship. In the Qur'an (xix.11),
mihrab refers to a sanctuary/place of worship.
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the word
During the reign of Uthman ibn Affan (r. 644–656), the Caliph ordered a sign to be posted on the wall of the
mosque at Medina so that pilgrims could easily identify the direction in which to address their prayers (i.e.
that of Mecca). The sign was however just a sign on the wall, and the wall itself remained flat. Subsequently,
during the reign of Al-Walid ibn Abd al-Malik (Al-Walid I, r. 705–715), when the mosque was renovated
and the governor of Medina, ordered that a niche be made to designate the qibla wall (which identifies the
direction of Mecca), and it was in this niche that Uthman's sign was placed.Eventually, the niche came to be
universally understood to identify the qibla wall, and so came to be adopted as a feature in other mosques. A
sign was no longer necessary.The Qur'anic passage (xix.11) that refers to a mihrab – "then he [i.e. Zakariya]
came forth to his people from the sanctuary/place of worship" – is inscribed on or over some mihrabs.
Mihrabs are a relevant part of Islamic culture and mosques. Since they are used to indicate the direction for
prayer, they serve as an important focal point in the mosque. They are usually decorated with ornamental
detail that can be geometric designs, linear patterns, or calligraphy. This ornamentation also serves a
religious purpose. The calligraphy decoration on the mihrabs are usually from the Qur'an and are devotions
to God so that God's word reaches the people. Common designs amongst mihrabs are geometric foliage that
are close together so that there is no empty space in-between the art.
In Medina, there are two mihrabs in the mosque, one was built by Muhammad and another was built by the
third Rashidun caliph Uthman. The one built by the latter was larger than that of Muhammad's and act as the
functional mihrab, whereas Muhammad's mihrab is a "commemorative" mihrab. Besides the mihrab, the
mosque also has other niches which act as indicators for praying. This includes the miḥrâb Fâṭimah
or miḥrāb aṫ-Ṫahajjud , which was built by Muhammad for the Ṫahajjud .
Minbar
The original minbar (Arabic: ) ِمـن ِـ ِبـرused by Muhammad was a "wood block of date tree". This was
replaced by him with a tamarisk one, which had dimensions of 50 cm × 125 cm (20 in × 49 in). Also in 629,
a three staired ladder was added to it. The first two caliphs, Abu Bakr and Umar, did not use the third step
"due to respect for the Prophet", but the third caliph Uthman placed a fabric dome over it and the rest of the
stairs were covered with ebony. The minbar was replaced by Baybars I in 1395, and later by Shaykh alMahmudi in 1417. This was also replaced by a marble one by Qaitbay in the late fifteenth century, which as
of August 2013, is still used in the mosque.
Minarets
The first minarets (four in number) of 26 feet (7.9 m) high were constructed by Umar. In 1307, a minaret
titled Bab al-Salam was added by Muhammad ibn Kalavun which was renovated by Mehmed IV. After the
renovation project of 1994, there were ten minarets which were 104 metres (341 ft) high. The minarets'
upper, bottom and middle portion are cylindrical, octagonal and square shaped respectively.
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Amazing Medina Haram Piazza
Overview and underside view of the shading umbrellas at Al-Masjid an-Nabawi
To protect worshipers from the heat of the sun during prayer, as well as from the risk of slipping and falling
in the event of rain the Medina Haram Piazza - convertible Shading Umbrellas or Al-Masjid An-Nabawi
Umbrellas were erected at the piazza of Al-Masjid an-Nabawi in Medina, by the King of -.King Abdullah bin
Abdul Aziz, It is said that this was his own idea on seeing the plight of the devotgees at the squares of the
mosque. This project was overseen by the Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques. The shade of the umbrella is
spread in the four corners, and the area covered by the shade extends to 143,000 square meters. These
umbrellas are aimed Similar structures are built at the square of the mosques worldwide. At Al-Masjid AnNabawi, there are total of 250 umbrellas.
The project of 4.7 billion riyals was completed in August 2010, and initially included the construction of 182
umbrellas aligning the pillars of the mosques at the square, and later 68 umbrellas were added in the eastern
square, totaling 250 umbrellas. The Saudi Binladin Group has contracted the project's structural planning
with the German architectural company SL Rasch GmbH Special and Lightweight Structures led by
Mahmoud Bodo Rasch,. As any normal fabric does not provide full protection from ultraviolet rays of the
Sun- PTFE fabric was chosen to meet the exceptional requirements. The fabric is characterized by high
resistance to tensile strength, wind strength, and its elasticity, chromatic stability, fire resistance, effective
shading and suitable light penetration.Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) is a synthetic fluoropolymer of
tetrafluoroethylene. Being hydrophobic, non-wetting, high density and resistant to high temperatures, PTFE
is an incredibly versatile material with a wide variety of applications, though it's perhaps best-known for its
non-stick properties. This highly durable PTFE white fabric was developed by SEFAR Architecture
specifically for the project. The shade is painted in white color due to the intensity of light, and a sandy
texture was chosen instead of smooth because strong permeability could dazzle people under the umbrellas.
In addition, the underside was decorated with oriental motifs made of blue PTFE stripes.
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86
87
CHAPTER VI
The Architecture of Al Hambra
( al-Qal'at al-Ħamrā' = "the red fortress")
ٱ ْلح ْم ْرا ء ا ْلقْ ْلعْة
From me you are welcomed morning and evening
by the tongues of blessing, prosperity, happiness and friendship¨
¨has decorated me with the robes of his glory and excellence
without disguise and has made me the throne of his empire
may its eminence be upheld by the master of divine glory and the celestial
throne¨
Inscription on the walls
******
Introduction: The Al Hambra or al-Qal'at al-Ħamrā' - "the red fortress" an Arab citadel and
palace situated in the Andalusian region of the State of Granada, Spain, is the most renowned building
of the Islamic historical legacy-the astonishing achievements of Muslim scholars, scientists, craftsmen,
and traders during the few hundred years or so that are called the Golden Age during 750 to 950 AD
when the territory of the Muslim Empire encompassed present-day Iran, Syria, Iraq, Egypt, Palestine,
North Africa, Spain, and parts of Turkey and drew to Baghdad; producing unparallel intellectual
traditions. Apart from that it is the only medieval palace in the world (not just Islamic) which has arrived
882
intact to the present day.
The beginning of Islamic conquests of what is known as Spain or Hispania(in those days) began on
April 30, 711, Muslim General Tariq ibn-Ziyad landed at Gibraltar and by the end of the campaign most
of the Iberian Peninsula were brought under Islamic rule.
The importance of this region stems from the fact that many Andalusians participated in the expedition
of Christopher Columbus on 3 August 1492 that ended up in the Europeans learning of the existence of
the Americas which ended the Middle Ages and signalled the beginning of modernity. Contacts between
Spain and the Americas, including royal administration and the shipping trade of Spanish colonies for
over three hundred years, came almost exclusively through Andalusia. This conquestorial period lasted
till the 10 year Granada war between 1482 and 1491, during the reign of the Catholic Christian
monarchs Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon,
against
the
Islamic Nasrid
dynasty's Emirate of Granada. It ended with the defeat of Granada and its annexation by Castile, ending
all Islamic rule on the Iberian peninsula..
This romantic region’s- Granada's- most emblematic monument and one of the most visited in Spain is
the walled city of Alhambra or "palace city" declared a World Heritage site by UNESCO in 1984. 740
metres (2,430 ft) in length by 205 metres (670 ft) at its greatest width, it extends from west-northwest
to east-southeast and covers an area of about 142,000 square metres (1,530,000 sq ft) or 35 acres.
Alhambra castle complex occupies a small plateau on the south-eastern border of the with buildings
may have existed before the arrival of the Moors. On January 2, 1492, Muhammad XII of
Granada (King Boabdil) surrendered the Emirate of Granada, the city
the Alhambra palace to the Castilian forces.
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of Granada,
and
The Alhambra’s architectural importance stems from the fact that it is a reflection of the culture of the last
centuries of the Muslim rule of Al Andalus – the Andalusian region of Granada. Completed towards the
end of Muslim rule of Spain by Muhammed V, Sultan of Granada (1353–1391. It is a place where artists
and intellectuals had taken refuge. It is therefore a testament to Moorish culture in Spain and the skills of
Muslim, Jewish, and Christian artisans, craftsmen, and builders of their era. It is said that Muhammad,
the major builder of the complex, entered Granada in May 1238 dressed like a Sufi, in a plain wool
cap, coarse clothes and sandals, took up residence in the Castle (Al-cazaba ) built by the Zirids in the
11th century; then inspected an area known as Al-Hamra, where there was a small fortress, and laid
the foundations there for his future residence and fortress.
Soon work began on defensive structures, an irrigation dam, and a dike. The construction would last
into the reigns of his successors, and the complex would be known as the Alhambra and would become
the residence of all Nasrid rulers up to the surrender of Granada in 1492. The necessary funds for the
construction of Alhambra were collected as Tax and also used money sent by the Hafsid ruler of
Tunis—intended for defence against the Christians.
First reference: The first reference to the Qal‘at al-Ḥamra was during the battles between the Arabs and
the Muladies (people of mixed Arab and European descent) during the rule of the ‘Abdullah ibn
Muhammad (r. 888–912). In one particularly fierce and bloody skirmish, the Muladies soundly defeated
the Arabs, who were then forced to take shelter in a primitive red castle located in the province of Elvira,
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presently located in Granada. According to surviving documents from the era, the red castle was quite
small,
and its walls were not capable of deterring an army intent on conquering. The castle was then largely
ignored until the eleventh century, when its ruins were renovated and rebuilt by Samuel ibn Naghrela,
vizier to the emir Badis ben Habus of the Zirid Dynasty of Al Andalus, in an attempt to preserve the small
Jewish settlement also located on the natural plateau, Sabikah Hill.
This year, 1238, Abdallah ibn al-Ahmar climbed to the place called "the Alhambra" inspected it, laid out
the foundations of a castle and left someone in charge of its construction. The design included plans for
six palaces, five of which were grouped in the northeast quadrant forming a royal quarter, two circuit
towers, and numerous bathhouses. During the reign of the Nasrid Dynasty, the Alhambra was
transformed into a palatine city, complete with an irrigation system composed of acequias for
the gardens
of the Generalife located outside the fortress. Previously, the old Alhambra structure had
been dependent upon rainwater collected from a cistern and from what could be brought up from the
Albaicín. The creation of the Sultan's Canal solidified the identity of the Alhambra as a palace-city
rather than a defensive and ascetic structure. The hydraulic system includes two long water channels
and several sophisticated elevation devices to bring water onto the plateau.
Preceding to this early on in the 11th century the Castle of the Alhambra had been developed as a walled
town which became a military stronghold that dominated the whole city but the royal residence was
established by Muhammad marking the beginning of its halcyon days. The Alhambra became palace,
citadel and fortress, and was the residence of the Nasrid sultans and their senior officials, including
servants of the court and elite soldiers (13th–14th centuries).Islamic rule in the Iberian peninsula lasted
for varying periods ranging from only 28 years in the extreme northwest (Galicia) to 781 years in the
area surrounding the city of Granada in the southeast. This Empire added contributions to society such
as libraries, schools, public bathrooms, literature, poetry, and architecture. This work was mainly
developed
through the unification of people of all
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faiths.
The Alhambra is an example of Muslim art in its final European stages, relatively uninfluenced by the
direct Byzantine influences found in the Mezquita of Córdoba. In 1492 the Catholic Monarchs,
Ferdinand and Isabela, expelled the final Moors from the city of Granada establishing a permanent
residency in the Alhambra, and it was here that Christopher Columbus requested royal endorsement for
his westward expedition that year. The Catholic Monarchs altered some rooms of the Alhambra after
the conquest of the city in 1492, yet in 1527 Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor wanted to construct a
permanent residence befitting an emperor and demolished parts of the architectural complex to build
a Palace which bears his name, Charles V. Around 1537 he ordered the construction of the Peinador de
la Reina, or Queen's dressing room, where his wife Isabel lived, over the Tower of Abu l-Hayyay.
TOPOGRAPHY: According to the site's current architect, Pedro Salmeron Escobar, the Alhambra
evolved organically over a period of several centuries from the ancient hilltop fortress defined by a
narrow promontory carved by the river Daro and overlooking the Vega or Plain of Granada as it
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descends from the Sierra Nevada. The red earth from which the fortress is constructed is a granular
aggregate held together by a medium of red clay which gives the resulting layered brick- and stonereinforced construction its characteristic hue and is at the root of the name of 'the Red Hill'
The palace and fortress complex located in was originally constructed as a small fortress in AD 889 on the
remains of Roman fortifications, and then largely ignored until its ruins were renovated and rebuilt in the
mid-13th century by the Nasrid emir Mohammed ben Al-Ahmar of the Granada, described above, who
built its current palace and walls. It was converted into a royal palace in 1333 by Yusuf I, Sultan of
Granada. After the conclusion of the Christian Reconquista in 1492, the site became the Royal Court of
Ferdinand and Isabella (where Christopher Columbus received royal endorsement for his expedition), and
the palaces were partially altered in the Renaissance style. In 1526 Charles I & V commissioned a new
Renaissance palace better befitting the Holy Roman Emperor in the revolutionary Mannerist style
influenced by humanist philosophy in direct juxtaposition with the Nasrid Andalusian architecture,
but it was ultimately never completed due to Morisco rebellions in Granada.
Alhambra's last flowering of Islamic palaces was built for the last Muslim emirs in Spain during the
decline of the Nasrid dynasty, who were increasingly subject to the Christian Kings of Castile. After
being allowed to fall into disrepair for centuries, the buildings occupied by squatters, Alhambra was
rediscovered following the defeat of Napoleon, who had conducted retaliatory destruction of the site.
The rediscoverers were first British intellectuals and then other north European Romantic travelers. It
is now one of Spain's major tourist attractions, exhibiting the country's most significant and wellknown Islamic architecture, together with 16th-century and later Christian building and garden
interventions. The Alhambra is a UNESCO World Heritage Site and the inspiration for many songs and
stories.
What the Moorish poets described as "a pearl set in emeralds", (an allusion to the red color of its
buildings and the woods around them) was designed with the mountainous site in mind and many forms
of technology were considered. The Moors planted -Alameda de la Alhambra-the park with roses and
when overgrown it is covered with wildflowers and grass in the spring, and roses, oranges, and myrtles.
Its most characteristic feature today, however, is the dense wood of English elms brought by the Duke of
Wellington in 1812.The park has a multitude of nightingales and is usually filled with the sound of running
water from several fountains and cascades. These are supplied through a conduit 8 km (5.0 mi) long, which
is connected with the Darro at the monastery of Jesus del Valle above Granada.
Despite long neglect, willful vandalism, and some ill-judged restoration, the Alhambra endures as an
atypical example of Islamic influenced architecture no matter that later Catholic rulers left their
impressions on the architectural texture of the expansions of these grand dwellings. The Emirate of
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Granada which Muhammad founded, and the Nasrid royal house, lasted for two more centuries until it
was annexed by Castile in 1492. His other legacy was the construction of the Alhambra, his residence
in Granada. His successors would continue to build the palace and fortress complex and reside there,
and it has lasted to the present day as the architectural legacy of the emirate.
Most of the palace buildings are quadrangular in plan, with all the rooms opening on to a central court,
and the whole reached its present size simply by the gradual addition of new quadrangles, designed on
the same principle, though varying in dimensions, and connected with each other by smaller rooms and
passages. Alhambra was extended by the different Muslim rulers who lived in the complex. However,
each new section that was added followed the consistent theme of "paradise on earth". Column arcades,
fountains with running water, and reflecting pools were used to add to the aesthetic and functional
complexity. In every case, the exterior was left plain and austere. Sun and wind were freely admitted.
Blue, red, and a golden yellow, all somewhat faded through lapse of time and exposure, are the colors
chiefly employed. The name Alhambra means the red one or the red castle, which refers to the sundried bricks that the outer wall is made of.
The decoration consists for the upper part of the walls, as a rule, of Arabic inscriptions—mostly poems
by Ibn Zamrak and others praising the palace—that are manipulated into geometrical patterns with
vegetal background set onto an arabesque setting ("Ataurique"). Much of this ornament is
carved stucco (plaster) rather than stone. Tile mosaics ("alicatado"), with complicated mathematical
patterns ("tracería", most precisely "lacería"), are largely used as panelling for the lower part. Metal
was also not present very mainly. Similar designs are displayed on wooden ceilings
(Alfarje). Muqarnas are the main elements for vaulting with stucco, and some of the most accomplished
dome examples of this kind are in the Court of the Lions halls. The palace complex is designed in the
Nasrid style, the last blooming of Islamic Art in the Iberian Peninsula, that had a great influence on
the Maghreb to the present day, and on contemporary Mudejar Art, which is characteristic of western
elements reinterpreted into Islamic forms and widely popular during the Reconquista in Spain.
Decorations: The decoration within the palaces comes from the last great period of Andalusian art in
Granada. With little of the Byzantine influence of contemporary Abassid architecture, artists endlessly
reproduced the same forms and trends, creating a new style that developed over the course of the Nasrid
Dynasty. The Nasrids used freely all the stylistic elements that had been created and developed during
eight centuries of Muslim rule in the Peninsula, including the Caliphate horseshoe arch, the Almohad
sebka (a grid of rhombuses), the Almoravid palm, and unique combinations of them, as well as
innovations such as stilted arches and muqarnas (stalactite ceiling decorations). Structurally, the design
is simple and does not evince significant innovation. While artistically pleasing it was until the
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reconquest structurally ad hoc and reliant on the skills of subject artisans and workers.
Columns and muqarnas appear in several chambers, and the interiors of numerous palaces are decorated
with arabesques and calligraphy. The arabesques of the interior are ascribed to, among other
sultans, Yusuf I, Mohammed V, and Ismail I, Sultan of Granada. However, after the Christian conquest
of the city in 1492, the conquerors began to alter the Alhambra. The open work was filled up
with whitewash, the painting and gilding effaced, and the furniture soiled, torn, or removed.[3] Charles
I (1516–1556) rebuilt portions in the Renaissance style of the period and destroyed the greater part of
the winter palace to make room for a Renaissance-style structure which was never completed. Philip
V (1700–1746) Italianized the rooms and completed his palace in the middle of what had been the
Moorish building; he had partitions constructed which blocked up whole apartments.
This crude earthiness is counterpointed by the startling fine alabaster white stucco work of the famous
interiors Meltwater from the 'Snowy Mountains' is drawn across an arched vault at the eastern tip of the
Torre del Agua ('Water Tower') and channeled through the citadel via a complex system of conduits
(acequia) and water tanks (los albercones) which create the celebrated interplay of light, sound and
surface.
Alhambra is about 740 meters (2,430 ft) in length by 205 meters (670 ft) at its greatest width. It extends
from west-northwest to east-southeast and covers an area of about 142,000 square meters (1,530,000
sq. ft) or 35 acres. The Alhambra's most westerly feature is the Alcavala (citadel), a strongly fortified
position built to protect the original post-Roman districts of Iliberri, now 'Centro', and Gárnata al-
yahūd ('Granada of the Jews', now Realejo, and the Moorish suburb of El Albayzín.
Due to touristic demand, modern access runs contrary to the original sequence which began from a
principal access via the Puerta de la Justicia (Gate of Justice) onto a large souk or public market square
facing the Alcazaba, now subdivided and obscured by later Christian-era development.[8] From
the Puerta del Vino (Wine Gate) ran the Calle Real (Royal Street) dividing the Alhambra along its axial
spine into a southern residential quarter, with mosques, hammams (bathhouses) and diverse functional
establishments, and a greater northern portion, occupied by several palaces of the nobility with
extensive landscaped gardens commanding views over the Albayzin. All of this was subservient to the
great Tower of the Ambassadors in the Palacio Comares, which acted as the royal audience chamber
and throne room with its three arched windows dominating the city. The private, internalized universe
of the Palacio de Los Leones (Palace of the Lions) adjoins the public spaces at right angles (see Plan
illustration) but was originally connected only by the function of the Royal Baths, the Eye of Aixa's
Room serving as the exquisitely decorated focus of meditation and authority overlooking the refined
garden of Lindaraja/Daraxa toward the city.
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The rest of the plateau comprises a number of earlier and later Moorish palaces, enclosed by a fortified
wall, with thirteen defensive towers, some such as the Torres de la Infanta and Cattiva containing
elaborate vertical palaces in miniature. The river Darro passes through a ravine on the north and divides
the plateau from the Albaicín district of Granada. Similarly, the Assabica Valley, containing the
Alhambra Park, lies on the west and south, and, beyond this valley, the almost parallel ridge of Monte
Mauror separates it from the Antequeruela district. Another ravine separates it from the Generalife, the
summer pleasure gardens of the emir. Escobar notes that the later planting of deciduous elms obscures
the overall perception of the layout, so a better reading of the original landscape is given in winter when
the trees are bare.
Main Structure: The Alhambra resembles many medieval Christian strongholds in its threefold
arrangement as a castle, a palace and a residential annex for subordinates. The alcazaba or citadel, its
oldest part, is built on the isolated and precipitous foreland which terminates the plateau on the
northwest. All that remains are its massive outer walls, towers and ramparts. On its watchtower, the
25 m (85 ft) high Torre de la Vela, the flag of Ferdinand and Isabella was first raised as a symbol of the
Spanish conquest of Granada on 2 January 1492.[3] A turret containing a large bell was added in the
18th century and restored after being damaged by lightning in 1881. Beyond the Alcazaba is the palace
of the Moorish rulers, The Nasrid Palaces or Alhambra proper, and beyond this is the Alhambra Alta
(Upper Alhambra), originally occupied by officials and courtiers.
Access from the city to the Alhambra Park is afforded by the Puerta de las Granadas (Gate of
Pomegranates), a triumphal arch dating from the 15th century. A steep ascent leads past the Pillar of
Charles V, a fountain erected in 1554, to the main entrance of the Alhambra. This is the Puerta de la
Justicia (Gate of Justice), a massive horseshoe archway surmounted by a square tower and used by the
Moors as an informal court of justice. The hand of Fatima, with fingers outstretched as a talisman
against the evil eye, is carved above this gate on the exterior; a key, the symbol of authority, occupies
the corresponding place on the interior. A narrow passage leads inward to the Plaza de los Aljibes (Place
of the Cisterns), a broad open space which divides the Alcazaba from the Moorish palace. To the left
of the passage rises the Torre del Vino (Wine Tower), built in 1345 and used in the 16th century as a
cellar. On the right is the palace of Charles V, a smaller Renaissance building, to construct which part
of the Alhambra, including the original main entrance, was torn down.
Jennat al Arif -Generalife- It is the outlying set of buildings connected to the Alhambra, of which the
foremost is the Palacio de Generalife or Gineralife (the Muslim Jennat al Arif, "Garden of Arif," or
"Garden of the Architect"). This villa dates from the beginning of the 14th century but has been restored
several times. The Villa de los Martires (Martyrs' Villa), on the summit of Monte Mauror,
commemorates by its name the Christian slaves who were forced to build the Alhambra and confined
here in subterranean cells.[17] The Torres Bermejas (Vermilion Towers), also on Monte Mauror, are a
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well-preserved Moorish fortification, with underground cisterns, stables, and accommodation for a
garrison of 200 men. Several Roman tombs were discovered in 1829 and 1857 at the base of Monte
Mauror.
Pools in the Palacio de Generalife (left) and the Partal (right; in the Alta Alhambra of the complex)
Plaza de Nazaríes Royal complex Courtyard of the Palace of Charles V is the second largest and
important structure consisting of three main parts: Mexuar, Serallo, and the Harem. The Mexuar is
modest in decor and houses the functional areas for conducting business and administration. Strapwork
is used to decorate the surfaces in Mexuar. The ceilings, floors, and trim are made of dark wood and
are in sharp contrast to white, plaster walls. Serallo, built during the reign of Yusuf I in the 14th century,
contains the Patio de los Arrayanes (Court of the Myrtles). Brightly colored
interiors
featured dado panels, yesería, azulejo, cedar, and artesonado. Artesonado are highly decorative
ceilings and other woodwork. Lastly, the Harem is also elaborately decorated and contains the living
quarters for the wives and mistresses of the Arab monarchs. This area contains a bathroom with running
water (cold and hot), baths, and pressurized water for showering. The bathrooms were open to the
elements in order to allow in light and air.
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the Patio de los Arrayanes - Court of the Myrtles The present entrance to the Palacio Árabe (Arab
palace), or Casa Real, is by a small door from which a corridor connects to (Court of the Myrtles), also
called the Patio de la Alberca (Court of the Blessing or Court of the Pond), from the Arabic birka,
"pool". The Birke helped to cool the palace and acted as a symbol of power. Because water was usually
in short supply, the technology required to keep these pools full was expensive and difficult. This court
is 42 m (140 ft) long by 22 m (74 ft) broad, and in the center, there is a large pond set in the marble
pavement, full of goldfish, and with myrtles growing along its sides. There are galleries on
the north and south sides; the southern gallery is 7 m (23 ft) high and supported by a marble
colonnade. Underneath it, to the right, was the principal entrance, and over it are three
windows with arches and miniature pillars. From this court, the walls of the Torre de
Comares are seen rising over the roof to the north and reflected in the pond
The Patio de los Leones - The Court of the Lions, an example of Islamic Moorish architecture and
garden design. or Courtyard of the Lions was built then. Now this is the most emblematic part of the
Alhambra. It is an oblong courtyard, (35 m) in length by 66 ft (20 m) in width, surrounded by a low
gallery supported on 124 white marble columns. A pavilion projects into the court at each extremity,
with filigree walls and a light domed roof. The square is paved with colored tiles and the colonnade
with white marble, while the walls are covered 5 ft (1.5 m) up from the ground with blue and yellow
tiles, with a border above and below of enameled blue and gold. The columns supporting the roof and
gallery are irregularly placed. They are adorned by varieties of foliage, etc.; about each arch there is a
large square of stucco arabesques; and over the pillars is another stucco square of filigree work. It lies
in the center of the court and is an alabaster basin supported by the figures of twelve lions in white
marble, not designed with sculptural accuracy but as symbols of strength, power, and sovereignty. Each
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hour one lion would produce water from its mouth. At the edge of the great fountain there is a poem
written by Ibn Zamrak. This praises the beauty of the fountain and the power of the lions, but it also
describes their ingenious hydraulic systems and how they actually worked, which baffled all those who
saw them. Around the 1360´s is when the palace as we know today really begins to develop. This
fountain is said to represent the heavenly garden of Islam. A large bowl sits on twelve lions; each one
has its own individual markings and face. Underneath the base of Lion´s fountain run four water
channels. These streams symbolize the four rivers of paradise. Each of the twelve lions spout water into
channels below which run across the marble courtyard, creating movement and sounds across the centre
of the palace. The Hall of the Two Sisters is adjoining room to the Court. Decorated poems specifically
for the space had been in scripted on the walls-probably by the court poet Ibn Zamrak, (1333-1393).
with verse wrapped around the impressive walls. This room off the Courtyard of the Lions has two huge
marble flagstones on the floor. They have the same dimensions on either side of the entrance. This white
stone is from the town of Macael in Almeria. I´m sure that it was quite an ordeal moving these huge
flagstones almost 200 kilometres in those days. The ceiling in this room is breath-taking. Inside the
white plasterwork creates a dramatic effect. These shapes are muqarnas or a three-dimensional
decoration of Islamic architecture initially built to be structural in purpose made out of stone, but here
they became crafted decoration to decorate the area between the wall and the dome.
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Sala de los Abencerrajes -The Hall of the Abencerrages is so named from a legend according to which
the father of Boabdil, the last sultan of Granada, having invited the chiefs of that line to a banquet,
massacred them there. This room is a perfect square, with a lofty dome and trellised windows at its
base. The roof is decorated in blue, brown, red and gold, and the columns supporting it spring out into
the arch form in a remarkably beautiful manner. Opposite to this hall is the Sala de las
dos
Hermanas (Hall of the two Sisters), so-called from two white marble slabs laid as part of the pavement.
These slabs measure 500 by 220 cm (15 by 7½ ft). There is a fountain in the middle of this hall, and the
roof — a dome honeycombed with tiny cells, all different, and said to number 5000 — is an example
of the "stalactite vaulting" of the Moors.
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Athath almanzil-Furniture: The famous Alhambra vases, very large Hispano-Moresque ware vases
made in the Sultanate are the original furniture of the palace. These famous examples of HispanoMoresque ware date from the 14th and 15th centuries. The one remaining in the palace, from about
1400, is 1.3 m (4 ft 3 in) high; the background is white and the decoration is blue, white and gold.
Mathematics in Design: Water and geometry are the main design elements in the Alhambra
The maze-like corridors of the palace, have many walls covered in brightly coloured ceramic tiles. The
tiles cover half of the walls. The Alhambra tiles are remarkable in that they contain nearly all, if not all,
of the seventeen mathematically possible wallpaper groups. This is a unique accomplishment in world
architecture. M. C. Escher's visit in 1922 and study of the Moorish use of symmetries in the Alhambra
tiles inspired his subsequent work on tessellation, which he called "regular divisions of the plane" As
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this historic period is of great importance, we can still see coloured tiles across Andalusia today. These
tiles apart from being decorative, keep walls cooler in summertime and protect them too. Tiling done
with mathematical precision was intended to be aesthetically pleasing. Geometrical calculations were
used in the tile patterns creating an infinite design to cover as much distance as needed for each space.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
All those centuries ago the colours of the tiles were created with these materials:
Blue – Cobalt
Purple or Black -Manganese
Green – Iron
Red or Green- Copper
White – Tin
Yellow – Lead or Antimony
Above the tiles, higher up towards the walls geometrical shapes or poetic inscriptions abound. Towards
the top of the walls quotations from the Koran appear, intentionally situated far from the ground.
The Salón de los Embajadores - The design of this throne room is based on many square shapes.
Consequently, Mathematicians and architects appreciate this room due to its
symmetry
and
precision. The room is said to have had brightly coloured rugs, beautiful vases and musical instruments
around in earlier times. It occupies all the Torre de Comares. It is a square room, the sides being 12 m
(37 ft) in length, while the center of the dome is 23 m (75 ft) high. This was the grand reception room,
and the throne of the sultan was placed opposite the entrance. The grand hall projects from the walls of
the palace, providing views in three directions. In this sense, it was a "mirador"- a turret or tower
attached to a building and providing an extensive view from which the palace's inhabitants could gaze
outward to the surrounding landscape. The tiles are nearly 4 ft (1.2 m) high all round, and the colors
vary at intervals. Over them is a series of oval medallions with inscriptions, interwoven with flowers
and leaves. There are nine windows, three on each facade, and the ceiling is decorated with white, blue
and gold inlays in the shape of circles, crowns and stars. The walls are covered with varied stucco
works, surrounding many ancient escutcheons.
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Inscriptions: Some inscriptions are beautiful poetry whereas others provide
information on construction dates of building within the Alhambra.
Even more inscriptions cover phrases such as “There is no victor but Allah” which appears many
times. Also recurring words like “happiness” or “blessing” appear often throughout the palace.
These words are there to protect the monarch honoured in each courtyard.
Similarly, other phrases appear such as: “Rejoice in good fortune, because Allah helps you” or
“Be sparse in words and you will go in peace.” It seems like the men choosing these texts for
the palace walls were poets but also politicians. This wall decoration was an elaborate form of
political propaganda. These palace officials reflected the authority and power of the Sultan.
Visible to anyone entering the rooms at the heart of the Al Andalus kingdom. Abundant
inscriptions were added year by year. Such as the one in the Throne room:
¨From me you are welcomed morning and evening
by the tongues of blessing, prosperity, happiness and friendship¨
¨has decorated me with the robes of his glory and
excellence without disguise and has made me the
throne of his empire
may its eminence be upheld by the master of divine glory and the celestial throne¨
Starry Ceilings: The intricate cedar wood ceiling has exacting measurements. Extremely difficult to
put into place it consists of 8017 multicoloured panels. Symbolizing the seven heavens of Islamic
Paradise. Diagonal lines radiate from the centre representing the four trees of life. The ceiling is
decorated with lots of stars. Painted to shine like ivory, mother of pearl and silver. Also, worth
noticing is the difference between the 8 pointed and 16 pointed stars. Most of the room would have
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been in a dim light, ensuring cooler temperatures. the latticework on the windows allows filtered light
into the room. The effect of the light from the windows shone around the throne. This would
surround the sultan in diffused light in a dim room creating a position of power and mystery. The
throne would be set upon something to give it height too.
Last word: The Alhambra is the best example of Islam architecture in Europe. It took many
months and years of work to decorate the palace interiors. One of the inscripted poems best
describes this architectural feat:
The portico is so beautiful that the
palace competes in beauty with the
sky.
You dressed it with such an exquisite
lamé, that the loom of the Yemen is
forgotten.
¡How many arches are high on its
summit, on the columns that are
adorned by the light, like spheres that
turn
above the glowing pillar of the dawn!
The columns are so beautiful in every
way, that their success flies from
mouth to ear:
the marble throws its clear light, which
invades the black corner that blackens
the shadow;
its highlights iridesce, and one would
say that they are, in spite of their size,
pearls.
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CHAPTER VII
Arabesque in Islamcic Architecture
arabesque/ˌarəˈbɛsk/nou
n 1.an ornamental design consisting of intertwined flowing lines, originally
found in ancient Islamic
art.
"arabesque scrolls"
An arabesque is a pattern of curving lines layered with intertwined elements, like vines and leaves, and
abstract forms that don't resemble anything found in nature. Decorative arabesque patterns can be found
covering surfaces on buildings like mosques, as well as items like ceramic tiles and glassware. Religion
played an important role in the arabesque's development. When Islam rose around 700 AD and spread
through the Middle East, it came with rules forbidding depictions of creatures like humans and animals,
especially on things like buildings with a religious purpose. As a result, Islamic artists instead based
their imagery on geometry, calligraphy (the art of beautiful writing), and the arabesque. These elements
didn't have recognizable creatures, so they could be used to adorn sacred spaces without relying on figural
art. It's a very different idea about decoration than was found in Western culture at the time. The arabesque
traces its history to the Near and Middle East. Around 1000 AD, possibly near Baghdad, Muslim artists
developed images of vines, flowers and lines into an intricate, spectacular art form. Such designs are
considered biomorphic, which means they resemble natural forms without depicting specific creatures or
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plants.
Arabesque designs use elements like spiral and curving forms in an infinitely repeated, usually
symmetrical pattern. Designs may feature many layers of interwoven figures and line. Sometimes,
geometric figures are also included, as are forms called kapali, linear figures with closed ends. Arabesque
designs on surfaces create a sense of pleasing overall rhythm and patterns. As the Islamic religion spread,
arabesques could be found on walls of mosques and palaces, on ceramic tiles and vessels, and on
glassware.
Arabesques have now been identified with fundamental element of Islamic art but they develop what was
already a long tradition by the coming of Islam. The past and current usage of the term in respect of
European art can only be described as confused and inconsistent. Some Western arabesques derive from
Islamic art, but others are closely based on ancient Roman decorations. In the West they are essentially
found in the decorative arts, but because of the generally non-figurative nature of Islamic art, arabesque
decoration is there often a very prominent element in the most significant works, and plays a large part in
the decoration of architecture.
The arabesque is a form of artistic decoration consisting of "surface decorations based on rhythmic linear
patterns of scrolling and interlacing foliage, tendrils" or plain lines, often combined with other elements.
Another definition is "Foliate ornament, used in the Islamic world, typically using leaves, derived from
stylised half-palmettes, which were combined with spiralling stems".It usually consists of a single design
which can be 'tiled' or seamlessly repeated as many times as desired. Within the very wide range of
Eurasian decorative art that includes motifs matching this basic definition, the term "arabesque" is used
consistently as a technical term by art historians to describe only elements of the decoration found in two
phases: Islamic art from about the 9th century onwards, and European decorative art from the Renaissance
onwards. Interlace and scroll decoration are terms used for most other types of similar patterns.
Eventually the Islamic arabesque found its way to Europe, mostly through two avenues. It came through
Southern Italy and Sicily, because they were close to geographic regions in which the Islamic faith had
taken hold. These areas were also influenced by similar designs found on ancient Roman artifacts.
Variations on the arabesque also developed on the Iberian peninsula in places like Spain, the
westernmost edge of Islam's spread.
The architecture of Mughal monuments in India offers many examples of arabesque art. The Taj
Mahal, tomb of Emperor Akbar, tomb of I’timād-ud-Daulah, the Fatehpur Sikri, the Agra Fort, the
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Red Fort and several others. The arabesque has also been defines as a vegetal design consisting of
full and half palmettes as an unending continuous pattern in which each leaf grows out of another.
It is symbolic of the unity of faith of Islam.
The beautiful and striking designs created on many Mughal monuments are actually a
combination of the arabesque-vegetal, geometric patterns and Islamic calligraphy. Islamic art is
diverse and made up of stunning patterns, due to the absence of figures which could make it an
object of worship, which is prevented in Islam. However, the core of the art is symmetry and
harmony. There is an effort to convey the structure of everything through pattern. Geometry is an
important element, it is sacred geometry with an inner and outer meaning.
Arabesque art depictions, mostly combined with geometry and calligraphy have two types,
the first is about the principles that govern the order of the world. Geometric forms have a
built in symbolism. The principles include the basics of what makes objects structurally sound yet
pleasing to the eye. The square has equal sides and represents the important elements of nature,
earth, air, fir and water. The physical world is symbolised by a circle that inscribes the square and
would collapse upon itself without any of the four elements. The second type is based on the
flowing nature of vegetal forms, representing the feminine life-giving force. The third type is the
mode of Islamic calligraphy. it is also called the art of the spoken word. Many proverbs and
passages from the Holy Quran can be seen in arabesque art. The coming together of these three
forms create the arabesque in its entirety. The art is not just mathematically precise but beautiful
and symbolic. Many Islamic designs are based on squares and circles, interlaced to form complex
patterns. A common motif is the 8-pointed star made of 2 squares, one rotated 45 degrees with
respect to the other. Another basic shape is the polygon, mostly pentagon and octagon. Islamic
artwork is found in jaali work or trellis tiling, woodwork, kilims or rugs, leather book bindings,
metalwork, ceramics and ceilings.
A glimpse into this fascinating world of visual art includes images from two important tombs in
Agra, North of India, both from 17th century Mughal era.
“Islamic art can be best described as a sacred art. It is an art that is made purely for the sake of
spiritual and religious devotion and expression, rather than art that is used to express the artist’s
own personal message or story. Traditionally the artist detaches himself from any praise or
recognition of his work. Islamic art also embodies and expresses the teachings of Islam, whether
it’s through more obvious forms such as calligraphy and miniature painting, or more abstract
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approaches through the
use of geometry and arabesque. Islamic art has also been compared to a form of dhikr or
a remembrance of God, which in turn is a form of worship in a much more creative
manner.” 1
For me personally Islamic art is a way for me to discover more about my own religion from a
different perspective and approach. It is also a way for me to discover myself and through every
piece I create I learn something new and invaluable.”
SIGNIFICANCE OF ARABESQUE IN ISLAM The arabesques and geometric patterns of
Islamic art are often said to arise from the Islamic view of the world. To Muslims, these forms,
taken together, constitute an infinite pattern that extends beyond the visible material world. To
many in the Islamic world, they concretely symbolize the infinite, and therefore un-centralized,
nature of the creation of the one God (Allah). Furthermore, the Islamic Arabesque artist conveys
spirituality without the iconography of Christian art. Arabesque art consists of a series of
repeating geometric forms which are occasionally accompanied by calligraphy.
To the adherents of Islam, the Arabesque is symbolic of their united faith and the way in which
traditional Islamic cultures view the world. There are two modes to arabesque art. There are two
modes to arabesque art. The first recalls the principles that govern the order of the world. These
principles include the bare basics of what makes objects structurally sound and, by extension,
beautiful. In the first mode, each repeating geometric form has a built-in symbolism ascribed to it.
For example, the square, with its four equilateral sides, is symbolic of the equally important
elements of nature: earth, air, fire and water. Without any one of the four, the physical world,
represented by a circle that inscribes the square, would collapse upon it and cease to exist. The
second mode is based upon the flowing nature of plant forms. This mode recalls the feminine
nature of life giving. The basic geometrical shapes used for inlay of geometrical arabesque are
majorly constructed through repetition of lines and arcs. The regular repetition of such elements
creates a kind of pattern which is then inlayed with different colors or materials and improves the
aesthetic value of the surface. Muslim artisans also perfected the technique of creating decorative
motifs of flowers, vines, and other graphics in precise geometric patterns. These “arabesque”
motifs often cover walls, pottery, and other decorative objects and are governed by geometric and
mathematical principles. The vines curve around and split off at very precise angles. 2
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The term ARABESQUE was first used in the West in Italian, where rabeschi was used in the 16th century
as a term for "pilaster ornaments featuring acanthus decoration, specifically "running scrolls"
that ran vertically up a panel or pilaster, rather than horizontally along a frieze. From there it spread to
England, where Henry VIII owned, in an inventory of 1549, an agate cup with a "fote and Coeur of siluer
and guilt embossed with Rebeske work", and William Herne or Heron, Serjeant Painter from 1572 to 1580,
was paid for painting Elizabeth I's barge with "Rebeske work. Unfortunately, the styles so described can
only be guessed at, although the design by Hans Holbein for a covered cup for Jane Seymour in 1536 (see
gallery) already has zones in both Islamic-derived arabesque/Moresque style (see below) and classicallyderived acanthus volutes. The use of "arabesque" as an English noun first appears, in relation to painting,
in William Beckford's novel Vathek in 1786. Arabesque is also used as a term for complex freehand pen
flourishes in drawing or other graphic media. The Grove Dictionary of Art will have none of this confusion,
and says flatly: "Over the centuries the word has been applied to a wide variety of winding and twining
vegetal decoration in art and meandering themes in music, but it properly applies only to Islamic art", so
contradicting the definition of 1888 still found in the Oxford English Dictionary: "A species of mural or
surface decoration in colour or low relief, composed in flowing lines of branches, leaves, and scroll-work
fancifully intertwined used in Moorish and Arabic decorative art (from which, almost exclusively, it was
known in the Middle Ages), representations of living creatures were excluded; but in the arabesques of
Raphael, founded on the ancient Græco-Roman work of this kind, and in those of Renaissance decoration,
human and animal figures, both natural and grotesque, as well as vases, armour, and objects of art, are
freely introduced; to this the term is now usually applied, the other being distinguished as Moorish
Arabesque, or Moresque."3
Claims are often made regarding the theological significance of the arabesque, and its origin in a
specifically Islamic view of the world; however, these are without support from written historical sources
as, like most medieval cultures, the Islamic world has not left us documentation of their intentions in using
the decorative motifs they did. At the popular level such theories often appear uninformed as to the wider
context of the arabesque. In similar fashion, proposed connections between the arabesque and Arabic
knowledge of geometry remains a subject of debate; not all art historians are persuaded that such
knowledge had reached, or was needed by, those creating arabesque designs, although in certain cases
there is evidence that such a connection did exist. The case for a connection with Islamic mathematics is
much stronger for the development of the geometric patterns with which arabesques are often combined in
art. Geometric decoration often uses patterns that are made up of straight lines and regular angles but are
clearly derived as a whole from curvilinear arabesque patterns; the extent to which these too are described
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as arabesque varies between different writers.
Many arabesque patterns disappear at (or "under" as it often appears to a viewer) a framing edge without
ending, and thus can be regarded as infinitely extendable outside the space they actually occupy; this was
certainly a distinctive feature of the Islamic form, though not without precedent. Most but not all
foliage decoration in the preceding cultures terminated at the edge of the occupied space, although
infinitely repeatable patterns in foliage are very common in the modern world in wallpaper and textiles.4
Jali: This form of architectural decoration is found generally in Islamic Architecture but also found in
Hindu Temples .Early jali work was built by carving into stone, generally in geometric patterns, while
later the Mughals used very finely carved plant-based designs, as at the Taj Mahal. They also often
added pietra dura inlay to the surrounds, using marble and semi-precious stones. A jali or jaali,
(Bengali: জা লিা, Urdu: جالیHindi:जা ली jālī, meaning "net") is the term for a perforated
stone or latticed screen, usually with an
ornamental
pattern constructed through the use
of calligraphy and geometry.
The jali helps in lowering the temperature by compressing the air through the holes. Also when the air
passes through these openings, its velocity increases giving profound diffusion.[clarification needed] It has
been observed that humid areas like Kerala and Konkan have larger holes with overall lower opacity than
compared with the dry climate regions of Gujarat and Rajasthan.
With compactness of the residential areas in the modern India, jalis became less frequent for privacy and
security matters.
R E F E R E N C ES
1. THE CRUCIAL ROLE OF GEOMETRY IN ISLAMIC ART, BY MALIKKA
BOUAISSA .ARTJULY 27, 2013, http://www.alartemag.be/en/en-art/the-crucial-role-ofgeometry-in-islamic-art/
2. Freely adopted from : Existence of Arabesque in Islamic Architecturel, Ar. Pooja Singh,
International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 7, Issue 6, June 2017
3. Arabesque (Islamic Art) - Western Arabesque,
http://www.liquisearch.com/arabesque_islamic_art/western_arabesque
4. Arabesque (Islamic Art) - Islamic Arabesque
http://www.liquisearch.com/arabesque_islamic_art/islamic_arabesque
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PART III
BOOK III
HINDU DIVINITY THROUGH TE ARCHITECTURE OF ITS TEMPLES
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Introduction to Part III
Ancient Indian thought divides time into four different periods. These durations are
referred to as the Krta; Treta; Dvapara; and Kali.
The first of these divisions (Krta), is also known as satya-yuga, or the Age of Truth. This
was a golden age without envy, malice or deceit, characterized by righteousness. All
people belonged to one caste, and there was only one god who lived amongst the humans
as one of them.
In the next span (Treta-yuga), the righteousness of the previous age decreased by one
fourth. The chief virtue of this age was knowledge. The presence of gods was scarce and
they descended to earth only when men invoked them in rituals and sacrifices. These
deities were recognizable by all.
In the third great division of time, righteousness existed only in half measure of that in the
first division. Disease, misery and the castes came into existence in this age. The gods
multiplied. Men made their own images, worshipped them, and the divinities would come
down in disguised forms. But these disguised deities were recognizable only by that
specific worshipper.
Kali-yuga is the present age of mankind in which we live, the first three ages having
already elapsed. It is believed that this
age began at midnight between February
17 and 18, 3102 B.C. Righteousness is
now one-tenth of that in the first age.
True worship and sacrifice are now lost.
It is a time of anger, lust, passion, pride,
and discord. There is an excessive
preoccupation with things material and
sexual.
Temples appeared on the horizon only in
the Kali-yuga. During this existing last
phase, temples (as public shrines), began
to be built and icons installed. But the
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gods ceased to come down and appear in their own or disguised forms. However, their
presence could be felt when the icons were properly enshrined, and the temples correctly
built. In contrast to the previous periods when the gods were available to all equally, now
it is only the priests, belonging to a traditional hierarchy of professional worshippers, who
are the competent individuals to compel this presence.
From the contemporary point of view, temples act as safe haven where ordinary mortals
like us can feel themselves free from the constant vagaries of everyday existence, and
communicate personally with god. But our age is individualistic if nothing else. Each of
us requires our own conception of the deity based on our individual cultural rooting. In
this context it is interesting to observe that the word ‘temple,’ and ‘contemplate’ both
share the same origin from the Roman word ‘templum,’ which means a sacred enclosure.
Indeed, strictly speaking, where there is no contemplation, there is no temple. It is an
irony of our age that this individualistic contemplative factor, associated with a temple, is
taken to be its highest positive virtue, while according to the fact of legend it is but a
limitation which arose due to our continuous spiritual impoverishment over the ages. We
have lost the divine who resided amongst us (Krta Yuga), which is the same as saying
that once man was divine himself.
But this is not to belittle the importance of the temple as a center for spiritual nourishment
in our present context, rather an affirmation of their invaluable significance in providing
succour to the modern man in an environment and manner that suits the typical
requirements of the age in which we exist.
Making of the Temple
The first step towards the construction of a temple is the selection of land. Even though
any land may be considered suitable provided the necessary rituals are performed for its
sanctification, the ancient texts nevertheless have the following to say in this matter: “The
gods always play where groves, rivers, mountains and springs are near, and in towns with
pleasure gardens.” Not surprisingly thus, many of India’s ancient surviving temples can
be seen to have been built in lush valleys or groves, where the environment is thought to
be particularly suitable for building a residence for the gods.
No matter where it is situated, one essential factor for the existence of a temple is water.
Water is considered a purifying element in all major traditions of the world, and if not
available in reality, it must be present in at least a symbolic representation in the Hindu
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temple. Water, the purifying, fertilizing element being present, its current, which is the
river of life, can be forded into inner realization and the pilgrim can cross over to the
other shore (metaphysical).
The practical preparations for building a temple are invested with great ritual significance
and magical fertility symbolism. The prospective site is first inspected for the ‘type,’ of
the soil it contains. This includes determining its color and smell. Each of these defining
characteristics is divided into four categories, which are then further associated with one
of the four castes:
- White Soil: Brahmin
- Red Soil: Kshatriya (warrior caste)
- Yellow Soil: Vaishya
- Black Soil: Shudra
Similarly for the smell and taste:
- Sweet: Brahmin
- Sour: Kshatriya
- Bitter: Vaishya
- Astringent: Shudra (a reminder perhaps of the raw-deal which they have often been
given in life)
The color and taste of the soil determines the “caste” of the temple, i.e., the social group
to which it will be particularly favourable. Thus the patron of the temple can choose an
auspicious site specifically favourable to himself and his social environment.
After these preliminary investigations, the selected ground needs to be tilled and levelled:
Tilling: When the ground is tilled and ploughed, the past ceases to count; new life is
entrusted to the soil and another cycle of production begins, an assurance that the rhythm
of nature has not been interfered with. Before laying of the actual foundation, the Earth
Goddess herself is impregnated in a symbolic process known as ankura-arpana, ankura
meaning seed and arpana signifying offering. In this process, a seed is planted at the
selected site on an auspicious day and its germination is observed after a few days. If the
growth is satisfactory, the land is deemed suitable for the temple. The germination of the
seed is a metaphor for the fulfilment of the inherent potentialities which lie hidden in
Mother Earth, and which by extension are now transferred to the sacred structure destined
to come over it.
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Levelling: It is extremely important that the ground from which the temple is to rise is
regarded as being throughout an equal intellectual plane, which is the significance behind
the levelling of the land. It is also an indication that order has been established in a wild,
unruly, and errant world.
Now that the earth has been ploughed, tilled and levelled, it is ready for the drawing of
the vastu-purusha mandala, the metaphysical plan of the temple.
The Metaphysical
Architecture of the Temple
The basic plan of a Hindu temple
is an expression of sacred
geometry where the temple is
visualized as a grand mandala.
By sacred geometry we mean a
science which has as its purpose
the accurate laying out of the
temple ground plan in relation to
the cardinal directions and the
heavens. Characteristically, a
mandala is a sacred shape
consisting of the intersection of a
circle and a square.
The square shape is symbolic of earth, signifying the four directions which bind and
define it. Indeed, in Hindu thought whatever concerns terrestrial life is governed by the
number four (four castes; the four Vedas etc.). Similarly, the circle is logically the perfect
metaphor for heaven since it is a perfect shape, without beginning or end, signifying
timelessness and eternity, a characteristically divine attribute. Thus a mandala (and by
extension the temple) is the meeting ground of heaven and earth.
These considerations make the actual preparation of the site and laying of the foundation
doubly important. Understandably, the whole process is heavily immersed in rituals right
from the selection of the site to the actual beginning of construction. Indeed, it continues
to be a custom in India that whenever a building is sought to be constructed, the area on
which it first comes up is ceremonially propitiated. The idea being that the extent of the
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earth necessary for such construction must be reclaimed from the gods and goblins that
own and inhabit that area. This ritual is known as the ‘pacification of the site.’ There is an
interesting legend behind
it:
Once when Shiva was
engaged in a fierce battle
with the demon Andhaka,
a drop of sweat fell from
Shiva’s forehead to the
ground, accompanied by
a loud thunder. This drop
transformed into a
ravenously hungry
monster, who attempted
to destroy the three
worlds. The gods and
divine spirits, however, rushed at once on to him and held him down. When the demon
fell on the ground face downwards, the deities lodged themselves on to the different parts
of his body and pressed him down. It is because of this reason that the recumbent
individual came to be known as ‘Vastu,’ which means the lodgement of the gods. He is
pictured as lying down inside the mandala with his arms and legs so folded as to cover the
whole area, and his head pushed into the north-eastern corner of the square. As many as
forty-five gods are lodged on his body directly on the limbs and joints.
This vastu-purusha is the spirit in mother-earth which needs to be pacified and is regarded
as a demon whose permission is necessary before any construction can come up on the
site. At the same time, care is taken to propitiate the deities that hold him down, for it is
important that he should not get up. To facilitate the task of the temple-architect, the
vastu-mandala is divided into square grids with the lodging of the respective deities
clearly marked. It also has represented on it the thirty-two nakshatras, the constellations
that the moon passes through on its monthly course. In an ideal temple, these deities
should be situated exactly as delineated in the mandala.
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In the central grid of the vastumandala sits Brahma, the
archetypal creator, endowed with
four faces looking simultaneously
in all directions. He is thus
conceived as the ever-present
superintending genius of the site.
At this exact central point is
established the most important
structure of the sacred complex,
where the patron deity of the
temple is installed. Paradoxically
this area is the most unadorned
and least decorated part of the
Sanctum of a Hindu Temple
temple, almost as if it is created in an inverse proportion to its spiritual importance.
Referred to as the sanctum sanctorum, it is the most auspicious region in the whole
complex. It has no pillars, windows or ventilators. In addition to a metaphysical aspect,
this shutting off of air and light has a practical side to it too. It was meant to preserve the
icon, which, in olden days, was often made of wood. Also, besides preventing the ill
effects of weathering, the dark interior adds to the mystery of the divine presence.
Throughout all subsequent developments in temple architecture, however spectacular and
grandiose, this main shrine room remains the small, dark cave that it has been from the
beginning. Indeed it has been postulated (both by archaeology and legend), that the
temple developed from the cave-shrine of the extremely remote past. This is another
instance in Hinduism where the primitive and the modern, along with all the
developments in-between, can be seen to co-exist remarkably and peacefully.
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When the devotee enters a
temple, he is actually
entering into a mandala
and therefore participating
in a power-field. The field
enclosures and pavilions
through which he must
pass to reach the sanctum
are symbolic. They
represent the phases of
progress in a man’s
Dilwara Temple, Mount Abu, Rajasthan
journey towards divine
beatitude. In accordance with this scheme of transition, architectural and sculptural details
vary from phase to phase in the devotee’s onward movement, gradually preparing him for
the ultimate, awesome experience, which awaits him in the shrine.
This process mirrors the four-phased spiritual evolution envisaged in yoga, namely the
waking state (jagrat); dream state (swapna); the state of deep sleep (sushupti); and finally
the Highest state of awareness known in Sanskrit as turiya. This evolution takes place as
follows:
On reaching the main gateway, the worshipper first bends down and touches the threshold
before crossing it. This marks for him the fact that the transition from the way of the
world to the way of god has been initiated. Entering the gateway, he or she is greeted by a
host of secular figures on the outer walls. These secular images are the mortal, outward
and diverse manifestations of the divinity enshrined inside. In this lies a partial
explanation behind the often explicit erotic imagery carved on the outer walls of temples
like those at Khajuraho, where the deity inside remains untouched by these sensuous
occurrences. Such images awaken the devotee to his mortal state of existence
(wakefulness). The process of contemplation has already begun.
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As he proceeds, carvings of
mythological themes, legendary
subjects, mythical animals and unusual
motifs abound. They are designed to
take one away from the dull and
commonplace reality, and uplift the
worshipper to the dreamy state.
The immediate pavilion and vestibule
before the icon are restrained in sculptural
decorations, and the prevailing darkness
of these areas are suggestive of sleep-like
conditions.
Finally the shrine, devoid of any
ornamentation, and with its plainly
adorned entrance, leads the devotee
further to the highest achievable state of
consciousness, that of semi-tranquillity
(turiya), where all boundaries vanish and
the universe stands forth in its primordial
glory. It signifies the coming to rest of all
differentiated, relative existence. This
utterly quiet, peaceful and blissful state is
Chhapri Temple, Central India
the ultimate aim of all spiritual activity.
The devotee is now fully-absorbed in the beauty and serenity of the icon. He or she is
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now in the inner square of Brahma in the vastu- mandala, and in direct communion with
the chief source of power in the temple.
The thought behind the design of a temple is a continuation of Upanishadic analogy, in
which the atman (soul or the divine aspect in each of us) is likened to an embryo within a
womb or to something hidden in a cave. Also says the Mundaka Upanishad: ‘The atman
lives where our arteries meet (in the heart), as the spokes of the wheel meet at the hub.’
Hence, it is at the heart center that the main deity is enshrined. Befittingly thus, this
sanctum sanctorum is technically known as the garba-griha (womb-house).
The garbhagriha is almost always surrounded by a circumambulatory path, around which
the devotee walks in a clockwise direction. In Hindu and Buddhist thought, this
represents an encircling of the universe itself.
No description of the
Hindu temple can be
complete without a
mention of the tall, often
pyramid-like structure
shooting up the landscape
and dominating the
skyline.
Kandariya Temple Khajuraho
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This element of temple
architecture is known as
‘shikhara,’ meaning peak
(mountain). It marks the location
of the shrine room and rises
directly above it. This is an
expression of the ancient ideal
believing the gods to reside in the
mountains. Indeed, in South India
the temple spire is frequently
Temple of Minakshi, Madurai
carved with images of gods, the
shikhara being conceived as mount Meru, the mythical mountain-axis of the universe, on
the slopes of which the gods reside.
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Temple of Mahabodhi, Bodhgaya
In North India too, it is worthwhile here to note, most goddess shrines are located on
mountain tops. Since it rises just above the central shrine, the shikhara is both the
physical and spiritual axis of the temple, symbolizing the upward aspiration of the
devotee, a potent metaphor for his ascent to enlightenment.
Conclusion
Man lost the divinity within himself. His intuition, which is nothing but a state of
primordial alertness, continues to strive towards the archetypal perfect state where there is
no distinction between man and god (or woman and goddess). The Hindu Temple sets out
to resolve this deficiency in our lives by dissolving the boundaries between man and
divinity. This is achieved by putting into practice the belief that the temple, the human
body, and the sacred mountain and cave, represent aspects of the same divine symmetry.
Truly, the most modern man can survive only because the most ancient traditions are
alive in him. The solution to man’s problems is always archaic. The architecture of the
Hindu temple recreates the archetypal environment of an era when there was no need for
such an architecture.
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INTRODUCTION to INDIAN ARCHITECTURE – Takio Kamia
http://www.kamit.jp/01_introdctn/5_mattan/mattan_eng.htm In the September 2000 issue
of "Journal of Architecture
and Building Science" of the Architectural Institute of Japan
Hinduism is the dominant religion in India as shown by its name; people do not become
Hindus but are born as Hindus. The word Hindu is originally derived from the River
Sindhu in Sanskrit (Indus in English), from which the S-sound dropped out, used by
Persians to indicate the people living along and over the Indus. The area was called
Hindustan (the country of Hindus) or Indos in Greek, and its language Hindi and religion
Hinduism as well.
Though considered as a religion, Hinduism is different from the Western notion of
religion, rather being the living system of the Indians in a broad sense, including their
social customs, conventions and manners.
1. WHAT IS HINDU ARCHITECTURE ?
Hinduism did not have a particular founder as in Christianity or Islam. It subsumed every
phenomenon in the vast territory of India, including even local faiths and tribal gods, so
they could even be contradictory to each other. According to Hindu theory, even
Buddhism and Jainism are nothing but sects of Hinduism.
In the field of architecture too, those of Buddhism and Jainism, which were brought up in
the same climate as that of Hinduism, have no great disparities from Hindu architecture,
making it possible to say that their structural systems and forms of their components are
completely the same.
However, if Hindu architecture is geographically positioned as Indian architecture, it
would mean that Hindu architecture could not exist outside India. In order to avoid this
inconvenience, I will not adopt a geographical definition but treat it on the basis of
religious and historical distinction from Buddhist, Jain, and Islamic architecture. On this
occasion, secular buildings, such as residences, palaces, forts and others, must be
excluded, that is, Hindu architecture in this article indicates only Hindu temples.
2. THE ESSENCE of HINDU TEMPLES
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Principal Plan and Cross Section of a Hindu Temple
(Malikarjuna Temple in Aihole, 8th century)
(From "Encyclopaedia of Indian Temple Architecture" II-1, 1988 )
The predecessor of Hinduism is called Brahmanism, in which only Brahmans (priests),
the highest class among four varnas into which people were divided by birth in ancient
India, could intermediate between gods and believers. It was essentially a religion of
rituals emphasizing sacrifices of animals to gods.
On the other side, Buddhism and Jainism were atheistic religions established around the
6th century B.C.E. in contradiction to the caste system and the sacrificial practices of
Brahmanism, so their temples were fundamentally places of pursuing enlightenment for
monks and expounding teachings to lay people.
Hinduism, which was established around the beginning of the Common Era, was a highly
developed stage of Brahmanism in preparedness for theoretical dispute. Absorbing folk
faiths and local divinities in various regions, it was a thoroughgoing pantheistic religion
based on, above all, reverence for the gods that originated in the Vedas. Every Hindu
temple has one of those gods enshrined as the main deity, and is as hospitable to it as if it
were a living personality. The essential quality of the Hindu temple is the ‘House of
God’, though it differs from the metaphorical manner in the Christian church, as a Hindu
temple is considered as an actual place for a god to dwell, eat, and sleep.
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The cardinal room, where is the statue is set into which a god is to enter, was called a
‘Garbhagriha’ literally meaning a ‘womb house’, and its frontal hall, where priests and
followers entertain and worship the god, was called a ‘Mandapa’, then became the
fundamental form of Hindu temples.
3. CAVE TEMPLES and ROCK-CARVED TEMPLES
Unfinished rock-carved temple
It is presumed that ancient India was abundant in wood and most temples were built of
timber, though none have survived. The ancient architecture that we can see now is made
up of cave temples, which were excavated into rocky mountains and architecturally
carved in detail. This form was initiated by Buddhist monks and workers, executing as
many as a few hundred in number from the 2nd century B.C.E. across India.
The oldest Hindu cave temples are a small group at Udayagiri from the 5th century of the
Gupta Dynasty, where many of the earliest Hindu sculptures are also extant. Because in
this age integral stone buildings, moving out of the phase of mixed structures of timber
and stone, began to be constructed, cave temples were to develop hand in hand with stone
architecture. The plan form of was also established through this process, as can be seen in
the Hindu cave temples of Ellora, excavated in the 7th and 8th centuries, most of which
took this form.
On the other hand, since the Hindus preferred sculpture more than any of the formative
arts, they wanted to make even their architectural works as if sculptures. Monolithic
temples, sculpted not as caves but directly upon one rock in the round in this attitude, are
called ‘rock-carved temples’. Started in Mahabalipuram in the 7th century, it attained its
apogee in the Kailasa Temple at Ellora in the 8th century. Such a sculptural character in
Indian architecture would stay as the fundamental feature in later stone temples too.
4. WAYS of SOLEMNIZING TEMPLES
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Plan of the Gondeshvara Temple in Sinnar, in the Pancha-yatana Form
(From the "Mediaeval Temples of the Dakhan" by Henry Cousens, 1931)
Although simplest Hindu temples did not have Mandapas, constituted of only a
Garbhagriha (sanctum) accompanied with a porch, they gradually increased in scale, in
accordance with the establishment of the form . The Garbhagriha itself did not enlarge,
because it is a square room enclosed with windowless thick walls, but extended its plan,
encircled with a circumambulatory corridor for worship, and it came to be surmounted
with a stone piled tower, displaying its sculptural exterior view.
The Mandapa, in front of the Garbhagriha, was also fundamentally a square hall with four
pillars, occasionally becoming a great hypostyle hall.
In order to solemnize temples, architects often increased the number of Mandapas,
placing them in a line in the front, and occasionally added an open Mandapa without
peripheral walls, the porches, and even an independent shrine for a Nandi (bull), vehicle
for Shiva, all in line on the axis.
The reason for this manner is that a Hindu temple was destined to have a determined axial
direction, following the fact that Garbhagriha as a god’s abode had only one entrance
door in front to be locked at night. This restriction made the temple impossible to spread
in four directions, and engendered another method for the solemnization of temples,
adding four small independent shrines in four diagonal corners on the podium, giving the
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entire temple the form of Pancha-yatana (five shrines).
5. THE NORTHRN and SOUTHERN TYPES
Vishvanatha Temple of the Northern type, Khajuraho
Through the great development of Hindu temple architecture in the medieval period,
rivalling stone architecture in Europe and the Middle East, its style was roughly divided
into two: the Southern Type and Northern Type. It might have reflected the differences of
likings between northern Indo-Aryans and southern Dravidians, languages of which were
in completely different branches.
The item that shows the difference between them most clearly was the design of their
towers over the sanctuary.
In the Northern Type, the tower soars in the shape of an artillery shell, which is called a
‘Shikhara’. On the top of the Shikhara is a fluted disk, an Amalaka, imitating the shape of
a sacred fruit, Anmalok, and further on top of it is a pitcher-like finial, a Kalasha. Similar
small Shikharas with the same components are piled up to make a greater Shikhara,
repeating this cycle in several layers to form the whole intricate body.
As opposed to this, in the Southern Type, lined mini-shrines make a horizontal story and
many stories piled up in steps form a pyramidal tower. On top of it is a large hemispheric
or octagonal dome-like crown stone, which is called a ‘Shikhara’ in southern India,
literally meaning a mountain summit in Sanskrit.
Among the Southern Type temples, the Karnataka region engendered star-shaped plans
for Garbhagrihas and a unique form composed of several Garbhagrihas and a shared
Mandapa, displaying their towers in the intermediate shape of the Northern and Southern
Types.
6. CORRESPONDENCE to CLIMATE
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A Himalayan woodenTemple at Sungra
Although the Indian subcontinent belongs to the zone of monsoon to a large extent, its
large geographical expanse includes diversity from the cold district of the Himalayas to
southern India in the subtropical zone through arid western India embracing a great
desert. Hindu temples have also a wide variety corresponding to those climates. The
foremost element bringing about the variation is the building materials.
Central India, possessing a large number of sturdy rocky mountains, became the most
crowded area for cave temples. The delta regions along the Indus in the west and the
Ganges in the east do not produce stone of good quality, so brick has been used as the
main material since the time of the Indus Valley Civilization. Brick temples in Bengal
covered with terra-cotta panels, baked with carvings executed on not fully dried clay,
dyed villages the color of Indian red.
Wooden temples descended from ancient architecture to some extent are seen in the
Himalayan region in the north and the Kerala region in the south, both of which are
blessed with much precipitation and forests. Especially in mountainous Himachal Pradesh
there are curious wooden temples surmounted with conical or gambrel roofs, completely
different in shape from stone temples in the lower Indian planes.
However, what underlies these wooden temples is the composition of ; there is no
difference between these and stone temple in indicating the abode of god by its wooden
‘Shikhara’ on a small chamber.
7. OUTWARD from the INDIAN SUBCONTINENT
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Lorojonggrang Temple at Prambanan, Java, Indonesia
Indian culture was propagated to Southeast Asia mainly through trade. Hindu architecture
was brought to Burma (Myanmar), Khmer (Cambodia), Champa (Vietnam), and Java and
Bali (Indonesia) in indistinguishable forms from Buddhist architecture. In this process, it
produced various transfigurations according to the traditions and climates.
The best representative example is the Lorojonggrang Temple at Prambanan, Java,
dedicated to Shiva. Partly because of the ancient custom of ancestor worship in Java, a
‘house of god’ also came to have the character of a mausoleum for forefathers. This is
probably the reason why most temples were not accompanied with Mandapas but a porch
only, located in the center of its podium. The form of their towers was based on the
Southern Type, in which horizontal floors were piled up in steps.
Khmer architecture’s transfiguration is best shown in the Angkor Vat, in which the
temple and king’s tomb were united in one, conforming to the ‘Deve-Raja’ (god-king)
philosophy, constructing its precincts on a vast scale than ever existed in India, on a
square plan like an enlarged form of Mandala.
It was made possible by the grace of the form of the Chaturmukha (four-faced shrine)
plan developed in Jain temples, which was brought to Southeast Asia along with Hindu
architecture. As a result, in contrast to Hindu temples in India, those in Southeast Asia
could spread in four directions, forming great Mandala-like plans. In the Garbhagriha of
the Angkor Vat, as a four-faced shrine, there would have been enshrined the God Vishnu.
Its tower is thought to have originated from the artillery shell shape of the Northern Type.
PLAYING WITH SCULPTURES
Architects sometimes say “this part is play”, when they make some shapes or employ
some ingenious device to give viewers a feeling of pleasure or curiosity over and above
the bare functions of the buildings that they are designing. However, when formally
considering what the play in architecture is, it is difficult to recall typical examples of
‘architectural play’.
Buildings are projected in order to meet certain strong needs, and architects, a normally
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serious species, are immersed day and night in how amply they can create convenient and
comfortable buildings on a limited budget. They do not often play at the expense of their
clients unless the building is for the function of playing itself, such as amusement parks or
game rooms.
Then, let us inspect whether the situation was alike in the past, focusing on the historical
stone architecture of India.
Wall sculptures on the Parshvanatha Temple, Khajuraho
When it comes to Indian architecture, one would recall Hindu temples decorated with
innumerable sculptures, and suppose that play must be plentifully enjoyed in Indian
architecture. However, most of those sculptures, such as statues of deities, are means of
edification of religious tenets; even Mituna statues (sexual coupling) are explanations of a
doctrine of Hindu Tantrism. They bear a practical function, and cannot be called pure
play.
There are occasionally sculptures unrelated to religious doctrines, exemplified by the
figure shown above in which a woman poses flirtatiously, wearing eye shadow, on the
wall of a Jain temple at Khajuraho.
An example expressing play more clearly is seen in a wall panel at the Hindu temple of
Mukteshvara in Bhubaneshvar, shown below.
If you conceal the lower half of this square panel by hand, you can see a lying woman.
Then conceal the right half, and she stands up on one knee. Next, conceal the left half,
and another woman is standing on her hands. Lastly conceal the upper half, she is turning
a somersault.
This is utter play without any relation to the practicality of the building, reminding us of
the works of M. C. Escher or Shigeo Fukuda.
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A terra-cotta panel on the wall of the Mukteshvara Temple,
Bhubaneshvar, 10th century
However, if I were asked whether the above-mentioned examples are real ‘play in
architecture’, I would reply that I do not think so. Both of those temples are orthodox
pieces of architecture, seeming not to playing so much, that is, their play is nothing but
‘sculptural play’.
Whether in the West or the East, play in sculptures furnished on edifices would often be
seen in every period. Then, what kind of examples could exist, if one had played in
architecture itself?
VARIOUS TECHNIQUES
There is the Mausoleum of the saint Salim Chishty in the grand courtyard of the Great
Mosque of Fathehpur Sikri, the abandoned Mughal capital near Agra. One can recognize
that this renowned building’s walls make geometric patterns combining white marble and
blackish stone, but when going inside and looking back at the wall, one realizes that the
stone that looked blackish is actually a delicate screen of the same white marble. It is, so
to say, a magic stone wall, looking only like a blackish solid stone as an exterior view,
impossible to see through from the outside, but possible from inside, out to the courtyard.
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Mausoleum of Salim Chishty, Fathehpur Sikri
Although those stone panels can be imagined being quite vulnerable, having been made
so delicately, they are actually very sturdy marble boards of 5 to 10 cm in thickness,
drilled in a systematic pattern. It is as strong enough as to not break even if strongly
kicked.
Is this play? Again, no. In India, constantly hot, and rainy every day in the wet season,
even stone buildings have protruding stone eaves (amazing for us Japanese) and have to
be well ventilated. This trellised stone wall is an Indian time-honored technique for
ventilation and prevention of trespass as well, often seen in Mughal architecture too.
Then, how about the case of the Mausoleum of Humayun? This enormous tomb of the
Mughal emperor in the capital Delhi is completely covered with marquetry of red
sandstone and white marble. This elaborate method in stone architecture, equivalent to
Byzantine mosaics, is the technique that was most highly developed in Mughal
architecture.
Though edifices covered with stone have been increasing in recent times in Japan, it is
rare to find it finished with such laborious marquetry. However, this is also an orthodox
architectural technique for finishing buildings, and we are not able to call it play.
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Mausoleum of Humayun and Jantar Mantar, Delhi
When pursuing examples of play not in finishing but in architectural form itself, the
buildings of the Jantar Mantar (observatories) are recalled. Although their unique singular
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forms, still extant in Jaipur, Delhi, Banaras and other places, are so extravagant as to
make German Expressionist works inconspicuous, they are also not play but practical
forms.
Jai Singh II, the intelligent Maharaja of Jaipur in the 18th century, had an untiring passion
for science, constructing huge observatories in various cities in northern India. His
research and assemblage of the essence of leading-edge sciences at that time and pursuit
of the most functional and rational forms based on them bore fruit in these astonishing
architectural figures. It is quite interesting that neither traditional elements of Hindu
architecture nor the details of Islamic architecture are used here, but as the outcome of
scientific development, it would not have been play.
PLAY IN ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE
As we saw in the above sections, it is quite difficult to find examples of play in
architecture itself in India. Then, is there nothing at all around the world?
In point of fact, I notice that the spirit of play pervaded not only sculpture but also
architecture of the mediaeval period in Europe, which was strictly controlled by the
Christian religion.
The famous Romanesque abbey, Santo Domingo de Silos, in northern Spain has a
magnificent courtyard encircled with beautiful cloisters. A compound pillar of four
columns in the west cloister is conspicuous because of being twisted; those columns are
all slanted as if the masons had carelessly set their tops and bottoms at wrong positions,
giving a quite eccentric posture to the pillar.
Since this pillar is actually monolithic, and not twisted in the least, it can sufficiently
support its heavy vertical load. This aspect of the pillar is not connected to the practicality
of the building; on the contrary it is a joke or an expression of a spirit of humor, enjoying
tricking viewers in their sense of sight.
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Cloisters of the abbey of Santo Domingo de Silos
Although it is a surprise that such a joke or play is done in a monastery, which normally
would be quite austere, one can notice that similar behavior in architecture is seen in
various places during a tour of Romanesque architecture in Europe; some columns bend
or meander like spaghetti and others buckle as if they cannot sustain a too heavy load.
If the ornamentation such as sculpture is categorized in the secondary elements of
architecture, Romanesque architecture would be the first instance of play in the primary
elements of architecture such as columns, beams and arches.
Though there are a large number of examples of play in sculptures in India, I know of no
examples of making a joke in the primary elements of architecture.
However, is this perspective too narrow to see examples of ‘play in architecture’? In the
category of sculpture, there is a difference between those set independently on the surface
of buildings and those carved inseparably from the primary elements of architecture. In
the latter cases, if some carvings are intended to give enjoyment to the viewer, without
relation to practicality, they might also be called ‘play in architecture’.
Window screens of the Sanprati Raja Temple, Girnar
PLEASURE IN INDIAN ARCHITECTURE
Given this viewpoint, plenty of examples of ‘play in architecture’ can be instantly
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recalled. Typical examples are the Derwara Temples in the bosom of Mt. Abu and the
Adinatha Temple soaring alone among deep mountains at Ranakpur.
The Vimala Vasahi is a temple donated by a minister of the Solanki Dynasty on Mt.
Abu; it is made of white marble, surface of which is exquisitely carved except the floors,
while the Adinatha Temple at Ranakpur has about 400 columns similarly carved, none
of which is said to have the same pattern.
An example of this principle applied to windows is in the Sanpraty Raja Temple on Mt.
Girnar, in which play can be seen in all the window screens of different patterns.
Moreover sculptures on the domical ceilings of the temples on Mt. Abu are enormously
complex and delicate beyond imagination; according to tradition, sculptors were paid in
proportion to the amount of marble that they carved off, so they carved more and more
intricately.
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A domical ceiling at Mt. Abu and pillars of the Vitthala Temple
Such spectacular architectural components can be seen above all in the architecture of
Vijayanagara, the last Hindu dynasty in southern India, as seen in the above photograph
of the Vitthala Temple, every pillar of which is carved out so fantastically and endlessly,
in a way that cannot be found other than in India throughout the world. This extreme
world, mixing religious passion and artistic eagerness, seem to have fallen into a slight
decadence beyond the spirit of play.
If one supposes that temples and palaces are always decorated brilliantly, so they are not
‘play in architecture’, I can show a yet more astonishing example: the stepwells existing
mainly in the state of Gujarat, western India.
Originally they were nothing other than practical facilities, but their steps leading to the
bottom of the wells consist of stone columns and beams, which are carved with
unbelievable magnificence, though they were not for the use of kings or nobles. The
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photo shows the stepwell at the small village of Adalaj, which can be reached by a onehour bus ride from Ahmadabad. Villagers can take a cool rest on the landings of the stairs
during days of insufferable heat.
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Stepwell at Adalaj, India, and Khaju Bridge in Isfahan, Iran
It is a piece of underground architecture; one can see only an entrance part on the ground,
and all the the other parts were constructed below the ground. The perspective view of its
subterranean framework of columns and beams emerging in the dark, bathed in the light
from the sky, is quite fantastic.
It is one of the two greatest achievements of civil engineering construction for common
people, exceeding simple utility, and attaining artistic beauty with splendid space and
decoration, ranking alongside the Khaju Bridge on the Zayandeh River in Isfahan, Iran.
ACROMEGALY in ARCHITECTURE
What is Acromegaly in architecture? It is the tendency in design to devote tremendous
energy on spaces and forms of minor importance and make them more conspicuous than
those of main functions of the building, in other words, it is the attitude of giving explicit
independency to some less important parts rather than subordinating them to the central
scheme.
Such a design attitude would be rejected by orthodox view of architecture and criticized
by the rationalistic mind. However, that ‘orthodoxy’ is only defined in modern Europe or
Japan, and cannot be called universal for all ages and areas.
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Temple of Horus with soaring Pylon, Edfu, Egypt
When looking at the temple architecture of ancient Egypt for example, its rectangular
precincts are entirely surrounded with high walls like a fortress, making it impossible to
figure out from the outside what is within, on the contrary one part of the temple is
massively displayed, the gigantic pair of pylons on one short side wall. The pylons are a
temple gateway, soaring high-rise stone buildings in a pair, sandwiching a huge entrance
door to the precincts between them, and connected to each other over the entrance door,
looking like a single edifice.
The surfaces of these magnificent pylons are embellished with various ornaments such as
relief sculptures of gods or kings. The impression of the total external appearance of
Egyptian temples is determined entirely by pylons, other components are completely
hidden within high walls, even the upper part of the central sanctuary is not made visible
from outside.
Even when going into the temple, one finds that the sanctuary is nothing but a small dark
room, and one wonders why the architect made only its gateway so majestic and
neglected the physical form of its central shrine, which would have been esteemed as the
most important architectural component. This is ‘acromegaly in architecture’.
Functionally, the gate is only an entrance to the precincts, with the ability to be locked
regularly or on occasion, not demanding to be as huge as to surpass the principal space;
this way of thinking is the spirit of modern rationalism.
The ancient Egyptians did not think so. They must have considered that the gate itself is
the face of the building complex, and just as human personality and character permeates a
face, the ‘raison dêtre’ of a building should be likewise expressed in the gate. They must
never have thought that giving majesty to a minor component of a temple would harm the
dignity of its main shrine.
In the case of the largest piece of temple architecture in ancient Egypt, the Great Temple
of Amun in Karnak, larger pylons were constructed in front each time the scale of the
temple was enlarged, eventually reaching six pairs in number. Such acromegalic
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architecture could be considered a curious anomaly in the history of world architecture.
Gopuras in the Arnachaleshvara Temple
DRAVIDIAN TEMPLES in SOUTHERN INDIA
However, there was another architecture in the world, which also held such mentality,
other than Egyptian; the early modern Hindu temples of the so-called Dravidian Style in
southern India. Although during the age of the Chola Empire in the medieval period,
Vimanas (main shrines) were given tremendous figures with heights reaching up to more
than 60m, such as the Brihadishvara Temple in Thanjavur , the mode of temple
architecture thoroughly changed in the 14th century during the Vijayanagara Dynasty.
Leaving main shrines as small as they were when first built, and encircling the whole
precincts as a rectangle with walls, architects came to construct magnificent tower gates
at the entrances, which are not called pylons but gopuras.
In the course of time, their precincts were further enlarged and surrounded with high
walls as in ancient Egypt, erecting huger gopuras. In the cases of important temples, this
cycle was repeated many times; the number of gopuras occasionally increased to more
than ten and the highest ones could attain to over 70m in height. (Note)
In the city of Tiruvannamalai, as the result of the repeated enlargement of the
Arnachaleshvara Temple, its imposing gopuras soar like skyscrapers in Manhattan,
looking down the town scape and the surrounding landscape.
Since the main shrine is very small and located in the central enclosure, its existence
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cannot figured out from outside. It would be difficult for current architects to even
consider that these ten majestic skyscrapers are nothing but gates of a temple.
Though the reason for the change in direction to acromegaly in Dravidian temple
architecture is not yet clear, we can also find similar acromegaly, or the phenomena of the
independency of elements constituting a whole, in the design of a gopura itself.
The North Gopura of the Minakshi-Sundareshvara Temple
The Minakshi-Sundareshvara Temple in Madurai, which is considered to be the best
representative of Dravidian temples in early modern ages, has as many as 12 gopuras,
mainly erected in the 17th century. The great gopura at the northern side has ten stories
and is about 45m in height. Its upper stories are gradually set back from the lower stories,
delineating a slightly concave curve in silhouette, and rising high into the sky like a
Gothic cathedral.
As for the material of this gopura, only the ground floor, which stands high astride an
entrance passageway, is made of stone, and the superstructure constituting the upper nine
stories is of brick, the surface of which is elaborately sculpted and colorfully plastered. Its
base plan is standardized rectangular and the top is surmounted with a barrel vaulted
enormous stone ridgepole.
COMPOSITONAL PRINCIPLES of GOPURAS
Indian temple architecture is popularly known to be covered with numerous sculptures of
gods, animals and human couples, but when observing details of a gopura, one will see
that it is made far more architecturally than sculpturally. Let us look slightly left of the
center in the second story of the north gopura of Madurai (photo and diagram below).
There is a Shala, or a temple-form unit (a basic temple form of two stories) of the
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Dravidian style, carved minutely. Each story of the gopura has such temple units lined up
innumerably. On the top of the photo can be seen the bottom part of the temple-form unit
in the third story, and its central axis is a little deviated from that of the one below
because of the setback of upper stories into slightly reduced proportion.
A Shala (temple-form unit) on the second stair of the North Gopura,
(the Minakshi-Sundareshvara Temple, Madurai)
Disassembly of the Shala (above photo) into its self-similar elements
When looking carefully into this complete temple-form unit (1 on the disassembly
diagram), which is a self-sufficient temple enshrining a sculpted goddess, one can realize
that three smaller Shalas (temple units) are stacked on its central axis (2 - 4 on the
diagram), each of which is a complete independent temple of two stories, and furthermore
one can find minimum-sized temples in and around them (5 - 14).
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In short, this temple unit in the second story has an intricate telescopic structure
comprised of 14 temples that are all self-sufficient independent buildings, with a
sanctuary, front columns on a podium, eaves, and a vault-like roof on the second floor
columns.
Though the proportions of temple units are full of variety, each story of the gopura has a
line of some 30 units of telescopic structure, so if a gopura has ten stories, it can be
calculated to contain 3,000 to 4,000 temples in total. Since the Minakshi-Sundareshvara
Temple has twelve gopuras, surprisingly close to 30,000 temples are embedded
throughout its entire precincts in a telescopic way.
While that great number is quite something, the architectural method in which minimum
temples are combined with each other to make small temples, which in turn are joined
together to form middle sized temples, which are piled up to compose a large gopura is
extremely unique, never known in the world other than in India.
However huge and complicated Gothic cathedrals might be, their components, arches,
pillars, buttresses, turrets, traceries and so on, never take the form of independent church
buildings. From what derived the impulses that gave such inclusion into a gopura, which
has the function of a mere gate, and granted a temple form to each inferior element in
spending considerable energy?
Vimana of the Mallikarjuna Temple, Kuruvatti
COLUMN BASE DESIGN
In order to explore this further, let us examine another appearance of acromegaly in
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architecture. It is also in southern India but from an age when vimanas were erected
greater than gopuras: a mediaeval Hindu temple in the Karnataka region.
Close to the end of the 10th century, Indian stone architecture had almost attained to its
highest technical accomplishment, in spite of being wooden-like post and beam structure.
The Mallikarjuna Temple in Kuruvatti was built in the late Chalkyan Style, which is just
the middle form between the Northern and Southern temple styles. (The temple is
especially famous by the sculptures on its column capitals on its facade).
Plan of the Mallikarjuna Temple, Kuruvatti
(From "Encyclopaedia of Indian Temple Architecture" by M.A. Dhaky,
American Institute of Indian Studies, 1996)
Its plan consists of the Garbhagriha (sanctuary), an Antarala (anteroom) and a Mandapa
(hall) with three entrance porches. The Mandapa has four columns as usual to sustain the
ceiling beams. The chlorite columns take a form like a stack of round disks, which are
supposed to have been produced with a lathe. The most interesting factor is their
elaborate column bases.
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Column Base of the Mallikarjuna Temple
They are probably the most exuberantly decorated column bases in the world. In contrast
to the round shape shaft, each base is square in outline, standing on a geometrically
chiseled podium, four corners of which have small fluted columns with a three tiered
capitals, on which are mini-temples of two stories.
On each face, between these corner columns, is carved a high towered temple of one story
on four mini-columns. This tower has an artillery shell shape called a Shikhara, which is
composed of a stack of small Shikharas and surmounted with an Amalaka (fluted disk)
and a Kalasha (finial). Apart from volute ornament around the Shikhara, it is a complete
northern type temple with even a statue of the main deity carved between the minicolumns.
In short, each of these four columns in the Mandpa contains four northern type temples
back to back on its column base.
Since a Stambha (pillar or column) in India symbolizes the vertical axis connecting
heaven and earth, the center of each column is the independent axis of the universe,
having four temples (houses of gods) facing the four directions (the world).
In the first place, the main shrine of a Hindu temple is a Garbhagriha (womb house as a
sanctuary), which enshrines a Linga (phallus as a symbol of Shiva), erecting a Shikhara
(high tower as a large Linga) over it and crowning it with a Kalasha (Himalayan Mt.
Kailasa as an abode of Shiva), so it is interpreted as the axis of the universe connecting
the earth for men and the heaven for gods.
In this Mallikarjuna Temple, the Mandapa also forms a symbolic sacred place surrounded
by four columns, each of which stands as an independent axis of the universe, plainly
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indicating that the temple is a cosmos with the omnipresence of Hindu gods.
Usually in Western architecture since the ancient Greeks, people do not pay much
attention to column bases compared to capitals, the Indian sprit, which is to make every
column in a Mandapa an axis of the universe, has the foot of each column immanent of
the universe, making its extremity hypertrophy to tremendous density and elaboration in
form.
It has to be said that the method which filled some thousand temples into a single Gopura
in southern type Hindu temples take root on the same spirit as this.
The temple composition, which gave extreme prominence to only the entrance gates and
left the main shrines smaller, and manifoldly encircled the precincts by high walls, is not
seen in the world other than in ancient Egypt and in early modern southern India. What
relationship was able to exist between these two remote regions both in time and
distance?
As according to geophysics the current Indian Subcontinent was integrated with the
African continent eons ago, might the memory of remote ancestors of some hundred
million years past revived in a common architectural constitution?
Architecture of Hindu Temples
Hindu architecture, representing a plurality of beliefs, is commonly divided into the northern Nagara
and southern Dravidian styles.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Differentiate between the northen Nagara and southern Dravidian styles of Hindu temple architecture
KEY TAKEAWAYS
Key Points
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Hindu art represents a plurality of beliefs and has deeply influenced the painting, sculpture, and
architecture of the Indian subcontinent. Architecture and sculpture are inextricably linked in
Hindu temples, which are usually devoted to a number of different deities .
A Hindu temple generally consists of an inner sanctum, in which the idol of the deity is housed;
a congregation hall; and sometimes an antechamber and porch.
Two main styles of temples exist in India: the north Indian Nagara style, characterized by a
beehive shaped central tower, and the south Indian Dravidia style, characterized by a graduated
tower with multiple layered pavilions.
The period between the 6th and 12th centuries was marked by the appearance of a large
number of Hindu states and was a productive and creative period for Hindu temple
architecture.
Key Terms
shikhara: The tower surmounting a Hindu temple.
om: A sacred, mystical syllable used to invoke God in Hindu prayer and meditation.
Introduction: Hinduism and Hindu Art
Hinduism is the predominant religion of the Indian subcontinent. Dating back to the Iron Age , it is
often called the oldest living religion in the world. Hinduism has no single founder and is a
conglomeration of diverse traditions and philosophies rather than a rigid set of beliefs. Most Hindus
believe in a single supreme God who appears in many different manifestations as devas (celestial
beings or deities), and they may worship specific devas as individual facets of the same God.
Hindu art reflects this plurality of beliefs, and Hindu temples, in which architecture and sculpture are
inextricably connected, are usually devoted to different deities. Deities commonly worshiped include
Shiva the Destroyer; Vishnu in his incarnations as Rama and Krishna; Ganesha, the elephant god of
prosperity; and different forms of the goddess Shakti (literally meaning “power”), the primordial
feminine creative principle. These deities are often portrayed with multiple limbs and heads,
demonstrating the extent of the god’s power and ability. Hindu art is also characterized by a number
of recurring holy symbols, including the om , an invocation of the divine consciousness of God; the
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swastika, a symbol of auspiciousness; and the lotus flower, a symbol of purity, beauty, fertility, and
transcendence.
Hindu Temples
A Hindu temple generally consists of a garba griha (“womb chamber”), the inner sanctum in which
the murti , or idol of the deity, is housed; a congregation hall; and sometimes an antechamber and
porch. The garba griha is surmounted by a shikhara , or tower. Two main styles of temples exist in
India: the northern Nagara style and the southern Dravida style.
The Nagara Style
In the northern Nagara style, the shikhara takes the shape of a curvilinear beehive. The temple is a
square with a number of graduated projections in the middle of each side, giving a cruciform shape
with a number of re-entrant angles on each side. The projections in the plan are also carried upwards
to the top of the shikhara, giving a strong emphasis on vertical lines in elevation .
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Lingaraj Temple, Bhubaneshwar, Orissa: The 11th century Lingaraj Temple is a fine example of
the north Indian Nagara style of temple architecture, marked by its curvilinear, beehive-shaped
shikhara.
The Dravidian Style
In the southern Dravidian style, the tower or gopuram consists of progressive smaller stories of
pavilions. These temples were square in plan and pyramidal in shape; included porches
(mandapams) and pillard halls (chaultris or chawadis); and contained tanks or wells for water to be
used for sacred purposes or the convenience of the priests.
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Brihadeeswarar Temple Gopuram Detail: The Brihadeeswarar Temple in Tanjore has the tallest
Dravida style tower (216 feet) in India. The multiple stories are ornately carved.
History and Well-Known Temples
The earliest Hindu temples found in India date back to the Gupta period (ca. 320–550 CE); one of
these is the Dashavatara Vishnu Temple in Deogarh in central India, built ca. 500 CE. The period
between the 6th and 12th centuries was marked by the appearance of a large number of states, most
of which were ruled by Hindu dynasties . This was a deeply productive and creative period for Hindu
temple architecture, and many beautiful examples survive to the present day. Some surviving works
include the monumental , rock-cut Kailashnath Temple (754–774 CE) dedicated to Shiva at Ellora in
the western state of Maharashtra; the 11th century Brihadeeswarar Temple in Tanjore in the southern
state of Tamil Nadu, which is India’s largest temple; and the Sun Temple (1238–1250 CE) at
Konarak in Orissa. Although many Hindu temples were destroyed during the period of Muslim rule
in India (12th to 18th centuries), Hindu influence on Indian art and architecture has withstood the test
of time and continues to shape works of art.
Hindu Sculpture
Hindu sculpture represents the themes of its religion through its depiction of deities and recurring
symbols, such as the lotus flower.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Evaluate the religious themes that contribute to an understanding of Hindu sculpture
KEY TAKEAWAYS
Key Points
Most Hindus believe in a single supreme God who appears in many different manifestations
as devas, or celestial beings or deities ; Hindu sculpture reflects this plurality of beliefs.
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Because religion and culture are inseparable with Hinduism , recurring symbols such as the
gods and their reincarnations, the lotus flower, and extra limbs make their appearances in many
sculptures of Hindu origin.
Deities are often portrayed with multiple limbs and heads, demonstrating the extent of the
God’s power and ability.
Hindu sculpture is characterized by recurring holy symbols such as the om , an invocation of
the divine consciousness of God; the swastika, a symbol of auspiciousness; and the lotus
flower, a symbol of purity, beauty, fertility, and transcendence.
Sculpture is inextricably linked with architecture in Hindu temples, which are usually devoted
to a number of different deities.
Key Terms
Hinduism: A religion or a way of life found most notably in India and Nepal; with over one
billion followers, it is the world’s third largest religion by population.
dharma: A key concept with multiple meanings in the Indian religions Hinduism, Buddhism,
Sikhism, and Jainism; in Hinduism, it signifies behaviors that are considered to be in accord
with the order that makes life and universe possible, including duties, rights, laws, conduct,
virtues, and “right way of living.”
Themes of Hindu Art and Sculpture
Hinduism is a conglomeration of diverse traditions and philosophies rather than a rigid set of beliefs.
Most Hindus believe in a single supreme God who appears in many different manifestations
as devas (celestial beings or deities), and they may worship specific devas as individual facets of the
same God. Hindu sculpture, as seen in other forms of Hindu art, reflects this plurality of beliefs.
Because religion and culture are inseparable with Hinduism, recurring symbols such as the gods and
their reincarnations, the lotus flower, extra limbs, and even the traditional arts make their appearances
in many sculptures of Hindu origin.
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Depictions of Deities
Deities commonly worshiped and portrayed through sculpture include Shiva the Destroyer; Vishnu in
his incarnations as Rama and Krishna; Ganesha, the elephant god of prosperity; and different forms
of the goddess Shakti (literally meaning “power”), the primordial feminine creative principle. These
deities are often portrayed with multiple limbs and heads, demonstrating the extent of the god’s
power and ability. For example, the goddess Sarasvati is always depicted with a minimum of four
arms: two of the arms will be playing a vina, representing the tuning of her knowledge; her other two
hands often hold prayer beads and a scripture, both of which represent her devotion to her spirituality.
As the goddess of learning and art, she is depicted in this way as very capable and powerful in her
area of expertise.
Shiva Nataraja, the Lord of the Dance: Nataraja from Tamil Nadu, India. Chola dynasty copper
alloy sculpture, ca. 950–1000 CE. The deity is depicted as having multiple arms, as is common for
idols of Hindu gods.
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Symbols in Hindu Sculpture
Hindu sculpture is also characterized by a number of recurring holy symbols, including the om, an
invocation of the divine consciousness of God; the swastika, a symbol of auspiciousness; and the
lotus flower, a symbol of purity, beauty, prosperity, fertility, and transcendence. The lotus flower is
associated with these attributes due to its own process of blossoming: the flower grows out of mud
and rests atop the water in which it grows, illustrating the hardship it must endure in order to achieve
maximum beauty. Many deities have their name based on the Sanskrit word for lotus, such
as Lakshimi. In addition to these symbols, flowers, birds, animals, instruments, symmetric mandala
drawings, objects, and idols are all part of symbolic iconography in Hinduism.
Connection to Architecture
Sculpture is inextricably linked with architecture in Hindu temples, which are usually devoted to a
number of different deities. The Hindu temple style reflects a synthesis of arts, the ideals of dharma ,
beliefs, values , and the way of life cherished under Hinduism. Elaborately ornamented with sculpture
throughout, these temples are a network of art, pillars with carvings, and statues that display and
celebrate the four important and necessary principles of human life under Hinduism—the pursuit
of artha (prosperity, wealth), the pursuit of kama (pleasure, sex), the pursuit of dharma (virtues,
ethical life), and the pursuit of moksha (release, self-knowledge).
LICE
HTTPS://COURSES.LUMENLEARNING.COM/BOUNDLESS-ARTHISTORY/CHAPTER/HINDU-
ART/NSES AND ATTRIBUTIONS
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CHAPTER VIII
Design Elements.towards Divinity
Divinity is a recurring concept throughout Hinduism and other world religions. The word ‘divine’ has
become associated with God or other supernatural being – a power that is greater than man.Ancient
texts originating from India talk about divinities in reference to the many Gods of the Hindu
pantheon. These texts appear to have influenced the myths of later civilisations and modern day
religions.Although it is said there are some 330 million gods in Hinduism, divine Yogis understand
there is just One Supreme God – Brahman – which is personified by the Trimurti; Brahma, Vishnu
and Shiva. he Trimurti are the Highest Divinities of the Hindu pantheon. Yet Hindus with an in-depth
understanding of the True Self – the Atman, realise that the Trimurti are merely aspects of our inner
life.
Essentially, human beings have the potential to become God-like by connecting with the ‘divine’
power that is within us. The divine power within us is the Atman and we connect with the Supreme
Universal Divinity which is the mysterious Brahman.
God in Man
Hindu texts written thousands of years ago teach us how to develop the qualities of divinity.
Religious texts make no bones that God resides in man. The Svetasvatara Upanishad describes the
Atman as the God that resides within.
Similarly, in the Christian Bible, Genesis 1:27 states: “God created mankind in his own image.”
Although the Catholic Church personifies God as some supernatural Sky Daddy, the texts imply that
man has the divine qualities of God if we choose to discover our true Self – the Atman – the God that
resides within.
In the Bhagavad Gita, Lord Krishna talks about the ‘divine mystery’ being a royal secret. Kings,
crowns and thus royalty are used in esoteric symbolism to represent Yogis – enlightened beings.
This ‘royal secret’ is knowledge that can only be gained through self-examination. Eventually, the
process of self-examination results in a revelation – the point of self-realisation, or if you like, an
understanding on an deeper, emotional level.
A spiritual aspirant therefore has to search for the divine power within. And the God in ancient myths
demonstrates what we have to do in order to become an enlightened soul and ‘see the face of God.’
Where is the divine power within?
This is a question that is open to debate. Yogis teach us that we can access our divine power through
the breath. By breathing from the pit of the stomach and using the whole diaphragm, we fall deeper
into trance.
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In deep meditation, we are able to access levels of consciousness which connect us to the divine. By
training the mind to empty and concentrate on an intention, you can explore and discover the divine
in you.
The ancient Chinese call this energy centre the Tan Tien. This is where the chi energy starts. Hindus
have a similar concept which explains how the chi energy emerges and passes through the chakra
system.
The Tan Tien is situated about an inch below the navel, in the middle of the sacral chakra and the
solar plexus chakra. These are arguably the two most important chakras – although this is open for
debate and many people will have alternative opinions.
My reasoning behind this statement is because the sacral chakra is the energy centre for creation. The
ancient Sanskrit word for the sacral chakra is Svadhisthana which means ‘dwelling place of the Self.’
In other words, where the Atman resides.
Atman remember is the individual God that resides within – your personal divine power that connects
you to the Universal divinity which is Brahman.
The Solar Plexus chakra is regarded as the control room. This powerful energy centre can be used for
burning away old values that no longer serve us in order to bring in new values. Among the Hindu
Gods the Solar Plexus is the divine power of Shiva and Shakti.
So together, the sacral chakra and the solar plexus chakra can be used to help us transform from an
ordinary mortal and develop the divine qualities reflected in the mythological Gods.
The qualities of a divine Being
Yogis explain that to access divine knowledge, we must transcend the bounds of reason and logic that
we typically apply to things in the physical world.
When we let go and allow our minds to wander beyond the five physical senses, we connect with our
divine self and acquire knowledge that enables us to dissolve the ego.
Throughout history we have heard stories about these revelations being grandiose epiphanies – visits
from God. In reality, self-realisation is far less dramatic, although is usually accompanied by feelings
of light-headedness and a release of tension felt leaving the body. We tend to call them ‘Eureka
moments’ or ‘ha-ha moments.’
The truth about yourself comes from within. By internalising your thoughts and examining your
actions, you understand more about yourself. This is how to connect with your higher self and expand
your conscious awareness. he Vedas inform us that divine qualities are fearlessness, love, gratitude,
appreciation, compassion, patience, honesty, control of emotions and purity of mind.
Men that oppose the qualities of divine beings in Hindu mythology develop demonical qualities that
we find in the Asuras; ignorance, anger, arrogance, hate, selfishness, materialism, indulgence,
boastfulness and jealousy.As children we develop the qualities of the Asuras because we do not know
any better unless guided by adults; parents, teachers, spiritual leaders etc.Sadly, many of us our
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misled by the glamorous ideal of a life you can have. In essence, these fantastical ideals steer us away
from the inner Truth of the divine Self.So essentially, you have a choice. Chase a non-realistic dream
that magazines promise. Or look within, touch the divine Self and create the life you want for
yourself.1
Hinduism is considered to be the oldest religion in the world. But it is much more than that. Hindu
mythology has been tolerant of other religions and traditions since its inception. In terms of scripture,
it is a delightful concoction of epic stories of morality and righteousness. These stories give us ideal
characters like Rama, Laxamana, and the Pandavas. The Vedas give us an insight into ancient science
and astronomy. Epics like Mahabharata and Ramayana narrate divine stories of the never-ending
battle between good and evil. These are the reasons that the rich history of Hindu mythology is
fascinating for both Hindus and non-Hindus.
Origin of Temples
Going back to the history, the ancient period is divided into four stages and is called as the Krta,
Treta, Dvapara and Kali. The Krta also known as the Satya Yuga was called the golden age or the age
of truth where there was no malice, deceit and had only righteousness. They all believed that there
was only one god who lived among the humans. Then came the Treta Yuga where righteousness
deteriorated by one fourth and here the main virtue was to acquire knowledge. They considered that
god was a scarce entity and would descend to earth only when men invoked them in rituals and
sacrifices. During the third division of time called the Dvapara Yuga, righteousness existed only in
half the amount and eventually misery, disease, caste came into existence. The presence of god
multiplied and each individual started forming groups and having their own images of god. However
Kaliyuga is the present age of mankind. It is said that this age began at midnight between February 17
and 18, 3102 BC with righteousness being only one tenth. It is the time of anger, lust, pride, discord
and there is very little room for true worship and sacrifice. Individuals are more involved with
materialistic satisfaction and sexual desires.
Temples appeared during Kali Yuga. During this phase temples were built and icons were installed
however, the gods ceased to come down. In contrast to the previous periods where the gods were
available to all the individuals equally, in Kaliyuga only the priests who belong to the traditional
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hierarchy of professional worshipers and at the same time competent individuals could compel the
presence of the almighty.
Architecture
Temples are located strategically at a place where the positive energy is abundantly available from
the magnetic and electric wave distributions of north/south pole thrust. The main idol is placed in the
core center of the temple, known as “*Garbhagriha*” or *Moolasthanam*. In fact, the temple
structure is built after the idol has been placed. This *Moolasthanam* is where earth’s magnetic
waves are found to be maximum.
We know that there are some copper plates, inscribed with Vedic scripts, buried beneath the Main
Idol. What are they really? No, they are not God’s / priests’ flash cards when they forget the
*shlokas*. The copper plate absorbs earth’s magnetic waves and radiates it to the surroundings. Thus
a person regularly visiting a temple and walking clockwise around the Main Idol receives the beamed
magnetic waves and his body absorbs it. This is a very slow process and a regular visit will let him
absorb more of this positive energy. Scientifically, it is the positive energy that we all require to have
a healthy life.
I.
Satya Yuga
Hindu mythology clearly states that all living beings pass through a continuous cycle of creation and
destruction, the Maha Yuga. This cycle repeats itself over four different epochs or Yugas. The first of
these Yugas is the Satya Yuga, which spans a period of 1,728,000 years. The Satya Yuga is said to be
the golden age of truth and enlightenment. In this age, people attained an ideal state of mind and their
actions were always reasoned and virtuous. The sacred texts further state that there was a surplus
flow of ideas and thoughts between people.
Everyone led an honest life and adhered to the truth. Everyone had acquired the answer to the
ultimate question – the origin of everything. And since there was virtually nothing to conceal, even
the tiniest thread of thought was accessible to everyone without verbal communication. Human
physiology also significantly differed from the one that we exhibit today. People used to be around
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31.5 feet (21 cubits or 80cm) tall. They also had a lifespan that stretched over hundreds of thousands
of years.
II. Treta Yuga
This represents the second age in the cycle of Maha Yuga. The Hindu scripts state that Treta Yuga
spans a period of 1,296,000 human years. By the advent of Treta Yuga, the presence of sattva or
goodness in human nature had slowly started to diminish. Whatever goodness or virtue that remained
in people was now accompanied by an ever-increasing amount of tamas and rajas. Tamas represented
the darkness in human nature and rajas constituted all the passion a human could conjure. By now,
people had nurtured an acute level of intellect, but they had also lost a good deal of control over their
body and its physiology.
People’s stature was now smaller than during the Satya Yuga, with the average human being around
14 cubits tall, but there were some exceptional beings who had attained a godly build and divine
persona such as the characters Rama, Laxamana, Ravana, and Hanumana who were considered
godlike for their extraordinary strength and inimitable intellect.
III. Dwapar Yuga
Dwapar Yuga represents the third age right after Treta Yuga. Also known as the Bronze Age, the
Dwapar Yuga is said to have lasted for 864,000 human years. It represents an age where goodness
and evil in human nature are neck and neck. As the human body loses satva or purity, people attain a
far greater control over their body than their intellect. By the time Dwapar Yuga was at its peak, man
had already lost control over his innermost body and knowledge. He became more attracted to the
materialistic aspects of the world, succumbing to his ever-increasing desires. Only intellectuals like
Bhisma, Dharmaraja, and Vidura were able to escape this fate. Eventually, there was a gradual
decline in the moral fiber of society in general. People with enormous physicality became
increasingly offensive in their thirst for desire and power. The average human lifespan had also come
down to 1,000 years. IV. Kali Yuga
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The last age in the ever-repeating cycle of Maha Yuga is the Kali Yuga. It is also the shortest, lasting
for 432,000 human years. The current time period falls under Kali Yuga, and it is also referred to as
the Iron Age. The Kali Yuga represents hypocrisy and instability like never before. Human nature is
significantly corrupted by the temptations of sin and only a little conscience remains.
The human body is at its lowest in terms of physicality and intellect. An average man is only 3.5
cubits tall and lives for around 100 to 120 years. Citing the ancient Hindu scripts, it is estimated that
around 5,000 years of Kali Yuga have already passed by. It is also predicted that when Kali Yuga
reaches its dying years, the lifespan of man will be no more than 20 years. This age has been
highlighted by man’s unprecedented longing for materialism. In a stark contrast to previous ages,
human lives have been corrupted by ignorance and the connection to one’s inner self has been lost. 2
Temples are the focal points of religious worship. Through architectural representation they can
express religious ideology. From the late Dark Ages to the Classical Period and beyond, humanity
had been consistently struggling with their understanding of God, divinity, and the world around
them. In the historic and prehistoric evidence of humanity we see a constant attempt to understand the
nature of the world around us and how it interacts with us. One of the most ancient understandings of
the nature of the world and all within it comes through the notion of divinity. Harboring a belief in
the divine is an effort to understand not only the world, but also its relation to us. Religion is the
organization and patterning of a conception of divinity. In many historical civilizations we see the
reflection of religion in human creations. Temple architecture is only one creation through which
religion and divinity are expressed, but it is potentially a powerfully persuasive medium, which can
support tremendous intricacy of expression. Through an understanding of temple architecture, we can
hope to have an insight into the nature of divinity in a particular religion.3
Architecture has always had a role to play in religious worship - here's our pick of the best modern
religious buildings, from one of the largest mosques in the world to a diminutive chapel built to
honour a 15th-century hermit. The mainland Greeks expressed their conception of divinity in many
ways through the design and function of Archaic and Classical temples of the Doric order. As the
Islamic religious calendar is based on the lunar cycle, the moon became a source of inspiration and a
unifying element of the design. The building of somemosques such as -The Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan
al Nahyan Mosque- alters character as the lunar cycle progresses, bathed in cool white light at the full
moon, but shifting colour every two evenings, and growing gradually bluer as the moon wanes. On
the fourteenth evening the mosque is lit in deepest blue to signify darkness - yet the viewer is never
able to perceive the building changing from one colour to the next.
Sacred or religious architecture is sometimes called sacred space.
Architect Norman L. Koonce has suggested that the goal of sacred architecture is to make
"transparent the boundary between matter and mind, flesh and the spirit." In discussing sacred
architecture, Protestant minister Robert Schuller suggested that "to be psychologically healthy,
human beings need to experience their natural setting—the setting we were designed for, which is the
garden." Meanwhile, Richard Kieckhefer suggests that entering into a religious building is a
metaphor for entering into spiritual relationship. Kieckhefer suggests that sacred space can be
analyzed by three factors affecting spiritual process: longitudinal space emphasizes the procession
and return of sacramental acts, auditorium space is suggestive of proclamation and response, and new
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forms of communal space designed for gathering and return depend to a great degree on minimized
scale to enhance intimacy and participation in worship.
Sacral architecture (also known as sacred architecture or religious architecture) is
a religious architectural practice concerned with the design and construction of places of worship or
sacred or intentional space, such as churches, mosques, stupas, synagogues, and temples. Many
cultures devoted considerable resources to their sacred architecture and places of worship. Religious
and sacred spaces are amongst the most impressive and permanent monolithic buildings created by
humanity. Conversely, sacred architecture as a locale for meta-intimacy may also be non-monolithic,
ephemeral and intensely private, personal and non-public.
Sacred, religious and holy structures often evolved over centuries and were the largest buildings in
the world, prior to the modern skyscraper. While the various styles employed in sacred architecture
sometimes reflected trends in other structures, these styles also remained unique from the
contemporary architecture used in other structures. With the rise of Christianity and Islam, religious
buildings increasingly became centres of worship, prayer and meditation.The Western scholarly
discipline of the history of architecture itself closely follows the history of religious architecture from
ancient times until the Baroque period, at least. Sacred geometry, iconography, and the use of
sophisticated semiotics such as signs, symbols and religious motifs are endemic to sacred
architecture.
Design Elements of a Hindu temple
A Hindu temple is a symmetry-driven structure, with many variations, on a square grid of padas,
depicting perfect geometric shapes such as circles and squares.
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Susan Lewandowski states that the underlying principle in a Hindu temple is built around the belief
that all things are one, everything is connected. A temple, states Lewandowski, "replicates again and
again the Hindu beliefs in the parts mirroring, and at the same time being, the universal whole" like
an "organism of repeating cells".
The pilgrim is welcomed through mathematically structured spaces, a network of art, pillars with
carvings and statues that display and celebrate the four important and necessary principles of human
life—the pursuit of artha (prosperity, wealth), the pursuit of kama (desire), the pursuit
of dharma (virtues, ethical life) and the pursuit of moksha (release, self-knowledge).
At the centre of the temple, typically below and sometimes above or next to the deity, is mere hollow
space with no decoration, symbolically representing Purusa, the Supreme Principle, the sacred
Universal, one without form, which is present everywhere, connects everything, and is the essence of
everyone. A Hindu temple is meant to encourage reflection, facilitate purification of one's mind, and
trigger the process of inner realization within the devotee.[2] The specific process is left to the
devotee's school of belief. The primary deity of different Hindu temples varies to reflect this spiritual
spectrum.
The site
The appropriate site for a Mandir, suggest ancient Sanskrit texts, is near water and gardens, where
lotus and flowers bloom, where swans, ducks and other birds are heard, where animals rest without
fear of injury or harm.[2] These harmonious places were recommended in these texts with the
explanation that such are the places where gods play, and thus the best site for Hindu temples.[2][26]
While major Hindu mandirs are recommended at sangams (confluence of rivers), river banks, lakes
and seashore, the Brhat Samhita and Puranas suggest temples may also be built where a natural
source of water is not present. Here too, they recommend that a pond be built preferably in front or to
the left of the temple with water gardens. If water is neither present naturally nor by design, water is
symbolically present at the consecration of temple or the deity. Temples may also be built,
suggests Visnudharmottara in Part III of Chapter 93,[29] inside caves and carved stones, on hill tops
affording peaceful views, mountain slopes overlooking beautiful valleys, inside forests and
hermitages, next to gardens, or at the head of a town street.
In practice most temples are built as part of a village or town.[30] Some sites such as the capitals of
kingdoms and those considered particularly favourable in terms of sacred geography had numerous
temples. Many ancient capitals vanished and the surviving temples are now found in a rural
landscape;
often
these
are
the
best-preserved
examples
of
older
styles. Aihole, Badami, Pattadakal and Gangaikonda Cholapuram are examples.
The plan
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The 8x8 (64) grid Manduka Hindu Temple Floor Plan, according to Vastupurusamandala. The 64
grid is the most sacred and common Hindu temple template. The bright saffron centre, where
diagonals intersect above, represents the Purusha of Hindu philosophy.
The design, especially the floor plan, of the part of a Hindu temple around the sanctum or shrine
follows a geometrical design called vastu-purusha-mandala. The name is a composite Sanskrit word
with three of the most important components of the plan. Mandala means circle, Purusha is universal
essence
at
the
core
of
Hindu
tradition,
while Vastu means
the
dwelling
[31]
[32]
structure. Vastupurushamandala is a yantra. The design lays out a Hindu temple in a
symmetrical, self-repeating structure derived from central beliefs, myths, cardinality and
mathematical principles.
The four cardinal directions help create the axis of a Hindu temple, around which is formed a perfect
square in the space available. The circle of mandala circumscribes the square. The square is
considered divine for its perfection and as a symbolic product of knowledge and human thought,
while circle is considered earthly, human and observed in everyday life (moon, sun, horizon, water
drop, rainbow). Each supports the other. The square is divided into perfect square grids. In large
temples, this is often a 8x8 or 64 grid structure. In ceremonial temple superstructures, this is an 81
sub-square grid. The squares are called ‘‘padas’’.[6][33] The square is symbolic and has Vedic origins
from fire altar, Agni. The alignment along cardinal direction, similarly is an extension of Vedic
rituals of three fires. This symbolism is also found among Greek and other ancient civilizations,
through the gnomon. In Hindu temple manuals, design plans are described with 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49,
64, 81 up to 1024 squares; 1 pada is considered the simplest plan, as a seat for a hermit or devotee to
sit and meditate on, do yoga, or make offerings with Vedic fire in front. The second design of 4 padas
has a symbolic central core at the diagonal intersection, and is also a meditative layout. The 9 pada
160
design has a sacred surrounded centre, and is the template for the smallest temple. Older Hindu
temple vastumandalas may use the 9 through 49 pada series, but 64 is considered the most sacred
geometric grid in Hindu temples. It is also called Manduka, Bhekapada or Ajira in various ancient
Sanskrit texts. Each pada is conceptually assigned to a symbolic element, sometimes in the form of a
deity or to a spirit or apasara. The central square(s) of the 64 is dedicated to the Brahman (not to be
confused with Brahmin), and are called Brahma padas
.
In a Hindu temple's structure of symmetry and concentric squares, each concentric layer has
significance. The outermost layer, Paisachika padas, signify aspects of Asuras and evil; the next inner
concentric layer is Manusha padas signifying human life; while Devika padas signify aspects of
Devas and good. The Manusha padas typically houses the ambulatory.[2] The devotees, as they walk
around in clockwise fashion through this ambulatory to complete Parikrama (or Pradakshina), walk
between good on inner side and evil on the outer side. In smaller temples, the Paisachika pada is not
part of the temple superstructure, but may be on the boundary of the temple or just symbolically
represented.
The Paisachika padas, Manusha padas and Devika padas surround Brahma padas, which signifies
creative energy and serves as the location for temple's primary idol for darsana. Finally at the very
centre of Brahma padas is Garbhagruha(Garbha- Centre, gruha- house; literally the centre of the
house) (Purusa Space), signifying Universal Principle present in everything and everyone.[2] The spire
of a Hindu temple, called Shikhara in north India and Vimana in south India, is perfectly aligned
above the Brahma pada(s).
A Hindu temple has a Shikhara (Vimana or Spire) that rises symmetrically above the central core of
the temple. These spires come in many designs and shapes, but they all have mathematical precision
and geometric symbolism. One of the common principles found in Hindu temple spires is circles and
turning-squares theme (left), and a concentric layering design (right) that flows from one to the other
as it rises towards the sky.
Beneath the mandala's central square(s) is the space for the formless shapeless all pervasive all
connecting Universal Spirit, the Purusha. This space is sometimes referred to as garbhagriya (literally womb house) - a small, perfect square, windowless, enclosed space without
ornamentation that represents universal essence. In or near this space is typically a murti. This is the
main deity image, and this varies with each temple. Often it is this idol that gives it a local name,
such as Vishnu temple, Krishna temple, Rama temple, Narayana temple, Siva temple, Lakshmi
161
temple, Ganesha temple, Durga temple, Hanuman temple, Surya temple, and others. It is this garbhagriya which devotees seek for ‘‘darsana’’ (literally, a sight of knowledge,[35] or vision.
Above the vastu-purusha-mandala is a high superstructure called the shikhara in north India,
and vimana in south India, that stretches towards the sky.[31] Sometimes, in makeshift temples, the
superstructure may be replaced with symbolic bamboo with few leaves at the top. The vertical
dimension's cupola or dome is designed as a pyramid, conical or other mountain-like shape, once
again using principle of concentric circles and squares (see below). Scholars such as Lewandowski
state that this shape is inspired by cosmic mountain of Mount Meru or Himalayan Kailasa, the abode
of gods according to its ancient mythology.
In larger temples, the outer three padas are visually decorated with carvings, paintings or images
meant to inspire the devotee.[2] In some temples, these images or wall reliefs may be stories from
Hindu Epics, in others they may be Vedic tales about right and wrong or virtues and vice, in some
they may be idols of minor or regional deities. The pillars, walls and ceilings typically also have
highly ornate carvings or images of the four just and necessary pursuits of life—kama, artha, dharma,
and moksa. This walk around is called pradakshina.
Large temples also have pillared halls called mandapa. One on the east side, serves as the waiting
room for pilgrims and devotees. The mandapa may be a separate structure in older temples, but in
newer temples this space is integrated into the temple superstructure. Mega temple sites have a main
temple surrounded by smaller temples and shrines, but these are still arranged by principles of
symmetry, grids and mathematical precision. An important principle found in the layout of Hindu
temples is mirroring and repeating fractal-like design structure,[36] each unique yet also repeating the
central common principle, one which Susan Lewandowski refers to as “an organism of repeating
cells”.
Exceptions to the square grid principle
Predominant number of Hindu temples exhibit the perfect square grid principle.[38] However, there
are some exceptions. For example, the Teli ka Mandir in Gwalior, built in the 8th century CE is not a
square but is a rectangle consisting of stacked squares. Further, the temple explores a number of
structures and shrines in 1:1, 1:2, 1:3, 2:5, 3:5 and 4:5 ratios. These ratios are exact, suggesting the
architect intended to use these harmonic ratios, and the rectangle pattern was not a mistake, nor an
arbitrary approximation. Other examples of non-square harmonic ratios are found at Naresar temple
site of Madhya Pradesh and Nakti-Mata temple near Jaipur, Rajasthan. Michael Meister states that
these exceptions mean the ancient Sanskrit manuals for temple building were guidelines, and
Hinduism permitted its artisans flexibility in expression and aesthetic independence.[6]
The Hindu text Sthapatya Veda describes many plans and styles of temples of which the following
are found in other derivative
literature: Chaturasra (square), Ashtasra (octagonal), Vritta (circular), Ayatasra (rectangular), Ayata
Ashtasra (rectangular-octagonal fusion), Ayata Vritta (elliptical), Hasti Prishta (apsidal), Dwayasra
Vrita (rectangular-circular fusion); in Tamil literature, the Prana Vikara (shaped like a Tamil Om
sign,
) is also found. Methods of combining squares and circles to produce all of these plans are
described in the Hindu texts.
Nashik Maharashtra temple, cross section and plan (1910 sketch)
162
Vrindavan Uttar Pradesh temple plan/Khajuraho Madhya Pradesh temple plan/Puri Odisha
temple complex plan/Bhubneshwar Odisha, a smaller temple plan/Halebidu Karnataka temple
plan/Chidambaram Tamil Nadu temple plan
The temples were built by guilds of architects, artisans and workmen. Their knowledge and craft
traditions, states Michell, were originally preserved by the oral tradition, later with palm-leaf
manuscripts.[40] The building tradition was typically transmitted within families from one generation
to the next, and this knowledge was jealously guarded. The guilds were like a corporate body that set
rules of work and standard wages. These guilds over time became wealthy, and themselves made
charitable donations as evidenced by inscriptions. The guilds covered almost every aspect of life in
the camps around the site where the workmen lived during the period of construction, which in the
case of large projects might be several years.
The work was led by a chief architect (sutradhara). The construction superintendent was equal in his
authority.[40] Other important members were stonemason chief and the chief image-maker who
collaborated to complete a temple. The sculptors were called shilpins. Women participated in temple
building, but in lighter work such as polishing stones and clearing. Hindu texts are inconsistent about
which caste did the construction work, with some texts accepting all castes to work as a shilpin.
The Brahmins were the experts in art theory and guided the workmen when needed. They also
performed consecration rituals of the superstructure and in the sanctum.
In the earliest periods of Hindu art, from about the 4th century to about the 10th century, the artists
had considerable freedom and this is evidenced in the considerable variations and innovations in
images crafted and temple designs. Later, much of this freedom was lost as iconography became
more standardized and the demand for iconometry consistency increased. This "presumably reflected
the influence of brahman theologians" states Michell, and the "increasing dependence of the artist
upon the brahmins" on suitable forms of sacred images. The "individual pursuit of self-expression" in
a temple project was not allowed and instead, the artist expressed the sacred values in the visual form
through a temple, for the most part anonymously.
163
Dashavatara temple sculpture at Deogarh, completed about 500 CE.
The sponsors used contracts for the building tasks. Though great masters probably had assistants to
help complete principal images in a temple, the reliefs panels in a Hindu temple were "almost
certainly the inspiration of a single artist".
Schools of temple building tradition
Along with guilds, surviving texts suggest that several schools of Hindu temple architecture had
developed in ancient India. Each school developed its own gurukuls (study centres) and texts. Of
these, state Bharne and Krusche, two became most prominent: the Vishwakarma school and the Maya
school.[45][46] The Vishwakarma school is credited with treatises, terminology and innovations related
to the Nagara style of architecture, while the Maya school with those related to the Dravida style. The
style now called Vesara bridges and combines elements of the Nagara and the Dravida styles, it
probably reflects one of the other extinct schools.
Some scholars have questioned the relevance of these texts, whether the artists relied on silpa
sastras theory and Sanskrit construction manuals probably written by Brahmins, and did these
treatises precede or follow the big temples and ancient sculptures therein. Other scholars question
whether big temples and complex symmetric architecture or sculpture with consistent themes and
common iconography across distant sites, over many centuries, could have been built by artists and
architects without adequate theory, shared terminology and tools, and if so how. According to Adam
Hardy – an architecture historian and professor of Asian Architecture, the truth "must lie somewhere
in between". According to George Michell – an art historian and professor specializing in Hindu
Architecture, the theory and the creative field practice likely co-evolved, and the construction
workers and artists building complex temples likely consulted the theoreticians when they needed to.
Various styles of architecture
164
Architecture of the Khajuraho temples
The ancient Hindu texts on architecture such as Brihatsamhita and others, states Michell, classify
temples into five orders based on their typological features: Nagara, Dravida, Vesara, ellipse and
rectangle. The plan described for each include square, octagonal and apsidal. Their horizontal plan
regulates the vertical form. Each temple architecture in turn has developed its own vocabulary, with
terms that overlap but do not necessarily mean exactly the same thing in another style and may apply
to a different part of the temple.[50] Chronologically, the early Hindu temples are often called classical
(up to 7th or 8th century), while those after the classical period through 12th or 13th century are
sometimes referred to as medieval. However, states Michell, this is inappropriate for Hindu
architecture given India's artistic tradition to conserve its heritage and architectural framework, while
evolving ideas.
The style of Hindu temple architecture is not only the result of the theology, spiritual ideas, and the
early Hindu texts but also a result of innovation driven by regional availability of raw materials and
the local climate.[51] Some materials of construction were imported from distant regions, but much of
the temple was built from readily available materials. In some regions, such as in south Karnataka,
the local availability of soft stone led to Hoysala architects to innovate architectural styles that are
difficult with hard crystalline rocks.[51] In other places, artists cut granite or other stones to build
temples and create sculptures. Rock faces allowed artists to carve cave temples or a region's rocky
terrain encouraged monolithic rock-cut temple architecture. In regions where stones were
unavailable, innovations in brick temples flourished. Hindu temple architecture has historically been
affected by the building material available in each region, its "tonal value, texture and structural
possibilities" states Michell
I.
Dravida and Nagara architecture
165
Dravidian (South Indian) Hindu Temple Architecture
Of the different styles of temple architecture in India, the Nagara architecture of northern India and
the Dravidian architecture of southern India are most common. Other styles are also found. For
example, the rainy climate and the materials of construction available in Bengal, Kerala, Java and
Bali Indonesia have influenced the evolutions of styles and structures in these regions. At other sites
such as Ellora and Pattadakal, adjacent temples may have features drawing from different traditions,
as well as features in a common style local to that region and period. In modern era literature, many
styles have been named after the royal dynasties in whose territories they were built.
Feature
Nagara architecture
Dravidian architecture
Main temple
Sikhara above sanctum
spire (tower)
Vimana
that
may
be
multistorey (talas), the top of
which is called the sikhara
Mandapa
spire (tower)
No
Yes
Straight-edged
pyramidal,
Curvature of Curvilinear centred over the sanctum, also straightsometimes curvilinear centred
the spire
edged pyramidal
over the sanctum[note 2]
Typically single (Vimana may
be multi-storey)
Sanctum
Single or multi-storey
Plan
Mandapa, sanctum and tower plans are
predominantly Chaturasra (square);
uncommon: Ashtasra, Vritta, Ayatasra, Ayata
same, plus Prana Vikara
Ashtasra, Ayata Vritta, Hasti Prishta, Dwayasra
Vrita
Gopuram
Characteristic,
but
not
essential; after 10th century
often higher than the vimana.
May be several, on all sides of
the compound, serving as
landmarks for pilgrims
Not a prominent feature
166
sacred pools, many pillared
mandapas in temple grounds
sacred pools, fewer pillared mandapas in temple (used for rites of passage
grounds (separate dharmashala), prakara walls rare ceremonies, choultry, temple
(e.g. Odisha after 14th century), single or multiple rituals), prakara walls became
entrances into temple
common after 14th century,
single or multiple entrances
into temple
Other
features
Major
styles
sub-
Geography
Latina, Phamsana, Sekhari, Valabhi
Tamil (upper and lower
Dravidadesa), Karnata, Andhra
northern, western and central of the Indian southern parts of the Indian
subcontinent
subcontinent, southeast Asia
Chronology
of surviving
Late Kushana era, early Gupta: rudimentary archaic; Late Gupta era: rudimentary;
stone6th-10th century: zenith
6th-10th century: zenith
masonry
monuments
Regional styles
The architecture of the rock-cut temples, particularly the rathas, became a model for south Indian
temples. Architectural features, particularly the sculptures, were widely adopted in South
Indian, Cambodian, Annamese and Javanese temples. Descendants of the sculptors of the shrines are
artisans in contemporary Mahabalipuram.
Badami Chalukya architecture
The Badami Chalukya Architecture style originated by 5th century in Aihole and was perfected
in Pattadakal and Badami.
Chalukya Architecture of temples at Aihole and Pattadakal
167
Mallikarjuna temple complex at Aihole, is a historic site of ancient and medieval
era Buddhist, Hindu and Jain monuments in north Karnataka, India dated from the sixth century
through the twelfth century CE.
The Virupaksha temple (or Lokesvara temple) at Pattadakal, built by queen Lokamahadevi (queen of
Badami Chalukya King Vikramaditya II) around 740 CE, now a World Heritage Site.
Between 500 and 757 CE, Badami Chalukyas built Hindu temples out of sandstone cut into enormous
blocks from the outcrops in the chains of the Kaladgi hills.
In Aihole, known as the "Cradle of Indian architecture," there are over 150 temples scattered around
the village. The Lad Khan Temple is the oldest. The Durga Temple is notable for its semi-circular
apse, elevated plinth and the gallery that encircles the sanctum sanctorum. A sculpture
of Vishnu sitting atop a large cobra is at Hutchimali Temple. The Ravalphadi cave temple celebrates
the many forms of Shiva. Other temples include the Konthi temple complex and the Meguti Jain
temple.
Pattadakal is a World Heritage Site, where one finds the Virupaksha temple; it is the biggest temple,
having carved scenes from the great epics of the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. Other temples
at Pattadakal are Mallikarjuna, Kashivishwanatha, Galaganatha and Papanath.
Gadag architecture:The Gadag style of architecture is also called Western Chalukya architecture.
The style flourished for 150 years (1050 to 1200 CE); in this period, about 50 temples were built.
Some examples are the Saraswati temple in the Trikuteshwara temple complex at Gadag,
the Doddabasappa Temple at Dambal, the Kasivisvesvara Temple at Lakkundi, and the Amriteshwara
temple at Annigeri. which is marked by ornate pillars with intricate sculpture. This style originated
during the period of the Kalyani Chalukyas (also known as Western Chalukya) Someswara I.
Gadag/Western Chalukya style Architecture of temples
168
Stepped floorplan of Dattatreya Temple (one side of the shrine) with five projections at Chattarki
in Gulbarga district, 12th century CE
Mahadeva Temple at Itagi, Koppal district in Karnataka, also called Devalaya Chakravarti, 1112
CE, an example of dravida articulation with a nagara superstructure.
Kalinga architecture-The three types of Deulas
169
Rekha and Pidha Deula of the Konark Sun Temple/Khakhara Deula of the Vaital Deula
The design which flourished in eastern Indian state of Odisha and Northern Andhra Pradesh are
called Kalinga style of architecture. The style consists of three distinct type of temples namely Rekha
Deula, Pidha Deula and Khakhara Deula. Deula means "temple" in the local language. The former
two are associated with Vishnu, Surya and Shiva temple while the third is mainly
with Chamunda and Durga temples. The Rekha deula and Khakhara deula houses the sanctum
sanctorum while the Pidha Deula constitutes outer dancing and offering halls.
The prominent examples of Rekha Deula are Lingaraj Temple of Bhubaneswar and Jagannath
Temple of Puri. One of the prominent example of Khakhara Deula is Vaital Deula. The Konark Sun
Temple is a living example of Pidha Deula.
Navlakha Temple, Ghumli, Gujarat, 12th century
Māru-Gurjara architecture
Māru-Gurjara architecture, or Solaṅkī style,
is a style of north Indian temple architecture that originated in Gujarat and Rajasthan from the 11th
to 13th centuries, under the Chaulukya dynasty (or Solaṅkī dynasty).[71] Although originating as a
regional style in Hindu temple architecture, it became especially popular in Jain temples and, mainly
under Jain patronage, later spread across India and to diaspora communities around the world.
On the exteriors, the style is distinguished from other north Indian temple styles of the period in "that
the external walls of the temples have been structured by increasing numbers of projections and
170
recesses, accommodating sharply carved statues in niches. These are normally positioned in
superimposed registers, above the lower bands of moldings. The latter display continuous lines of
horse riders, elephants, and kīrttimukhas. Hardly any segment of the surface is left unadorned." The
main shikhara tower usually has many urushringa subsidiary spirelets on it, and two smaller sideentrances with porches are common in larger temples.
Devotions in the Swaminarayan temple in Houston, Texas (2004)
Mahadev Temple Koppel Karnataka
Interiors are if anything even more lavishly decorated, with elaborate carving on most surfaces. In
particular, Jain temples often have small low domes carved on the inside with a highly intricate
rosette design. Another distinctive feature is "flying" arch-like elements between pillars, touching the
horizontal beam above in the centre, and elaborately carved. These have no structural function, and
are purely decorative. The style developed large pillared halls, many open at the sides, with Jain
temples often having one closed and two pillared halls in sequence on the main axis leading to the
shrine.
171
Southeast Asia as part of Greater India. See our papers on Champa,Prembanab, Angkor Vat
and also our books on the same in researchgate.net and academia.in
Architecture of the southeast nations was inspired by the Indian temple architecture,
as those were Indianised as part of the Greater India.
Champa architecture
The profile of the 13th-century Po Klong Garai Temple near Phan Rang includes all the buildings
typical of a Cham temple. From left to right one can see the gopura, the saddle-shaped kosagrha,
and mandapa attached to the kalan tower.
Between the 6th and the 16th century, the Kingdom of Champa flourished in present-day central and
southern Vietnam. Unlike the Javanese that mostly used volcanic andesite stone for their temples,
and Khmer of Angkor which mostly employed grey sandstones to construct their religious buildings,
the Cham built their temples from reddish bricks. The most important remaining sites of Cham bricks
temple architecture include Mỹ Sơn near Da Nang, Po Nagar near Nha Trang, and Po Klong
Garai near Phan Rang.
Typically, a Cham temple complex consisted of several different kinds of buildings. [75] They
are kalan, a brick sanctuary, typically in the form of a tower with garbahgriha used to host the murti
of deity. A mandapa is an entry hallway connected with a sanctuary. A kosagrha or "fire-house" is a
temple construction typically with a saddle-shaped roof, used to house the valuables belonging to the
deity or to cook for the deity. The gopura was a gate-tower leading into a walled temple complex.
These building types are typical for Hindu temples in general; the classification is valid not only for
the architecture of Champa, but also for other architectural traditions of Greater India
Indonesian architecture
172
Prambanan temple (Shivagrha) of Central Java, an example of the 9th century Indonesian
Javanese Hindu temple architecture with mandala layout and prasad tower crowned with stylized
ratna-vajra.
Temples are called candi (pronounced [tʃandi]) in Indonesia, whether it is Buddhist or Hindu. A
Candi refers to a structure based on the Indian type of single-celled shrine, with a pyramidal tower
above it (Meru tower in Bali), and a portico for entrance, mostly built between the 7th to 15th
centuries. In Hindu Balinese architecture, a candi shrine can be found within a pura compound. The
best example of Indonesian Javanese Hindu temple architecture is the 9th
century Prambanan (Shivagrha) temple compound, located in Central Java, near Yogyakarta. This
largest Hindu temple in Indonesia has three main prasad towers, dedicated to Trimurti gods. Shiva
temple, the largest main temple is towering to 47 metre-high (154 ft).
The term "candi" itself is believed was derived from Candika, one of the manifestations of the
goddess Durga as the goddess of death.
The candi architecture follows the typical Hindu architecture traditions based on Vastu Shastra. The
temple layout, especially in central Java period, incorporated mandala temple plan arrangements and
also the typical high towering spires of Hindu temples. The candi was designed to mimic Meru, the
holy mountain the abode of gods. The whole temple is a model of Hindu universe according to Hindu
cosmology and the layers of Loka.
The candi structure and layout recognize the hierarchy of the zones, spanned from the less holy to the
holiest realms. The Indic tradition of Hindu-Buddhist architecture recognize the concept of arranging
elements in three parts or three elements. Subsequently, the design, plan and layout of the temple
follows the rule of space allocation within three elements; commonly identified as foot (base), body
(centre), and head (roof). They are Bhurloka represented by the outer courtyard and the foot (base)
part of each temples, Bhuvarloka represented by the middle courtyard and the body of each temples,
and Svarloka which symbolized by the roof of Hindu structure usually crowned with ratna (sanskrit:
jewel) or vajra.
Khmer architecture
173
A diagram map of Angkor Wat reveal the concentric square galleries. On the right is an aerial view of
the central structure of Angkor Wat, in front of it lies the cruciform terrace.
Before the 14th century, the Khmer Empire flourished in present-day Cambodia with its influence
extended to most of mainland Southeast Asia. Its great capital, Angkor , "Capital City", derived from
Sanskrit "nagara"), contains some of the most important and the most magnificent example of Khmer
temple architecture. The classic style of Angkorian temple is demonstrated by the 12th
century Angkor Wat. Angkorian builders mainly used sandstone and laterite as temple building
materials.
The main superstructure of typical Khmer temple is a towering prasat called prang which houses
the garbhagriha inner chamber, where the murti of Vishnu or Shiva, or a lingam resides. Khmer
temples were typically enclosed by a concentric series of walls, with the central sanctuary in the
middle; this arrangement represented the mountain ranges surrounding Mount Meru, the mythical
home of the gods. Enclosures are the spaces between these walls, and between the innermost wall and
the temple itself. The walls defining the enclosures of Khmer temples are frequently lined by
galleries, while passage through the walls is by way of gopuras located at the cardinal points. The
main entrance usually adorned with elevated causeway with cruciform terrace.
GLOSSARY:
The Hindu texts on temple architecture have an extensive terminology. Most terms have several
different names in the various Indian languages used in different regions of India, as well as
the Sanscrit names used in ancient texts. A few of the more common terms are tabulated below,
mostly in their Sanscrit/Hindi forms.
Illustrative
Hindu
text
mention
/
design rules
Term
Explanation
Adhisthana
stylobate, plinth,
base
typically
with Manasara XIV, Ka
mouldings on the side, on which a temple mikagama 35, Supr
building or pillar stands
abhedagama 31
174
Image
Illustrative
Hindu
text
mention
/
design rules
Term
Explanation
Amalaka
a crowning ornament on the top of shikara,
shape of an Indian amalok fruit that looks Mayamata
like a cogged wheel. The amalaka supports silpasastra
the kalasha.
Antarala
lit. interior space of any building; in temples,
Manasara XV,
it is the intermediate space (vestibule,
XXIII; Kamikagam
antechamber) between the sanctum and space
a XXXV
where pilgrims gather
Ardhamandapa
half hall at each entrance, usually the
reception area that connects to the mandapa
Ayatana
Agni
Purana XLIII, Mat
assembly hall, grounds inside a temple or sya
monastery compound
Purana CCLXX, C
handogya
Upanishad 6.8.2
Bhadra
a projection often aligned to one of the
cardinal directions; typically of central part of
Manasara XXXwalls; decoration or a projected porch for
XXXIV
pilgrims; also may be a tower storey
projection
175
Manasara XIV, Ka
mikagama 35, Supr
abhedagama 31
Image
Illustrative
Hindu
text
mention
/
design rules
Term
Explanation
Gana
a mythical dwarf or goblin usually with a
protruded belly and with humorous
expression
Garbhagriha
The
womb-house,
adytum, sanctum
sanctorum; it is the loci of the temple and
the darshana, the spiritual space that Hindus
circumambulate clockwise about. This is
where the main murti image is placed. Brihat Samhita LXI
Usually the space is very plain, with no
distractions from the murti, which is rich in
symbolism. A large temple may have many
shrines, each with a garbhagriya.
Gavaksha
one of the arch motifs; it is horseshoe-shaped,
found with windows or for decorating spires,
pillars and other elements
Gopuram
a gateway at entrance or one that connects
two sacred spaces of the temple; becomes
very large in South Indian temples, which
may have several; it has roots in ancient
Indian
monasteries
and
the
Vedic
word gomatipur;[88]
Hara
neck ornament such as necklace
176
Agni
Purana XLII, Man
asara XI, XXXIII
verses 1-601, LVIII
Image
Illustrative
Hindu
text
mention
/
design rules
Term
Explanation
Jala
a trellis, stone grille, net, first seen in 6thcentury temples
Jagati
any moulded base or pedestal for the temple
or a statue that extends out, part of platform
that forms a terrace to stand on or
circumambulate around on, while reading the
reliefs and friezes
Kalasha
Agni
the pinnacle element of a temple, a vase
Purana CIV, Kami
finial, cupola or pitcher
kagama 55
Kunda
temple tank, stepwell, pool, usually with
steps, public utility for taking a dip; often
connected to a nearby river or mountain
stream
Lata
liana, creeper-style plant, vine, one type of
scroll work; also found on sikhara
Makara
a mythical fusion sea creature with fishcrocodile like face, trunk or snout, legs Suprabhedagama 3
sometimes with lion claws and a tail; vahana 1.68-72
of Varuna
177
Samaranganasutradhara LXVIII,
Agni
Purana XLII, Supr
abhedagama 31.19
Garuda
Purana XLVI, Mah
anirvana
tantra XIII
Image
Term
Explanation
Illustrative
Hindu
text
mention
/
design rules
Mandapa
pillared hall or pavilion, with pillars usually
carved; a mandapa is typically square,
rectangle, octagonal or circular; it may have
walls with perforated stone windows, it may
just be open on some or all sides. Large
temples may have many interconnected
mandapas. It is a gathering place, a place for
pilgrims to rest (choultry), a part of the
circumambulation space, or to wait during
prayers or Sanskara (rite of passage) rituals.
A mandapa may have a tower (shikhara) of
its own, but it is lower than that above the
sanctum.
Manasara XXXIIXXXIV, Kamikaga
ma 50, Brihat
samhita, Vishnu
Purana 6.124-136
Mulaprasada
main shrine in a temple complex
Nisha
niche on temple walls or in pillars for
sculptures or stele
Nyasa
the art of arranging images and friezes to
create a narrative or composition, in some
Vastusutra
texts it refers to relative placement of images
Upanishad VI
within a panel to summarize a Hindu legend
or fable; also a form a ritual.
Prakara
wall that separates an inner zone of temple
ground from an outer zone; typically
concentric, defensive and fortified, a feature
added after the wars and plunders starting in
the 14th-century
178
Image
Illustrative
Hindu
text
mention
/
design rules
Term
Explanation
Prastara
entablature, horizontal superstructure of
Manasara XVI; Ka
bands and moldings above column capitals,
mikagama LIV
sometimes functions as a parapet of a storey
Ratha
a facet or vertical offset projection on the
plan of the sanctum and shikhara above, or
other structure. It is generally carried up from
the bottom of the temple to the
superstructure. A ratha, meaning cart, is also
the temple chariot used for processing the
murti at festivals, and a "ratha temple" is one
designed to resemble a cart, with wheels on
the sides, and often horses. The most famous
example is the Sun Temple, Konarak.
Sala
Round barrel-roofed, wagon-roofed pavilion;
rooted in the thatched roofed stall for people
or cattle tradition, then other materials of
construction; any mansion or griha; a pilgrim
services building with mandapas or pillared
Manasara XXXV
veranda or both inside the temple complex,
verses 1-404
Hindu texts describe multi-storey Sala; in
south, sala are structures used as a decorative
motif, or an actual roof, as at the top of
gopurams; rooted in ancient thatched roof
styles.
Sikhara/Vimana
In North India, the tower above the sanctum
(entire spire above mulaprasada); in South
Brihat Samhita LVI
India, that top part of tower that is above the
vimana
179
Image
Illustrative
Hindu
text
mention
/
design rules
Term
Explanation
Stambha
A pillar; it can be a load bearing element or
an
independent
standing
element
with diya (lamps) and Hindu icons below,
Manasara XV, Kas
around and / or on top; the designs vary
yapa
silpa
significantly by region, in Kerala Hindu
sastra IX
temples they are at the entrance; on festive
occasions the wick lamps are loaded with oil
and lit up.
Sukanasa
an external ornamented feature over the
entrance to the garbhagriha or inner shrine. It
sits on the face of the sikhara tower (in South Agni Purana XLII
India, the vimana) as a sort of antefix. Can
refer to the antarala below as well.
Tala
tier or storey of a shikhara, vimana or
gopuram
Torana
any arch or canopy motif, ornament or
architectural member in temples and
buildings; it also refers to an arched gateway
Urushringa
subsidiary turret-like shikharas on the side of Brihat
the main shikhara; the primary turret is Samhita LVI, Agni
called shringa
Purana CIV
180
Garuda
Purana XLVII, Ma
nasara XLVI
verses 1-77
Image
Single storey gopura (Dravidian architecture)/Two storey gopura (Dravidian architecture)/
Pillar elements (shared by Nagara and Dravidian)
Entablature elements/A vimana with mandapam elements (Dravidian architecture)/ Athisthana
architectural elements of a Hindu temple
Architecture of a Hindu temple (Nagara style).Each style is an interpretation of the need to create
an ambiance that will propel the visitor to proximities of divinity.These core elements are evidenced
in the oldest surviving 5th–6th century CE temples.
The Meenakshi temple complex of Madurai, mostly built between 1623 and 1655 CE, a large complex in the Dravidian
architecture of South India, dominated by gopuram gatehouse towers. The two main shrines are much smaller, with gold
tops.//A Badami Shiva temple in Karnataka.
Hindu temple architecture as the main form of Hindu architecture has many varieties of style,
though the basic nature of the Hindu temple remains the same, with the essential feature an inner
sanctum, the garbha griha or womb-chamber, where the primary Murti or the image of a deity is
housed in a simple bare cell. Around this chamber there are often other structures and buildings, in
the largest cases covering several acres. On the exterior, the garbhagriha is crowned by a towerlike shikhara, also called the vimana in the south. The shrine building often includes an
circumambulatory passage for parikrama, a mandapa congregation hall, and sometimes
an antarala antechamber and porch between garbhagriha and mandapa. There may further mandapas
or other buildings, connected or detached, in large temples, together with other small temples in the
compound.
181
Hindu temple architecture reflects a synthesis of arts, the ideals of dharma, beliefs, values and the
way of life cherished under Hinduism. The temple is a place for Tirtha—pilgrimage.[2] All the cosmic
elements that create and celebrate life in Hindu pantheon, are present in a Hindu temple—from fire to
water, from images of nature to deities, from the feminine to the masculine, from kama to artha, from
the fleeting sounds and incense smells to Purusha—the eternal nothingness yet universality—is part
of a Hindu temple architecture.[2] The form and meanings of architectural elements in a Hindu temple
are designed to function as the place where it is the link between man and the divine, to help his
progress to spiritual knowledge and truth, his liberation it calls moksha.
The architectural principles of Hindu temples in India are described in Shilpa Shastras and Vastu
Sastras The Hindu culture has encouraged aesthetic independence to its temple builders, and its
architects have sometimes exercised considerable flexibility in creative expression by adopting other
perfect geometries and mathematical principles in Mandir construction to express the Hindu way of
life.
Kailasa temple, Ellora, the largest rock-cut Hindu temple/ Udaigiri cave lion
There are hardly any remains of Hindu temples before the Gupta dynasty in the 4th century CE; no
doubt there were earlier structures in timber-based architecture. The rock-cut Udayagiri Caves are
among the most important early sites, built with royal sponsorship, recorded by inscriptions, and with
impressive sculpture. The earliest preserved Hindu temples are simple cell-like stone temples, some
rock-cut and others structural, as at Temple 17 at Sanchi. By the 6th or 7th century, these evolved
into high shikhara stone superstructures. However, there is inscriptional evidence such as the ancient
Gangadhara inscription from about 424, states Meister, that towering temples existed before this time
and these were possibly made from more perishable material. These temples have not survived.
Examples of early major North Indian temples that have survived after the Udayagiri
Caves in Madhya
Pradesh include
those
at Tigawa, Deogarh, Parvati
Temple,
Nachna (465). Bhitargaon, the largest Gupta brick temple to survive, Lakshman Brick Temple,
Sirpur (600-625 CE); Rajiv Lochan temple, Rajim (7th-century). Gop Temple in Gujarat (c. 550 or
later) is an oddity, with no surviving close comparator.
No pre-7th century CE South Indian style stone temples have survived. Examples of early major
South Indian temples that have survived, some in ruins, include the diverse styles at Mahabalipuram,
182
from the 7th and 8th centuries. However, according to Meister, the Mahabalipuram temples are
"monolithic models of a variety of formal structures all of which already can be said to typify a
developed "Dravida" (South Indian) order". They suggest a tradition and a knowledge base existed in
South India by the time of the early Chalukya and Pallava era when these were built. Other examples
are found in Aihole and Pattadakal.
By about the 7th century most main features of the Hindu temple were established along with
theoretical texts on temple architecture and building methods.[16] From between about the 7th and
13th centuries a large number of temples and their ruins have survived (though far fewer than once
existed). Many regional styles developed, very often following political divisions, as large temples
were typically built with royal patronage. In the north, Muslim invasions from the 11th century
onwards reduced the building of temples, and saw the loss of many existing ones.[16] The south also
witnessed Hindu-Muslim conflict that affected the temples, but the region was relatively less affected
than the north.[17] In late 14th century, the Hindu Vijayanagara Empire came to power and controlled
much of South India. During this period, the distinctive very tall gopuram gatehouse actually a late
development, from the 12th century or later, typically added to older large temples.
South-East Asian Hindu temples
Prambanan in Java, Indonesia (9th century) and Angkor Wat in Cambodia (12th century), examples
of Southeast Asian Hindu temple architecture. Both temples were modelled after Mount Meru in
Hindu cosmology.
Possibly the oldest Hindu temples in South East Asia dates back to 2nd century BC from the Oc
Eo culture of Mekong Delta from southern Vietnam. They were probably dedicated to a sun god,
Shiva and Vishnu. The temple were constructed using granite blocks and bricks, one with a small
stepped pond.[18]
The cultural sphere often called Greater India extended into South-East Asia. The earliest evidence
trace to Sanskrit stone inscriptions found on the islands and the mainland Southeast Asia is Võ Cạnh
inscription dated to 2nd or 3rd century AD in Vietnam or in Cambodia between 4th and 5th-century
CE. Prior to the 14th-century local versions of Hindu temples were built in Myanmar, Malaysia,
Indonesia, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam. These developed several national traditions, and
often mixed Hinduism and Buddhism. Theravada Buddhism prevailed in many parts of the SouthEast Asia, except Malaysia and Indonesia where Islam displaced them both.
Hindu temples in South-East Asia developed their own distinct versions, mostly based on Indian
architectural models, both North Indian and South Indian styles.[23] However, the Southeast Asian
temple architecture styles are different and there is no known single temple in India that can be the
source of the Southeast Asian temples. According to Michell, it is as if the Southeast Asian architects
183
learned from "the theoretical prescriptions about temple building" from Indian texts, but never saw
one. They reassembled the elements with their own creative interpretations. The Hindu temples found
in Southeast Asia are more conservative and far more strongly link the Mount Meru-related
cosmological elements of Indian thought than the Hindu temples found in the
subcontinent. Additionally, unlike the Indian temples, the sacred architecture in Southeast Asia
associated the ruler (devaraja) with the divine, with the temple serving as a memorial to the king as
much as being house of gods. Notable examples of Southeast Asian Hindu temple architecture are the
Shivaist Prambanan Trimurti temple compound in Java, Indonesia (9th century), and the
Vishnuite Angkor Wat in Cambodia (12th century).
17th-century palm leaf manuscript page on temple building, Odisha.
REFERENCE
1.
2.
3.
https://www.antaryami.com/hinduism/what-is-the-meaning-of-divine/
2https://www.ancienthistorylists.com/india-history/top-10-interesting-hindu-mythology/
The Greek Conception of Divinity,Expressed through Mainland,Temple Architecture, Lucas Livingston,November 28,
1998 https://www.saic.edu/~llivin/research/greek_divinity/ConceptionofDivinity.html#:~:text=Temples%20are%20the%20f
ocal%20points,they%20can%20express%20religious%20ideology.&text=And%20from%20the%20time%20of,expressing%2
0these%20conceptions%20in%20architecture.
184
CHAPTER IX
ELEMENTS OF INDIAN TEMPLES
For entire details see my 400 page book on HINDU TEMPLE PANORAMA also
on this and the other sites.
Plan: The earliest architecture in India is that of cottage type. It is a circular, bottle or dome shaped. Mud and
Bamboo sticks were used for construction. In the course of evolution number of plans were incorporated in the
temple architecture, such as circular plan, square, rectangular, elliptical, upsidal, stellar, etc. A text like
Manasara mentions 32 types of square plans 1 . Plan is essential for any structural temple. Plans of the temples
depend upon the number of components that existed within the temple.
The simplest plan of the temple consists of a garbhagriha and sabhamandapa or porch. This simple plan does
not imply that the structure belonged to the earliest period. The temples constructed in the later period also
have simple plans. Construction of a temple depends upon the financial position of the builder. When an
antarala is added in-between garbhagriha and mandapa, then the plan of the temple hecomes little larger. When
a pradakshinapatha (circumambulatory path) is added to garbhagriha and antarala, the plan of the temple
becomes wider. Then it is called as Sandhara' temple. In the course of time, number of components of the,
temple increased like mandapas, shrines for subsidiary deities; priikaras, etc, and the plan of the temple
became large and wider.
Mandala: With the arrival of Agamas in Hindu religion, the details of architecture became more sophisticated
in the temple and reflected the fundamental symbolism of Mandalas. The Yoga Tattva Upanishad speaks about
185
the symbolism in terms of the five fundamental elements that constitute the material basis of the entire cosmos.
Earth elements are represented by' a 'Square', Water with a 'semicircle', fire by a 'Triangle', air by a 'six- angled
figure' and ether (sky) by a circle. The point without dimension dot (bindu) is the focus of all energy . The icon
in the sanctum occupies the central position and the temple represents the other necessary forms. The
architectural details of a sophisticated temple reflect this fundamental symbolism. The above five forms are
represented in a Mandala known as Vishva-Karma Mandala,' which is regarded as fundamental to all temple
architecture 3 . The four sides of the Mandala symbolize the four main directions and the corners of the square
represents four mid-directions and each of the eight quarters is presided over by a deity. The inner circle
symbolizes the 'Creator' (Brahma), which is symbolic of activity, guarded by the eight directions.
The Mandala is symbolic of the entire universe. The 'allmaker' (Creator) is also the progenitor. The whole
mass of scripture, consisting of manuals of architecture, sculpture and painting collectively are known as
Agama. Early temples were reputed to be built by this All-maker . In early days, this vertical emphasis was
laid on only one tier (prathama tala). Later, number of tiers (talas) were added to this superstructure. It was
believed that the entire area, which the vimana or sikhara overlooked was rendered holy and the area covered
by this sikhara, would be prosperous. Superstructures of temples of Kalinga type are simple with series of
receding courses forming stepped pyramids. Another type of superstructure that is of storyed type contains
several talas (storeys).)
Texts like Vishnu Tilaka, Manasara, Mukutaganta, Silparatna, layamata and Isana Shivaguru Paddhati and
Bhave Prakasana give broad account of sikhara features such as Nagara, Dravida and Vesara. In addition to
these Nagara, Dravida and Vesara type sikharas, Vishnu Mn Ira and Markhandcya Samhita grouped the
temples into nine and added six more types such as Sarvadesika, Kalinga, Varata, Mandira, Bhavana and
.yoga. But Silvaprasna and liana Shivaguru Paddhati referred only three classifications, Nagar. Dravida and
Vesara
Nagara: Actually means squarish, cruciform in plan and its sikhara has a vertical emphasis.
Vesara: Circularly emphasized horizontal aspect shape, like domical or octagonal or in the shape of vaulted
roof. Another feature is storeyed towers and tall gopuras. It is a combination of Dravida and Nagara style of
Sikhara features.
Dravida- Polygonal or octagnal (six or eight sided): It is circular in plan or apsidal. General conception is that
Nagara type of temples prevails in the land between the Himalayas and Vindhya ranges. Vesara type of
temples exists inbetween Vindhya ranges and Krishna river and Dravida type of temples prevails inbetween
River Krishna and Kanyakumari'7.
186
The term sikhara meaning 'Mountain peak' may indicate that it signified 'Meru' meaning mountain or Kai
lasa , , so tall and sacred place of Shiva. The North Indian vimana or Sikhara is crowned by a large circular
(Wheel shaped) capstone block known as 'amalaka' (ribbed disc resembling an amalaka fruit, Emblic
Myrobalan), while its South Indian counterpart ends in a cupola (Srnga) or Wagon roof (khakra). The South
Indian vimana is broader and shorter than the North Indian vimana. The North Indian temples rise from a
pedestal (Pitha or Jagati), though the wall (tiara) and main body (gandi) to the head (mastaka), which consists
of a rib, is surmounted by a 'skull' (khapuri) on which is installed the Kalasa (finial). And on top of finial will
be
seen
the
weapon
(ayudha)
of
the
deity,
a
trident
or
a
discus
flag
e.g.
Jagati( See my paper on Jain temple Jagati elsewhere on academia.edu and researchgate.net) Temples in
Orissa and Khajuraho The The Jaina temple at Cudne, Goa stands on Pitha (Jagati) like North Indian temple.
Compared to the North Indian Temple Sikharas, in the Dravidian vimana, the height is less emphasized. The
plan of the Virnana could be round or square. It could also be six- sided or eight- sided. It could retain one
form uniformly from the base to the top or combine two or more plans at different storeys, sometimes as many
as sixteen, but the prevailing style is devoid of such differentiation into storeys. It rises above the sanctum with
flat roof of the sanctum (Bhumika or Kapotha) as its base (adhisthana).
Kalasa It was an old custom to install a crowing member in the form of a sacrificial 'Vase (Kalasa)' made of
metal. kalasa denotes a mark of exaltation . It occupies the topmost part of the temple below the Ayuda.
(Pineal). Porch The rectangular porch in front of the Sanctum sanctorium (Mukhamandapa or Mukha —sala)
is a pillared hall, allowing the devotees to stand and watch the worship rituals as they are conducted inside the
sanctum. When the temple became popular and devotees increased, the sanctum needed additional hall and this
porch became merely a vestibule (antarala) 21 . Its main function is to accommodate more devotees of the
temple. The porch (vestibule) is structurally connecting the sanctum with the additional hall (assembly hall).
Like the antarala in front of the sanctum, a low raised structure called `Sukhanasi' crowned antarala. It is
erected in front of the Sikhara, which stands on sanctum proper. Unlike the sanctum covered by flat roof stone
slabs, antarala is also filled in the similar manner, which serves as the base (adhisthana) for the super structure.
187
The doors of the temple must always be two panelled and the two are described as mother and daughter '
Brihat-Samahita prescribes that the door must be located in the middle of the front wall and that it must be in
the same direction as the idol. According to Agnipurana, the door must always be placed in one of the four
directions and never in the corners. Suprabhediigama recommends gateways in all the four directions on the
outer wall. Texts mentioned that Devadar wood is best for temple doors.
. Texts prescribe the rules about the several aspects of door like jamb, lintel (dwara-sakha), door panels
(kabata), door joints (dwara sandhi), door planks (phalaka), bolt (kila-bhajana), tower over the door way
(dwara gopura) and the chamber associated with the door way (dwara-koshtha). Dwiira-Sakha (door jamb) is
single panelled in early temples without much ornamentation. Ornamentation developed in the later period in
the door panels, and it became familiar as Sakhas in temple architecture such as Lata Sakha, Patra Sakha,
Pushpa Sakha, etc. The popular simple form of doorconsists of only three sakhas in it.
Sometimes the images of Gajalakshmi or Ganesh at the centre of lintel occasionally with Purnakumbhas on
either side, Dweirapalas or Ganga, Yamuna or Purnakumbhas at the base also can be seen in the Dwara Sakhas
in the medieval period. Mahadeva temple at Curdi is the best example for tri-sakha dw&a. Tri-sakha dwara
also can be seen at Saptakoteswar temple at Opa.
188
Taluka.
Pranala or water chute takes out ablution water from garbhagriha. It passes through garbhagriha wall
(generally towards north) and extends to a considerable length away from wall (e.g Pranalas of Mahadev
temple, Curdi and Tambdi Surla were extended up to the adhisthana mouldings of the temple). Majority of the
pranalas are in simple long block with a channel cut into it. Some pranalas are highly decorated and the mouths
of the Icirtimukhas are crocodile or ox or makara or lion or creeper scroll etc., emerge as channel. Generally
main deity used to be placed over the pranala in al- most all the temples in Goa. Some prdruilas have beautiful
mouldings like as in the Adhisthana of the temple, e.g., Brahma temple in Sattari A Chandrasilis (MoonStones) Chandrasila— or Moonstones were in the form of semicircular slabs on floor in front of doors
forming a step in the beginning or in the main entrance (e.g, in front of the rock cut cave temples at
Haravalem). The terminology itself suggests their shape i.e., semi circular 26. Their outline was carved on the
floor slabs later (mainly in front of the garbhagriha door e.g. Curdi, Tambdi Surla and Opa temples.
Subsequently, the semi-circle took leaf shape with a point at the centre and two scrolls on the sides. The
Chandrsirds in the Mahadev temple at Curdi, Tambdi Surla and Saptakoteshwar temple at Opa with a pointed
tip are shown in relief on the floor slab in front of the garbhagriha doors.
189
Kopeshwar temple. Highly ornamented chandrashila at entrance
Air and light entrances: chandrasiliis(Windows) or Jalavatayanas meant for allowing light and air into
temples have provided artists with a space for exhibiting their skill by carving creepers, flowers, figures and
several perforations. Some Jalavatayanas are decorated with creepers containing circular perforations
Torana is another
interesting feature involved in stylized temples. Temples like Mahalasa, Manguesh,
Naguesh, etc, have chitra toranas in the drooped wall of their Mandapa ceilings. Besides Chitra torana, the
texts mention two other types of torana
1) Patra torana (fashioned like the lotus leaves) and
2) Makara torana (arch with makara).
The Makara torana enshrined in the temple was suitable for the residence of Brahmins and Kshatriyas while
Chitratoranas was suitable for Vaisyas and Patratorana was useful for Sudras. Sabhainandapa or Navaranga or
MaCamandapa When the temple became very popular and the participants increased in number there was a
190
need for an additional hall of larger dimension to sanctum and antarala to accommodate large assemblies. (e .g.
Navaranga).
This sabhamandapa used to be pillared hall with or without kakshasana. These type of larger halls were
found more in some places according to the requirements of the temple such as Natya mandapa, Bhoga
mandapa, Kalyana mandapa etc., and they can be seen mainly in Orissan temple architecture. Mahadeva
temple at Tambdi Surla is the best example for its sabhamandapa with kakshasana. Modem temples like
Malialsa, Ramn-ath etc., have kakshasanas within the large 96 97 halls (Mandapas) but those are not aesthetic
enough like that of Tambdi Surla temple. The area of the temple comprising of the sanctum and the halls as
well as the tanks and gardens came to be enclosed by a wall (prakara). But this was a later innovation and can
be seen in many of the South Indian temples. Walls The treatment of walls also depicts a wide range from
simple plain to decorated with pilasters, turrets and figures. Some of the mukhamandapas and Sabhamandapas
are open and some are covered with jalavatayanas (perforated door screens) niches and figures. Mahadev
Temple at Tambdi Surla and temple fragments of Saptakoteshwar temple near St Cajetan Church, Old Goa are
the best examples.
Chajjas: A projected horizontal band called bandana runs in the middle of the wall of sanctum and antarala of
Tambdi Surla temple with Kudya stambhas with regular intervals resembling the features of later Chalukyan
period. Eaves The main function of eave or chajja is to protect wall from rainwater. It projects forward from
the ceiling level, so that water is thrown away from wall surface. The slightly projecting eaves with curved
upper surface to facilitate the flow of water are found in several temples. Especially in Goa, the rainfall is more
and it continues for a long period. Hence almost all the structures in Goa require slanty roofs and eaves for
easy disposal of rainwater. Ceilings Ceilings are different types. 1) Domical ceiling 2) Flat ceiling 3)
Rectangular ceiling 4) Square ceiling 5) Circular ceiling 6) Rotated squares ceiling 7) Octagonal ceiling, etc.,
191
Placing smaller triangular slabs over the corners of the lower square forms the upper square. A flat slab is
placed at the top for covering the central gap. The space of the ceiling is reduced at the top by creating these
squares. The lower square is exactly half of the ankara and the upper square is half of that of the lower. A flat
slab one-fourth of the size of the ankara is used at the top. The squares not only reduce the areas but also break
the monotony of the comparatively plain interior 29. This type of ceiling 98 99 appeared in the rock cut cave at
Khandepar for the first time in Goa where the ceilings of the monolithic rock are cut in the shape of trabeat
(lantina type). This system became more sophisticated in the structural temples such as Mahadev temple at
Curdi and Tambdi Surla in the later period.
The central bays in the Nandimandapa ceiling is decorated with a variety of circular inverted lotus in the same
temple. Here lotus petals were more projected and a lotus bud was shown very prominently in the centre and
the star shaped central lotus is encircled with similar type of lotuses. The ceiling slabs of eastern side bay of
mandapa are also adorned with the star shaped circular lotuses in it. Similarly, in the later temples like
Mahalasa, Manguesh, Nciguesh, Shantadurga, have lotus decoration in ,mkjnbvcyghthe wooden ceilings in
the mandapas. These temples generally have domical shape ceilings on the octagonal base for sanctum. The
domical ceilings are almost plain and no decorations are found in them.
100 Pillars Pillars supporting the corners of garbhagriha and antarala are known as canton pillars. The
canton pillars are prominently shown in the rock-cut cave architecture. Rock cut caves at Khandepar is the best
example for this feature. Here the canton pillars are chiselled in the monolithic rock in the corners of
garbhagriha and antarala, canton pillars can be made out of basalt (volcanic rock). Pillars supporting various
mandapas of temples are found in various shapes, such as square pillars, round pillars, projected square pillars,
octagonal pillars, sixteen sided pillars, star shaped pillars etc. These pillars consist of a pedestal, shaft, capital,
abacus and corbels. Square Pillars: Square pillars first appeared in the rock cut cave temples. These pillars are
simple massive and plain, and can be seen in the rock cut cave temples at Harvalem, Limgaon, Veliguem
192
Surla, Narve, Kusyacherann in Goa. 101 Round Pillars: Simple round pillars consist of a lower square block
and the remaining circular portion with pot at the top. This type of pillars can be seen in the Nandimandapa of
Mahadev temple at Curdi. These pillars have a square base, a rectangular malasthana, an octagonal and a
circular shaft with a top pot and a square capital with pothikas on its top.
Accessory structures Very few temples contain accessory structures like Nandi shrine or Nandi mandapa
separately in front of the temple or otherwise these are attached to the main temple. Some temples have
separate shrines for subsidiary deities, (Parivara- devta or Gramdevta) on either side of the main temple or
backside or in the front of the main temple. Maximum number of accessory structures in Goa belongs to
Ravalnath, Sateri, Ganesh and Durga.
Tulasi Tulasi is the most important plant for Hindus. because Lakshmi's presence is recognized in the Tulasi
plant. Every year on the twelfth day of the bright half of Kartik, Tulasi Vivah (marriage) is celebrated. Tulasi
or holy basil is worishpped with profound respect everywhere. People keep a Tulasi plant in front of their
house on a specially made stand called Tulasi Vrindavan and worship with great veneration to keep the
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environment free
from bactereous and unwanted prying eyes (burl nazar) into their houses.
Dhvaja-Stambha (FLAG-STAFF): Hayasirsha — samhita, a Pancharatra text reveals that a building
(prasada) without a flag would be in vain. 'Shiva-sarvasva' describes the purpose of the flag as indication of the
insignia of the deity or of the characteristic vehicle of the icon that is within the sanctum. Ancient texts
mentioned that where the flag was hoisted in front of the temple; Gods as well as manes used to be delighted.
The text also assigns Vishnu (protector) to the top, Brahma (creator) to the middle and Shiva (destroyer) to the
bottom of the 107 flag-staff. 36 . Hosting the flag suggests setting out to conquer. The devotee coming into the
temple would have firm resolve to conquer his own baser nature. To look at the flag would be a reminder for
him in this regard. The Sanskrit word for the flag or banner dhvaja strictly means whatever that is raised.
Whatever raises man to a higher level of understanding and activities is a dhvaja. It is a call that God is high
and above. The characteristic animal and the insignia of the icon on the banner gives a direction to the
devotee's desire and will. When the devotee sees the banner and bows before it, he resolves to rise higher. The
benefit of the flag-mast is here said to be "obtainment of all that is desired". The canonical texts favour
wooden or bamboo poles. In course of time, the wooden pole was covered with copper, brass or even with
silver.
Bali-Pitha (The Dispensing Seat): The sanctum, adytum garbhagriha, which is the most important structural
detail, is closely associated with the Bali-Pitha that is installed in front of the sanctum directly facing the icon.
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Actually there will be several 'seats' of this nature, installed in various ritualistically determined positions
inside the enclosure and outside the sanctum. However, the one in front of the sanctum is the 'Chief seat'.
(Pradhana-pitha). It is a low stone altar, frequently planned in the form of a flat, relatively elaborate form with
a base, cornices, wall surface and the top lotus. The canons specify that the real temple should comprise of the
sanctum, the tower on top of it, the icon inside it and the dispensing seat in front of it 3:9. 110 Water Tank:
Water tank or snanaghat is essential for Hindu temple. Before entering into the temple, the devotee must purify
(parishuddh) with taking bath or clean and wash hands and legs and head. Water tank is also necessary for
daily requirement of water for deities and cleaning of temple. Providing Snanaghat (bathing ghat or pushkar)
on the banks of major rivers near the temple is ancient practice jri India. All the 12 major rivers in India have
bathing ghats to celebrate `Pushkar'. The Pushkar celebrations come once in twelve years after rotation at all
the major rivers from North to South (e.g., Ganga nadi pushkar. Yamuna nadi pushkar, Godavari nadi pushkar
and Krishna nadi Pushkar.
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CHAPTER X
Acoustics IN HINDU TEMPLE
Acoustical knowledge of ancient Hindus “Expressed in the Vedic language, which is derived from
classical Sanskrit, the verses of the Vedas were traditionally chanted during sacred rituals and recited
daily in Vedic communities. The value of this tradition lies not only in the rich content of its oral
literature but also in the ingenious techniques employed by the Brahmin priests in preserving the texts
intact over thousands of years. To ensure that the sound of each word remains unaltered, practitioners
are taught from childhood complex recitation techniques that are based on tonal accents, a unique
manner of pronouncing each letter and specific speech combinations.”
(World Intangible Cultural Heritage – ICH) UNESCO Proclamation 2003
Sound plays a very important role in Hindu worship spaces both at homes and temples. In Hindu
temples the two chambers that have reverberant acoustic characteristics are the Garbha-Griha where
the deity is consecrated and the Ardha-Mantapa which is a chamber in front of Garbha-Griha.
Acoustics plays a major role in Vedic Hinduism from Mantras to Music. Acoustics for Hindu sages
was not only a tool of science, but also a spiritual medium to understand life in all its aspects. The
above video samples are provided as an experience of the various roles of sound and its
environments. A visit to a traditional Hindu temple during rituals and an Indian music or dance
concert will provide more in-depth experience of acoustics in Hinduism.
The Vedas, which are the foundational literature of Hinduism, are the collection of mantras chanted
with precise acoustical characteristics.
Oral tradition has been very efficient in transmitting the Vedic chanting from master to disciple over
generations. Vedic chants in Hindu worship are well known. In addition to Vedic chants, Instruments
such as Conch-Shells, Bells and Gongs are commonly used to enhance the spiritual experience of the
devotees during the worship.
Acoustics and Vedic Tradition “It would form a fascinating chapter of history to try and trace the
gradual development of musical instruments and musical knowledge, from the rhythmic chanting of
Rig-Veda in the ancient home of the Aryan race to the Indian music of the present day” -- Sir C. V.
Raman (1922)
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Acoustics has played important roles in all cultures and religions of the world. This is natural as
acoustics deals with sound, one of the senses of perception. In Hinduism, acoustics is of major
importance in various aspects of life, namely spirituality, religion, culture, science, art, etc
Vedas, the revealed literature of Hinduism, is an infinitely large collection of mantras (chants). These
mantras describe the various facets of knowledge dealing with life and cosmos. It is through precise
oral tradition from antiquity to present times that these mantras are taught by teachers (Vedic pundits)
to disciples. This transfer of knowledge through recitation requires a pure mind with precision in
intonation and pronunciation for both teacher and disciples.
Chanting of Veda Mantras:
The language of Veda mantras is called Chandas and is quite similar to current Sanskrit language
with some differences in grammar. Sounds of the Veda mantras carry the listeners to spiritual
experiences. The acoustical characteristics, in addition to the clear phonetic articulation of chants,
have deep impact on the listeners. It is shown by this author that the intrinsic pitch difference effects
can be overridden in Vedic chanting. The video clip attached below is from a Vedic school "Sri
Sarvaraya Veda Pathasala" in Kapileswaram, Andhra Pradesh, India. In the segment shown, both
teachers and disciples are chanting in a practice session. The sitting arrangement is in two rows to
facilitate alternate chanting.
Sounds of Conch-shells and Bells:
The chants from Vedas are extensively used in worship and sacrament rituals at homes and temples.
In Hindu temples, sounds from conch-shells, bells and musical instruments are used along with
worship rituals. It is interesting to note that sound from a conch-shell has a sharp tonal quality that
can be recognized while listening. It has a very high Q-factor. The video clip below shows the ending
of a ritual in which a lamp is waved as an offering to the deity and then brought to devotees to receive
the light of God. The conch-shells are blown and bells are rung in addition to the chanting by priests
during the waving of a lamp. This video clip is from the Hindu Temple and Cultural Society in
Bridgewater, New Jersey.
Music and Hinduism:
In addition to communication and entertainment, the Vedic literature emphasizes that speech and
music have a spiritual role. Speech connects the abstract thoughts and physical actions. The phonetics
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and grammar of Sanskrit language bring out the spiritual effects through prayers, chants, etc. The
sacred role of speech is emphasized in the unison of thought-speech-action as a spiritual goal.
The classical music according to Hinduism has divine origin and is a medium primarily for spiritual
experiences. There are two types of classical music of India namely Carnatic and Hindustani. Music
is also a driving force for dance. Music transforms the listeners. In the words of yogi-seer Sriranga
Sadguru, "Music should become the bridge that takes the listeners from sensual level to spiritual level
of Atman". The classical vocal and instrumental music of Hindu culture synthesize both art and
science of acoustics. In particular the sounds from the percussion instruments Mridangam and Tabla
are melodious to hear in addition to their rhythms.
Musical Pillars of Hindu Temples :
Acoustics plays a very important role in Vedic metaphysics. An evolutionary order is given for the
five elements of nature. The Vedic evolutionary order is from the subtle to gross i.e. space, air, fire,
water and earth. This order of elements is matched with senses of perception as shown in the table
below.
Element
Senses of Perception
Space
Sound (hear)
Air
Touch and Sound
Fire
See, Touch and Sound
Water
Taste, See, Touch and Sound
Earth
Smell, Taste, See, Touch and Sound
The Vedic metaphysics emphasizes that sound is the only descriptor of space but also can be used in
sensing other four elements. Hence acoustics has received primary importance in Vedic Hinduism. In
ancient India, the Hindu temples played important roles in all aspects of life such as for worship, a
space for art performance, and for education. The video clip attached below shows a musical
performance from granite pillars. This special hall, called Purandhara Mantapa, was built in the 16th
century during the time of Vijayanagara Empire in Hampe, Karnataka, India.
In physics, sound is a vibration that propagates as an acoustic wave, through a transmission
medium such as a gas, liquid or solid. In human physiology and psychology, sound is the reception of
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such waves and their perception by the brain. Only acoustic waves that have frequencies lying
between about 20 Hz and 20 kHz, the audio frequency range, elicit an auditory percept in humans. In
air at atmospheric pressure, these represent sound waves with wavelengths of 17 meters (56 ft) to 1.7
centimetres (0.67 in). Sound waves above 20 kHz are known as ultrasound and are not audible to
humans. Sound waves below 20 Hz are known as infrasound. Different animal species have
varying hearing ranges.
A distinct use of the term sound from its use in physics is that in physiology and psychology, where
the term refers to the subject of perception by the brain. The field of psychoacoustics is dedicated to
such studies. Webster's 1936 dictionary defined sound as: "1. The sensation of hearing, that which is
heard; specif.: a. Psychophysics. Sensation due to stimulation of the auditory nerves and auditory
centers of the brain, usually by vibrations transmitted in a material medium, commonly air, affecting
the organ of hearing. b. Physics. Vibrational energy which occasions such a sensation. Sound is
propagated by progressive longitudinal vibratory disturbances (sound waves)." [13] This means that
the correct response to the question: "if a tree falls in the forest with no one to hear it fall, does it
make a sound?" is "yes", and "no", dependent on whether being answered using the physical, or the
psychophysical definition, respectively.
The physical reception of sound in any hearing organism is limited to a range of frequencies. Humans
normally hear sound frequencies between approximately 20 Hz and 20,000 Hz (20 kHz). The upper
limit decreases with age. Sometimes sound refers to only those vibrations with frequencies that are
within the hearing range for humans or sometimes it relates to a particular animal. Other species have
different ranges of hearing. For example, dogs can perceive vibrations higher than 20 kHz.
As a signal perceived by one of the major senses, sound is used by many species for detecting
danger, navigation, predation,
and
communication.
Earth's atmosphere, water,
and
virtually
any physical phenomenon, such as fire, rain, wind, surf, or earthquake, produces (and is characterized
by) its unique sounds. Many species, such as frogs, birds, marine and terrestrial mammals, have also
developed special organs to produce sound. In some species, these produce song and speech.
Furthermore, humans have developed culture and technology (such as music, telephone and radio)
that allows them to generate, record, transmit, and broadcast sound.
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Noise is a term often used to refer to an unwanted sound. In science and engineering, noise is an
undesirable component that obscures a wanted signal. However, in sound perception it can often be
used to identify the source of a sound and is an important component of timbre perception
Soundscape is the component of the acoustic environment that can be perceived by humans. The
acoustic environment is the combination of all sounds (whether audible to humans or not) within a
given area as modified by the environment and understood by people, in context of the surrounding
environment.
There are, historically, six experimentally separable ways in which sound waves are analysed. They
are: pitch, duration, loudness, timbre, sonic texture and spatial location.[16] Some of these terms have
a standardised definition (for instance in the ANSI Acoustical Terminology ANSI/ASA S1.1-2013).
More recent approaches have also considered temporal envelope and temporal fine structure as
perceptually relevant analyses.
The sound of a sacred space is a fundamental acoustic experience of people in a society.
Accordingly, cultural conventions play a major role in how this is perceived. To the present day in
the Christian Oc- cident, churches are widely expected to exhibit a particularly good reverberating
sound. Many sacred spaces are crowned by a dome, which symbolises the heavens and the house of
God not just visually but also acoustically. In synagogues and in mosques, the need to hear the
sermon or prayers clearly has always been and still is of greater importance. However, these spaces with the holy shrine, the aron ha-kodesh, positioned against the wall that faces Jerusalem or the
mihrab, the deep niche for the imam in the qibla wall that faces Mecca - also have a certain numinous
quality. The general expecta- tion is that a sacred space will conform to acoustic tradition. One reason
for this may be that in the clamour and commotion of the world around us, aural perception has
become ever more sidelined to the subconscious. Paradoxically, this makes the architectonic creation
of acoustic environments more difficult. However, the greater freedom of formal expression and
material design afforded by modern construction has also made new and impressive solutions
possible in the field of acoustics.
Byzantines Churches: Scientists have theorized that the reverberations of sound are omnipresent
and eternal. The faint traces of sound thus may be present in churches, even when buildings stand
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empty. When sound is coupled with icons, the perceived marriage of sound and image evokes
emotional and spiritual reactions in the faithful. Can these traces of sound be documented
scientifically, or are they the product of our own expectations of sacred space? Can the transformative
effects of sound in Orthodox churches be compared to those in modern concert halls? How do the
sound effects of medieval churches differ from those of modern Orthodox churches, which frequently
make use of microphones and even organs? Two years ago, as part of an international group of
scholars, we began to map sounds in the Orthodox churches of medieval Thessaloniki, the second
most important city of the Byzantine empire, a city with a rich tradition of ecclesiastical architecture
and hymn composition. The ongoing collaboration of art historians, architects, musicologists,
chanters, and acoustical engineers generated innovative questions and continues to yield some
surprising answers.
Even when the doors of churches were closed, the Byzantines believed that the saints—captured in
their painted icons—continued to interact with one another on behalf of the faithful in a powerful and
perpetual process of intercession. Were these interactions imagined, or can we perceive the echoes of
sacred words exchanged within the walls of the church?
Chambers for Sacred Sound
Unlike other forms of worship that include musical instruments, the medieval Orthodox liturgy was
spoken and intoned by priests, chanters, and choirs. The need for audibility imposed requirements on
speech intelligibility that, in turn, guided the acoustical design of the spaces. Like the most finely
tuned concert hallsTemples were constructed as sound spaces.
When a sound stops being emitted, the space around the source takes over. This is most readily
observed when we clap our hands and listen, but it can also be observed in the short silences between
spoken or chanted words. The sound bounces from surfaces until it eventually decays below our
audibility limit. The time it takes for a sound, once stopped, to decay to an inaudible level is an
important characteristic of large spaces and is called reverberation time. Measurements demonstrate
that the reverberation time is generally longer in spaces with larger volumes
A is a sacred utterance, a numinous sound, a syllable, word or phonemes, or group of words
in Sanskrit believed by practitioners to have religious, magical or spiritual powers. Some mantras
have a syntactic structure and literal meaning, while others do not and a temple practice since ages.
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The earliest mantras were composed in Vedic Sanskrit in India, and are at least 3000 years
old.[6] Mantras now exist in various schools of Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism.
The use, structure, function, importance, and types of mantras vary according to the school and
philosophy of Hinduism and Buddhism. Mantras serve a central role in tantra. In this school, mantras
are considered to be a sacred formula and a deeply personal ritual, effective only after initiation. In
other schools of Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism or Sikhism, initiation is not a requirement.
Mantras
come
in
many
forms,
including ṛc (verses
from
the
Rigveda
for
example)
and sāman (musical chants from the Sāmaveda for example. They are typically melodic,
mathematically structured meters, believed to be resonant with numinous qualities. At its simplest,
the word (Aum, Om) serves as a mantra, it is believed to be the very first sound which was
originated on earth. Aum sound when produced creates a reverberation in the body which helps the
body and mind to be calm. In more sophisticated forms, mantras are melodic phrases with spiritual
interpretations such as a human longing for truth, reality, light, immortality, peace, love, knowledge,
and action. Some mantras without literal meaning are musically uplifting and spiritually meaningful.
Bells have symbolic meaning in Hinduism. The curved body of the bell represents Ananta. The
clapper or tongue of the bell represents Saraswati, who is the goddess of wisdom and knowledge. The
handle of the bell represents Prana Shakti - vital power and is symbolically linked
to Hanuman, Garuda, Nandi (bull) or Sudarshana Chakra.
Ghanta is the Sanskrit term for a ritual bell used in Hinduistic religious practices. The ringing of the
bell produces what is regarded as an auspicious sound. Hindu temples generally have one metal bell
hanging at the entrance and devotees ring the bell while entering the temple which is an essential part
in preparation of having a darshan. A bell is also rung by priests during Pūjā or Yajna - during
the waving of light, burning of incense in front of the deity, while bathing the deity and
while offering food or flowers here are bells specially made to produce the long strains of the
sound Aum.
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A hanging ghanta in a temple in Tamil Nadu.
The bell is generally made out of brass. A clapper is attached to the inside and the bell makes a high
pitched sound when rung. The top of the bell handle is usually adorned with a brass figure - bells
intended for use in the worship of Lord Shiva will have a figure of Lord Nandi, while those used in
the worship of Lord Vishnu or his avatars as Rama, Narasimha or Krishna will have a figure
of Garuda or Panchajanya shanka or Sudarshana Chakra.
In Hinduism, bells are generally hung at the temple dome in front of the Garbhagriha. Generally,
devotees ring the bell while entering into the sanctum. It is said that by ringing the bell, the devotee
informs the deity of his/her arrival. The sound of the bell is considered auspicious which
welcomes divinity and dispels evil.[4] The sound of the bell is said to disengage mind from ongoing
thoughts thus making the mind more receptive.[5] Bell ringing during prayer is said to help in
controlling the ever wandering mind and focusing on the deity.
In Hinduism, the mantra chanted while ringing the bell is
Aagamaardhamtu
devaanaam
gamanaardhamtu
rakshasaam,
devataahvaana
Kuru
ghantaaravam
krutva
lanchanam
I ring this bell indicating the invocation of divinity, so that virtuous and noble forces enter; and the
demonic and evil forces, from within and without, depart.
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From Kundalini Yoga perspective, the sound of bell energizes Chakras and balances the distribution
of energy in body. Also, the number of times the bell should be sounded depends on the number of
letters in the mantra; accordingly the bell should be sounded 8, 16, 24, or 32 times. In Shilpa
Shastras it
is
mentioned
that
bell
should
be
made
of panchadhatu -
five
metals,
namely, copper, silver, gold, zinc and iron. These 5 metals represent the pancha bhoota. Everyone
rings the bell first as they go to the temple. But let us tell you what its health benefits are. Ringing
bells in the temple has a different significance. Many believe that the sound of the bell is also a means
of delivering their prayers to God. But we're giving you the scientific reason behind it. Swami
Madhusudan, a meditation teacher at Art of Living, explained the use of ringing bells in the temple.
For your information, the temple bells are made up of cadmium, zinc, nickel, chromium, and
magnesium, whose voice goes far. It balances the right and left part of your brain. As soon as you
ring the bell, a loud noise is created, the sound echoes for 10 seconds. The duration of this echo is
good enough to activate all 7 healing centers in your body. This means that these sounds are
beneficial for your health.
Scientists say that these sounds bring clarity in the brain's thoughts, which makes you get into a
situation when you understand more things than before. These voices increase your concentration,
keep you alert or alert. It also removes negative thoughts on your mind. So by now, you must have
known how much the ringing hour sound in the temple is beneficial to you. Moreover, its voice gives
you peace of mind.
In Vedic Hinduism sound has received major emphasis through mantras, music, religion and
spirituality. It is well known that sound plays a very important role in Hindu worship spaces both at
homes, community halls and temples. It is observed that both Garbha-Griha and Ardha-Mantapa
significantly contribute to the acoustical enhancement of the spiritual experience of the devotees. The
effects of Vedic chants in Hindu worship are well known. In addition to Vedic chants musical
instruments such as conch-shells, bells and gongs are also very commonly used to enhance the
spiritual experience of the devotees during the worship. It is known that sounds of these instruments
along with Vedic chanting during the prayer would enable the wandering mind of the devotees to
focus on the worship rituals. In this study, evaluations of acoustical characteristics of these
instruments have been carried out by sounding individually as well as collectively. Measurements are
carried out in an anechoic chamber, community worship hall and temple. The observed sound spectra
indicate that the measured frequencies are collection of all individual frequencies. Also the
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frequencies are distinct and are spread across from low to high frequencies in the active hearing
range, which contribute to the spiritual experience of the devotees.
Music: Hindu music is music created for or influenced by Hinduism. It includes Indian classical
music, Kirtan, Bhajan and other musical genres. Raagas are a common form of Hindu music in
classical India.The most common Hindu bhajan in North India is "Om Jai Jagdish Hare." The names
of Gods are religiously chanted, often including Vishnu and his incarnations, Shiva and the Goddess
(Parvati, Shakti, Vaishnodevi).
A very common scale in Hindu music is 1 2 3 4 5 6 7, which can be harmonized into a chord
progression. A bhajan is a Hindu devotional song, often of ancient origin. Bhajans are often
simple songs in lyrical language expressing emotions of love for the Divine, whether for a
single God/Goddess, or any number of divinities. Many bhajans feature several names and aspects of
the chosen deity, especially in the case of Hindu sahasranamas, which list a divinity's 1008 names.
Great importance is attributed to the singing of bhajans with Bhakti, i.e. loving devotion. "Rasanam
Lakshanam Bhajanam" means the act by which we feel more closer to our inner self or God, is a
bhajan. Acts which are done for the God is called bhajan.
Traditionally, the music has been Indian classical music, which is based on ragas and tala (rhythmic
beat patterns) played on the Veena (or Been), Sarangi Venu (flute), Mridanga(or Tabla) (traditional
Indian instruments). The Sikh Scripture contains 31 ragas and 17 talas which form the basis for kirtan
music compositions.
Hindus are even said to have achieved Moksha through devoting music to God. For example in
the Rig Veda Gargi, the wife of Yajnavalkya, through her excellence in veena playing, an incident
that caused Sage Yagnavalkya to write the famous verse:
"Veena Vadama Tatvagnaha
Sruthi Jathi Visharada
Talagnanacha Aprayasena
Mokshamargam Gachachathi"
("Yagnavalkya Siksha")
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There have also been several music-saints (e.g. Sant Tyagaraja) and poet-saints (e.g. Sant Ravidas).
The origin and development of temple music is traced by musicians and patrons alike to temple
rituals and festivals. However, it is difficult either to support their assertion with concrete evidence or
to determine the historical depth of this tradition if in fact that was the case, due to the paucity of the
historical evidence.
Kirtan-This is the communal, call-and-response chanting of mantras, often with instruments and
dance. Kirtans are deeply rooted in Vedic tradition.
Indian classical music-The origins of Indian classical music can be found from the oldest of
scriptures,
part
of
the Hindu tradition,
the Vedas. Samaveda,
one
of
the
four
Vedas,
describes music at length.With the disintegration of feudalism, music and Carnatic music, once
confined to the precincts of temples and royal durbar halls, stepped out and started filling social gaps
of interactions.
Construction Techniques in Acoustic Planning of a Temple Building
Noise control inside a building is achieved by following construction techniques while construction of a
building. The construction techniques of walls, windows, doors and floors and selection of appropriate
building materials are discussed for better acoustic control in buildings.
The discomfort of noise within the building goes on increasing if the structural elements within the building
too don’t show any resistance against the noise. It is found that the noise transmission is intercepted when it
passes through the walls, floors, windows, ceilings and the building doors.
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The Sound Transmission Class (STC)
A certain parameter has to be used in order to compare the performance of different construction materials.
One such parameter is the sound transmission class(STC).
The sound transmission class can be defined as the numerical value equal to the number of decibels in terms of
reduction of sound when it passes through a material, which is intended to have some insulating property.
This can make one understand that a high value of STC implies the material possess a high insulating property.
It basically works on the influence of external frequencies of the areas of the partition where the sound
originates and where the receiving of the sound takes place.
This can be explained by an example. Let us assume the desired level of sound internally is 45 decibels and the
external level of noise is 85decibels, then we require a partition material that has a sound transmission class
value of 40 STC for adequate acoustic comfort.
STC is a sound transmission class rating which is put forward by the American society of Testing and
Measurement. This acts as a parameter to guide an architect to know which material would suit the most, to
have an essential acoustic feature by the reduction of noise but in those days,the temple architects must have
had their own rules passed down from one to another,or mentioned in the Agamas that today are lost to us.
Construction Techniques in Acoustic Planning of a Building
The structural elements and their construction for controlling noise in buildings are mentioned below.
Construction of Walls for Noise Control in Buildings
Wall are an important structural element in all kind of buildings, that provides protection from the noise
externally as well as internally. The usage of different wall materials or the usage of different design for the
wall would bring variation in the insulating properties of the element.
207
The figure below shows the difference in sound attenuation with variation in wall design.
The methods employed for noise control in buildings are explained in the following:
1. Wall Mass and the Thickness are Increased
The massiveness of a material is an efficient parameter that resists noise. Hence concrete walls are more
insulating than wooden walls. Another way of increasing the insulating property is to add more thickness for
the walls.
The increase of thickness of walls would result in more mass which in turn increase insulation. A reduction of
6 decibel sound happens by this method of construction. But the techniques must be carried out keeping in
mind the cost and economy.
Wall construction that undergoes vibration under huge frequencies of sound has to be avoided.
Fig.1. Different Wall Design Techniques Showing the Variation of Sound Attenuation
2. Use of Cavity Partition in Buildings for Noise Control
The sound transmission can be resisted by the usage of airspace between the two partition walls. The air space
can also be placed in between two or more layers. This concept is more effective than a single wall of equal
weight, which is found to be more economical.
3. Increase Airspace Width of Walls
The increase in airspace will obviously increase the noise insulation property. But the huge increase in the
width of air space is difficult to design and consumes more space.
4. Increasing the Stud Spacing
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It is found by a study that the spacing between the studs would increase the sound transmission capacity of the
room. Say an increase of 2 to 5 decibel STC is determined for a stud spaced 24 inches than those spaced at 16
inches.
5. Usage of Studs in a Staggered Manner
The arrangement of studs in a staggered manner as shown in figure-1, where studs are placed alternatively
would help in noise absorption, thus reducing noise intensity.
Fig.2. Figure Shows Variety of Wall Types, their Cost Comparison and STC Values
6.Studs and Panels held together by Resilient Materials
Making use of inexpensive resilient layers like glass or fiber board, or semi-resilient attachments which are
inert in nature, will help in reducing the STC rate by two to five decibels.
7. Panels Used are Dissimilar
Using different thickness and materials for panels would help in reduction of noise, thus increasing the sound
insulating quality of walls.
8.Sound Absorbing Blankets Used in the Airspace
The sound absorbing blankets are also called as isolation blankets which are placed in the airspace
arrangement, that are provided between the panels. This blanket enables an increase in sound attenuation.
Mineral or rock wool, wood fibers or fiberglass are some the materials used to make these blankets. These
blankets have an attenuation capability up to 10 decibels. The method is more effective where lightweight
construction is more prominent.
9.The Cracks and Edges are Sealed
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The full advantage of a high-performance wall can be brought out only when it is properly sealed and crack
free. The perimeter of the wall must be properly sealed.
Formation of cracks or holes would affect the insulation property of the wall. It has been observed that a hole
of the 1-inch square will result in a reduction of STC of the wall by 10.
Fig.3. Depicts Before and After the Sealing of Cracks
Construction of Windows for Acoustic Control in Buildings
Windows are one of the weakest elements of a building. Their inappropriate position or open condition would
affect the performance of insulating walls. Therefore, it is recommended to have acoustical consideration in
the arrangement of windows.
The graph below shows the variation of STC values of the wall, for the different area occupied by the windows
which are shown in percentages.
The following measures can be employed to reduce the noise entering the building through the windows:
1.Windows can be Closed
Permanent sealing or closing of the windows are the best measures to reduce the direct effect of noise.
Permanent sealing becomes essential when an air conditioning system must be enabled. So, sealing acts as a
constant solution for noise.
The masking of noise is an effect that is facilitated by the air conditioning system, which is discussed in the
following topics.
210
2. Windows Size can be Reduced
The loss of contribution of total partitions can be reduced by making the window size to small. Small windows
do have certain other advantages like:
Expensive acoustic windows can be excluded
Usage of glass is reduced
The method faces certain disadvantages too. The decrease of window size is limited, as the window size
should follow certain rules and regulations. Its decrease by, say from 50 to 20 % would only bring up a change
of 3 decibels.
3. Glass Thickness can be Increased
The more thickness the glass gains, the more resistant towards the noise. If sealing is not desired, the glass
thickness can be increased. Further, the glass can be laminated with a tough plastic, which is transparent in
nature. This is both shatter and noise resistant.
Construction of Doors for Acoustic Control in Buildings
Doors are considered very difficult to handle than windows, acoustically. Replacing a hollow core door by a
solid door is one of the solutions. This is found relatively expensive.
The sound insulation can be increased if at the bottom and at the top, a drop bar or gasket stops are installed.
Another solution is to reduce their use in walls facing noise directly. Install doors on the wall that is shielded.
Construction of Floors for Acoustic Control in Buildings
Special acoustical treatment is the only way to reduce the vibration of floors due to heavy noise. Installing a
heavy concrete floor or using a floating floor is some of the treatment methods.
Floating floor involves using a concrete or wooden slab over the existing one, which is separated by a resilient
material.
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Noise Control in Buildings by use of Masking
This method involves the drowning of noise with the help of a background noise. This is effective during noise
fluctuations. Masking can be created by soft music, electronic devices or air conditioning systems and heating
systems.
By contrast, noise from church bells, the call to prayer from a mosque, or other religious buildings m
ay be drowned out in decibel terms by the surrounding hubbub. However, judging by the furor over t
he recent decision by a mosque in Oxford, England, to obtain permission from the local council to am
plify its call to prayer (azan), it appears that noise emanating from religious buildings may be viewed
quite differently.
BIBLIOGRAPHY & REFERENCES
1. The History of Western Civilization Told Through the Acoustics of its Worship Spaces D. Lubmana
and B. Kiserb a,bDavid Lubman & Associates, 14301 Middletown Lane, Westminster, CA 927834514
https://www.icacommission.org/Proceedings/ICA2001Rome/5_02.pdf
2. Sacred Space and the City: Religious Buildings and Noise Pollution,Samantha Knights,2007https://www.researchgate.net/publication/265148054_Sacred_Space_and_the_City_Religious_Build
ings_and_Noise_Pollution
3. ACOUSTICS OF CHANTS, CONCH-SHELLS, BELLS AND GONGS IN HINDU WORSHIP
SPACES M.G. Prasad and B. Rajavel Noise and Vibration Control Laboratory, Department of
Mechanical Engineering, Stevens Institute of Technology, Hoboken, New Jersey, 07030, USA. e-mail:
mprasad@stevens.edu
4. ACOUSTICS OF CHANTS, CONCH-SHELLS, BELLS AND GONGS IN HINDU WORSHIP
SPACES, Marehalli Prasad,B Rajavel Conference: ACOUSTICS 2013, At: New Delhi, India
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/270758839_ACOUSTICS_OF_CHANTS_CONCHSHELLS_BELLS_AND_GONGS_IN_HINDU_WORSHIP_SPACES#:~:text=Sound%20plays%20a%20very%2
0important,in%20front%20of%20Garbha%2DGriha.
5. https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-7643-8276-6_4
6. Freely copied and adopted from the excellent article -Construction Techniques in Acoustic Planning of
a Building,Neenu Arjun,EDITORhttps://theconstructor.org/building/construction-techniques-inacoustic-planning-of-a-building/14976/
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CHAPTER X
Divinity & Idols:
The stone or metal deity images in Hindu temples and shrines are not mere symbols of the Gods.
They are the form through which their love, power and blessings flood forth into this world. We may
lik-en this mystery to our ability to communicate with others through the telephone. We do not talk to
the telephone; rather we use it as a means of communication with another person. Without the
telephone, we could not converse across long distances; and without the sanctified icon in the temple,
we cannot easily commune with the Deity. Divinity can also be invoked and felt in a sacred fire, or in
a tree, or in the enlightened person of a satguru. In our temples, God is invoked in the sanctum by
highly trained priests. Through the practice of yoga, or meditation, we invoke God inside ourself.
Yoga means to yoke oneself to God within. The image or icon of worship is a focus for our prayers
and
devotions.
Another way to explain icon worship is to acknowledge that Hindus believe God is everywhere, in all
things, whether stone, wood, creatures or people. So, it is not surprising that they feel comfortable
worshiping the Divine in His material manifestation. The Hindu can see God in stone and water, fire,
air and ether, and inside his own soul. Indeed, there are Hindu temples which have in the sanctum
sanctorum no image at all but a yantra, a symbolic or mystic diagram. However, the sight of the
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image
en-hances
the
devotee's
worship.
Elaboration: In Hinduism one of the ultimate attainments is when the seeker transcends the need of
all form and symbol. This is the yogi's goal. In this way Hinduism is the least idol-oriented of all the
religions of the world. There is no religion that is more aware of the transcendent, timeless, formless,
causeless Truth. Nor is there any religion which uses more symbols to represent Truth in preparation
for
that
realization.
Humorously speaking, Hindus are not idle worshipers. I have never seen a Hindu worship in a lazy or
idle way. They worship with great vigor and devotion, with unstinting regularity and constancy.
There's nothing idle about our ways of worship! (A little humor never hurts.) But, of course, the
question is about "graven images." All religions have their symbols of holiness through which the
sacred flows into the mundane. To name a few: the Christian cross, or statues of Mother Mary and
Saint Theresa, the holy Kaaba in Mecca, the Sikh Adi Granth enshrined in the Golden Temple in
Amritsar, the Arc and Torah of the Jews, the image of a meditating Buddha, the totems of indigenous
and Pagan faiths, and the artifacts of the holy men and women of all religions. Such icons, or graven
images, are held in awe by the followers of the respective faiths. The question is, does this make all
such religionists idol worshipers? The answer is, yes and no. From our perspective, idol worship is an
intelligent,
mystical
practice
shared
by
all
of
the
world's
great
faiths.
The human mind releases itself from suffering through the use of forms and symbols that awaken
reverence, evoke sanctity and spiritual wisdom. Even a fundamentalist Christian who rejects all forms
of idol worship, including those of the Catholic and Episcopal churches, would resent someone who
showed disrespect for his Bible. This is because he considers it sacred. His book and the Hindu's icon
are much alike in this way.
Murti embodiment, or solid object') is a general term for an image, statue or idol of a deity or mortal
in Indian culture. In Hindu temples, it is a symbolic icon. A murti is itself not a god in Hinduism, but
it is a shape, embodiment or manifestation of a deity. Murti are also found in some
nontheistic Jainism traditions, where they serve as symbols of revered mortals inside Jain temples,
and are worshiped in murtipujaka rituals.
214
A murti is typically made by carving stone, wood working, metal casting or through pottery. Ancient
era
texts
describing
their
proper
proportions,
positions
and
gestures
include
the Puranas, Agamas and Samhitas. The expressions in a murti vary in diverse Hindu traditions,
ranging from Ugra symbolism to express destruction, fear and violence (Durga, Kali), as well
as Saumya symbolism to express joy, knowledge and harmony (Saraswati, Lakshmi). Saumya images
are most common in Hindu temples. Other murti forms found in Hinduism include the linga.
A murti is an embodiment of the divine, the Ultimate Reality or Brahman to some Hindus. In
religious context, they are found in Hindu temples or homes, where they may be treated as a beloved
guest and serve as a participant of puja in Hinduism. In other occasions, it serves as the centre of
attention in annual festive processions and these are called utsava murti. The earliest murti are
mentioned by Pāṇini in 4th century BCE. Prior to that the agnicayana ritual ground seemed to served
as a template for the temple. Murti is sometimes referred to as murthi, or vigraha or pratima.
The earliest mention of the term murti occurs in primary Upanishads composed in the 1st millennium
BCE, particularly in verse 3.2 of Aitareya Upanishad, verse 1.13 of Shvetashvatara Upanishad, verse
6.14 of Maitrayaniya Upanishad and verse 1.5 of Prashna Upanishad. For example, the Maitrayaniya
Upanishad uses the term to mean a "form, manifestation of time". The section sets out to prove Time
exists, acknowledges the difficulty in proving Time exists by Pramana (epistemology in Indian
philosophy), then inserts a theory of inductive inference for epistemological proof as follows,
On
On
account
of
subtleness
account
of
of
it
Time,
this
the
is
the
Time
proof
is
of
its
reality;
demonstrated.
Because without proof, the assumption which is to be proved, is not admissible;
But, that which is itself to be proved or demonstrated, when one comprehends it in its parts, becomes
the ground of proof, through which it brings itself into consciousness (in the inductive way).
— Maitri Upanishad 6.14
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Krishna Temple Madura is a photograph by Kantilal Patel which was uploaded on November 25th, 2011.
One of the earliest firm textual evidence of Deva images, in the sense of murti, is found in Jivikarthe
Capanye by
the
Sanskrit
grammarian Pāṇini who
lived
about
4th
century
BCE.
He
mentions Acala and Cala, with former referring to images in a shrine, and the latter meaning images
that were carried from place to place. Panini also mentions Devalaka, meaning custodians of images
216
of worship who show the images but do not sell them, as well as Jivika as people whose source of
livelihood was the gifts they received from devotees. In ancient Sanskrit texts that follow Panini's
work,
numerous
references
are
found
to
divine
images
with
terms
such
as Devagrha, Devagara, Devakula, Devayatana and others. These texts, states Noel Salmond,
strongly suggest that temples and murti were in existence in ancient India by about 4th century BCE.
Recent archaeological evidence confirms that the knowledge and art of sculpture was established in
India by the Maurya Empire period (~3rd century BCE).
By early 1st millennium BCE, the term murti meant idols, image or statue in various Indian texts
such as Bhavishya Purana verse 132.5.7, Brihat Samhita 1.8.29 and inscriptions in different parts of
India. The term murti has been a more generic term referring to an idol or statue of anyone, either a
deity, of any human being, animal or any art. Pratima includes murti as well as painting of any nonanthropomorphic object. In contrast, Bera or Bimba meant "idol of god" only, and Vigraha was
synonymous with Bimba.[2]
Murti in diverse Hindu traditions vary widely in their expression. Raudra or ugra images express
destruction, fear and violence, such as Kali image on left. Shanta or saumya images express joy,
knowledge and harmony, such as Saraswati (centre). Saumya images are most common in Hindu
temples. Linga murti (right) are an alternate form.
A murti in contemporary usage is any image or statue. It may be found inside or outside a temple or
home, installed to be moved with a festive procession (utsava murti), or just be a landmark. It is a
significant part of Hindu iconography, and is implemented in many ways. Two major categories
include:
Raudra or Ugra - are images that were meant to terrify, induce fear. These typically have wide,
circular eyes, carry weapons, have skulls and bones as adornment. These idols were worshipped
by soldiers before going to war, or by people in times of distress or errors. Raudra deity temples
were not set up inside villages or towns, but invariably outside and in remote areas of a kingdom.
Shanta and Saumya - are images that were pacific, peaceful and expressive of love, compassion,
kindness and other virtues in Hindu pantheon. These images would carry symbolic icons of
peace, knowledge, music, wealth, flowers, sensuality among other things. In ancient India, these
temples were predominant inside villages and towns.
Beyond anthropomorphic forms of religious murti, some traditions of Hinduism cherish aniconism,
where alternate symbols are shaped into a murti, such as the linga for Shiva, yoni for Devi, and
the saligrama for Vishnu.
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Shilpa Shastras, Tantra, and Āgama (Hinduism)
Murti, when produced properly, are made according to the design rules of the Shilpa Shastras. They
recommend materials, measurements, proportion, decoration and symbolism of the murti.
Explanation of the metaphysical significance of each stage of manufacture and the prescription of
specific mantras to sanctify the process and evoke and invoke the power of the deity in the image are
found in the liturgical handbooks the Agamas and Tantras. In Tantric traditions, a murti is installed
by priests through the Prana pratishta ceremony, where mantras are recited sometimes
with yantras (mystic diagrams), whereby state Harold Coward and David Goa, the "divine vital
energy of the cosmos is infused into the sculpture" and then the divine is welcomed as one would
welcome a friend. According to Gudrun Buhnemann, the esoteric Hindu tantric traditions through
texts such as Tantra-tattva follow elaborate rituals to infuse life into a murti. Some tantra texts such
as the Pancaratraraksa state that anyone who considers an icon of Vishnu as nothing but "an
ordinary object" made of iron "goes to hell". The use of murti and particularly the prana
pratistha consecration ceremony, states Buhnemann, has been criticised by Hindu groups. These
groups state that this practice came from more recent "false tantra books", and there is not a single
word in the Vedas about such a ceremony.
A Hindu prayer before cutting a tree for a murti
Oh Tree! you have been selected for the worship of a deity,
Salutations to you!
I worship you per rules, kindly accept it.
May all who live in this tree, find residence elsewhere,
May they forgive us now, we bow to them.
—Brihat Samhita 59.10 - 59.11
The artists who make any art or craft, including murti, were known as shilpins. The formally
trained Shilpins shape the murti not in accordance with fancy but in accordance with canonical
manuals such as the Agamas and the Shilpa Shastras texts such as Vishvakarma. The material of
construction range from clay to wood to marble to metal alloys such as panchaloha. The sixth
century Brihat Samhita and eighth century text Manasara-Silpasastra (literally: "treatise on art using
method of measurement"), identify nine materials for murti construction – gold, silver, copper, stone,
wood, sudha (a type of stucco, mortar plaster), sarkara (gravel, grit), abhasa (marble types), and
earth (clay, terracotta). For abhasa, the texts describe working methods for various types of marble,
specialised stones, colours, and a range of opacity (transparent, translucent and crystal).
Brihat Samhita, a 6th-century encyclopaedia of a range of topics from horticulture to astrology to
gemology to murti and temple design, specifies in Chapter 56 that the pratima (murti) height should
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be of the sanctum sanctorum's door height, the Pratima height and the sanctum sanctorum room's
width be in the ratio of 0.292, it stand on a pedestal that is 0.146 of sanctum room width, thereafter
the text describes 20 types of temples with their dimensions. Chapter 58 of the text describes the
ratios of various anatomical parts of a murti, from head to toe, along with the recommendation in
verse 59.29 that generally accepted variations in dress, decoration and dimensions of local regional
traditions for the murti is the artistic tradition.
Proper murti design is described in ancient and medieval Indian texts. They describe proportions,
posture, expressions among other details, often referencing to nature.
The texts recommend materials of construction, proportions, postures and mudra, symbolic items the
murti holds in its hands, colours, garments and ornaments to go with the murti of each god or
goddess, vehicles of deities such as Garuda, bull and lion, and other details. The texts also include
chapters on the design of Jaina and Buddhist murti, as well as reliefs of sages, apsaras, different types
of devotees (based on bhakti yoga, jnana yoga, karma yoga, ascetics) to decorate the area near the
murti. The texts recommend that the material of construction and relative scale of murti be correlated
to the scale of the temple dimensions, using twelve types of comparative measurements.
In Southern India, the material used predominantly for murti is black granite, while material in North
India is white marble. However, for some Hindus, it is not the materials used that matter, but the faith
and meditation on the universal Absolute Brahman. More particularly, devotees meditate or worship
on the formless God (nirguna Brahman) through murti symbolism of God (saguna Brahman) during
a puja before a murti, or the meditation on a Tirthankara in the case of Jainism, thus making the
material of construction or the specific shape of the murti not spiritually important.
According to John Keay, "Only after achieving remarkable expertise in the portrayal of the Buddha
figure and of animal and human, did Indian stonemasons turn to producing images of the orthodox
'Hindu' deities". This view is, however, not shared by other scholars. Trudy King et al. state that stone
images of reverential figures and guardian spirits (yaksha) were first produced in Jainism and
Hinduism, by about 2 century BCE, as suggested by Mathura region excavations, and this knowledge
grew into iconographic traditions and stone monuments in India including those for Buddhism
219
.
220
Ganesh
A murti of mother goddess Matrika, from Rajasthan 6th century CE.
Major Hindu traditions such as Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Shaktism and Smartaism favour the use of
murti.
These
traditions
suggest
that
it
is
easier
to
dedicate
time
and
focus
on spirituality through anthropomorphic or non-anthropomorphic icons. Hindu scriptures such as
the Bhagavad Gita, states in verse 12.5,
It is much more difficult to focus on God as the unmanifested than God with form, due to human
beings having the need to perceive via the senses.
In Hinduism, states Jeaneane Fowler, a murti itself is not god, it is an "image of god" and thus a
symbol and representation. A murti is a form and manifestation, states Fowler, of the formless
Absolute.[ Thus a literal translation of murti as 'idol' is incorrect, when idol is understood as
superstitious end in itself. Just like the photograph of a person is not the real person, a murti is an
image in Hinduism but not the real thing, but in both cases the image reminds of something of
emotional and real value to the viewer. When a person worships a murti, it is assumed to be a
manifestation of the essence or spirit of the deity, the worshipper's spiritual ideas and needs are
meditated through it, yet the idea of ultimate reality or Brahman is not confined in it.
A collection of modern-day murti featuring the elephant-headed God, Lord Ganesha.
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Devotional (bhakti movement) practices centred on cultivating a deep and personal bond of love with
God, often expressed and facilitated with one or more murti, and includes individual or community
hymns, japa or singing (bhajan, kirtan or aarti). Acts of devotion, in major temples particularly, are
structured on treating the murti as the manifestation of a revered guest, and the daily routine can
include awakening the murti in the morning and making sure that it "is washed, dressed, and
garlanded." In Vaishnavism, the building of a temple for the murti is considered an act of devotion,
but non-murti symbolism is also common wherein the aromatic Tulsi plant or Saligrama is an
aniconic reminder of the spiritualism in Vishnu. These puja rituals with the murti correspond to
ancient cultural practices for a beloved guest, and the murti is welcomed, taken care of, and then
requested to retire.
Christopher John Fuller states that an image in Hinduism cannot be equated with a deity and the
object of worship is the divine whose power is inside the image, and the image is not the object of
worship itself, Hindus believe everything is worthy of worship as it contains divine energy emanating
from the one god. According to the Agamas, the bimba murti (स्थूलमूर्ति / र्िम्बमूर्ति ) is different from
the mantra murti from the perspective of rituals, gestures, hymns and offerings.
Some Hindu denominations like Arya Samaj and Satya Mahima Dharma reject idol worship.
Murti and temples were well established in South Asia, before the start of Delhi Sultanate in the late
12th century CE. They became a target of destruction during raids and religious wars between Islam
and Hinduism through the 18th-century.
During the colonial era, Christian missionaries aiming to convert Hindus to Christianity wrote
memoirs and books that were widely distributed in Europe, which Mitter, Pennington and other
scholars call as fictionalised stereotypes, where murti were claimed as the evidence of lack of
spiritual heritage in primitive Hindus, of "idolatry and savage worship of stones" practices akin to
Biblical demons, calling Murti as monstrous devils to eroticised bizarre beings carved in stone. The
British Missionary Society with colonial government's assistance bought and sometimes seized, then
transferred murti from India and displayed it in their "trophies" room in the United Kingdom with the
note claiming that these were given up by Hindus who now accept the "folly and sin of idolatry".In
other instances, the colonial British authorities, seeking additional government revenue, introduced
Pilgrim Tax on Hindus to view murti inside major temples.
The missionaries and orientalist scholars attempted to justify the need for colonial rule of India by
attacking murti as a symbol of depravity and primitiveness, arguing that it was, states Tanisha
222
Ramachandran, "the White Man's Burden to create a moral society" in India. This literature by the
Christian missionaries constructed the foundation of a "Hindu image" in Europe, during the colonial
era, and it blamed murti idolatry as "the cause for the ills of Indian society". By 19th-century, ideas
such as pantheism (universe is identical with god), contained in newly translated Sanskrit texts were
linked to idolatry of murti and declared as additional evidence of superstitions and evil by Christian
missionaries and colonial authorities in British India.
The polemics of Christian missionaries in colonial India triggered a debate among Hindus, yielding
divergent responses.. It ranged from activists such as Rammohun Roy who denounced all murti,
to Vivekananda who refused to denounce murti and asked Hindus in India and Christians in the West
to introspect, that images are used everywhere to help think and as a road to ideas, in the following
words,
Superstition is a great enemy of man, but bigotry is worse. Why does a Christian go to church? Why
is the cross holy? Why is the face turned toward the sky in prayer? Why are there so many images in
the Catholic Church? Why are there so many images in the minds of Protestants when they pray? My
brethren, we can no more think about anything without a mental image than we can live without
breathing. By the law of association the material image calls up the mental idea and vice versa.
— Vivekananda, World Parliament of Religions
Religious intolerance and polemics, state Halbertal and Margalit, have historically targeted idols and
material symbols cherished by other religions, while encouraging the worship of material symbols of
one's own religion, characterising the material symbols of others as grotesque and wrong, in some
cases dehumanising the others and encouraging the destruction of idols of the others. The outsider
conflates and stereotypes the "strange worship" of the other religions as "false worship" first, then
calls "false worship" as "improper worship and false belief" of pagan or an equivalent term, thereafter
constructing an identity of the others as "primitive and barbarians" that need to be saved, followed by
justified intolerance and often violence against those who cherish a different material symbol than
one's own.[69] In the history of Hinduism and India, states Pennington, Hindu deity images (murti)
have been a religious lens for focusing this anti-Hindu polemic and was the basis for distortions,
accusations and attacks by non-Indian religious powers and missionaries.[
Ancient Indian texts assert the significance of murti in spiritual terms. The Vāstusūtra Upaniṣad,
whose palm-leaf manuscripts were discovered in the 1970s among remote villages of Orissa – four
in Oriya language and one in crude Sanskrit, asserts that the doctrine of murti art making is founded
on the principles of origin and evolution of universe, is a "form of every form of cosmic creator" that
223
empirically exists in nature, and it functions to inspire a devotee towards contemplating the Ultimate
Supreme Principle (Brahman). This text, whose composition date is unknown but probably from late
1st millennium CE, discusses the significance of images as, state Alice Boner and others, "inspiring,
elevating and purifying influence" on the viewer and "means of communicating a vision of supreme
truth and for giving a taste of the infinite that lies beyond". It adds (abridged):
From the contemplation of images grows delight, from delight faith, from faith steadfast devotion,
through such devotion arises that higher understanding (parāvidyā) that is the royal road to moksha.
Without the guidance of images, the mind of the devotee may go astray and form wrong
imaginations. Images dispel false imaginations. (... ) It is in the mind of Rishis (sages), who see and
have the power of discerning the essence of all created things of manifested forms. They see their
different characters, the divine and the demoniac, the creative and the destructive forces, in their
eternal interplay. It is this vision of Rishis, of gigantic drama of cosmic powers in eternal conflict,
which the Sthapakas (Silpins, murti and temple artists) drew the subject-matter for their work.
— Pippalada, Vāstusūtra Upaniṣad, Introduction by Alice Boner et al
In the fifth chapter of Vāstusūtra Upaniṣad, Pippalada asserts, "from tattva-rupa (essence of a form,
underlying principle) come the pratirupani (images)". In the sixth chapter, Pippalada repeats his
message that the artist portrays the particular and universal concepts, with the statement "the work of
the Sthapaka is a creation similar to that of the Prajapati" (that which created the universe). Nontheistic Jaina scholars such as Jnansundar, states John Cort, have argued the significance of murti
along the same lines, asserting that "no matter what the field – scientific, commercial, religious –
there can be no knowledge without an icon", images are part of how human beings learn and focus
their thoughts, icons are necessary and inseparable from spiritual endeavours in Jainism.
While murti are an easily and commonly visible aspect of Hinduism, they are not necessary to Hindu
worship. Among Hindus, states Gopinath Rao, one who has realised Self (Soul, Atman) and the
Universal Principle (Brahman, god) within himself, there is no need for any temple or divine image
for worship. Those who have yet to reach this height of realisation, various symbolic manifestations
through images, idols and icons as well as mental modes of worship are offered as one of the spiritual
paths in the Hindu way of life. This belief is repeated in ancient Hindu scriptures. For example, the
Jabaladarshana Upanishad states:
A yogin perceives god (Siva) within himself,
images are for those who have not reached this knowledge. (Verse 59)
— Jabaladarsana Upanishad,
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Introduction: All religions have been engaging in idolatry without actually knowing it – it’s always
hard to see whether someone is really worshipping something, or just using it as a symbol of a totally
different thing.
Are Christians idol worshippers? Exodus 20:4, 5: “You must not make for yourself a carved image or
a form like anything that is in the heavens above or that is on the earth underneath or that is in the
waters under the earth. You must not bow down to them nor be induced to serve them, because I
Jehovah your God am a God exacting exclusive devotion.”
The Christians worship the statue of Jesus or the Cross or Jesus in the cross in their Church. Catholics
pray to Mary and have statues of her. Isn’t that idolatry? If you come to India, especially South India,
you can see thousands of new Churches made as replica of Hindu temples, with Dwaja Sthamba (flag
banner high column) among other things, creating more idols to worship. I don’t think anything other
than the cemetery in the Churches that doesn’t fit into external culture. Christianity is almost
Indianised.
During first few centuries Jesus was pictured as Asiatic – bald, bearded and short – because of Asian
origin. Later all images of Jesus became that of a European white man. So their idol clearly is Jesus
Christ of European race. Can a Christian worship a black or Asian Jesus? Their main idols are Christ
and Cross.
Islam doesn’t have direct “idol worship” as Christians or Hindus do. The first condition to be a
Muslim is: the act of worship should be devoted to Allah Alone. Allah says (interpretation of the
meaning): “And they were commanded not, but that they should worship Allah, and worship none but
Him Alone (abstaining from ascribing partners to Him).” [Al-Bayyinah 98:5]
But you can see Idolatry in that religion too. Islam asks Muslims to pray towards Mecca. Direction or
destination is focal point – an idol as per definition. Something becomes sacred only when you
worship it. Muslims worship the black Kaaba Stone in Mecca.
There are three explanations for the stone – (1) As per Islamic belief- it is sent by their god, Allah (2)
Some serious historians say it’s a Shiv Linga (3) some people claim it’s a Meteorite. Whatever it is,
Kaaba is an important icon that they worship. Zamzam water in Makkah is also sacred for them.
Let alone idols, Islam strictly prohibits worshipping any man-made objects. Millions of copies of
Holy Quran are printed in many printing presses by men and made into book form by man. Isn’t it a
man-made object? How can it be worshipped? If you say it is a representation of god’s words, it is an
idol by definition. The printed quotes are photo-framed, kept in the wall and worshipped. It’s also
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man-made. Alphabets used to describe god are also man-made images. Most of the Mosques (place
of worship) have photograph of Kaaba. Some are visiting Dargah (grave of a revered religious figure)
to offer worship.
To my understanding, Muslims are forbidden to, and therefore do not, worship Prophet Mohammed.
Muslims shouldn’t even keep images of him. But indirectly they do. If anybody talks one word
against him, he/she will be cut into pieces. Isn’t that fanatic worship? Millions of Muslims worship
holy hair of Prophet Mohammed and now building India’s biggest mosque Sha’re Mubarak Masjid
(literally: Blessed Hair Grand Mosque) in Kerala.
You can also find images of Muhammad’s face in manuscript illustrations from hundreds of years
ago, some of which are on display at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York. Some of the
earliest Islamic coins were minted with Muhammad’s face on them! The celebration of Muhammad
birthday is contradictory to Islamic law. But India has official Holiday on Prophet’s birthday similar
to Christmas and Krishna Jayanti. What is it other than iconic worship?
I agree lot of Muslims still worship only the formless God. But, they are still praying to a God which
has all other attributes except that of “form”. Therefore they only seem to be rejecting the attribute of
“form”, whereas they still seem to accept all other attributes in God (omnipotence, omnipresence etc.)
which are also accepted by people from other religions who worship and pray to God using idols.
Even atheist philosophies like Marxism follow Idolatry. They have created Martyrs who they worship
with garland and flowers. They call it “Rakthasakshi Mandapam”- Temple for martyrs. The world
capital of superstitious worship is communist China. Even African tribals are better than Chinese
when it comes to superstitions and idol worships.
From a Western viewpoint, Hindus are still worst. They worship almost everything. Apart from 33
crores Gods and Goddesses, they worship rat, cow, stones, birds, sexual organs, mountain, weapons
etc. They have made idols or icons out of almost everything in this universe. But Hindus have the
honesty and courage to admit that, “Yes we do have idol worship and that is important to our
religion.”
An Idol is an adjective of God. Idol is NOT an equivalent word for Vigraha (body or form) and
Bimba (image, picture or object) in Sanskrit. The word ‘idol’ may be inadequate to mean ‘Vigraha’,
except to indicate that the ‘shilpa’ or ‘figure’ indicates a kind of ‘model’ through which to visualize
God.
In Sanskrit, “Viseshal Grahyathe ithi Vigraha” (The One which is acceptable or liked or holds
passionately) is Vigraham.
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In early stages of one’s quest for divinity, a representative form becomes necessary. That’s how the
concept of Vigrahas (idols) came up in all religions. Vigraha (Vishesham Grihamiti = Special abode),
Pratima (Mam prati = In front of me), Bimba smile emoticon Image) or Moorti smile emoticon the
utensil to fill) are synonyms of Vigraha.
The purpose of Vigraha is actually to help the seekers to focus on the concepts. So, the seekers are
seeing the manifestation of a divine power in such idol. They believe use of an idol or a physical
symbol in worship and prayer is intended to enhance the focus on Brahmam (the universal or
supreme god) with respect to a certain attribute (Saguna) of Brahmam. Such Idol worship is called
“Saguna Aradhana” (Worshipping forms and names) in India.
Contrary to popular misconceptions, idol is not the god for Hindus. For the beginners, it is like this:
Those who wish to offer worship to the Brahmam in whichever form he/she prefers, invite ‘That’ into
the favourite ‘Vigraha’. Aavahayami (I invite), Sthapayami (I establish/seat), Poojayami (I worship).
Then we offer water, flowers, leaves, fragrant substances, delicious food, music, dance etc. as part of
worship to ‘That’. Then we ask ‘That’ to grant our wishes and needs. At the end of the day or period
of worship, we offer the pooja again and ask ‘That’ to leave the Vigraha. This process is called
Visarjana (disperse). Then it becomes just an idol.
In short, if you carefully observe you can see all religions and ideologies have some form of idol
worship – it may be a statue, book, person, symbol, icon or thing. Everybody worships either images
and or political symbols. The only difference would be in the method or degree in worshipping.
It is thus quite apparent for the entire mankind – all religions – whether it is atheism, pluralism,
animism, fanaticism, fundamentalism, gurudom, kingdom of priests and extreme materialism, the idol
worship comes natural. Man creates various idols or images and then stuck there. They fight and kill
for those idols. So, there is no point in anybody holding a “Holier than Thou” attitude. Why can’t a
believer move beyond idols or images? Because human mind needs some form of image or imagery
to its very survival. This is the limitation of all religions.
So, our ancestors, the great sages, found that humans have to move beyond beliefs if he/she wants to
realize the truth. They should go beyond idolatry – it is Nirguna Aradhana. The only religion that
talks about truly formless and undefined god is Sanatan Dharma. It says the Brahmam – the divine
power – is truly without a form, a gender or anything for that matter, while all other religions believe
that god has a gender, a race and a language.
As Sankracharya says, “To describe Brahmam even the words recoil.” So anybody trying to describe
god through words or images (Idolatry) is like blinds describing elephant. You have to go beyond a
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name and a form (shape) to realise the Brahmam. (Lalitha Sahasranamam says ‘Nama roopa
vivarjitha’)
Vedas say the Brahmam is formless, ineffable (nirguna) and Unmoved Mover. Upanishads describe
Nirguna Brahmam- the ineffable God as, “Whole is that, whole too is this and from the whole, whole
cometh and take whole, yet whole remains.” This cannot be understood with using mind as the mind
CANNOT go beyond images (idols) or beliefs.
That’s the reason our ancestors said God is an experience to be experienced by the experiencer. It
cannot be explained. It cannot be described. In his final stages of quest, a Sanatan Dharma follower
realizes and sees god’s presence in everything in the universe (Isavasyam idam sarvam). That’s why
he prays “May all beings be happy” (Lokah Samastah Sukhino Bhavantu). That’s how the universal
compassion develops. That’s how the inclusive philosophy of non-violence, equality and tolerance
develops. That’s why ancient Indians could welcome and accept all religions, ideologies and
philosophies including Atheism. No beliefs in the world can take a human being to such elevated
higher dimension.
the whole idea of doing idol worship or not-doing idol worship is a malicious propaganda to convert
people from older religions. Idols are used as means to worship God or its infinite representations. No
Hindus consider that there are two Param-Atma or supreme God, but they consider that he has
infinite representation & yet no form because God is totality of all things & non-things. Hindus
consider God to be in all things, everywhere, omnipresent, omni-potent & considered world to be just
manifestation of his own self out of his mere wish. And Idols are ways to focus some positive
manifestation of God to remove all other distractions. They used lamps, stones, pictures, or music for
same purpose. No Ram, Shiva or Ganesh worshiper will say that you are worshiping wrong God,
because they are clear that you select the channel or image that you love most, focus on that
characteristics but eventually you merge to same God. While Upanishads are the first to describe one
God that pervades all, before any other religion could even come into being, still later religions could
use propaganda & disparage Hinduism. The whole idea of idol worship or not idol worship is a big
deceitful propaganda. Hindus philosophy defines the whole thing in one of the most clear languages
known to humans Sanskrit & in of of the most refined philosophies as accepted by best philosophers
world wide. God of Upanishads is most in sync whatever scientists and greater philosophers have
found till date.
a Hindu believes God exists in stones. But he understands that it doesn’t mean God is the stone.
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One must realize that Hindus do not worship any idol but worship God through the image. The best
explanation of image worship that I have come across is that of Swami Tapasyananda:
…Worship of a God who is not also the Absolute is idolatry, and a mere Absolute, who is
characterless and is irresponsive, is not better than matter. The Vedanta accepts the Supreme as both
Personal and Impersonal. When the votary in the course of his spiritual development becomes depersonalized on achieving the elimination of his ego-based body-mind, he will be able to
understand the true Impersonal. Till then, that is, so long as he is a person, the Impersonal and the
Absolute can only mean for him a Personal Being who is much more than what he, a person, has
grasped or can grasp of Him. To illustrate, the Impersonal-Personal Divine of the Vedanta is the
ocean and the God of adoration of the devotee is like a big field or backwater into which the water of
that ocean has flowed. The many deities that form the object of worship of Vedantism are like these
tanks and backwaters in the analogy. They are so many manifestations of the Personal-Impersonal
Sat-chit-ananda in the thought structures of those who adore Him, or are forms adopted by Him for
the achievement of cosmic purposes in his world-play. The worship of these forms with an
understanding of the infinitude that informs their finitude ...... is the only form of true worship that the
human mind is capable of, so long as man remains a limited person. The other ideas of the Divine
which Semitic religions hold – their so called boasted monotheism – is only a form of disguised
idolatry; for when it is said that Jehovah is a jealous God, or that there is no God but Allah, it is
obvious that the Supreme Being is being identified as an exclusive individual and not as an
expression of an Infinite Being in terms of the human mind. When the link with the Infinite is
forgotten, a Deity, whether it is a monotheistic entity or a polytheistic being becomes a mere idol.
Real worship of the Supreme Being is possible only when the principle of Vedantic theism is
understood – that principle being the perception of the Infinite Personal-Impersonal Being through a
limited manifestation of Him.
A Vedantic Deity is never aggressive, demanding the overthrow of other deities. But, a monotheistic
Deity, always a jealous God, cannot tolerate another Deity. As Toynbee has pointed out, the
monotheistic Deity of the Semitics is only an apotheosis of the group or tribal consciousness of
certain people, a sentiment that held together societies before nationalism took its place. Just as the
nationalistic patriotism is eager to absorb all other countries, that form of group consciousness
masquerading as monotheism wants to supplant all other religions and establish its Deity in their
sanctuaries. Proselytism, for which many religions stand but which has no place in the Vedantic
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scheme, is the consequence of the Infinite Being but a personalisation of the group consciousness
of a people.
The principle enunciated above in regard to Deities is applicable also to worship of God in holy
images, which critics, who are practicing real idolatry, have stigmatised as idolatry. The Vedantin’s
God is not an individual as the Semite’s. He is the Universal Spirit who has manifested as All-Nature.
He is one with all, and if a person with faith wants to see Him anywhere, He is present there. Like
water running all through the ground, He is everywhere; and if the well of faith is dug, He becomes
available for worship. A holy image is thus a point at which His real presence is available for
imperfect man to apprehend and commune with. It is not a mere means for practising
concentration as some apologists say. It is much more. It is a point of real communion with the
Divine when the eye of faith reveals Him as accepting the worship and offering made by the
devotee.
[Adapted from Swami Tapasyananda’s introductory remarks in ‘A Primer of Hinduism’ by
D.S.Sarma]
Murthi Puja became a subject of intense debate in 19th century Bengal mainly due to Christian
missionary propaganda. Even educated Bengali Hindus began opposing murthi Puja. I am posting
below a conversation between M and Sri Ramakrishna where M asks Sri Ramakrishna about murthi
puja.
Idols in the Hindu Way of Life – Why Are They Worshipped?
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India is one place where they went into elaborate systems of idol-making. This has been
misunderstood by other cultures as worshiping some doll as a god. No. Here, people are very much
aware that it is we who create the shapes and forms. If you look at it from the standpoint of modern
science, we know today that everything is the same energy, but everything is not the same in the
world. This energy can be like an animal or this energy can function like the Divine. When I say “the
Divine,” I am not talking about you as a being. I am talking about the body itself. The physical body
itself can be transformed into a Divine entity if we just reorganize our systems in a particular way.
Hindu is a cultural identity, not a religious identity. In the Hindu way of life, the only important thing
in human life is his liberation.
For example, between the full moon day and the new moon day, each of the fourteen nights are so
different. Today, we live with so much electric light, so you don't know the difference. Suppose you
lived on a farm or in a forest where there was no electricity, then every night would be very different
because the moon comes up at different times and it has different shapes and forms. But it is the same
moon. It is not a different entity. The same moon has different impacts at different times. Just a little
rearrangement, see what a difference it has made.
Similarly, if you re-arrange the energy system in the body, this body which is just a mass of flesh
right now, can become a divine entity. The whole system of yoga is oriented towards this. Gradually,
if you give it sufficient attention and practice, you will see that this body is no longer just craving
for self-preservation and procreation, it has become something else altogether. It is no longer just a
physical entity. Though it is physical, though it is biology, it need not be limited to the physical. It
can function and operate in a completely different dimension. Its very presence can become different.
It is from this context that many yogis who made their bodies in a certain way, allowed people to
worship their bodies. They themselves would not be there in the body, but they let people worship
their body because it has become like a divine entity. It is a reorganized energy – completely
engineered.
The Hindu Way of Life
One fundamental thing that I would like to clear up about the Hindu way of life is, with the Hindu,
there is no “ism” because it is a geographical and cultural identity. Anyone born in the land of Indus
is a Hindu. There is no particular belief system, god or ideology which you can call as the Hindu way
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of life. Whatever you do in this culture is Hindu. You can worship a man-god and be a Hindu. You
can worship a woman-god and be a Hindu. You can worship a cow and be a Hindu. You can worship
a tree and be a Hindu. Or you don’t worship anything and you can be a Hindu. Hindu is a cultural
identity, not a religious identity. In the Hindu way of life, the only important thing in human life is his
liberation. Mukti is the only goal.
The Science of Idol-Making
There is a whole science of idol-making where a certain form is created with a particular material and
energized in a certain way. Different idols are made in different ways where they relocate or
rearrange the chakras in certain places to make them into completely different possibilities. Idolmaking is that science through which you manifest the energy in a particular way so that your quality
of life can be enhanced.
The temple was not created as a place of God or a place of prayer. It was created as a place of energy
where everyone could go and make use of it.
Temples in India, were built as a very deep science. They were not created for worship. When I say
temple, I am referring to the ancient temples. Most modern temples are built just the way you build
shopping complexes. Temple building is a very deep science. If the basic aspects of the temple – the
size and shape of the idol, the mudra that the idol holds, the parikrama, the garbha griha, and
the mantras used to consecrate the idol are properly matched, a powerful energy system is created.
In Indian tradition, no one told you that if you go to a temple, you must worship and give money and
ask for something. This is something that people have started now. Traditionally, they told you, if you
go to the temple, you must sit for a while and come. But today you just touch your bottom to the floor
and run away. This is not the way. You are required to sit there because there is a field of energy that
has been created. In the morning, before you go out into the world, the first thing you do is you go sit
in the temple for a while. This is a way of recharging yourself with very positive vibrations of life so
that you go into the world with a different perspective. The temple was not created as a place
of God or a place of prayer. No one was ever allowed to lead a prayer. It was created as a place of
energy where everyone could go and make use of it.
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1. Till the realisation of perfect knowledge a man should continue the ritualistic worship of
Shiva. 59-60. In order to convince the world, the rituals must be continued. Just as the sun
is reflected in many vessels, in the same manner, O devas, know that the supreme Brahman,
Shiva, assumes the form of whatever is seen or heard in the world real or unreal.
2. There is difference in vessels but not in the water they contain. This is what those who
know the real meaning of the Vedas say.
3. "Lord Shiva is within the heart of beings in this world." Of what avail are images to those
who have the real knowledge?
4. Having an image is very auspicious for a person who has no such knowledge. It is a ladder
that enables him to climb to a higher position.
5. It is very difficult to climb to a position without a support. The image is only a means to
achieve the Nirguna Shiva.
6. The attainment of the Nirguna through a Saguna is certainly possible. In this manner, the
symbols of all lords are conductive to steady faith and belief.
7. This lord is very great and this is the mode of worship of that lord. If there is no image, of
what avail are scents, sandal paste, flowers etc?
8. Till the realisation of true knowledge, the image shall necessarily be worshipped. If any one
does not worship the image before he attains perfect knowledge, his downfall is sure.
These are aesthetic expressions of devotion in architecture and sculpture, music and painting. Idols
are the personifications of the Almighty or the natural forces, in one aspect or another for a closer
identification and understanding of them rather conveniently by common people, who feel a more
intimate and trustworthy relationship with the deity with his assumed and acknowledged form and
figure in their hearts and before their eyes.
Temples were located and built in a manner to best utilise the magnetic energy and desirable
properties of earth and mother nature to help a devotee to concentrate and meditate more peacefully.
Besides temples serve as centres of religious discourses, festive celebrations and social interactions.
The practice of Idol Worship in Hinduism. In Indian society, idol worship is one of the major
superstitions that preclude the development of a scientific bent of mind….. Almost all societies of the
world practiced them in one form or another during certain period. But, considering its evil effect,
many societies began to shed ‘Idol worship’. Jewish society dropped it during 600 BC. European
societies gave-up idol worship from the third century onwards synchronizing with the spread of
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Christianity. Arabian societies dispensed with idolatry from the seventh century onwards coinciding
with the spread of Islam….. “In India, idolatry remains as an integral part of Hindu religion. It is
being given much importance by the priestly class to further their interests. Many fictitious stories
about the effectiveness of the worship of the idols of Gods and Goddesses are being spread by the
priestly class. Believing those fictitious stories, Hindus throng the temples in large numbers to
worship the different idols….. “The masses assume that by worshipping idols, their sins will be
forgiven and they will be rewarded in this life as well as after life. Only under that notion, they
perform costly pilgrimages to the so called holy places and fill the temple coffers with money and
valuables. This illusion prevents people from acquiring worldly wisdom. It also averts people from
realizing the value of thought and work. As a result, people live in vain hope. They expect wonders to
happen in their lives. Under this false hope, they don’t involve themselves in any productive and
creative activities sincerely. This wrong mental attitude towards life and work acts as a major hurdle
to our progress.” Idol-worship has been the favorite weapon Hinduphobic people who have used it to
criticize Hinduism for the last many centuries. It is considered as the foremost evidence that
establishes Hinduism as being nothing more than a set of superstitions. The passages about ‘idolworship’ that have been quoted at the beginning are from an article titled ‘Superstition and Indians’
by N. Anandan, published in the July 2011 issue of ‘The Modern Rationalist.’ Though the article is a
few years old, the views expressed in the article clearly sums up the view of many self-claimed
liberals, rationalists, and secularists of present society about the issue of idol worship in Hinduism.
Now let us see what idol worship really is and how valid are these assessments and criticisms. Idol
Worship and Moksha Photo: The Hindu ‘Idol Worship’ or ‘Image worship’ is one of the central
aspects of Hindu practice. Sanatana Dharma has created a wide framework of spiritual practices and
lifestyle choices to suit people of different temperaments and competencies. Hence, it has an equal
place for those who worship nature as well as those who contemplate on their innermost self. Further,
these diverse practices are not segregated belief systems distinct from one another as many scholars
have concluded over last few centuries. Instead, these diversities are expressions of one united
wholeness. There is a unity in the goal that various spiritual paths lead to as well as in the framework
that upholds these diverse paths. The ultimate goal of Hinduism is Moksha or Liberation and every
aspect of life, both secular and spiritual have been propounded to assist a person to eventually attain
this goal. Hence, there is clearly a unity in the ultimate goal. Further, there is another unity that
interconnects all the various paths and stays beneath them, and acts as the very foundation of them. It
is the unity provided by Dharma which upholds life and which is the framework that has made it
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possible for such diverse paths to express itself without losing the eye on the goal. Hence, Idol
worship is one of the prominent valid means that a person can adopt to travel the path that leads to
Moksha. The validity of the worship of idols is its efficacy in helping a devotee to connect with his
object of devotion i.e. Brahman. In fact, the worship of the idol is not about worshiping stone or
wood. Instead, it is about worshiping Brahman/God who has manifested in the form of a Devata
(deity) in that idol. Before proceeding further, let us briefly understand how Brahman is understood
in Hinduism. Concept of God in Hinduism God or Supreme reality is referred by the term ‘Brahman’
in Hinduism. Unlike some religions that conceive God as a creator who is different from his
creations, Hinduism recognizes that Brahman is both transcendent reality as well as immanent reality.
Hindu scriptures speak about Brahman as being present in all objects as their very innermost SelfAtman. The term Brahman therefore refers to the transcendent aspect and the term Atman to the
immanent aspect. Hence, the often quoted Vedanta definition of Moksha as the realization of
‘Brahma-Atma-Aikyam-Union of Brahman and Atman’. The scriptures further speak about Brahman
in its transcendent absolute state as being nameless, formless, attribute-less, and birth-less infinite
whole. At the same time, the scriptures also recognize that this Brahman can take an infinite number
of forms and names as well. He is formless, yet a repository of all forms. Hence, the famous Veda
statement “One truth is called by various names” (Rig Veda 1.164.46). Yaska in his Nirukta says that
there is only one God, and that God appears as Agni on the physical universe, as Indra in the middle
realms, and as Savitr in the celestial realms. Further, various other deities in these three realms are
various aspects of these three manifestations of God.(1) Therefore, though Brahman is one infinite
whole without any forms, he himself assumes various forms of Devatas/deities to uphold the
Universe. Hence, various Devatas are in essence non-different from Brahman, but in their limited
aspect (of name and form), they represent particular aspect/attribute of Brahman. Therefore, Devatas
serve as a bridge between devotees (who cannot comprehend Brahman because He is beyond
perception) and Brahman (who is the end goal of spiritual path). Worship or Upasana in Hinduism As
mentioned about, Moksha is possible only by the realization of Brahman as being non-different from
the innermost Self (Atman). In other-words, Moksha is possible through Self-Realization or Atma
Jnana. But, people in general are completely attached to the material objects. A person identifies
himself with his name, body, and his possessions. Therefore, in order to truly realize the innermost
Self, a person must remove the false identifications with his possessions, with the body and the mind.
But, this is not easy. The mind is full of thought patterns called Vrittis. The mind is further afflicted
by impurities like lust, anger, delusion, pride, etc. that increase the attachment to the body and
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material objects. Hence, the false identifications can be removed only by purifying the mind by
removing the impurities and further calming the mind by bringing thought Vrittis to rest. Yoga Sutra
calls this as “Chitta-Vritti Nirodha”. This purification and the stilling of mind in turn is brought about
by the practice of duties (Dharma Anushtana) and devotion (Bhakti/Upasana). It is for this reason, the
Vedas are divided into Karma Khanda (duty/actions portion), Upasana Khanda (Meditation/devotion
portion) and Jnana Khanda (Knowledge portion). The purpose of Upasana is to attain one-pointed
concentration, so that the mind can be stilled. Upasana literally means ‘to sit near or become close
to.’ Hence, the act of worship is nothing but bringing a devotee close to his devata/deity. In fact,
Mahanirvana Tantra (14.123) defines worship as the union of the Jiva (individual) with Atman (God).
How is this closeness achieved? By the practice of various external and internal spiritual practices. In
fact, every external practice has been designed such that it induces certain internal transformations.
The external practices may be in the form of Yajna (fire ritual), Tarpana (using water), or Murti puja
(representing earth element) wherein the Devata is invoked in the fire, water, or the idol respectively.
These external practices are accompanied by internal meditations on the Devatas. These internal
meditations itself are referred as Pratyahara (withdrawal of senses), Dharana (concentration), Dhyana
(meditation) in Patanjali Yoga. These meditations are referred as Vidyas (Knowledge of the deities)
in the Upanishads. It is by concentrating on the Nama (name), Mantra, or the Rupa (form) of the
Devata, a person purifies the mind and removes all thought Vrittis of it. Therefore, Upasana is
inevitable for spiritual progress. But, this Upasana is not a one size fits all kind of practice. Instead,
there are hundreds of methods of Upasanas that have been explained in various scriptures to help
people of various temperaments. Idol-Worship is one such important and very effective mode of
worship.
Philosophy
behind
the
practice
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of
Idol
Worship
Photo:
e
www.newindianexpress.com
The most important element of Idol worship is Idol itself. Idol called as ‘Murti’ is both a symbol for
God as well as His abode. An Idol is basically a form, an image that represents a particular Devata.
Hence, the primary function of an Idol is that of ‘Pratima’. It acts as a symbol that helps a devotee to
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have a connection, to have some perception of the essence of Devata, who otherwise is beyond
sensory perception. Thus, Idol can be understood as a reflection, an image that gives a glimpse of the
Devata, just as a photograph of a person helps one to remember him. This function of the Idol or
Murti as a Pratima is very crucial in the practice of one pointed concentration and meditation. A
meditator who thus meditates realizes that the Idol itself is neither Brahman nor Devata, but it is a
reflection, an image of the Devata that aids concentration. This concentration will further lead to deep
meditation on that form, which will slowly result in the manifestation of the real Devata within the
mind. This fact is further brought out in the iconography details that is associated with each deity.
Devatas have many common features, yet each one of them have some unique features as well. These
are not accidental or the products of imagination of some artists of the old. Instead, each element of
the iconography represents a particular element about that Devata. For example, the moon on Shiva’s
head represents Shiva as being endowed with pure Knowledge. Similarly, the ten hands depicted in
some deities represent the 10 directions that include the top and bottom. The idols are made only
according to the iconographic descriptions given in various scriptures and not otherwise. These show
that, idols act as symbols for decoding the essence of various deities and when concentrated upon the
idols, thought Vrittis corresponding to those aspects of Devatas are formed in the mind. This kind of
meditation where external or internal aids are used as props to attain one-pointed concentration is
well established in the Upanishads, Puranas, as well as Tantrika literatures. But, this is only one way
of worshiping Devatas using Idols. The other way is self-evident in the very name with which the
idols are referred- ‘Murti’. Murti literally means form, manifestation, embodiment, or simply an
abode. Hence, idol is not simply a symbol, but it is a place that can hold the energy and the essence of
the particular manifestation of Brahman. That is, the idol is nothing but a body of the Devata. It is for
this reason, the worship of the Devata begins with Prana Pratishtapana where in the life-force, the
essence, as well as the form of the deity is infused into the stone or wooden idol. This is done through
procedures like Kumbabhishekam etc. in the temples. In fact, without consecration, the stone idol
remains simply a stone and does not become a Pratima (image) of God. Regarding this, S.K.
Ramachandra Rao, a renowned author and Sanskrit scholar says: “The devotee knows that the image
of a god is a mere artefact and toy unless it is properly consecrated. And consecration involves the
investment of the devotee’s devotion and passion, and getting the devotee effectively related to the
particular god invoked in the image. Rituals are naturally important for transforming an artefact into
an icon. The icon is meant to accommodate the rituals, so that human devotion can flower out in the
light of God that is reflected through the icon.”(2) Therefore, the idols are not just the symbol or a
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reflection of the Devata, but it is the very abode of the Devata. A common criticism of Idol worship is
that Hindus worship the stone and other such insentient objects. But, as seen above it is not the stone
that is worshiped, but the Devata who has occupied the stone idol for a duration of time, who is
worshiped. Jagadguru Sri Abhivnava Vidyatheertha MahaSwamiji, the late Shankaracharya of
‘Sringeri Peetham’ says: “We do not worship mere stones. If we did, then, on seeing a stone idol, we
would have addressed it as, ‘O Stone’ and not as ‘O Lord.’ We use idols as aids to worship, realizing
that it is He who resides in them. In the temple deities, the divine presence is installed through the
Kumbhabhishekam performed to consecrate the idols. This is strengthened by the sincerity and tapas
(austerity) of the priests performing the worship, and by the special characteristics of certain idols.
Though without form Ishwara (God) is capable of giving Darshana (appearing in front of) to His
devotees. He indeed does so.”(3) Photo: http://belurmath.org/ The fact that idols act as an abode, or a
body of the deity can also be ascertained by the manner in which they are made and the philosophy
that guides the idol making. The work of art is no different from that of Yoga. In the Hindu scheme of
life, all actions are indeed a Yoga, or a Yajna when they are done with one pointed concentration and
without the hankering of the results. Hence, for a sculptor, his making of idols for worship itself is a
Yoga. When a sculptor is commissioned to make an idol, he is supposed to prepare himself
thoroughly through purification rituals, withdrawal from mundane routine, and meditate. The sculptor
then contemplates on the Dyana mantra (meditation mantras giving iconographic descriptions of the
deities) for an extensive period till the image of the deity becomes stable and clear in his mind. It is
for this reason the Shilpa-Shastra(4) (treatise on sculpting) says that a sculptor must be well versed
with Atharvaveda, treatises of sculpture, and the Vedic mantras by which the deities are invoked.
Shukracharya says: “Let the imager establish images in temples by meditation on the deities who are
the objects of his devotion. For the successful achievement of this Yoga, the lineaments of the image
are described in books to be dwelt upon in detail. In no other way, not even by direct and immediate
vision of the actual object, is it possible to be so absorbed in contemplation, as thus in the making of
images.”(5) Therefore, a sculptor should not make any idols by looking at other idols. For then, there
will not be any spiritual element in the idol thus made. Instead, the sculptor must become so
completely absorbed in the deity such that he must be pre-occupied with this even during mundane
activities like eating food, going to sleep, etc. By such a practice, a sculptor is not only able to
perceive clearly the image of the Devata in his mind, but he will also perceive the very presence of
Devata all around him. Only an image carved out after such contemplation of God, can truly become
worthy of worship. (6) Thus, Ananda K. Coomaraswamy concludes: “the imager is required, after
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emptying his heart of all extraneous interests, to visualize within himself an intelligible image, to
identify himself with therewith, and holding this image as long as is necessary, then only to proceed
to the work of embodiment in stone, metal, or pigment.”(7) These clearly establish few points: An
idol is first and foremost a symbol, a reflection of God who is formless. An idol is the body or an
abode that a particular form of God occupies. An idol itself is prepared and concentrated, such that it
becomes a proper body that can be occupied by the deity. Therefore, instead of assuming Idol
worship as stone worship, a correct understanding is that it is the worship of a Deity who has
temporarily taken the idol as an abode or body. Now, just as human souls re-incarnate by changing
bodies, similarly, the deities can be invoked in a new idol, once the old ones are degenerated, or
broken, or are simply become unfit for worship. This is clearly witnessed in the Puri festival of
Nabakalebara, in which Lord Jagannatha is given a new body by installing new idols once every 19
years. Hence, no questions of Hindu Gods being harmed when an idol is broken, or Gods being
insulted when some rationalist urinates on the idols arises. Such statements and actions only goes to
depict not only the crass ignorance of such people, but also their perverted thinking. Much of the
misconception and criticism of Idol worship has been because of the perception of Idol worship in
isolation and the subsequent branding of them as superstition. But, when idol worship is perceived
from the standpoint of the framework of spirituality and worship, idol worship is just one among the
various practices that can help a person to travel the path towards Moksha. An analysis of certain
criticisms that have been made against Idol worship will be taken up in the next part.
The Idol—A Prop For The Spiritual Neophyte
Idol is a support for the neophyte. It is a prop of his spiritual childhood. A form or image is necessary
for worship in the beginning. It is an external symbol of God for worship. It is a reminder of God.
The material image calls up the mental idea. Steadiness of mind is obtained by image worship. The
worshipper will have to associate the ideas of infinity, omnipotence, omniscience, purity, perfection,
freedom, holiness, truth, omnipresence. It is not possible for all to fix the mind on the Absolute or the
Infinite. A concrete form is necessary for the vast majority for practising concentration. To behold
God everywhere and to practise the presence of God is not possible for the ordinary man. Idol
worship is the easiest form of worship for the modern man.
A symbol is absolutely indispensable for fixing the mind. The mind wants a prop to lean upon. It
cannot have a conception of the Absolute in the initial stages. Without the help of some external aid,
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in the initial stages, the mind cannot be centralised. In the beginning, concentration or meditation is
not possible without a symbol.
EVERYONE AN IDOL-WORSHIPPER
There is no direct reference to worship of idols in the Vedas (HB: There is reference to thinking
image of Bhagwan and doing dhyan which is form of Saanketik Sadhna or Saanketik Moorti Pujan,
idol worship). The Puranas and the Agamas give descriptions of idol-worship both in the houses and
in the temples. Idol-worship is not peculiar to Hinduism. Few newest religions adopted this great
concept: christians worship the cross. They have the image of the cross in their mind.
The Mohammedans keep the image of Kaaba stone when they kneel and do prayers, but ignorantly
deny the same. The people of the whole world, save a few Yogis and Vedantins, are all worshippers
of idols. They keep some image or the other in the mind. [HB: Even calling gods by names like allah
or jesus is connoting image of god in the form of symbol or name. ॐ is the symbol that is also
beginning of Idol worship.]
The mental image also is a form of idol. The difference is not one of kind, but only one of degree. All
worshippers, however intellectual they may be, generate a form in the mind and make the mind dwell
on that image.
Everyone is an idol-worshipper. Pictures, drawing, etc., are only forms of Pratima. A gross mind
needs a concrete symbol as a prop or Alambana; a subtle mind requires an abstract symbol. Even a
Vedantin has the symbol OM for fixing the wandering mind. It is not only the pictures or images in
stone and wood that are idols. Dialectics and leaders also become idols. So, why condemn idolatry?
A MEDIUM FOR ESTABLISHING COMMUNION WITH GOD
Idols are not the idle fancies of sculptors, but shining channels through which the heart of the devotee
is attracted to and flows towards God. Though the image is worshipped, the devotee feels the
presence of the Bhagwan in it and pours out his devotion unto it. It is the appalling ignorance of the
modern sensual man that clouds his vision and prevents him from seeing Divinity in lovely and
enchanting idols of His form. The very scientific advances of this century ought to convince you of
the glory of idol worship. How are the songsters and orators confined to a small box-like thing to be
called a radio? It is a mere piece of a mechanical lifeless structure which breaks into a thousand
pieces if you throw it away violently; and yet, if you know how to handle it, you can hear through it,
the music that is being played several thousands of miles away, the discourse that is being delivered
in the remotest part of the globe. Even as you can catch the sound waves of people all over the world
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through the radio receiving set, it is possible to commune with the all-pervading Bhagwan through
the medium of an idol. The divinity of the all-pervading ‘God is vibrant in every atom of creation.
There is not a speck of space where He is not. Why do you then say that He is not in the idols?
There are others who would glibly say, “Oh, God is all-pervading formless being. How can He be
confined to this idol?” Are these people ever conscious of His omnipresence? Do they always see
Him and Him alone in everything? No. It is their ego that prevents them from bowing to the idols
of God and with that motive puts this lame excuse forward!
Empty vessels only make much sound. A practical man who does meditation and worship, who is full
of knowledge and real devotion keeps always silence. He influences and teaches others through
silence. He only knows whether a Murti is necessary in the beginning for concentration or not.
However intellectual one may be, he cannot concentrate without the help of some symbol in the
beginning. An intellectual and learned person, on account of his pride and vanity only says, “I do not
like a Murti. I do not wish to concentrate on a form.” He cannot concentrate on the formless one. He
thinks that people will laugh at him when they come to know that he is meditating on a form. He
never does any meditation on the formless one. He simply talks and argues and poses. He wastes his
life in unnecessary discussions only. An ounce of his practice is better than tons of theories. Intellect
is a hindrance in the vast majority of intellectual persons. They say that the existence of Brahman is a
guess work, Samadhi is a bluff of the mind and Self-realisation is an imagination of the Vedantins.
Deluded souls! They are steeped in ignorance. They are carried away by their secular knowledge
which is mere husk when compared to the Knowledge of the Self. There is no hope of salvation for
such people. First their wrong Samskaras should be flushed by good Samskaras through Satsanga.
Then only they will realise their mistakes. May the Bhagwan bestow on them clear understanding and
thirsting for real knowledge!
A Symbol of God – Idol Worship Knowing The Presence of Bhagwan
Pratima (idol) is a substitute or symbol. The image in a temple, though it is made of stone, wood or
metal, is precious for a devotee as it bears the mark of his Bhagwan, as it stands for something which
he holds holy and eternal. A flag is only a small piece of painted cloth, but it stands for a soldier for
something that he holds very dear. He is prepared to give up his life in defending his flag. Similarly
the image is very dear to a devotee. It speaks to him in its own language of devotion. Just as the flag
arouses martial valour in the soldier, so also the image arouses devotion in the devotee. The Bhagwan
is superimposed on the image and the image generates divine thoughts in the worshipper.
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A piece of ordinary white paper or coloured paper has no value. You throw it away. But, if there is
the stamp or picture of the King or Emperor on the paper (currency notes), you keep it safe in your
money purse or trunk. Even so, an ordinary piece of stone has no value for you. You throw it away.
But, if you behold the stone Murti of Bhagwan Krishna at Pandharpur or any other Murti in shrines,
you bow your head with folded hands, because there is the stamp of the Bhagwan on the stone. The
devotee superimposes on the stone Murti his own Beloved and all the attributes of the Bhagwan.
When you worship an image, you do not say, “This image has come from Jaipur. It was brought by
Prabhu Singh. Its weight is 50 lbs. It is made of white marble. It has cost me Rs, 500/-.” You
superimpose all the attributes of the Bhagwan on the image and pray, “O Antaryamin (Inner Ruler)!
You are all-pervading; you are omnipotent, omniscient, all-merciful. You are the source for
everything. You are self-existent. You are Sat-Chit-Ananda. You are eternal, unchanging. You are the
Life of my life, Soul of my soul! Give me light and knowledge! Let me dwell in Thee for ever.”
When your devotion and meditation become intense and deep, you do not see the stone image. You
behold the Bhagwan only, who is chaitanya. Image worship is very necessary for beginners.
AN INTEGRAL PART OF VIRAT
For a beginner, Pratima is an absolute necessity. By worshipping an idol, Isvara is pleased. The
Pratima is made up of the five elements. The five elements constitute the body of the Bhagwan. The
idol remains an idol, but the worship goes to the Bhagwan. [HB: Bhagwan is controller of Five
elements. He is beyond and within Five elements. Five elements gave birth to Universe and planets –
every element of this earth. We cannot access materials which are beyond these five elements, we
need five elements (idol) to pray to Bhagwan]. Pandav’s son Arjun is the only and most fortunate
person in this Mahayug (Sat, Treta, Dwapar, Kali) to get the Virat roop darshan of Shree Krishn.
If you shake hands with a man, he is highly pleased. You have touched only a small part of his body
and yet he is highly pleased. He smiles and welcomes you. Even so, the Bhagwan is highly pleased
when a small portion of His Virat (cosmic) body is worshipped. An idol is a part of the body of the
Bhagwan. The whole world is His Body, Virat Form. The devotion goes to the Bhagwan. The
worshipper superimposes on the image the Bhagwan and all His attributes. He does Shodasopachara
for the idol, the sixteen kinds of paying respects or service to the Bhagwan, such as Padyam (water
for washing the feet), Arghyam, Asana (seat), Snana (bathing), offering clothes, Achamana (water for
sipping), applying sandal paste, offering flowers (Archana), burning incense, waving of lights and
camphor, Maha Naivedyam, etc. The wandering mind is fixed now in this form of worship. The
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aspirant gradually feels the nearness of the Bhagwan. He attains purity of heart and slowly annihilates
his egoism.
To the worshipper who believes the symbol, any kind of image is the body of the Bhagwan under the
form of stone, clay, brass, picture, Saligram, etc. Such worship can never be idolatry. All matter is a
manifestation of God. God is present in everything which exists. Everything is an object of worship,
for all is a manifestation of God who is therein worshipped. The very act of worship implies that the
object of worship is superior and conscious. This way of looking at things must be attained by the
devotee. The untutored mind must be trained to view things in the above manner.
IDOL WORSHIP DEVELOPS DEVOTION
Idol worship makes concentration of mind simpler and easier. You can bring before your mind’s eye
the great Lilas the Bhagwan has played in His particular Avataras in which you view Him. This is
one of the easiest modes of Self-realisation. [HB: It lets you trust Bhagwan completely without
causing distress to fellow humans.]
Just as the picture of a famous warrior evokes heroism in your heart, a look at the picture of God will
elevate your mind to divine heights. Just as the child develops the maternal Bhava (mother-feeling) of
the future caressing, nursing, protecting mother by playing with its imaginary toy-child made up of
rags and suckling the child in an imaginary manner, so also the devotee develops the feeling of
devotion by worshipping the Pratima and concentrating on it.
REGULAR WORSHIP UNVEILS THE DIVINITY IN THE IDOL
Regular worship with correct recitment of mantras*, Puja and other modes of demonstrating our inner
feeling of recognition of Divinity in the idol unveils the Divinity latent in it. This is truly a wonder
and a miracle. The picture comes to life. The idol speaks. It will answer your questions and solve
your problems. The God in you has the power to awaken the latent Divinity in the idol. It is like a
powerful lens that focuses the sun’s rays on to a bundle of cotton. The lens is not fire and the cotton is
not fire either nor can the sun’s rays, by themselves, burn the cotton. When the three are brought
together in a particular manner, fire is generated and the cotton is burnt. Similar is the case with the
idol, the Sadhaka and the all-pervading Divinity. Puja makes the idol shine with divine resplendence.
God is then enshrined in the idol. From here, He will protect you in a special manner. The idol will
perform miracles. The place where it is installed is at once transformed into a temple, a Vaikuntha or
a Kailasa in reality. Those who live in such a place are freed from miseries, from diseases, from
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failures and from Samsara itself. The awakened Divinity in the idol acts as a guardian blessing all,
conferring the highest good on those who bow to it. : Vedic mantras decode the positive energy
which is already around us, mantras are keys to unleash the power within and around. The mantras
are given by Bhagwan himself so that we can easily chant them and meet Bhagwan].
THE IMAGE, A MASS OF CHAITANYA
The idol is only a symbol of the Divine. A devotee does not behold therein a block of stone or a mass
of metal. It is an emblem of God for him. He visualises the Indwelling Presence in the Murti or
image. All the Saiva Nayanars or saints of South India attained God-realisation through worship of
the Lingam, the image of Bhagwan Siva. For a devotee, the image is a mass of Chaitanya or
consciousness. He draws inspiration from the image. The image guides him. It talks to him. It
assumes human form to help him in a variety of ways. The image of Bhagwan Siva in the temple of
Madurai in South India helped the fuel-cutter and the old woman. The image in the temple of Tirupati
assumed human form and gave witness in the court to help his devotees. There are marvels and
mysteries. Only the devotees understand these. There are many incidents when Banke Bihari actually
helped his devotees.
WHEN IDOLS BECAME ALIVE
For a Bhakta or a sage, there is no such thing as Jada or insentient matter. Everything is Vasudeva or
Chaitanya—Vasudevah Sarvam Iti. The devotee beholds actually the Bhagwan in the idol. Narsi
Mehta was put to the test by a Raja. The Raja said: “O Narsi, if you are a sincere devotee of Bhagwan
Krishna, if as you say the idol is Bhagwan Krishna Himself, let this idol move.” According to the
prayer of Narsi Mehta, the idol moved. The sacred bull Nandi before Siva’s idol took the food offered
by Tulasidas. The Murti played with Mira Bai. It was full of life and Chaitanya for her.
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When Appayya Dikshitar went to Tirupati temple in South India, the Vaishnavas refused him
admission. The next morning they found the Vishnu Murti in the temple changed into Siva Murti.
The Mahant was much astonished and startled, asked pardon and prayed to Appayya Dikshitar to
change the Murti again into Vishnu Murti.
Kanaka Das was a great devotee of Bhagwan Krishna in Udipi, in the district of South Kanara in
South India. He was not allowed to enter the temple on account of his low birth [HB: Caste system
invoked by britishers. Native Hindus believed in Varna System]. Kanaka Das went round the temple
and saw a small window at the back of the temple. He seated himself in front of the window. He was
soon lost in singing songs in praise of Bhagwan Krishna. Many people gathered round him. They
were very much attracted by the sweet melody of his music and the depth of his devotion. Bhagwan
Krishna turned round to enable Kanaka Das to get His Darshan. The priests were struck with wonder.
Even today, pilgrims are shown the window and the place where Kanaka Das sat and sang.
The Murti is the same as the Bhagwan, for it is the vehicle of expression for the Mantra-Chaitanya
which is the Devata. The same attitude should the devotee have in regard to the Murti in the temple,
which he would evince if the Bhagwan would appear before him in person and speak to him in
articulate sound.
Even today, the brilliant eyes of Shri Bankey Bihari will make one unconscious if seen for too long a
stretch. That is the reason that the kapat is closed and Bihari Ji’s darshan is stopped after every few
minutes. During Janmaashtmi , it is done every single minute. Shree Krishn, Bihari Ji also respond to
the Bhakti bhav of those Bhakts who are deeply in love with Shree Krishn, he follows them to their
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homes. Many occasions, Bihari Ji’s idol was not seen in temple and after some time, he was again
seen giving darshan to Bhakts.
VEDANTA AND IDOL WORSHIP
A pseudo-Vedantin feels himself ashamed to bow or prostrate before an idol in the temple. He feels
that his Advaita will evaporate if he prostrates. Study the lives of the reputed Tamil saints, Appar,
Sundarar, Sambandhar, etc. They had the highest Advaitic realisation. They saw Bhagwan Siva
everywhere and yet they visited all temples of Siva, prostrated before the idol and sang hymns, which
are on record now. The sixty-three Nayanar saints practised Chariyai and Kriyai only and attained
God-realisation thereby. They swept the floor of the temple, collected flowers, made garlands for the
Bhagwan and put on lights in the temple. They were illiterate, but attained the highest realisation.
They were practical Yogis and their hearts were saturated with pure devotion. They were an
embodiment of Karma Yoga. All practised the Yoga of Synthesis. The idol in the temple was all
Chaitanya or consciousness for them. It was not a mere block of stone.
Madhusudana Swami, who had Advaita realisation, who beheld oneness of the Self, who had
Advaitic Bhava, was intensely attached to the form of Bhagwan Krishna with flute in His hands.
Tulasidas realised the all-pervading essence. He had cosmic consciousness. He communed with the
all-pervading, formless Bhagwan. And yet his passion for Bhagwan Rama with bow in His hand did
not vanish. When he had been to Brindavan and saw the Murti of Bhagwan Krishna with flute in His
hands, he said, “I will not bow my head to this form.” At once Bhagwan Krishna’s form assumed the
form of Bhagwan Rama. Then only he bowed his head. Tukaram also had the same cosmic
experience as that of Tulasidas. He sings in his Abhanga, “I see my Bhagwan all-pervading, just as
sweetness pervades the sugar-cane” and yet he always speaks of his Bhagwan Vittala of Pandharpur
with His hands on the hips. Mira also realised her identity with the all-pervading Krishna and yet she
was not tired of repeating again and again, “Mere Girdhar Nagar”.
From the above facts, we can clearly infer that one can realise God through worship of Murti or idol,
that the worship of the Bhagwan in Saguna form is a great aid for Vedantic realisation also and for
the realisation of the Bhagwan in His all-pervading, formless aspect and that the worship of the Murti
is very essential for the purpose of concentration and meditation in the beginning and that such a
worship is not in any way a hindrance to the attainment of God-consciousness and those who
vehemently attack Murti Puja are groping in extreme darkness and ignorance and they have no real
knowledge of Puja and worship and that they enter into unnecessary, vain debates and discussions
against Murti Puja to show that they are learned persons and that they have not done any real Sadhana
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at all. They are persons who have made idle talking and tall talk as their habit and profession. They
have ruined themselves. They have unsettled the minds of countless persons and ruined them also.
The whole world worships symbols and Murtis only in some form or the other. The mind is
disciplined in the beginning by fixing it on a concrete object or symbol. When it is rendered steady
and subtle, it can be fixed later on on an abstract idea such as “Aham Brahma Asmi”. When one
advances in meditation, the form melts in the formless and he becomes one with the formless essence.
Image worship is not contrary to the view of Vedanta. It is rather a help.
FROM RITUALISTIC BHAKTI TO PARA BHAKTI
Bhakti is of two kinds, viz., higher Bhakti or Para Bhakti and lower Bhakti or ritualistic Bhakti.
Ritualistic worship is Vaidhi or Gauni Bhakti. It is formal Bhakti. Vaidhi Bhakti is the lower type of
devotion depending on external aids. It is lower Bhakti. The mind becomes purer and purer. The
aspirant gradually develops love for God through ritualistic worship. He who does ritualistic worship
rings bells, adores a Pratika (symbol) or Pratima (image), does Puja, Arati, etc., with flowers, sandal
paste, burns incense and waves light before the image, offers Naivedya or food for God, etc.
Mukhya Bhakti or Para Bhakti is advanced type of devotion. It is higher Bhakti. It transcends all
convention. A devotee of this type knows no rule. He does not perform any external worship. He
beholds his Bhagwan everywhere, in every object. His heart is saturated with love for God. The
whole world is Brindavan for him. His state is ineffable. He attains the acme of bliss. He radiates
love, purity and joy wherever he goes and inspires all who come in contact with him.
The aspirant who worships the idol in the beginning beholds the Bhagwan everywhere and develops
Para Bhakti. From Vaidhi Bhakti, he passes on to Ragatmika Bhakti or Prema Bhakti. He beholds the
whole world as the Bhagwan. The ideas of good and bad, right and wrong, rogue, etc., vanish. He
sees the Bhagwan in a rogue, dacoit, cobra, scorpion, ant, dog, tree, log of wood, block of stone, sun,
moon, stars, fire, water, earth, etc. His vision or experience baffles description. Glory to such exalted
Bhaktas who are veritable Gods on earth, who live to lift others from the quagmire of Samsara and
save them from the clutches of death!
Hinduism leads the aspirants gradually from material images to mental images and from the diverse
mental images to the one Personal God and from the Personal God to the Impersonal Absolute or
transcendental Nirguna Brahman.
THE GLORY OF GREATEST HINDU PHILOSOPHY
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How sublime is Hindu philosophy and Hindu mode of worship! It does not stop or end with the
worship of the idol. The Sadhaka is taken step by step to higher stages of devotion and Samadhi or
communion through the worship of the idol. Though he worships the idol, he has to keep before his
mental eye the all-pervading Bhagwan. He has to feel His Presence in his heart and all objects also.
Even in worshipping a small idol, he has to repeat the Purusha Sukta and to think of the Virat Purusha
with countless heads, countless eyes, countless hands, who extends beyond the universe and of the
Bhagwan or Atman who dwells in the hearts of all beings. The same man who burns incense, scented
sticks and camphor before the idol says, “The sun does not shine there nor the moon nor the stars nor
the lightning. How then could the little fire shine there? All shine after Him. His effulgence alone
illumines the whole world.” The ways and rules of worship—Puja Vidhi—and the secrets of worship
that are described in the Hindu scriptures are scientifically accurate and highly rational. It is only
ignorant people who have not studied the scriptures, who have not associated with the devotees and
great souls, who vilify worship of idols or Murtis.
Every other religion lays certain fixed dogmas and attempts to force people to follow them. It has
only one kind of drug to treat several diseases. It gives only one kind of food for all and for all
conditions. It places before the followers only one coat. It must fit Albert, Atkinson, Ahluwallia,
Antony, Abdul Rahman. The Hindus know that the images, crosses and crescents are simply so many
symbols to fix the mind in the beginning for developing concentration, so many concrete pegs to
hang their spiritual ideas and convictions on. The symbol is not necessary for everyone. It is not
compulsory in Hinduism. It is not needed for an advanced Yogi or sage. A symbol is like the slate
which is useful for a boy of the first standard. Those who are not in need of it have no right to say that
it is wrong. If they say that it is wrong, they only betray their ignorance.
CONCLUSION TO GREAT SCIENCE OF HINDU IDOL WORSHIP
There is nothing wrong in worshipping an idol in the beginning. You must superimpose God and His
attributes on the idol. You must think of the Antar-Atma that is hidden in the idol. The aspirant
gradually begins to feel that the Bhagwan he worships is in the idol, in the hearts of all creatures and
in all the names and forms of this universe. He begins to feel His presence everywhere.
Idolatry is only the beginning of Dharma. Certainly it is not its end. The same Hindu scriptures which
prescribe idol-worship for beginners speak of meditation on the Infinite or the Absolute,
contemplation on the significance of the “Tat Tvam Asi” Mahavakya, for advanced aspirants.
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There are different grades of worship. The first is the worship of idols (the easiest of all). The next
is recitation of Mantras and offering of prayers. Mental worship is superior to worship with flowers.
Meditation on the Absolute or the attributeless Nirguna Brahman is the best of all.
The supreme state is Self-realisation or Brahma-sakshatkara. The second in rank is meditation. The
Yogi practises Sadhana or unceasing meditation on the Supreme Self. The third is the worship of
symbols. The fourth is the performance of rituals and pilgrimages to holy places. The Sastras and
Gurus are like kind mothers. They take hold of the hands of the aspirants, take them step by step,
stage by stage, till they are established in Nirvikalpa Samadhi or super-conscious state. They
prescribe gross forms of Sadhana or spiritual practices for the neophytes or beginners, with gross
mind, and give lessons on abstract meditation for the advanced aspirants who are endowed with pure,
subtle and sharp intellect.
Each marks a stage of progress. The human soul makes different kinds of attempts to grasp and
realise the Infinite or the Absolute according to his strength, degree of evolution. He soars higher and
higher, gathers more and more strength and eventually merges himself in the Supreme and attains
oneness or identity.
Glory to the Hindu Rishis (and the Hindu scriptures) who take the aspirants from the lower to the
higher form of worship, stage by stage, step by step and ultimately help them to rest in the
attributeless, all-pervading, formless, timeless, spaceless Brahman or the infinite and the
unconditional Brahman of the Upanishads.
Beloved children of the Bhagwan! Shed your ignorant disbelief this moment. Enshrine supreme,
unshakable, living faith in your heart this very moment. Recall to your mind the glorious examples of
Sri Mira, Sri Ramakrishna Paramahamsa and the South Indian Alwars and Nayanars. They believed;
they reaped the rich spiritual harvests. You, too, can enjoy great peace, happiness and prosperity here
and attain Him here and now if you have this faith in idol-worshipping.
Though you may perform external worship at regular intervals, let the internal worship of the
Bhagwan in your heart be constant, unbroken. Here worship attains completeness. Life is a divine
worship. May you realise the significance of the universal worship of the Virat in daily life and
performing it, attain the summum bonum of life. May the Bhagwan bless you all!
VISITING A HINDU MANDIR, A DIVINE PLACE OF CONCENTRATION
In the Kali Yuga and in the material world of busy day-to-day life, the temple of the Bhagwan affords
great opportunities for the evolution of man through concentration and devotion. The precincts of the
temple are so sacred and give a peace which no other atmosphere can give. There is a divine vibration
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in the entire area. By the constant and regular Puja during the three sessions of the day, the recitation
of the Holy Vedas and chanting of specific Mantras throughout the year, the auspiciousness of the
temple increases everyday and the entire atmosphere elevates the soul of man to a very great degree.
The shrine in which the Murti of the Supreme Bhagwan is installed is a hallowed place which exerts a
powerful spiritual influence that can transform the minds of persons into a state of higher purity. The
daily worships through prayers, invocations and Abhisheka and Archana, performed at the temple,
endow the whole environment with a holiness and splendour that infuses into all a feeling of
reverence, piety and devotion, whenever they enter its premises. But the sanctity of the temple should
be carefully maintained by observing the prescribed rules usually connected with the maintenance of
places of divine worship. External and internal Saucha are both necessary in the worship of the
Devata in a temple.
The temple dedicated to the Archavatara of the Bhagwan is a visible representation of the body of the
Virat-Purusha and the rituals of worship in the temple are objective acts expressing the whole process
of spiritual Sadhana. The temple is the microcosmic embodiment of the universe indwelt by the
Antaryamin, Isvara, whose worship we conduct at the sacred temple. The Bhagwan is invoked by
means of the powerful Mantras of the Srutis, Smritis and Tantras and the Murti in the temple
becomes a living manifestation of the force of the Divine, ready to fulfil the noble aspirations of the
devout Archaka.
Archana is the easiest and the safest means of cultivating the love of the Almighty, for it becomes the
link between His transcendent being and the world in which the devotee is placed. The one special
feature of Archana-Bhakti is that it seeks to evoke the finer forms of the religious consciousness in
man through offering to God articles of devotion by means of the physical forms which are the
immediate aspects of the manifestations of God-Being, revealed to the senses here. Hence Archana is
the foundation on which is constructed the grand edifice of spiritual effort and realisation. It is one
among the nine gems of the way in which man aspires to reach God.
Worship the Bhagwan with intense faith and aspiration. The Bhagwan will surely bestow His grace
upon you all. All are blessed—one who causes the temple to be built, who actually builds it, who
assists in it, who is happy about it, who performs worship in it, who prostrates oneself before it with
faith and adorns the Bhagwan always in one’s heart, with sincerity and love. The Bhagwan is
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everywhere and He allows Himself to be adored at particular places on account of the supreme
compassion that He has for all beings.
GLORY OF PRASAD
Prasad is that which gives Peace. During Kirtan, worship, Puja, Havan and Arati, Badam, Kismis,
milk, sweets, fruits are offered to the Bhagwan. After offering them to the Bhagwan, they are shared
between the members of the house or the Bhaktas in a temple. Puja is done by Bael leaves, flowers,
Tulasi, Vibhuti and these are given as Prasad from the Bhagwan. Vibhuti is the Prasad of Bhagwan
Siva. It is to be applied on the forehead. A small portion can be taken in. Kumkum is the Prasad of Sri
Devi or Sakti. It is to be applied at the space between the eyebrows (Ajna or Bhrumadhya). Tulasi is
the Prasad of Bhagwan Vishnu, Rama or Krishna. It is to be taken in. They are charged with
mysterious powers by the chanting of the Mantras during Puja and Havan.
The mental Bhava of the devotee offering Bhog to the Bhagwan has a very great effect. If an ardent
devotee of the Bhagwan offers anything to the Bhagwan, that Prasad, if taken, would bring very great
change even in the minds of atheists. The Grace of the Bhagwan descends through Prasad. Go
through the life of Narada. You will realise the greatness of the sacred leavings of the Bhagwan as
well as those of advanced Sadhakas and saints.
Namdev offered rice, etc., to Panduranga Vittala and He ate the food and shared with Namdev as
well. If the food is offered with a yearning heart, sometimes, the Bhagwan takes that food assuming a
physical form. In other cases, the Bhagwan enjoys the subtle essence of the food offered and the food
remains as it is in the shape of Prasad. While feeding Mahatmas and the poor people, that which is
left behind is taken as Prasad. When a sacrifice is performed, the participants share the Prasad which
bestows the blessings of the gods. When Dasaratha performed Putrakameshti (wishing for son)
sacrifice, he got a vessel full of sweetened rice which he gave to his queens, by taking which they
became pregnant. Prasad is the most sacred object for a devotee. One should consider himself lucky
to take the Prasad and there is no restriction of any kind in taking Prasad. Time and place and the
condition in which one is placed—all these do not affect him in any way. Prasad is all-purifying.
The benefits of Prasad and Charanamrit are beyond description. They have the power to change
entirely the outlook of a man’s life. Prasad and Charanamrit have the power to cure diseases and even
bring back to life dead persons. There have been ever so many instances in the past in this holy land
of ours which bear witness to the potency and efficacy of Prasad. Prasad destroys all pains and sins. It
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is an antidote for misery, pain and anxiety. Faith is the important factor in testing the accuracy of this
statement. For faithless persons it brings very little effect.
Those who are brought up in modern education and culture have forgotten all about the glory of
Prasad. Many English-educated persons do not attach any importance to Prasad when they get it from
the Mahatma. This is a serious mistake. Prasad is a great purifier. As they are brought up in the
Western style of living, they have imbibed the spirit of Westerners and forgotten the spirit of the true
children of Indian Rishis of yore. Live for a week in Brindavan or Ayodhya or Benares or
Pandharpur. You will realise the glory and the miraculous effects of Prasad. Many incurable diseases
are cured. Many sincere devotional aspirants get wonderful spiritual experiences from mere Prasad
alone. Prasad is a panacea. Prasad is a spiritual elixir. Prasad is the Grace of the Bhagwan. Prasad is a
cure-all and an ideal ‘pick-me-up.’ Prasad is an embodiment of Sakti. Prasad is Divinity in
manifestation. Prasad energises, vivifies, invigorates and infuses devotion. It should be taken with
great faith.
Prasad bestows good health, long life, peace and prosperity on all. Glory to Prasad, the bestower of
Peace and Bliss! Glory to the Bhagwan of the Prasad, the giver of immortality and undying
happiness!
Philosophy of Sacred Hindu Symbols
Bells are rung in temples and while doing Puja to shut out the external sounds and to make the mind
inward and concentrated.
Lights are waved before the Deity. This denotes that the Bhagwan is Jyoti Svarupa. He is all-light.
The devotee says, “O Bhagwan! Thou art the self-effulgent Light of the universe. Thou art the light in
the sun, moon and fire. Remove the darkness in me by bestowing your divine Light. May my intellect
be illumined.” This is the significance of waving lights.
Dhoop or scented sticks are burnt before the Deity. The smoke spreads in the whole room. It acts as a
disinfectant. Burning of Dhoop denotes that the Bhagwan is all-pervading, that He fills the whole
universe by His living presence. It is to remind this fact that Dhoop is burnt. The devotee prays, “O
Bhagwan! Let the Vasanas and Samskaras dormant in me vanish like the smoke of this Dhoop and
become ashes. Let me become stainless.”
Burning of camphor denotes that the individual ego melts like the camphor and the Jivatman becomes
one with the supreme Light of lights.
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The pasting of sandal reminds the devotee that he should, in his difficulties, be as patient as the
sandal. Sandal emanates sweet odour when it is pasted. So also the devotee should not murmur when
difficulties arise, but on the other hand, remain cheerful and happy and emanates sweetness and
gentleness like the sandal. He should not hate even his enemy. This is another precept we learn from
this. Though the sandalwood is crushed and pasted, it silently wears out emanating only very sweet
odour. One should not wish evil even to his enemy.
SHIV LING – THE DIVINE SYMBOL OF SHIV
The popular belief is that the Siva Lingam represents the phallus or the virile organ, the emblem of
the generative power or principle in nature. This is not only a serious mistake, but a grave blunder. In
the post-Vedic period, the Linga became symbolical of the generative power of Bhagwan Siva. Linga
is the differentiating mark. It is certainly not the s*x mark. You will find in the Linga Purana:
Pradhanam
Prakriti
Yadahurlingamuttamam
Gandhavarnarasaiheenam Sabda-sparsadi-varjitam
The foremost Lingam which is primary and is devoid of smell, colour, taste, hearing, touch, etc.,
is spoken of as Prakriti (Nature).
Linga means “Mark” in Sanskrit. It is a symbol which points to an inference. When you see a big
flood in a river, you infer that there have been heavy rains the previous day. When you see smoke,
you infer that there is fire. This vast world of countless forms is a Linga of the Omnipotent Bhagwan.
The Siva Linga is a symbol of Bhagwan Siva. When you look at the Linga, your mind is at once
elevated and you begin to think of the Bhagwan.
Bhagwan Siva is really formless. He has no form of His own and yet all forms are His forms. All
forms are pervaded by Bhagwan Siva. Every form is the form or Linga of Bhagwan Siva.
There is a mysterious power or indescribable Sakti in the Linga to induce concentration of the mind.
Just as the mind is focussed easily in crystal gazing, so also it attains one-pointedness when it looks at
the Lingam. That is the reason why the ancient Rishis of India and the seers have prescribed the
Lingam for being installed in the temples of Bhagwan Siva.
Siva Linga speaks to you in the unmistakable language of silence: “I am one without a second, I am
formless.” Pure, pious souls only can understand this language. A curious, passionate, impure
foreigner of little understanding or intelligence says sarcastically, “Oh! The Hindus worship the
phallus or s*x organ. They are ignorant people. They have no philosophy.” When a foreigner tries to
learn Tamil or Hindustani language, he first tries to pick up some vulgar words. This is his curiosity
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nature. Even so, the curious foreigner tries to find out some defects in the worship of symbol. Linga
is only the outward symbol of the formless being Bhagwan Siva who is the indivisible, all-pervading,
eternal, auspicious, ever-pure, immortal essence of this vast universe, who is the undying soul seated
in the chambers of your heart, who is your Indweller, innermost Self or Atman, and who is identical
with the Supreme Brahman.
Sphatikalinga is also a symbol of Bhagwan Siva. This is prescribed for Aradhana or worship of
Bhagwan Siva. It is made up of quartz. It has no colour of its own but takes on the colour of the
substances which come in contact with it. It represents the Nirguna Brahman or the attributeless
Supreme Self or formless and attributeless Siva.
For a sincere devotee, the Linga is not a block of stone. It is all radiant Tejas or Chaitanya. The Linga
talks to him, makes him shed profuse tears, produces horripilation and melting of heart, raises him
above body-consciousness and helps to commune with the Bhagwan and attain Nirvikalpa Samadhi.
Bhagwan Rama worshipped the Siva Linga at Rameshwar. Ravana, the learned scholar, worshipped
the golden Linga. What a lot of mystic Sakti there should be in the Linga!
May you all attain the formless Siva through the worship of the Linga, the symbol of Bhagwan Siva
which helps concentration of mind and which serves as a prop for the mind to lean upon in the
beginning for the neophytes!
FAITH AND IDOL WORSHIP
Puran Chand’s Guru had initiated him into the Narayana Mantra and given him a small Murti (idol)
of Bhagwan Narayana for worship. Puran was regular in his worship and did not omit repetition of
the sacred Mantra, but there was no sign of the idol blessing him; so he went to his Guru and asked
him the reason. The Guru smiled at Puran and said, “Well son, take this idol of Bhagwan Siva. I shall
initiate you into the Siva Mantra. Worship Bhagwan Siva with faith and devotion. He is considered as
Bhole Nath and is easily propitiable; He will bless you soon.”
The next six months saw Puran Chand immersed in Japa and worship of Bhagwan Siva. The idol of
Bhagwan Narayana was placed on a dusty shelf in the puja room. After many months, Puran Chand
once more went to his Guru and complained that his worship of Siva had brought him no result. He
begged him to give him the Murti and Mantra of a Devata that would bless him.
The Guru smiled again; the time for enlightenment had come, yet he felt the disciple would learn
from experience. So he said, “Good son, in this Yuga, Mother Kali is Pratyaksha Devata. Worship
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this image of Her and repeat the Navarna Mantra and you will obtain Her Grace.” This time, Puran
Chand had no misgivings whatsoever; he had full faith.
Kali worship commenced; Siva joined company with Narayana on the shelf. With devotion, Puran
was waving incense before the image of Mother Kali when the fumes rose up and reached the shelf
where the other two idols were kept. Puran was enraged. What right had Siva to inhale the incense
intended for Mother Kali? He had refused to be propitiated when he had tirelessly worshipped Him; it
was Mother Kali whom he now worshipped. In great anger he took down the image of Siva in his
hands and began to insert cotton wool in His nose to stop Him from inhaling the incense. Before he
could accomplish his task, however, the idol disappeared and before him stood the Bhagwan, smiling
in all His mercy and compassion. Speechless with wonder and amazement, Puran prostrated himself
before the Bhagwan who told him to ask for any boon as He was immensely pleased with his
devotion.
Puran answered, “My Bhagwan, I am much perplexed. You did not deign to bless me when I
devoutly worshipped You and repeated the Panchakshara Mantra for six months. But You suddenly
chose to reveal yourself to me when I had discarded Your image and given up Your worship. What is
this mystery, O Bhagwan?”
The Bhagwan answered, “My child, there is no mystery to be explained; how could I reveal Myself
when you treated Me as a mere image, as a mere piece of metal worshipped or thrown away
according to your whim? Today you treated My image as a living presence when you wanted to plug
the nostrils with cotton wool; thus you revealed that you recognised My living presence in the idol
and I could no longer withhold Myself from you.”
Speechless and enlightened, Puran bowed once more and was immersed in His Love. He could ask
for no greater boon, for in His love he found fulfilment.
Idol worship is the greatest asset a common person can have, because it helps in praying Bhagwan in
simplest form. The establishment of conversation between Bhagwan and Bhakt is done through Idol
worship. Mantras, scared chants and communication shortens the distance of connectivity with
Bhagwan with the medium of Idol worship.
Temples have amazing science behind their structure and conception
The purpose of visiting a temple is to take all the positive energy that gets transferred from the
Earth’s surface to the human body through various mediums
The copper plate placed beneath the idol absorbs the magnetic waves and radiates it to the
surroundings
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Temples, Shrines, Holy places – places of worship have been known by many names but they all
tender to one feeling- Faith. Since time immemorial, men have been arguing about whether the
devotion towards the heaven above is futile or whether it holds some meaning. It’s a never-ending
debate between belief and logic.
This debate is best fought in India, a country known for budding science enthusiasts and age-old
priests/sages, all thriving on the same piece of land. A country with many faiths each with its own
unique face in the form of a shrine. A country with endless structures of age-old stone art stretched
over the landscape, wherever your eyes can see. Having said that, India is also a country that gave
birth to many self-proclaimed atheists in the field of science and technology (Subrahmanyan
Chandrasekhar, an astrophysicist) and in the field of films (John Abraham, a movie star).
But what if we told you that temples, structures that symbolize faith or religion, have amazing science
behind their structure and conception. Here are 6 reasons proving how faith and science can go hand
in hand in the Hindu temples.
Structure
Temples in Andhra Pradesh (Representational Image). Image source: Wikimedia Commons
Take into consideration the distribution of magnetic energy from the north and south poles and you’ll
realize that temples are strategically built at the core of this positive energy from these poles.
‘Garbhagriha’-A name given to the center of a temple is an area where the idol is placed. It is also the
place where earth natural magnetic waves are found to be at their peak. Account these small nuances
when it comes to the structure of the temple and many questions can be answered.
Strategic placement of the idol
Ever wondered why your body feels a whole wave of positive energy when you stand near the idol?
It’s the copper plate placed beneath the idol that absorbs the magnetic waves and radiates it to the
surroundings.
An idol is a representation of the God above. It’s a physical image that helps you visualize the divine
and hence concentrate. Worshipping the idol helps the devotee move on to the next step and that’s
mental prayers. All together this process helps a person concentrate and hence strengthen his mind.
Parikrama
Nandi. Image source: shilpavenkat.wordpress.com
The priest tells you to take three rounds of the idol after your mental prayers. This act is known as
parikrama. An idol that’s charged with positive energy radiates its energy to anything in its vicinity.
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Therefore your three rounds rejuvenate our mind body and soul as it charges you up with positive
energies.
Temple bells
A temple bell is not made of some ordinary metal; it’s an amalgamation of cadmium, zinc, lead,
copper, nickel, chromium and manganese. The ratio in which they are combined leads it to produce a
distinct sound for about seven seconds this unites the left and ride side of your brain such that the
echo of the sound touches your bodies seven healing chakras. It sends your brain in a stage of
the trace for microseconds and it becomes extremely receptive and aware.
Ad
In Hinduism blowing the Conch is associated with the sacred syllable and sound ‘Om’. This, in turn,
is believed to be the sound that which brings in a new hope. With the positive energy already
radiating in the temples, the sound has a more powerful impact.
The purpose of visiting a temple isn’t to offer valuables to the deity; it’s to take all the positive
energy that gets transferred from the Earths surface to the human body through various mediums.
This rejuvenates your senses and hence compels you to spend some tine after offering prayers to
make your visit rewarding.
The idols represent various deities being worshiped and considered personification of the same. They
help people to concentrate upon and assist in prayers and other religious activities.
Whether people may agree or not, idolatry exists in every religion. For Christians it is Cross with or
without Jesus, portrait of Mother Mary, etc; and for Muslims the Holy Mecca and the central
enclosure containing the Holy Stone.
Hinduism believe in Polytheism where they prey to every element that enable the existence of this
Universe. There are 33 Principal Deities (not 33 crore as commonly believed), each representing one
such element including fire, water
Hinduism is a wrong word & Hinduism do not qualify for “ism” as there is neither any imposers nor
any single authority who dictate the religion or activity, like Marxism Leninism etc.
Hindu is a term coined by British in 1868 for adminstrative convinience to call people who are not
Christians Parsis Muslims.
Hindu is not a religion but a way of life and state of mind - Supreme Court of India in 1995.
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Secondly, whatever Murti or Vigraha you see in the World being worshipped by Sanatana Dharmic
faiths or in Vedantic traditions are not translatable from Sanskrit “Vigraha” to Idol. As Idol may
mean p
You can concentrate the rays on paper or any object.. Then the point where the rays converge gets
heated and burn.
Similarly you need an object to concentrate your mind. We know that God is everywhere but an idol
will make it easy for us to concentrate.
Hinduism is not at all strict in its teachings. Nowhere it is told that you need an idol. It is left to the
devotee…He can do it in whatever way he likes. Not all but quite a good percentage of Hindus offer
obeisance to idols. It is not believing in idols per se, it is believing in the concept of the Isht (personal
god) that manifests through the idols. Also except the priestly class, this offering of obeisance is for a
limited time duration (say morning or evening) or when someone visits a temple.
Without going to the complicate details let us understand this: the latent aim of someone believing in
the Sanatan Dharma is to move from the mundane to the highest purpose of life across lifetimes. In
“50 Great Myths about Religions” by John Morreal and Tamara Sonn. The authors have done an
excellent job in busting various myths about religions and have put all religions in a positive light.
Here is what the book says about idol worship in Hinduism and I totally agree.
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Puja is worship. The Sanskrit term puja is used in Hinduism to refer to the worship of a deity through
observance of rituals including daily prayer offerings after a bath or as varied as the following:
Sandhyopasana: The meditation on God as the light of knowledge and wisdom at dawn and
dusk
Aarti: Ritual of worship in which light or lamps are offered to the deities amid devotional
songs and prayer chants.
Homa: The offering of oblations to the deity in a duly consecrated fire
Jagarana: Keeping vigil at night amidst much devotional singing as a part of spiritual
discipline.
Upavasa: Ceremonial fasting.
All these rituals for puja are a means to achieve purity of mind and focusing on the divine, which
Hindus believe, can be a fitting stepping stone to knowing the Supreme Being or Brahman.
Why You Need an Image or Idol for a Puja
For the puja, it is important for a devotee to set an idol or icon or a picture or even symbolic holy
object, such as the shivalingam, salagrama, or yantra before them to help them contemplate and
revere god through the image. For most, it is difficult to concentrate and the mind keeps wavering, so
the image can be considered as an actualized form of the ideal and this makes it easy to focus.
According to the concept of ‘Archavatara,’ if the puja is performed with utmost devotion, during puja
god descends and it is the image that houses Almighty.
The Steps of Puja in the Vedic Tradition
1. Dipajvalana: Lighting the lamp and praying to it as the symbol of the deity and requesting it to
burn steadily till the puja is over.
2. Guruvandana: Obeisance to one’s own guru or spiritual teacher.
3. Ganesha Vandana: Prayer to Lord Ganesha or Ganapati for the removal of obstacles to the puja.
4. Ghantanada: Ringing the bell with appropriate mantras to drive away the evil forces and
welcome the gods. Ringing the bell is also necessary during ceremonial bath of the deity and
offering incense etc.
5. Vedic Recitation: Reciting two Vedic mantras from Rig Veda 10.63.3 and 4.50.6 to steady the
mind.
6. Mantapadhyana: Meditation on the miniature shrine structure, generally made of wood.
7. Asanamantra: Mantra for purification and steadiness of the seat of the deity.
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8. Pranayama & Sankalpa: A short breathing exercise to purify your breath, settle and focus your
mind.
9. Purification of Puja Water: Ceremonial purification of the water in the kalasa or water vessel,
to make it fit for use in puja.
10. Purification of Puja Items: Filling up the sankha, conch, with that water and inviting its
presiding deities such as Surya, Varuna, and Chandra, to reside in it in a subtle form and then
sprinkling that water over all the articles of puja to consecrate them.
11. Sanctifying the Body: Nyasa with the Purusasukta (Rigveda 10.7.90) to invoke the presence of
the deity into the image or idol and offering the upacharas.
12. Offering the Upacharas: There are a number of items to be offered and tasks to be performed
before the Lord as an outpouring of love and devotion for god. These include a seat for the deity,
water, flower, honey, cloth, incense, fruits, betel leaf, camphor, etc.
Simple Steps of a Traditional Hindu Worship:
In the Panchayatana Puja, i.e., puja to the five deities – Shiva, Devi, Vishnu, Ganesha, and Surya,
one’s own family deity should be kept in the center and the other four around it in the prescribed
order.
1. Bathing: Pouring water for bathing the idol, is to be done with gosrnga or the horn of a cow,
for the Shiva lingam; and with sankha or conch, for Vishnu or salagrama shila.
2. Clothing & Flower Decoration: While offering cloth in puja, different types of cloth are
offered to different deities as is stated in scriptural injunctions. In the daily puja, flowers can
be offered instead of cloth.
3. Incense & Lamp: Dhupa or incense is offered to the feet and deepa or light is held before the
face of the deity. During arati, the deepa is waved in small arcs before the deity’s face and
then before the whole image.
4. Circumbulation: Pradakshina is done three times, slowly in the clockwise direction, with
hands in namaskara posture.
5. Prostration: Then is the shastangapranama or prostration. The devotee lies down straight
with his face facing the floor and hands stretched in namaskara above his head in the
direction of the deity.
6. Distribution of Prasada: Last step is the Tirtha and Prasada, partaking of the consecrated
water and food offering of the puja by all who have been a part of the puja or witnessed it.
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The Hindu scriptures consider these rituals as the kindergarten of faith. When understood properly
and performed meticulously, they lead to inner purity and concentration. When this concentration
deepens, these external rituals drop off by themselves and the devotee can perform internal worship
or manasapuja. Until then these rituals help a devotee on his path of worship.
Let us take the instance of the Taj Mahal (Agra). While the Taj Mahal represents love and romance
and the aesthetic taste of the culture, it also represents the desperate exploitation of labour, the
appropriation of resources and the inequity prevalent in that culture. Architecture here simultaneously
describes love and tyranny. We could perhaps think of a number of cases of such contradictory
representations: the Babri Masjid of Ayodhya could be read as an account of Indian Heritage or a
symbol of Hindu hatred, the Capital Complex in Chandigarh, as a sign of democratic modernism or
an indication of western hegemony. Similarly the National Crafts Museum of New Delhi could be
seen as a representation or assertion of Indian identity or the detachment or objectification of the
Indian Folk Arts through the formal museum format; a chawl in Mumbai could represent a productive
energy centre of the city or the abusive living condition of the labour (not housing but warehousing
people), a slum as a celebration of entrepreneurship or urban decay. All these examples seem to
suggest that each symbol can simultaneously denote not only different but contradicting meanings.
On the other hand we could also identify how various contradictory symbols suggest similar
meanings: the Hiranandani Complex (Mumbai) malls with Greek columns and pediments and the
high-tech glass and steel shopping centre of Gurgaon near Delhi, both suggest the existence and
growth of the same consumer middle class. The new Jain temples in Mumbai that employ traditional
materials and processes, the Bahai Temple in Delhi designed as a high-tech shell structure and
the Radha Parthasarathi Temple in New Delhi, experimenting with reinforced concrete, all suggest a
kind of religious fundamentalism that supports cutting edge and expensive building processes.
Similarly, the legislative assembly of Bangalore with its traditional and classical symbols, the
assembly of Mumbai with an imposing modern form and the assembly of Bhopal that borrows
symbols from ancient history, all represent the same seat of power, that of the state authority.
To complicate things further, it is extremely difficult to find any relations between formal
abstractions and identity. For example a monumental scale does not necessarily indicate and impose
power. The Red Fort (Delhi) in all its might today is one of the most accessible places; the pristine
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arcades of the Fort area in Mumbai today harbour a large informal industry. These places no longer
represent an Empire. They no longer exert power (like Bataille’s monuments) or are symbols of
colonization – their symbolism has been inverted, converted and internalized.
From these examples we could possibly conclude that the relationship between a symbol and identity
is a construction of the architectural theorist and hence it is misleading to discuss the issue of identity
solely through the discourse of the symbol.
1.2. The Idea of the Local in architecture
Our literature review shows that the term ‘Local’ is the second most important idea through which the
issue of identity is discussed. Here all concerns seem to hinge around and oscillate between the need
to assert the local and a desire to embrace the extra-local (international, global, western etc.). “The
search for roots” and “looking ahead in time” are the two respective positions that get articulated
through this concern. Often buildings are conveniently bracketed into themes like “nationalist”,
“regionalist” etc. to very clearly distinguish from the other “internationalist” or “global” ones.
Beyond both these positions, is another position that aims at “looking at real problems, rather then
self-consciously trying to find identity as an end in itself” (Correa, 1983). This position attempts to
locate the local in specific issues such as climate, behaviour etc. rather than leaning on
oversimplifications of history and progress. In discussions that focus on the binary understanding of
nationalist/internationalist or regional/global, this new category viz. “Critical regionalism”
(Frampton,1985) seeks “contextual inspiration” while simultaneously celebrating the “progressive
modern”.
Fredrick Jameson’s (1994) criticism of Frampton’s “Critical Regionalism” begins to articulate the
perceived difference in the various positions on the local, where he suggests that the search for the
local (whether in history, progress or climate) itself may be a product of the global multinational
capitalism. Jameson tries to suggest that all these positions are actually the functions of the market
and in that sense not too different at all.
Let us now examine the power of architecture to produce a sense of local, if any. Here the cases
dealing with “constructing the nation” through architectural explorations, become particularly
important. The three capital cities of New Delhi, Chandigarh and Bangalore are invariably cited as
instances of the state’s attempts at manufacturing a sense of authority (Lang, Desai and Desai, 1997),
a sense of modernity (Lang, Desai and Desai, 1997; Bhat and Scriver, 1990 Curtis, 1985; Kalia,
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1987) and a sense of tradition (Lang, 2002, Bahga, Bahga and Bahga, 1993) respectively amongst its
subjects. Revisiting these sites, one fails to observe any traces of ‘authority’, ‘modernity’ and
‘tradition’ in the public realm. On the contrary exactly opposite accounts are available. While New
Delhi is known for the misbehaviour and non-performance of the public service sector, Chandigarh
still remains a feudal city (Correa, 1987) of Babus[1] without public transportation and Bangalore on
the other hand looks like the most progressive city experimenting with Public Private Partnerships
and being recognised as India’s Silicon Valley. Architecture here seems too meagre a phenomenon to
influence the manner in which nationalism is imagined, experienced and executed. On the other hand,
Eric Hobsbawm (1990) theoretically articulates how state impositions cannot be considered as
identity at all:
“First, official ideologies of states and movements are not guides to what is in the minds of even the
most loyal citizens or supporters. Second, and more specifically, we cannot assume that for most
people national identification – when it exists – excludes or is always or ever superior to, the
remainder of the set of identifications, which constitute the social being. In fact, it is always
combined with identifications of another kind, even when it is felt to be superior to them. Thirdly,
national identification and what it is believed to imply, can change and shift in time, even in the
course of quite short periods. In my judgment this is the area of national studies in which, thinking
and research are most urgently needed today”. (Hobsbawm, 1990)
Several post-colonial theories on the sub-national (including people from various diverse regions
within the same nation), the subaltern (including people who are generally classified as the minority
groups determined through race, religion, caste, class etc) and the trans-national (including people
belonging to a certain nationality, but living in other countries) identities challenge the grand unifying
concept whereby a nation defines the identity of its people. But more importantly these theories
situate the identity issue in the political realm rather than in the aesthetics.
Let us further consider the attempts to claim an overtly local identity through the examples of some
institutions. We could consider three cases: the National Crafts Museum in New Delhi, the Jodhpur
University Complex and the Centre for Development Studies in Tiruanathapuram. All three
institutions utilise local processes and materials to develop their architecture. Moreover, they also
attempt to recreate physical scales, symbols and spaces that one would experience in the Indian
village or a pre-colonial town. But the question that still remains is whether this process of engaging
images to represent the past of the locale makes these institutions more local than the others. The first
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contention, as we understand, is that there has been never a museum, a university and an international
institute in an Indian village. The contexts of the village never produced such a programme. Such
programmes seem to be a product of an extremely centralised state aspiring to develop institutions to
represent its concerns. Delving deeper into the production of these buildings, we find that these were
all state projects that were initiated during the years of political emergency[2] Nehru’s
Modern[3] project was being challenged and a quest for regional identities was developing
(Chatterjee, 1997). This was also the time when a number of regional parties in India developed after
the intense centralisation imposed by Indira Gandhi (Chatterjee, 1997) – all asserting regional
identities and in the process building and reinforcing localized constituencies. In such a political
environment, then it is obvious that the state would support projects that asserted a high degree of
regionalism. In the above examples, architecture uses extreme symbolism to execute such visions of
the state. However, inspite of their claims of a search for a regional identity, the National Crafts
Museum remains as much a museum objectifying the village cultures, the Jodhpur University also
reflects its education mandate and purpose like any other university in India and the Centre for
Development Studies undertakes the best political and cultural studies on par with any International
Institute. The question then is for whom is the regional identity created? Or what effects are expected
(both within and outside the profession of architects) after such attempts are made?
We could identify several writings that suggest attempts to create a nationalist or a regionalist identity
(Lang, Desai and Desai, 1997; Bhat and Scriver, 1990; Curtis, 1985; Lang, 2002). But to find
writings that undertake the task of examining whether the respective buildings actually manifest any
notion of identity is extremely rare! While the discourse of the local against global has been a
favourite amongst architectural theorists, the paper argues that these theoretical explorations remain
far from being adequate in representing the constituencies central to these theoretical writings. The
exact relation between architecture and identity remains undiscovered. The power of architecture to
represent the ‘local’ requires a thorough re-examining.
2. LOCATING THE NOTION OF IDENTITY
The arguments in the earlier section question the relationship between architecture and identity.
Perhaps a more thorough investigation of the concept of “identity” is crucial in order, to establish
such a link. The complexity and ambiguity of the term “identity” can be clarified through the
question: “what is one’s/your/my/our/its/their identity? Often burdened adjectives like Brahmin, rich,
Indian, Punjabi, male, NRI[4], urban, global etc. are used to answer this. Sometimes even more
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opaque adjectives like traditional, folk, contemporary, progressive, orthodox, classical etc summarise
the answer. The problems with these adjectives are that they themselves are summations for a
complex cultural subjectivity, which might have several layers of contradicting description. For
example, the term Brahmin could be described as the priest community, the Indian upper caste, the
knowledge bearing community, the enlightened community, the power holders, the exploitative feudal
lords etc. The rendering of the particular description depends upon the intentions of the describer.
Hence the adjective itself does not have a clear definition. The problem of deciphering identity
becomes more acute when more than one such adjective is used to describe identity. In fact, asking
such questions or answering the question in such adjectives suggests a very essentialist understanding
of the concept which does not grasp the complexity and the process crucial to the production of
identities (Hall, 1996).
In order to understand the issue of identity in its complexity one would also have to make a few
theoretical clarifications on the question of identity. The first one deals with the issue of it being
an imagined concept. Benedict Anderson (1985) suggests: “Communities are to be distinguished, not
by their falsity/genuineness, but by the style in which they are imagined”. The imagination of identity
becomes the backbone for the making of the community itself. “Perhaps instead of thinking of
identity as an already accomplished fact, which the new cultural practices then represent, we should
think, instead, of identity as a “production” which is never complete, always in process, and always
constituted within, not outside, representation” (Hall, 1998). Here we embark on the second
theoretical clarification of identity being an evolving process rather than a fixed entity. Thus, it is
evident that identities are not static or predefined but “infinitely malleable” (Woodward, 1997).
Echoing this notion, and enlarging it further is Appudarai’s (1996) thesis of the ‘production of
locality’:
“I want to unsettle the idea of the local as somehow given, and draw attention to the fact that any
form of local social life requires agency, purpose, vision, design. The local is as much a process and a
project as anything else”.
Lastly one needs to ask why we are asking this question at all. A. G. K. Menon (1989) suspects that
the need to assert a local identity is related to the recent political history in India characterised by “the
rise of cultural fundamentalism and communalism” (Menon 1989). So also in the context of this
research project and questions raised in its brief[5] (where five post-colonial contexts are under study,
four of which representing the third-world), the issue of the local versus the global become a central
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theme. The most important question seems to be: How do countries from the other (non-west)
contexts represent their identities? And all of this is to be discussed in a platform created in the west.
We aim at foregrounding the whole issue of identity being an entity for global consumption just as it
could be a vehicle for fundamentalist construction of nationhood. Homi Bhabha (1994) summarises
the complexity of the concept:
“Each time the encounter with identity occurs at the point which something exceeds the frame of the
image, it eludes the eye, evacuates the self as a site of identity and autonomy and – most importantleaves a resistant trace, a stain of the subject, a sign of resistance. We are no longer confronted with
an ontological problem of being but with a discursive strategy of the moment of interrogation, a
moment in which the demand for identification becomes, primarily, a response to other questions of
signification and desire, culture and politics.” (Bhabha, 1994)
The above theoretical articulations allow us to relocate the notion of identity beyond the discourses of
‘symbol’ and the ‘local’ into a larger cultural space. Henry Lefebvre’s (1991) views on the
“production” of space are of utmost relevance here to describe the cultural space. He sees different
forms of cultural construction as central to the production of space – principally in terms of class, but
also gender, ethnicity, sexuality, family relations and age. He suggests: “space as a historical
production, at once the medium and outcome of social being. It is not a theatre or a setting but a
social production, a concrete abstraction, simultaneously mental and material, work and product –
such that social relations have no real existence except in and through space” (Lefebvre, 1991). The
paper argues that – it is in such a cultural space that identity is imagined, nurtured as a process, and
values are associated to it. Identity is further used to manipulate such a space. Identity, being
produced by a culture space, becomes an agent to reproduce it.
3. THE IDEA OF CULTURAL LANDSCAPE
The earlier section locates the notion of identity in a larger realm of the cultural space. In this section
we would explore the idea of the cultural space to articulate a framework for analysis of architecture
to deal with the identity issue.
One of the first deconstructions required for such an analysis is regarding the position of “urban
professionals such as planners and architects who believe themselves to be democratic negotiators,
community advocates, neutral social scientists, exponents of the beautiful and masterful shapers of
space” (Borden, Rendell, Kerr and Pivaro, 2002). However they seem to act only as part of a much
broader cultural space, which is governed by “deeper systems of power, economics and signification”
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(Borden, Rendell, Kerr and Pivaro, 2002). And in such larger and deeper systems, architecture and
architects remain too feeble to create or manipulate identity. To construct an understanding of
identity, perhaps there is a need to broaden the perspective from looking at architects and
architectural form to a larger cultural landscape.
To develop the idea of the cultural landscape, Edward Soja’s formulations are significant. He
articulates a critique of the architectural discipline’s vision of the city as a “collection of separate
cells with built environment compacted together to form an urban mass” (Soja, 2002). His critique
exhorts the architectural community to understand “a radically different large scale spatial or regional
vision of the city as an expansive urban system of movement and flows of goods being produced and
people living not just in built environments but in constructed geographies characterized by different
patterns of income, unemployment, education levels, ethnic and racial cultures, housing and job
densities etc.” (Soja, 2002) Soja advises architects to “think and work at the regional scale because it
provides a very important entry point into the heart of what has been reshaping our cities” (Soja,
2002). This, in Soja’s words, will stir the architect away from “wild gropings into vague new
concepts that may sound flashy and appealing but don’t necessarily lead us anywhere” (Soja 2002). It
is the notion of the “regional” in Soja’s writing that we adapt here towards formulating the idea of
the cultural landscape which allows us not only a much broader investigations into the various
contexts of architectural intervention, but also elopes from the restrictions and connotations of the
terms – space, region and the city.
The first formulation towards constructing the new framework using the idea of cultural landscape is
to shift the analysis of architecture from a focus on buildings to a reading of landscapes. To illustrate
this shift in the analysis of architecture, let us consider the case of housing development in Mumbai
during early twentieth century. We find a number of accounts (Alff, 1991, Dalvi, 2000, Iyer, 2000)
describing these developments as Art Deco explorations and a birth of Modern Bombay. These
accounts elaborately document certain buildings that embody these Art Deco characteristics. It is
through such an identification of the Art Deco, the idea the “Modern” identity is constructed (Alff,
1991, Dalvi, 2000). The reading of the larger landscape however would lead to the construction of a
completely different scenario. The development of housing in the 1920’s was undertaken by the city
administration, which brought two new concepts to India: the apartment type and the garden
township. An investigation into history indicates that during the 1920’s the status of the city was
shifting from being a market place and an industrial centre towards becoming an administrative and
financial capital for the region where the English educated Indian bureaucrats (Babus) were
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demanding a European lifestyle. It was for this group, that the apartment type and garden townships
were built. If we were to further describe the landscape of these townships, we find a number of slum
quarters developing on the edges of these settlements to serve the new apartments. The continuing
feudalism is evident when we find at least one maidservant in each of the houses. Thus through this
reading, the landscape is not modern as the building centric view seems to suggest – rather it is
unequally modern! The case of early twentieth century housing in Mumbai effectively shows how
when we shift the framework from buildings to landscape, the notion of describing identity through
the adjective of “Modern” collapses and it is displaced by a new construction of Bombay during the
1920’s – that which harboured and supported indigenous feudal and thus not “Modern” as we would
conventionally understand the term.
The second formulation in developing the new framework is a shift from focusing on forms to
understanding of types. Aldo Rossi (1984) employed the notion of type to understand landscapes
(Rossi was referring specifically to urban landscapes). The conception of type is useful not only as a
“repetitive typical” (Rossi, 1984) that constructs and (hence) represents the landscape, but also as a
“typology” that informs substantially the behavioural pattern that gets imposed by the type. This
subsequently elaborates the contexts of the architectural production and the issue of identity. The
useful examples here would be the development of large institutions in India during British
colonisation
like
the Victoria
and
Albert
Museum (Calcutta),
the Municipal
Corporation
Building (Bombay), the Muir College (Allahabad), the High Court Building (Bombay) etc. These
buildings are often described through elaborate documentation and analysis of their elements and
forms (Tillotson, 1989). Further, genealogies of these forms are traced and terms like Indo-Saracenic,
Gothic Revival and Vernacular Architecture are manufactured to facilitate their descriptions and
origins. This then becomes the basis to describe the newly forming unique “Indian” identity that
attempts to localise traditional Indian or European forms to create its own distinct architecture. But if
we shift the framework from looking at forms to looking at types, a very different picture of these
institutions emerges. The type of institutions during the colonial period speaks specifically of a
fundamentally different kind of organisation in education, governance, justice etc. The elaborate
arcades of the courts and the educational institutions, the large gathering space within the museum,
the clearly demarcated bureaucratic capsules in the administration buildings indicate a distinct shift in
the form of the government that wanted a change in the power distribution. The idea of the Public
Space was getting formed through these building types. One clearly notes the immense pressure the
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colonial government would have been under from groups demanding political freedom. These were
types, perhaps introduced to legitimise the colonial rule.
The case of institutions that were created after independence like the Gandhi Smarakh
Ashram (Ahmedabad), Indian Institute of Technology (Kanpur), Jodhpur University (Jodhpur) etc
would also be illustrative to describe the shift from form to type. Accounts of these institutions
largely speak about the negotiation of the “Indian outdoor space” and “modern form” for creation of a
“Modern Indian” identity (Bhat and Scriver, 1990, Bahga, Bahga and Bahga, 1993, Lang, Desai and
Desai, 1997). The shift in the analysis from form to type would however focus on the campus
type built for a completely new set of programmes and sponsored by the state. Here again a new type
is developed for a context of a new nation with very clear state intentions towards developing
generous campus environments dedicated for education and research. Nothing specifically is Indian
(as there was never any context for such institutions in India earlier) except for the symbolism. The
state obviously is at the centre of power here aiming to manipulate its citizens for the projection and
representation of a stronger nation. We can also see how the state is forced to share this power and
form a different opinion regarding itself. The type-based analysis allows to distinctively move away
from reductionist notions of identity that are explained through adjectives of “Colonial” or “Indian”.
It is now able to specifically focus on the changes in behavioural pattern that the type enforces, like
the public access to government in the case of colonial institutions and the generous education
environment in the institutions built after independence. And through the understanding of this shift
in the behavioural pattern we could throw some light on the complex identity issue.
The third formulation in the development of the framework takes off from our earlier section: “Myth
of the Local” where the geographic region becomes the most important basis to establish the local.
The notions of Rajasthani architecture or Gujarati architecture or even Indian architecture are formed
on the ideas of the locale that get generated along geographic regions. In the assertion of identity,
architecture seldom is able to represent a geographic region, but rather more accurately represents a
cultural community, which might get identified due to a sharing of common social, political or
economical backgrounds. Leo van den Berg’s (1987) conceptualisation of the urban landscapes as a
function of spatial behaviour of its actors becomes central to this argument. Many theorists have
significantly contributed to this conceptualisation of landscapes as a function of its actors (Latour,
1999 and Law, 1999 Bunschoten, 2001).
The earlier example of Bombay’s housing type in early twentieth century clearly indicates that the
development of this type had nothing to do with the geography of Mumbai, but actually was the
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function of the new economic community of Babus. Similarly the cases of institutions in colonial
and independent India inform us on the changing role of the state and the power redistribution
amongst the citizens rather than the specific geographic locations where the institutions are built. The
analytical shift of associating an architectural product from a geographic region to cultural actors
could be best demonstrated with comparing the two works of the same architect: National Crafts
Museum (New Delhi) and Bharat Bhavan (Bhopal). Both of these were state projects and were
designed around the same time with a similar programme for a museum. The two projects however
have a distinctly different expression: while National Crafts Museum has an overt display of the
Indian Folk objects quoted for their “Indian identity” (Khan, 1984), Bharat Bhavan is an example of
the campus type well carved in the contours of the landscape without any distinct elements of
traditional Indian architecture, but with ample spaces for discussions, experimental arts and research.
When we investigate the specific actors involved in the project, we find that the two projects were
influenced by two different actors: Jyotindra Jain and Jagdish Swaminathan respectively. Very
clearly, the intentions of the two actors are seen in these projects where, Jain advocates the display of
traditional Indian Art as museum objects and Swaminathan remains preoccupied with providing
spaces for all kinds of artists in a museum space. The actor analysis aims at understanding the
architectural production as a function of the interests of the various actors involved. The issue of
identity could be filtered through such an understanding. While Jain’s National Arts and Crafts
Museum clearly aims at forcing an Indian Identity on its people through high objectification of the
Indian folk, Swaminathan’s Bharat Bhavan seeks to provide spaces for legitimising Indian Art
Practices as contemporary art.
REFERENCES
ARCHITECTURE & CONTEMPORARY INDIAN IDENTITY-Rupali Gupte, Rahul Mehrotra and
Prasad Shetty, December 2004https://bardstudio.in/architecture-and-contemporary-indian-identity/
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CHAPTER XI
Lighting in ancient Temples
“More and more, so it seems to me, light is the beautifier of the building.”
-Frank Lloyd Wright
The ancient scriptures and the religious beliefs have dictated the architecture of the Hindu
temples which were built not only as monuments providing shelter to the religious symbols and the
worshippers, but as the cosmos itself( See Chapter in this book). Evolving from a cave, onto a hut or a
modest abode of timber, the temple gradually developed into a substantial structure embellished with
decorative moldings and ornaments and meaningful sculptures. The use of the giant grid or square as the
basic unit in Indian temple architecture was chiefly a matter of religious significance it was the ground
plan of all well planned temples. Each of the squares was thought to be the abode of a deity, and the
location of the square within the ground plan accorded with the importance attached to the deity.
East west facing temple
According to the Vastupurushamandala,( see chapter before) which is the diagram of the Hindu Temple’s
program, as well as its metaphysical plan, the Vastu (signifies residence) was a place of adjustments of
the solar and lunar cycles for placement of the deities.The 32 divinities (padadevatas) in the square
borders include the regents of the cardinal points and the 28 stars
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(nakshtras).The black square in the center, the garbhagriha (the womb chamber), is the location of the
central shrine, the place for the main deity, the seat of Brahman (one of the chief Indian Gods, known as
the creator of all living beings) In the center of the temple is the womb where the diety resides and
nothing should distract devotees senses, including vision, so it was felt.Therefore, this innermost sanctum
of the temple is shrouded in total darkness and the progression into the temple is a ritual movement where
the devotee goes through the dynamic experience of the darkening spaces before reaching the darkest
sacred chamber. This journey is both spiritual and physiological.
The treatment of light ensures that by the time the pilgrim reaches the innermost chamber (garbhagriha)
his/her eyes slowly become accustomed to the darkness and his/her state of mind befitting worship and is
no longer plagued by worldly thoughts. During this procession, one passes through many doorways,
colonnaded halls and corridors, which are decorated with sacred carvings.These sacred symbols have a
profound impact on the mind of the devotee; they simulate the mystery that envelops the universe and the
divine spirit that illumines the universe . Reaching the holy sanctum, the worshipper enters a place for
individual selfrealization and personal relation with the divine.Thus, along the two previously mentioned
premises the design of the Hindu Temple accommodated the faith, creating a procession toward the “holy
darkness” that enhanced the spiritual experience. 1 & 2
Oil Lamps too: There is a deeper significance to the diya. The oil in the diya symbolises the dirt in the
human mind — such as greed, jealousy, hatred, lust etc — which human beings tend to nurture. The
cotton in the diya is symbolic of the atma or the self or the soul. The diya presents light when the oil is
burnt by the wick. Hence, lighting of the diyas signifies that one needs to get rid of the selfish and
materialistic thoughts. This frees one from all forms of sadness, guiding the
path to enlightenment and to connect with the Supreme Being
On Diwali people light millions of diyas. These beautiful diyas hold a deep significance and are
symbolic of our journey to enlightenment. In India, almost every household has a custom of lighting a
deepam or diya( Open Oil lamp with wick) twice a day — in the morning and evening. This is a part of
prayer. All ceremonies, daily worship rituals, auspicious functions, religious
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occasions as well as new ventures start with lightning of the lamp. Diya is essential in Hinduism because
it signifies purity, goodness, good luck and power. The presence of light means the non- existence of
darkness and evil forces. According to the Hindu faith, the rising sun is worshipped
before beginning the rituals for the residing deity of the temple. ... These finding support the
notion of a procession from the lit entrance toward darkness as dictated by the faith. Light is an integral
part of the religious ethos of Hinduism- and not necessarily electric light because a few years ago there
was’nt any in India and also before tht anywhere else. I remember spending my childhood studying under
an oil lamp preparing for my exams; until the Nagpur Light and Power Co. Pvt Ltd was started by Mr.
DPR Cassad in 1954 to provide electricity to the city( not the
entire one).
Since, Diwali is celebrated on the new moon day when there is supreme darkness everywhere; people
light millions of lamps to get rid of the darkness. It is believed that evil spirits and forces gain power and
become active when there is no light. So diyas are lit in every corner of the house to weaken those evil
forces.
Significance of diyas
The oil in the diya symbolises negatives in the human mind. The wick is symbolic of the atma. Lighting of
diyas signifies getting rid of selfish thoughts.
In India, almost every household has a custom of lighting a deepam or diya twice a day — in the morning an
evening. This is a part of prayer. All ceremonies, daily worship rituals, auspicious
functions, religious occasions as well as new ventures start with lightning of the lamp. Diya is essential in
Hinduism because it signifies purity, goodness, good luck and power. The presence of light means the
non-existence of darkness and evil forces.
Since, Diwali is celebrated on the new moon day when there is supreme darkness everywhere; people
light millions of lamps to get rid of the darkness. It is believed that evil spirits and forces gain power and
become active when there is no light. So diyas are lit in every corner of the house to weaken those evil
forces.
During the foundation stone laying ceremony of the most important temple in the world for hindus0
the Ram Janmabhoomi Temple at Ayodhya, Ayodhya the city in Uttar Pradesh had its every street
illuminated with earthen lamps ahead of the foundation stone laying ceremony.
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Diyas were also lit on the banks of Saryu river as part of the 'deepotsava' celebrations in the temple town
which will see Prime Minister Narendra Modi and other dignitaries arrive today for the 'bhoomi pujan'
ceremony of the Ram Temple.The entire Ayodhya has been decked up and massive preparations have
been made for this occasion with a festive air.Earlier chief minister Yogi Adityanath had said that 11,000
diyas will be lit at Ram Ki Paidi on the banks of the Saryu river and that all houses and temples in
Ayodhya will be celebrating with a 'deepotsava' (festival of lights) on the nights of August 4 and
5.Adityanath burst firecrackers and lit earthen lamps at his official residence on in Lucknow as part of
'deepotsava'. The construction work of Ram temple will begin after the foundation stone laying
ceremony, in which dignitaries from various political and religious fields have been invited to
participate.Apart from Ayodhya other cities in like Kanpur were also illuminated to celebrate the grand
event. Vishva Hindu Parishad (VHP) workers light earthen lamps in the city, as part of
'deepotsava'.Chief Minister's residence in Uttarakhand will be decorated with 5100 diyas filled with
Ghee on Wednesday evening to celebrate the occasion of the 'bhoomi pujan' of the Ram Temple in
Ayodhya today by Prime Minister Narendra Modi. Uttrakhand Chief Minister Trivendra Singh Rawat
has said that Lord Ram Temple being built in Ayodhya is associated with "our belief". He also appealed
to people in the state to light diyas at their homes on the occasion. Earthen lamps were lit at Ujjain's
Mahakaleshwar Temple in Madhya Pradesh and in Punjab too people lit lamps as part of 'deepotsava'.
Prime Minister Narendra Modi will perform 'pooja' at Hanumangarhi and Shree
Ramlala Virajman before performing 'bhoomi pujan' of the Ram Temple in Ayodhya on Wednesday,
informed Prime Minister's Office (PMO) on Tuesday.
Hindu Temples Are Not All Alike
Ideally, temples (often called mandirs) are built in accordance with the ancient scriptures, planned out by
skilled Indian architects to resemble the traditional styles found in India. This ideal temple has certain
features: 1) a central sanctum enshrines the main Deity; 2) other Deities in the pantheon are represented
by murtis in secondary sanctums or shrines; 3) the structure has no basement; 4) cultural and social
activities are provided for in separate facilities, not in the main area dedicated for worship; 5) trained,
ordained priests perform a daily regimen of pujas (others do not enter the shrines); 6) the temple openly
represents a particular denomination of Hinduism and a specific lineage of teaching and liturgy.
While these principles are well known among the thousands of communities of Hindus around the world,
the reality is that each temple comes up in it own way, organically, with the above ideals flexing with the
exigencies of the day, the resources and often mixed geographical background of the constituents.
Hence, we now have a vast variety of temples, particularly outside India, each serving the needs of its
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community as a center of worship, culture, community service and spiritual fellowship.
Every temple is unique. Agamic temples provide elaborate pujas several times per day. The main Deities
are in distinct, prominent sanctums. Individuals come and go at any time and worship privately or as a
family. Other temples may be structured as a simple hall with a stage in front, and Deities on pedestals
usually around the perimeter of the room. The style of worship here is often congregational, with temple
members gathering at a set time for a structured service conducted by a priest or elder. In some mandirs
devotees may do a simple puja themselves.
Services may include some form of teaching, such as a lecture by a swami or lay leader, and devotional
singing or dramatic readings from the epics, Ramayana and Mahabharata.
Light is the soul of architecture design. Light allows us to see, to know where we are and
what around us. Beyond exposing things to view and feel, light models those objects to enhance visual and
to help us define the physical world. Nothing would be visible without light, light also makes it possible to
express and show to the mind’s eye things that eludes the physical one.
Light helps us redefine the relationships of people with the environment and with themselves. It is
divided into natural light and artificial light. Natural light is a gift of nature. Civilized man learns to use
artificial light sources which free him from total dependence on daylight, we also learn to appreciate the
value of daylight and become aware of its special advantages.
Ancient Architects of temples knew that light controls people’s behavior and emotions. It can make
people even happier. When people design light for space they need to put in position of people
working in that space. Even lighting seems very functional
“Space and light and order. Those are the things that men need just as much as they need bread or a
place to sleep”
-Le Corbusier, August27, 1965
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They explored daylight as an element of form making in architecture. Temples have used the natural light
effect in buildings to create a specific atmosphere. Light and different shadows casted give a sense of
motion. Shadows create drama and emphasize light and moving forms that depend on a source of light for
their stability. As the sun makes its daily transit from east to west, shadows convey sense of time.
Daylight is inextricably linked with windows.Most of the temple designs use different elements to work
with light in the space to create different atmospheres.Natural light provides us with the means to show
spaces and volumes and interact with our environment to make people enjoy the space.
Throughout time sacred monuments have provided spaces to facilitate a dialogue between man and
God. The simplicity and the functional character of the monuments as well as the deliberate
arrangement of architectural elements helped to create a holy atmosphere through the manipulation of
light. Techniques such as light reflected front the walls creating mysterious shadows, subdued light
filtering through the openings, light used as a focal point, etc. were some of the ways that natural light
was used to represent itself as a fundamental connection to god. Thus, natural light was used as an
important part of religious symbolism.
Though light has been such an important element in the design of sacred monuments, not much
has been written on the subject. 1The findingsofthis thesis supported the ritualprocession towardthe
“holy darkness”, or how light/darkness could dramatize the spiritual experience in the
sacred spaces of the temple.The temple interiors were designed to be dark so the human eye
is not distracted by the material world to let the mind enter the spiritual world of God. As seen in
the Brihadeshvara Temple, natural light
is introduced in a progressive light quality from
brightness to darkness accommodating the ritual movement of the worshiper, and adjusting
his/her eyes. Historic design of this spiritual experience complies with the current IES four major
principles of lighting design in houses of worship.The Temple’s light/darkness combine task
lighting (functional), accent lighting (spiritual), architectural lighting (functional and spiritual),
and celebration light (spiritual).
Spiritualstateand affects the mood of the user in the sacred space.
Faith dictates the treatmentoflight/darkness in thesacredsettingas means to enhancethe spiritual
experience.The simulated values whencompared to the Illuminating Engineering Society(IES) standards
demonstratedthat digitizedsimulationscan illustratethesignificanceof light/darkness in sacred settings as a
spiritual experience. Even if there are differences in the building size and techniques in each of the three
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Hindu temples, on the whole the quality of light inside the structure did not undergo much change. Also
though there was significant progress in the technology of lighting design from the 8th century to the 11th
century, due to the changes in the political scenario, there as no further progress in this aspect of south
Indian temple design from the 12th century AD onwards. Hindu religious requirement was for light.
The sculptor and the architect were often one and the same person very often in India and it would be
highly misleading to treat sculpture and architecture separately. As a matter of fact, sculpture was
introduced as a decorative element over the facade on outer walls of a temple. The author of the
above research found in the Sanchi temple of about the 5th century that very simple the structure with
bare and undecorated the walls areare made more legant by providing a variety of perforated screen
windows and thus some variation are introduced by about the middle of the 5th century and about a
100 years later in the Durga temple at Aihole, sculpture were added at the base of the pillar round
theverandah and gradually in the Vaitala Deul, datable to about the beginning of the 7th century, the
sculptor has made rich use of the niches in the ribbon like projections to embellish and decorate the
temple.
Natural light is a powerful architectural tool. As the importance of sustainable design grows, passive
strategies like daylighting have become critical in reducing the impact of the built environment.
Additionally, research in the last decade has shown daylighting to have significant health and wellness
benefits for users. Today, we have more tools than ever to harness daylight. From innovative reflective
materials to advanced computer modeling, architects are using modern technology to light buildings more
efficiently. When you embrace these systems, you’ll create a brighter future
What is Passive Daylighting?
Passive daylighting strategies promote the quantity and even distribution of daylight throughout a building
by collecting natural light and reflecting itt into darker areas of the building. What makes this a “passive”
strategy is that the design elements do not require any special mechanical equipment or energy sources. As
soon as the sun rises, the passive daylighting strategies collect and reflect light throughout the building.
Architects use windows, skylights, clear doors, light tubes, mirrors, light shelves and other reflective
surfaces to collect and direct light to key areas in the room. For example, if a waiting area is located in a
dark corner with no nearby windows, architects can redirect light from other well-lit parts of the room using
passive reflecting elements.
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Meenakshi Amman Temple Madurai
This type of system is incredibly beneficial both for building owners and for visitors. You’ll use less
energy to keep the building lit during the day. This, in turn, could save you money and help you reach
sustainability and renewability goals.This is what natural lighting does: It improves
Mood
Employee and visitor satisfaction
Student performance and learning
Healing (especially in hospital environments)
Productivity
Cognitive function
Circadian rhythms
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Passive Daylighting Strategies
Every temple building is different, which is why architects customizd passive daylighting
strategies based on the building’s location and its intended use. The goal of daylighting was to collect
enough daylight in the summer and also keep the visibility and heat of the structure up during rains
and winter. Today we can think of a few design elements that architects use to bring in as much
natural daylight as possible:
Building orientation. Light direction is important. Light that comes from the south is
usually best for daylighting as sunlight is consistent throughout the day and year. This
orientation can also be used for solar heat gain. Light that comes from the north is the
next best, as the sunlight is as consistent as the south, just in a lower quantity. Light
that comes from the east and west should be avoided if possible. Sunlight at these
orientations is harsh, it only occurs during half the day, and the height of the sun
changes throughout the year, making sunlight harder to control. Temples were
designed we assume to enable the most daylight (like front entrances) face north or
south, while rooms that require less daylight (like storage rooms) face east or west.
Windows. To bring as much light into the building as possible, architects use windows
with tall head heights. They can also use uniform windows across a façade to light the
space evenly angle.
Skylights. Skylights allow daylight to enter from above, which is useful in spaces at
the center of the building where light from windows can’t reach. As with windows,
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uniform skylight spacing results in uniform lighting. Architects can also place
skylights high above the floor, allowing the light to diffuse before it reaches the
ground. Windows that are high above eye level, or clerestories, can light up an entire
room. Architects usually combine clerestories with a reflective roof material or paint.
The light enters through the clerestories and reflects off the roof, spreading very
diffuse light around the room below.
External Shading Systems. At certain times of the day at each orientation, the light
will be too bright and may produce a strong glare inside the building. To prevent this,
architects design custom external shading systems to protect windows and other
transparent openings. These systems usually include a combination of horizontal and
vertical elements, but vary depending on the geographical location, climate, and
building orientation.
Light shelves. A reflective horizontal shelf placed above windows reduces glare and
directs light deeper into the space.
Solar tubes. These channel sunlight from the roof through a narrow opening. During
the day, they loo like ordinary ceiling lamps, but they are powered by the sun rather
than electricity. These work well when placed directly above desks, where people
need plenty of light.
Light wall colors. Light, reflective paint helps light to bounce around the room and
makes the space feel brighter.
Parametric modeling, daylight simulation, and artificial intelligence (AI). Modern
architecture firms use parametric software to generate optimized daylighting strategies for
buildings. Daylight simulation software analyzes the building geometry and calculates the
anticipated
daylighting
levels
throughout
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the
building
at
any
given
time
of
year. AI is the latest development, and its potential yet to be seen, but it is capable of synthesizing
massive data sets in seconds to automatically generate a solution, then learn from the solution to
create a more efficient solution.
Architects often use a combination of these strategies to maximize natural light in a space
1. The building features a central atrium that connects the interior and exterior spaces.
2. Maximize exterior windows on the north and south orientation.
3. Create custom external shading system to prevents glare and unwanted
Passive daylighting systems will continue to play a key role in architecture well into the future. When a
temple design embraces natural light, it will foster better environmental stewardship and encourage t he
visitors to lead a enhanced spiritual and healthy experience.
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Details of Shikhara Stone masonary of a modern Hindu temple
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Six Secrets About Temple Worship that depend on natural or artificial light
1. One God, Many Gods
In the Hindu pantheon there are said to be 330 million Gods. Even so, all Hindus believe in one Supreme
Being who pervades the entire universe. The many Gods are perceived as divine creations of that one
Being. These Gods, or Mahadevas, are real beings, capable of thought and feeling beyond the limited
thought and feeling of embodied man. So, Hinduism has one God, but it has many Gods. There are only a
few of these Gods for whom temples are built and pujas conducted. Ganesha, Siva, Subramaniam, Vishnu
and Shakti are the most prominent Deities in contemporary Hinduism. Of course, there are many others
for whom certain rites or mantras are done in daily ceremony, often in the home shrine. These include
Brahma, Surya, Sarasvati, Lakshmi, Agni, Chandra, Ayyappan, Hanuman, Mariyamman and others.
The Hindu traditionally adopts an Ishta Devata. This is a personal Deity chosen from the many Hindu
Gods, often according to the devotee's family background or the feeling of closeness to one form of
divine manifestation. It is the unique and all-encompassing nature of Hinduism that one devotee may be
worshiping Ganesha while his friend worships Subramaniam or Vishnu, and yet both honor the other's
choice and feel no sense of conflict. The profound understanding and universal acceptance that are unique
in Hinduism are reflected in this faculty for accommodating different approaches to the Divine, allowing
for different names and forms of God to be worshiped side by side within the temple walls. It may even
happen that one may adopt a different personal Deity through the years according to one's spiritual
unfoldment and inner needs.
2.Temples Are Transformative!
Visiting a Hindu temple, receiving darshan from the majestic Gods of our religion, can altogether change the
life of a worshiper. It alters the flow of the pranas, or life currents, within his body. It draws his awareness
into the deeper chakras. It adjusts his beliefs and the attitudes that are the natural consequence of those
beliefs. But the change is slow. He lives with the experience for months and months after his visit to the
temple. He comes to know and love the Deity. The Deity comes to know and love him, helping and guiding
his entire evolutionary pattern.
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Darshan coming from the great temples of our Gods can change the patterns of karma dating back many
past lives, clearing and clarifying conditions that were created hundreds of years ago and are but seeds
now, waiting to manifest in the future. Through the grace of the Gods, those seeds can be removed if the
manifestation in the future would not enhance the evolution of the soul.
3.Three Worlds Communing
Hinduism views existence as composed of three worlds. The First World is the physical universe, the
Second World is the subtle astral or mental plane of existence in which the devas, or angels, and spirits
live, and the Third World is the spiritual sphere of the Mahadevas, the Deities, the Gods. Hinduism is the
harmonious working together of these three worlds. Religion blossoms for the Hindu as he awakens to the
existence of the Second and Third Worlds. These inner worlds naturally inspire in man responses of love
and devotion and even awe. They are that wonderful. It is in the Hindu temple that the three worlds meet
and devotees invoke the Gods of our religion. The temple is built as a palace in which the Gods reside. It
is the visible home of the Gods, a sacred place unlike every other place on the Earth. The Hindu must
associate himself with these Gods in a very sensitive way when he approaches the temple. These
intelligent beings have evolved through eons of time and are able to help mankind without themselves
having to live in a physical body. These great Mahadevas, with their multitudes of angelic devas, live and
work constantly and tirelessly for the people of our religion, protecting and guiding them, opening new
doors and closing unused ones.
The reality of the Mahadevas and their darshan can be experienced by the devotee through his awakened
ajna vision, or more often as the physical sight of the image in the sanctum coupled with the inner
knowing that He is there within the microcosm. This darshan can be felt by all devotees, becoming
stronger and more defined as devotion is perfected. Through this darshan, messages can be channeled
along the vibratory emanations that radiate out from the Mahadevas, as well as from their representatives,
the Second World devas who carry out their work for them in shrines and altars.
4.Where Problems Can Be Dissolved
Hindus always want to live near a temple so they can frequent it regularly. When we go to the temple, we
leave with our mind filled with the shakti of the Deity. We are filled and thrilled with the shakti of the
temple in every nerve current of our body. When we return to our home, we light an oil lamp, and that
brings the power of the temple into the home. This simple act brings the devas in the Second World right
into your home, where they can bless the rest of the family who perhaps did not go to the temple.
The devotee stands before the sanctum and telepathically tells the Gods a problem, and with hopeful faith
leaves and waits. Days or weeks later, after he had forgotten about his prayer, he suddenly realizes the
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problem has disappeared. He attempts to trace the source of its solution and finds that a simple, favorable
play of circumstance and events brought it about. Had the Gods answered his prayer, or would it have
happened anyway?
He brings another prayer to the Gods, and again in time an answer appears in the natural course of his
life. It appears to him that the Gods are hearing and responding to his needs. Trust and love have taken
root. He goes on, year after year, bringing the Gods into his secular affairs, while just as carefully the
Gods are bringing him into their celestial spheres, enlivening his soul with energy, joy and intelligence.
The Hindu looks to the Gods for very practical assistance. He devoutly believes that the Gods from their
dwelling in the Third World are capable of consciously working with the forces of evolution in the
universe and they could then certainly manage a few simpler problems. He devoutly believes that the
Gods are given to care for man on the planet and see him through his tenure on Earth, and that their
decisions are vast in their implications.
5.Puja Is Communion
The physical representation of the God, be it a stone or metal image, a yantra or other sacred form, simply
marks the place that the God will manifest in or hover above in His etheric body. It can be conceived as
an antenna to receive the divine rays of the God or as the material body in or through which the God
manifests in this First World. Man takes one body and then another in hisprogression through the cycles
of birth and death and rebirth. Similarly, the Gods in their subtle bodies inhabit, for brief or protracted
spans of time, these temple images.
When we perform puja, a religious ritual, we are attracting the attention of the devas and Mahadevas in
the inner worlds. That is the purpose of a puja; it is a form of communication. To enhance this
communication, we establish an altar in the temple and in the home. This becomes charged or magnetized
through our devotional thoughts and feelings, which radiate out and affect the surrounding environment.
Chanting and satsanga and ceremonial rituals all contribute to this sanctifying process, creating an
atmosphere to which the Gods are drawn and in which they can manifest. By the word manifest, I mean
they actually come and dwell there and can stay for periods of time, providing the vibration is kept pure
and undisturbed. The altar takes on a certain power. In our religion there are altars in temples all over the
world inhabited by the devas and the great Gods. When you enter these holy places, you can sense their
sanctity. You can feel the presence of these divine beings, and this radiation from them is known as
darshan.
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6.Dealing with Disbelief
In the beginning stages of worship, a Hindu soul may have to wrestle with disbelief in the Gods. He may
wonder whether they really exist, especially if his own intuition is obscured by assimilation of Western,
existentialist beliefs and attitudes. Yet, he senses their existence, and this sensing brings him back to the
temple. He is looking for proof, immersed in the process of coming to know the Gods for himself. He is
heartened and assured by hundreds of saints and rishis who have fathomed and found close and enduring
relationships with the Gods, and who then extolled their greatness in pages of scripture and chronicle.
The Gods of Hinduism create, preserve and protect mankind. Their overview spans time itself, and yet
their detailed focus upon the complicated fabric of human affairs is just as awesome. It is through their
sanction that all things continue, and through their will that they cease. It is through their grace that all
good things happen, and all things that happen are for the good. Now, you may wonder why one would
put himself under this divine authority so willingly, thus losing his semblance of freedom. But does one
not willingly put himself in total harmony with those whom he loves? Of course he does. And loving
these great souls comes so naturally. Their timeless wisdom, their vast intelligence, their thoroughly
benign natures, their ceaseless concern for the problems and well-being of devotees, and their power and
sheer godly brilliance--all these inspire our love.
7.Rites of Passage
A central part of every Hindu's life, samskaras are sacred rites of passage, such as coming of age and
marriage, and childhood rites, including name-giving, first feeding, ear-piercing and head- shaving. They
are held in temples, homes or halls. You may observe samskaras in progress during your visit. Consult
with the temple priest for more information. These rites usually include a puja and a homa, or fire
ceremony. If you request a samskara, the priest will set an auspicious time, explain how to prepare, what
to bring, and what to do during the ceremony.
8.Fire Rites
Major pujas in temples are often preceded by a homa, or "fire-offering," among the most ancient forms of
Hindu worship. Fire is the object of worship, and oblations are offered into a sanctified fire pit, which is
usually made of earthen bricks. One or more priests sit near and tend the fire, offering wood, ghee, grains
and dried herbs while chanting mantras from the Vedas and Agamas. The rites invoke the temple's main
Deity as well as other Gods, such as Ganesha, Agni and Varuna.
9.Multiplicity of proceedings
In a Hindu temple there is often a multiplicity of simultaneous proceedings and ceremonies. In one
corner, an extended family, or clan, with its hundreds of tightly knit members, may be joyously
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celebrating a wedding. At another shrine a lady might be crying in front of the Deity, saddened by some
misfortune and in need of solace. Elsewhere in the crowded precincts, a baby is being blessed, and several
groups of temple musicians are filling the chamber with the shrill sounds of the nagasvaram and drum.
After the puja reaches its zenith, brahmin priests move in and out of the sanctum, passing camphor and
sacred ash and holy water to hundreds of worshipers crowding eagerly to get a glimpse of the Deity. All
of this is happening at once, unplanned and yet totally organized. It is a wonderful experience, and such a
diverse array of devotional ceremonies and such an intensity of worship can only be seen in a Hindu
temple. There is no place on Earth quite like a Hindu temple."
Natural light better than artificial light
Using as much natural light in interior spaces as much as possible has many advantage over using
artificial light. Artificial light is unable to replace some effect of natural light, for example, in the morning
when you wake up, natural light go through the window come to interior space. It will make people feel
warm, comfortable, and festive. Natural produces positive effects, both physiological and psychological.
Making good use of natural light cuts the need of artificial lighting and helps provide a feeling of well
being to our everyday life. We need to maximize use of natural light.
In order to begin considering the inclusion of daylight in atemple, designers must have one or more
compelling reasons for doing so. Most often daylight is used as either a primary or a secondary interior
illuminant; but even if it is used only to provide a particular design effect, the designer must consider the
impact of the light on all aspects of the building and its occupants.
Many reasons can justify considering daylight as a light source both residential and commercial buildings,
although some of the reasons may apply more to one building category than the other. Among the reasons
is quality of the light, importance of daylight as a design element, energy conservation from the use of
daylight as a primary illuminant. Natural light is a design element that some designers use as the central
design determinant in their work. These designers use the need for varying quantity of natural light in
different space of the building to establish the general form, spatial arrangement, and massing for the
building.
Quality of natural light
The quality of daylight as an illuminant is an important reason to use natural light in a building. Natural
light combination of sunlight and skylight is the one light source that most closely matches human visual
response. Natural light is a full-spectrum light. Quality of daylight is good for vision. It is provide a good
visual environment. A good visual environment also affects people ability to see objects and feeling of
space.
Natural light adds a sense of spaciousness to a room; because natural light can make the room seems
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larger. Spaciousness is thought to give a feeling of openness produced primarily through visual perception
of a space, is a phenomenon that has been studied by a number of building environment researchers.
Natural light and architecture
1. Natural light keeps changing through times. Most of architects can be accurately
determined and can determine the size of the space to determine the spatial orientation of light to
selected materials and processing methods, artificial lighting designed space.
2. However, architects cannot control natural light, which from morning to night, day after
day changes. Its existence gives life of space, modeling the spatial sensibility. Natural light for
the space, like the air of life, these two have symbiotic relationship. Architects respond to natural
light and space collision exhibited by the rich content to be thinking, attention to natural light in
the space of visual forms of expression and the spirit of the great potential of creating situations,
not just considered as a means to eliminate the dark.
Bring natural light into interior design that many positive effects, including the considerable financial
savings in energy and overall effects natural light has on well-being, as well as the challenges natural light
presents.
Natural light is considered a beneficial design for many reasons: human health, comfort and satisfaction,
energy conservation, view.
3. Lack of natural light in a space, what will happen?
Some of the modern architectures do not have windows, they use artificial lighting and ventilation by air
condition, when people work in this kind of space they feel unhealthy. If there is a lack of natural light in
a space, people are not able to see out to have a view cut. They will feel cooped-up, isolated and
claustrophobic. It also makes people feel depressed and tensed.
4. Natural light promotes human health
Lack of natural light also impacts on the health of building occupants. It becomes ever more important as
light itself is nourishment. Too much artificial lighting and too little natural light affect the human health.
Human’s psychological needs may include spirit, mood, atmosphere, and perception. Light creates spirit
of space change atmosphere to control human emotion.
5. Natural light creates spirit of space which changes atmosphere to control human emotion.
Natural light was employed to arouse feelings of mysticism and to give the blessedness of a
place. Commonly identified with spiritual forces and beings due to its awing powers over life on
earth, light could manifest a divine presence for believers.
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The best example to using natural light create spirit should be a temple. Most of temple design have a
dark corridor, when people enter it, light from outside go through the roof enter the space attract your
eyes to look up, you will feel that light is holy and warm; they believe that god is watching over them. It
is the use of visual effects that has played the role of psychological change.
6. Natural light is the only light; because it has mood and it provides a common agreement for
man and it is the only light that makes architecture. Architects had started to question whether
light exists in its own right, visible in itself and not only for making other things visible.
Some people believe that spiritual and mystical light, apart from having a materialistic aspect due to its
non-physical characteristics, is considered a kind of bond between God and man in a spiritual.
7. Vitalizing light provides mystical atmosphere. It played an active role; it lent the various,
consciously selected materials every conceivable facet, modulation, and nuance of color and
there by produced the atmospheric moods of light
8. Light influence mood
The psychological factors should not be overlooked. People need to change perspective in order to relax
the eyes and mood.
9. Light create atmosphere
Light creates atmosphere. Many factors affect the building atmosphere. Natural light is one of the most
important factors. In the film, a sad, mysterious and gloomy atmosphere is difficult to use bright light
illumination. In space, it is the same. Architecture needs to use light to create a different order and rhythm
change the spatial effect gives different atmosphere.
10. Light change human perception
Light gives space luminance and energy. It is a most vivid and elements in architecture.
The church of the light shows the sense of natural element of light. Space is completely surrounded by
concrete walls. Inside is darkness, in that darkness floats a cross of light itself. Outdoor light that has been
rendered abstract by the opening in the wall impacts tension to the space and makes it sacred.
Conclusion:
Natural daylight is irreplaceable and is a major natural element in our life. More and more architectures
design to bring natural light in to interior space to change the close space becomes
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natural and exciting open space. Whether a temple is modern or ancient,t they enhance use of natural
light to make space look bigger and brightness. They also use light to controls people’s behavior and
their emotions. It can make them happier and less stressful by lightening their mood.
REFERENCES
1
Mukherji, Anuradha (2001). The holy light: a study of natural light in Hindu temples in the
southern region of Tamilnadu, India (7th century AD to 17th century AD). Master's thesis, Texas
A&M University. Available electronically from http : / /hdl .handle .net /1969 .1 /ETD -TAMU 2001 -THESIS -M83.
2. A Study of Light/Darkness in Sacred Settings: Digital SimulationsAnat Geva and
Anuradha
Mukherji,Int’l Jour.Architectural Computing,Issue 3 Vol 5,2007
Studying light/darkness and sacred architecture reveals thatthe“holy” lightdramatizesthe
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PART IV
BOOK IV
LOCAL DESIGN ELEMENTS OF
DIVINITY
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CHAPTER X
GANESH STATHPANA
Idol Worship at Home in Maharashtra during
Ganesh Chaturthi in August
With original photos on the religious process
Dr Uday Dokras/Deepa Dokras
Karan Dokras/Srishti Dokras
By Dr Uday Dokras & family
I followed with the greatest curiosity crowds who carried in procession an infinite
number of idols of the god Ganesh. Each little quarter of the town, each family with its
adherents, each little street corner I may almost say, organises a procession of its own,
and the poorest may be seen carrying on a simple plank their little idol or of papier
mâché... A crowd, more or less numerous, accompanies the idol, clapping hands and
raises cries of joy, while a little orchestra generally precedes the idol.
– Angelo de Gubernatis, Bombay Gazette (1886)
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Ganesh Festival is a 11-day festival in India, celebrated by devout Hindus throughout the
world also, in honor of Lord Ganesha, the Elephant God! The Suzerain of Sweets. To all
Hindus celebrating these holy days –
श्री वक्रतु ण्ड मह क य सू यि कोटी समप्रभ र्िर्वि घ्नं कुरु मे दे व सवि - क ये शु सवि द ॥!
As noted on britannica.com:
Ganesh Chaturthi, in Hinduism, 10-day festival marking the birth of the elephant-headed
deity Ganesha, the god of prosperity and wisdom.It begins on the fourth day (chaturthi)
of the month of Bhadrapada (August–September), the sixth month of the Hindu
calendar.At the start of the festival, idols of Ganesha are placed on raised platforms in
homes or in elaborately decorated outdoor tents. The worship begins with the
pranapratishtha, a ritual to invoke life in the idols, followed by shhodashopachara, or the
16 ways of paying tribute.
Amid the chanting of Vedic hymns from religious texts like the Ganesh Upanishad, the
idols are anointed with red sandalwood paste and yellow and red flowers. Ganesha is
also offered coconut, jaggery, and 21 modaks (sweet dumplings), considered to be
Ganesha’s favourite food.At the conclusion of the festival, the idols are carried to local
rivers in huge processions accompanied by drumbeats, devotional singing, and dancing.
There they are immersed, a ritual symbolizing Ganesha’s homeward journey to Mount
Kailas—the abode of his parents, Shiva and Parvati.
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Ganesh Chaturthi assumed the nature of a gala public celebration when the Maratha
ruler Shivaji (c. 1630–80) used it to encourage nationalist sentiment among his subjects,
who were fighting the Mughals.In 1893, when the British banned political assemblies, the
festival was revived by the Indian nationalist leader Bal Gangadhar Tilak. Today the
festival is celebrated in Hindu communities worldwide and is particularly popular in
Maharashtra and parts of western India.As for modak themselves, all I can say is I
understand why they are so popular! The sweet filling on the inside of a modak consists
of freshly grated coconut and jaggery (Indian cane sugar) while the outer soft shell is
made from rice flour.
The steamed version (called ukdiche modak) is often eaten hot with ghee. These modaks
at their most basic are made of coconut and Sugar/Jaggery. This variation is especially
prepared during the time of Ganesh Festival. They are handmade and cooked in a
steamer. They are perishable and need to be consumed immediately. For Ganesha, his
love for modak have given him the moniker ‘modakapriya’ (one who likes modak) in
Sanskrit.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------God Ganesh: Though not alluding to the classical form of Ganapati,the earliest mention
of Ganapati is found in the Rigveda. It appears twice in the Rigveda, once in hymn 2.23.1, as
well as in hymn 10.112.9. Both of these hymns imply a role of Ganapati as "the seer among the
seers, abounding beyond measure in food presiding among the elders and being the lord of
invocation", while the hymn in mandala 10 states that without Ganapati "nothing nearby or afar
is performed without thee", according to Michael. However, it is uncertain that the Vedic
term Ganapati which literally means "guardian of the multitudes", referred specifically to later
era Ganesh, nor do the Vedic texts mention Ganesh Chaturthi, appears in post-Vedic texts such
as the Grhya Sutras, Vajasaneyi Samhita, the Yajnavalkya Smriti and
Mahabharata .Ganesh appears in the medieval Puranas in the form of "god of success, obstacle
remover". The Skanda Purana, Narada Purana and the Brahma Vaivarta Purana, in particular,
profusely praise him.[24] Beyond textual interpretations, archaeological and epigraphical evidence
suggest Ganesh had become popular, was revered before the 8th century CE and numerous
images of him are traceable to the 7th century or earlier.
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Festival
This festival started by Indian freedom fighter Lokmanya Tilak, who championed it as a means
to circumvent the colonial British government ban on Hindu gatherings through its anti-public
assembly legislation in 1892.
Ganesh Chaturthi also known as Vinayaka Chaturthi (Vināyaka Chaturthī), is a Hindu
festival celebrating the arrival of Ganesh to earth from Kailash Parvat with his mother Goddess
Parvati/Gauri. The festival is marked with the installation of Ganesh clay idols privately in
homes, or publicly on elaborate pandals (temporary stages). Observations include chanting of
Vedic hymns and Hindu texts such as, prayers and brata (fasting). Offerings and prasadam from
the daily prayers, that are distributed from the pandal to the community, include sweets such
as modaka as it is believed to be a favourite of Lord Ganesh. The festival ends on the tenth day
after start, when the idol is carried in a public procession with music and group chanting, then
immersed in a nearby body of water such as a river or sea. In Mumbai alone, around 150,000
statues are immersed annually. Thereafter the clay idol dissolves and Ganesh is believed to
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Casting the idol of Ganesh to water Secens at Chowpatty,Mumbai-the Arabian Sea
return to Mount Kailash to Parvati and Shiva. The festival celebrates Lord Ganesh as the God of
New Beginnings and the Remover of Obstacles as well as the god of wisdom and intelligenc and
is observed throughout India, especially in the states such
as Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra
Pradesh, Kerala, Telangana, Odisha, West Bengal, Gujarat and Chhattisgarh, At public venues,
along with the reading of texts and group feasting, athletic and martial arts competitions are also
held.
Idol worship; According to Hinduism, An idol is a representation of the God above. It’s a
physical image that helps you visualize the divine and hence concentrate. Worshipping the idol
helps the devotee move on to the next step and that’s mental prayers. All together this process
helps a person concentrate and hence strengthen his mind.
Parikrama
The priest tells you to take three rounds of the idol after your mental prayers. This act is known
as parikrama. An idol that’s charged with positive energy radiates its energy to anything in its
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vicinity. Therefore your three rounds rejuvenate our mind body and soul as it charges you up
with positive energies.
Temple bells
A temple bell is not made of some ordinary metal; it’s an amalgamation of cadmium, zinc, lead,
copper, nickel, chromium and manganese. The ratio in which they are combined leads it to
produce a distinct sound for about seven seconds this unites the left and ride side of your brain
such that the echo of the sound touches your bodies seven healing chakras. It sends your brain in
a stage of the trace for microseconds and it becomes extremely receptive and aware.
In Hinduism blowing the Conch is associated with the sacred syllable and sound ‘Om’. This, in
turn, is believed to be the sound that which brings in a new hope. With the positive energy
already radiating in the temples, the sound has a more powerful impact.
The purpose of visiting a temple isn’t to offer valuables to the deity; it’s to take all the positive
energy that gets transferred from the Earths surface to the human body through various mediums.
This rejuvenates your senses and hence compels you to spend some tine after offering prayers to
make your visit rewarding.
The idols represent various deities being worshiped and considered personification of the same.
They help people to concentrate upon and assist in prayers and other religious activities.
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Whether people may agree or not, idolatry exists in every religion. For Christians it is Cross with
or without Jesus, portrait of Mother Mary, etc; and for Muslims the Holy Mecca and the central
enclosure containing the Holy Stone.
Hinduism believe in Polytheism where they prey to every element that enable the existence of
this Universe. There are 33 Principal Deities (not 33 crore as commonly believed), each
representing one such element including fire, water
Similarly, idol will make it easy for us to concentrate. Hinduism is not at all strict in its
teachings. Nowhere it is told that you need an idol. It is left to the devotee…He can do it in
whatever way he likes. Not all but quite a good percentage of Hindus offer obeisance to idols. It
is not believing in idols per se, it is believing in the concept of the Isht (personal god) that
manifests through the idols. Also except the priestly class, this offering of obeisance is for a
limited time duration (say morning or evening) or when someone visits a temple.
Without going to the complicate details let us understand this: the latent aim of someone
believing in the Sanatan Dharma is to move from the mundane to the highest purpose of life
across lifetimes. In “50 Great Myths about Religions” by John Morreal and Tamara Sonn. The
authors have done an excellent job in busting various myths about religions and have put all
religions in a positive light. Here is what the book says about idol worship in Hinduism and I
totally agree.
All these rituals for puja are a means to achieve purity of mind and focusing on the divine, which
Hindus believe, can be a fitting stepping stone to knowing the Supreme Being or Brahman.
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Why You Need an Image or Idol for a Puja
For the puja, it is important for a devotee to set an idol or icon or a picture or even symbolic holy
object, such as the shivalingam, salagrama, or yantra before them to help them contemplate and
revere god through the image. For most, it is difficult to concentrate and the mind keeps
wavering, so the image can be considered as an actualized form of the ideal and this makes it
easy to focus. According to the concept of ‘Archavatara,’ if the puja is performed with utmost
devotion, during puja god descends and it is the image that houses Almighty.
On the other hand we could also identify how various contradictory symbols suggest similar
meanings: the Hiranandani Complex (Mumbai) malls with Greek columns and pediments and
the high-tech glass and steel shopping centre of Gurgaon near Delhi, both suggest the existence
and growth of the same consumer middle class. The new Jain temples in Mumbai that employ
traditional materials and processes, the Bahai Temple in Delhi designed as a high-tech shell
structure and the Radha Parthasarathi Temple in New Delhi, experimenting with reinforced
concrete, all suggest a kind of religious fundamentalism that supports cutting edge and expensive
building processes. Similarly, the legislative assembly of Bangalore with its traditional and
classical symbols, the assembly of Mumbai with an imposing modern form and the assembly of
Bhopal that borrows symbols from ancient history, all represent the same seat of power, that of
the state authority.
To complicate things further, it is extremely difficult to find any relations between formal
abstractions and identity. For example a monumental scale does not necessarily indicate and
impose power. The Red Fort (Delhi) in all its might today is one of the most accessible places;
the pristine arcades of the Fort area in Mumbai today harbour a large informal industry. These
places no longer represent an Empire. They no longer exert power (like Bataille’s monuments)
or are symbols of colonization – their symbolism has been inverted, converted and internalized.
From these examples we could possibly conclude that the relationship between a symbol and
identity is a construction of the architectural theorist and hence it is misleading to discuss the
issue of identity solely through the discourse of the symbol.
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The Idea of the Local in architecture
Our literature review shows that the term ‘Local’ is the second most important idea through
which the issue of identity is discussed. Here all concerns seem to hinge around and oscillate
between the need to assert the local and a desire to embrace the extra-local (international, global,
western etc.). “The search for roots” and “looking ahead in time” are the two respective positions
that get articulated through this concern. Often buildings are conveniently bracketed into themes
like “nationalist”, “regionalist” etc. to very clearly distinguish from the other “internationalist” or
“global” ones. Beyond both these positions, is another position that aims at “looking at real
problems, rather then self-consciously trying to find identity as an end in itself” . This position
attempts to locate the local in specific issues such as climate, behaviour etc. rather than leaning
on oversimplifications of history and progress. In discussions that focus on the binary
understanding of nationalist/internationalist or regional/global, this new category viz. “Critical
regionalism” seeks “contextual inspiration” while simultaneously celebrating the “progressive
modern”.
The treatment of light ensures that by the time the pilgrim reaches the innermost chamber
(garbhagriha) his/her eyes slowly become accustomed to the darkness and his/her state of mind
befitting worship and is no longer plagued by worldly thoughts. During this procession, one
passes through many doorways, colonnaded halls and corridors, which are decorated with sacred
carvings.These sacred symbols have a profound impact on the mind of the devotee; they simulate
the mystery that envelops the universe and the divine spirit that illumines the universe .
Reaching the holy sanctum, the worshipper enters a place for individual selfrealization and
personal relation with the divine.Thus, along the two previously mentioned premises the design
of the Hindu Temple accommodated the faith, creating a procession toward the “holy darkness”
that enhanced the spiritual experience.
1&2
Oil Lamps too: There is a deeper significance to the diya. The oil in the diya symbolises the dirt
in the human mind — such as greed, jealousy, hatred, lust etc — which human beings tend to
nurture. The cotton in the diya is symbolic of the atma or the self or the soul. The diya presents
light when the oil is burnt by the wick. Hence, lighting of the diyas signifies that one needs to get
rid of the selfish and materialistic thoughts. This frees one from all forms of sadness, guiding the
path to enlightenment and to connect with the Supreme Being
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In India, Ganesh Chaturthi is primarily celebrated at home and in public by local
community groups in the central and western states of Maharashtra, Madhya
Pradesh, Gujarat and Goa and the southern states of Karnataka, Andhra
Pradesh, Telangana, Tamil Nadu, Kerala and eastern states of West Bengal, Bihar and Odisha.
At home
Idol worship; According to Hinduism, An idol is a representation of the God above. It’s a
physical image that helps you visualize the divine and hence concentrate. Worshipping the idol
helps the devotee move on to the next step and that’s mental prayers. All together this process
helps a person concentrate and hence strengthen his mind.
Parikrama
The priest tells you to take three rounds of the idol after your mental prayers. This act is known
as parikrama. An idol that’s charged with positive energy radiates its energy to anything in its
vicinity. Therefore your three rounds rejuvenate our mind body and soul as it charges you up
with positive energies.
A domestic celebration of Ganesh during Ganesh Chaturthi in a Maharashtrian home
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In Maharashtra, Ganesh Chaturthi is known as Ganeshotsav. Families install small clay statues
for worship during the festival. The Murti is worshiped in the morning and evening with
offerings of flowers, durva(strands of young grass), karanji and modaks (jaggery and coconut
flakes wrapped in rice flour dumplings). The worship ends with the singing of an aarti in honour
of Ganesh, other Gods and Saints. In Maharashtra the Marathi aarti "Sukhakarta Dukhaharta",
composed by the 17th century saint, Samarth Ramdas is sung. Family traditions differ about
when to end the celebration. Domestic celebrations end after 1 1⁄2, 3, 5, 7 or 11 days. At that time
the Murti is ceremoniously brought to a body of water (such as a lake, river or the sea) for
immersion. In Maharashtra, Ganeshotsav also incorporates other festivals, namely Hartalika and
the Gauri festival, the former is observed with a fast by women on the day before Ganesh
Chaturthi whilst the latter by the installation of statues of Gauris. In some communities such as
the Chitpavan, and the CKP, pebbles collected from river bank are installed as representations of
Gauri.
In Goa, Ganesh Chaturthi is known as Chavath in Konkani and Parab or Parva ("auspicious
celebration"); it begins on the third day of the lunar month of Bhadrapada. On this
day Parvati and Shiva are worshiped by women, who fast . Instruments such as ghumots, Crash
cymbals ) and pakhavaj (two-headed drum) are played during the rituals. The harvest festival,
Navyachi Pancham, is celebrated the next day; freshly harvested paddy is brought home from the
fields (or temples) and a puja is conducted. Communities who ordinarily eat seafood refrain from
doing so during the festival.
In Karnataka the Gowri festival precedes Ganesh Chaturthi, and people across the state wish
each other well. In Andhra Pradesh, Ganesh Murti'so of clay (Matti Vinayakudu) and turmeric
(Siddhi Vinayakudu) are usually worshiped at home with plaster of Paris Murti's.
Ganesh Visarjan in Mumbai’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’Ganpati idol in Pune
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Public celebrations of the festival are popular, and are organised by local youth groups,
neighbourhood associations or groups of tradespeople. Funds for the public festival are collected
from members of the association arranging the celebration, local residents and businesses. The
Ganesh idols and accompanying statues are installed in temporary shelters, known as mandaps or
pandals. The festival features cultural activities such as singing, theatre and orchestral
performances and community activities such as free medical checkups, blood-donation sites and
donations to the poor. Ganesh Chaturthi, in addition to its religious aspects, is an important
economic activity in Mumbai, Surat, Pune, Hyderabad, Bangalore, Chennai and Kurnool. Many
artists, industries, and businesses earn a significant amount of their living from the festival,
which is a stage for budding artists. Members of other religions also participate in the
celebration.
In Tamil Nadu, the festival, also known as Vinayaka Chaturthi or Pillayar Chaturthi, falls on the
fourth day after the new moon in the month of Āvaṇi in the Tamil calendar. The idols are usually
made of clay or papier-mâché, since Plaster of Paris idols have been banned by the state
government, but violations of this rule are often reported idols are also made of coconuts and
other organic products. They are worshiped for several days in pandals, and immersed in the Bay
of Bengal the following Sunday. In Thiruvananthapuram a procession marches from the
Pazhavangadi Ganapathi Temple to Shankumugham Beach, with tall statues of Ganesha made
from organic items and milk immersed in the sea.
Ganesh Chaturthi festival in Antwerp, Belgium Ganesh Chaturthi celebration by the Sri
Lankan Tamil community in France
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Ganesh Chaturthi is celebrated in the UK by the British Hindu population living there. The
Hindu Culture and Heritage Society, a Southall-based organisation, celebrated Ganesh Chaturthi
for the first time in London in 2005 at the Vishwa Hindu Temple; and the idol was immersed in
the River Thames at Putney Pier Another celebration, organised by a Gujarati group, has been
celebrated in Southend-on-Sea, and attracted an estimated 18,000 devotees. Annual celebrations
are also held on the River Mersey in Liverpool.
The Philadelphia Ganesh Festival is one of the most popular celebrations of Ganesh Chaturthi in
North America, and it is also celebrated in Canada (particularly in the Toronto area), Mauritius,
Malaysia and Singapore. The Mauritius festival dates back to 1896,[72] and the Mauritian
government has made it a public holiday.[73] In Malaysia and Singapore, the festival is more
commonly known as Vinayagar Chaturthi because of the large Tamil-speaking Hindu minority.
In Metropolitan France, Ganesh Chaturthee remains the main Hindu religious festival. The first
Hindu Temple dedicated to Ganesh on Continental France opened in 1985 and the first
procession took place in 1995. Since then, every year, the La Chapelle Quarters of Paris are the
sight of a major procession with thousands of pilgrims and visitors. The organisation is mainly
conducted by the Tamil speaking Sri Lanka community and the pilgrims are mostly Tamil
Hindus from Sri Lanka and, to a greater extent, Marathi-speaking Hindus from Mauritius.
Modaka are sweet dumplings, the traditional offerings and prasada in Ganesh Chaturthi.
Left: steamed with fillings, Right: Fried
The primary sweet dish during the festival is Modak (modak in Marathi and
Konkani, modakam or kudumu . Panchakajjaya is an offering made to Lord Ganesh during this
festival in parts of Karnataka. It is a mixture of desiccated coconut, roasted Bengal gram powder,
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sugar, ghee, and sesame. Different versions of panchakajjaya are made. Roasted Bengal gram,
green gram, roasted chana dal (putani) or aval can be used.
Environmental Issues: The Madras High Court ruled in 2004 that immersion of Ganesh idols is
unlawful because it incorporates chemicals that pollute the sea water. In Goa the sale of plasterof-Paris Ganesha idols has been banned by the state government and celebrants are encouraged
to buy traditional, artisan-made clay idols. Recent initiatives to produce traditional clay Ganesh
idols in Hyderabad have been sponsored by the Andhra Pradesh Pollution Control Board.
Due to environmental concerns, a number of families now avoid bodies of water and let the clay
statue disintegrate in a barrel of water at home. After a few days, the clay is spread in the garden.
In some cities a public, eco-friendly process is used for the immersion.
Puja is worship. The Sanskrit term puja is used in Hinduism to refer to the worship of a deity
through observance of rituals including daily prayer offerings after a bath or as varied as the
following:
Sandhyopasana: The meditation on God as the light of knowledge and wisdom at dawn
and dusk
Aarti: Ritual of worship in which light or lamps are offered to the deities amid
devotional songs and prayer chants.
Homa: The offering of oblations to the deity in a duly consecrated fire
Jagarana: Keeping vigil at night amidst much devotional singing as a part of spiritual
discipline.
Upavasa: Ceremonial fasting.
The Steps of Puja in the Vedic Tradition
13. Dipajvalana: Lighting the lamp and praying to it as the symbol of the deity and requesting it
to burn steadily till the puja is over.
14. Guruvandana: Obeisance to one’s own guru or spiritual teacher.
15. Ganesha Vandana: Prayer to Lord Ganesha or Ganapati for the removal of obstacles to the
puja.
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16. Ghantanada: Ringing the bell with appropriate mantras to drive away the evil forces and
welcome the gods. Ringing the bell is also necessary during ceremonial bath of the deity and
offering incense etc.
17. Vedic Recitation: Reciting two Vedic mantras from Rig Veda 10.63.3 and 4.50.6 to steady
the mind.
18. Mantapadhyana: Meditation on the miniature shrine structure, generally made of wood.
19. Asanamantra: Mantra for purification and steadiness of the seat of the deity.
20. Pranayama & Sankalpa: A short breathing exercise to purify your breath, settle and focus
your mind.
21. Purification of Puja Water: Ceremonial purification of the water in the kalasa or water
vessel, to make it fit for use in puja.
22. Purification of Puja Items: Filling up the sankha, conch, with that water and inviting its
presiding deities such as Surya, Varuna, and Chandra, to reside in it in a subtle form and then
sprinkling that water over all the articles of puja to consecrate them.
23. Sanctifying the Body: Nyasa with the Purusasukta (Rigveda 10.7.90) to invoke the presence
of the deity into the image or idol and offering the upacharas.
24. Offering the Upacharas: There are a number of items to be offered and tasks to be
performed before the Lord as an outpouring of love and devotion for god. These include a
seat for the deity, water, flower, honey, cloth, incense, fruits, betel leaf, camphor, etc.
Simple Steps of a Traditional Hindu Worship:
In the Panchayatana Puja, i.e., puja to the five deities – Shiva, Devi, Vishnu, Ganesha, and
Surya, one’s own family deity should be kept in the center and the other four around it in the
prescribed order.
7. Bathing: Pouring water for bathing the idol, is to be done with gosrnga or the horn of a
cow, for the Shiva lingam; and with sankha or conch, for Vishnu or salagrama shila.
8. Clothing & Flower Decoration: While offering cloth in puja, different types of cloth are
offered to different deities as is stated in scriptural injunctions. In the daily puja, flowers
can be offered instead of cloth.
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9. Incense & Lamp: Dhupa or incense is offered to the feet and deepa or light is held
before the face of the deity. During arati, the deepa is waved in small arcs before the
deity’s face and then before the whole image.
10. Circumbulation: Pradakshina is done three times, slowly in the clockwise direction,
with hands in namaskara posture.
11. Prostration: Then is the shastangapranama or prostration. The devotee lies down
straight with his face facing the floor and hands stretched in namaskara above his head in
the direction of the deity.
12. Distribution of Prasada: Last step is the Tirtha and Prasada, partaking of the
consecrated water and food offering of the puja by all who have been a part of the puja or
witnessed it.
The Hindu scriptures consider these rituals as the kindergarten of faith. When understood
properly and performed meticulously, they lead to inner purity and concentration. When this
concentration deepens, these external rituals drop off by themselves and the devotee can perform
internal worship or manasapuja. Until then these rituals help a devotee on his path of worship.
Let us take the instance of the Taj Mahal (Agra). While the Taj Mahal represents love and
romance and the aesthetic taste of the culture, it also represents the desperate exploitation of
labour, the appropriation of resources and the inequity prevalent in that culture. Architecture here
simultaneously describes love and tyranny. We could perhaps think of a number of cases of such
contradictory representations: the Babri Masjid of Ayodhya could be read as an account of
Indian Heritage or a symbol of Hindu hatred, the Capital Complex in Chandigarh, as a sign of
democratic modernism or an indication of western hegemony. Similarly the National Crafts
Museum of New Delhi could be seen as a representation or assertion of Indian identity or the
detachment or objectification of the Indian Folk Arts through the formal museum format;
a chawl in Mumbai could represent a productive energy centre of the city or the abusive living
condition of the labour (not housing but warehousing people), a slum as a celebration of
entrepreneurship or urban decay. All these examples seem to suggest that each symbol can
simultaneously denote not only different but contradicting meanings.
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PUJA NECESSITIES ( Actual Pics from thr residence of the authors)
Dish to hold fruits which are offering to God
Significance of Coconut: Spread the love
In Hinduism, offering coconut to Hindu God and Goddess is a most common practice that you
have seen in India. Needless to say, coconut holds a lot of importance whether there is any
wedding, festival, occasion, ceremony or puja. It is a must-have item on the list along with
sweets, incense sticks, flowers, and cloth for deities. People also break coconut whether they are
going to start any venture, before construction of the house or buying any vehicle etc.
Also known as Sriphala in Sanskrit, holy Coconut is referred as God's fruit. In Hindu religion, it
is the only food that is used to symbolize God. Coconut is a satvik fruit as is sacred, healthgiving, pure, clean, and bestowed with several properties. ... That is why coconut is termed as
auspicious in puja rituals.
Mango-tree leaves are placed on the water pot (kalask) before rituals to complete
a Hindu ceremony called Purnakumba. The leaves symbolise the limbs of the god, along with a
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single coconut that represents the head. Mango leaves are also said to signify goddess Lakshmi,
and known to keep out negative energy.
Diya: Clay Diyas are often used temporarily as lighting for special occasions, while diyas made
of brass are permanent fixtures in homes and temples. Especially in Puja or Diwali, diyas or
candles are representing of enlightenment, knowledge or wisdom.
The Purna-Kalasha is considered a symbol of abundance and "source of life" in the Vedas. ... It
is referred to as "overflowing full vase" (purno-asya Kalasha) in the Vedas. The Kalasha is
believed to contain amrita, the elixir of life, and thus is viewed as a symbol of abundance,
wisdom, and immortality.
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Fixing t
he electric and floral deco.
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Vermilion dot on all items
The Ganesh Idol is kept iunder cover of a cloth and them\n unveiled during the atonement or staphana
only
In Hindu rituals, the durva grass plays an important role. Rings made of the grass are often
worn before starting either the ritual of homa — offerings to fire — and puja. The grass is
believed to have a purifying effect on participants. Grass is also used as an offering in Ganesha
temples. Sacred Grass. Pic above bottom row on right
In Hinduism, bells are generally hung at the temple dome in front of the Garbhagriha. ... It is
said that by ringing the bell, the devotee informs the deity of his/her arrival. The sound of
the bell is considered auspicious which welcomes divinity and dispels evil.
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MOUSE: While Lord Ganesha's vahana is a mouse which symbolises crushing useless
thoughts. ... The mention of the mouse as Ganesha's mount appears first in the Matsya Purana
and later in the Brahmananda Purana and Ganesha Purana. According to Ganesha Purana, there
was a celestial musician-god named Krauncha. Pic bottom row extreme left. Various containers
hold vermillion and other sacred powers that are adorned on the forehead as a sign of a holy
symbol and a connect to the infinity of multi verse( Multiple Universes created by the Gods of
Hinduism- Read my paper on Multiverse in academia.edu or researchgate.
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REFERENCES
1
Mukherji, Anuradha (2001). The holy light: a study of natural light in Hindu temples in the
southern region of Tamilnadu, India (7th century AD to 17th century AD). Master's thesis, Texas
A&M University. Available electronically from http : / /hdl .handle .net /1969 .1 /ETD -TAMU 2001 -THESIS -M83.
2. A Study of Light/Darkness in Sacred Settings: Digital SimulationsAnat Geva and Anuradha
Mukherji,Int’l Jour.Architectural Computing,Issue 3 Vol 5,2007
Studying light/darkness and sacred architecture reveals that the“holy” light dramatizes the
FINALLY READY FOR 11 DAY VISIT
Our Ganesh Idol
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CHAPTER XI
Laxmi-Pujan the Ubiquitous
Maharashtrian festival
Dr Uday Dokras/Deepa Dokras
Karan Dokras/Srishti Dokras
Raja Ravi Varma's Gaja Lakshmi
Gauri Puja
The Gauri Pujan takes place during the Ganeshotsav festival in Maharashtra. Many devotees,
who bring home an idol of Bappa, also perform the Gauri Puja by installing two identical statues
of the Goddess. However, only families that have been traditionally doing this puja do it and not
all those devotees, who worship Ganesha. This Puja takes place after the Gauri avahana on the
previous day and concludes with the Visarjan on the next day.
This year, the Jyeshtha Gauri Puja Muhurat begins at 6:01 AM and ends at 6:37 PM.
Before we go to the Mahalxmi Puja of Maharashtrians let us study the divine thought behind it.
In Hinduism, Lakshmi is the Goddess who leads to one's goal, or lakshya (hence her name),
and was first mentioned in the Śrī Sūkta of the Rigveda. She is both the wife and divine energy
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(shakti) of Vishnu, one of the principal deities of Hinduism and the Supreme Being in
the Vaishnava tradition. She is often depicted with Saraswati and Parvati as forming the holy
trinity (Tridevi). For mankind, 8 types of goals (lakshmi) are necessary according to Hinduism:
spiritual enlightenment, food, knowledge, resources, progeny, abundance, patience, and success.
Hence there are Ashta Lakshmis ('Eight Lakshmis'): Aadi ('primeval'), Dhaanya ('grain'), Vidya
('knowledge'), Dhana ('money'), Santaana ('progeny'), Gaja ('elephant'), Dhairya ('courage'), and
Vijaya ('victorious') Lakshmi. Archaeological discoveries and ancient coins suggest the
recognition and reverence for Lakshmi existing by the 1st millennium BCE. Lakshmi's
iconography and statues have also been found in Hindu temples throughout Southeast Asia,
estimated to be from the second half of the 1st millennium CE. The festivals
of Diwali and Sharad Purnima (Kojagiri Purnima) are celebrated in her honor.
Lakshmi in Sanskrit is derived from the root word lakṣ and lakṣa ,
meaning 'to perceive,
observe, know, understand' and 'goal, aim, objective', respectively. These roots give Lakshmi the
symbolism: know and understand your goal. A related term is lakṣaṇa, which means 'sign, target,
aim, symbol, attribute, quality, lucky mark, auspicious opportunity'.
Lakshmi
Goddess of Good Fortune, Wealth, Fertility, Prosperity and Jo. Member of Tridevi
Other names
Sri, Nārāyini, Bhudevi, Nila Devi, Vaishnavi, Kamala, Hemamayi, Padmaja, Padmavathi, Ramā,
Vedavati, Tulsi, Vishnupatni, Vārāhi, Krushnayi, Dharitri, Vaikuntha Vasini
Devanagari-लक्ष्मी
Affiliation-Devi, Tridevi, Ashta Lakshmi
Abode-Vaikuntha or Vishnuloka
Mantra-।।ॐ श्रीं र्श्रयें िमः ।।
Symbols-Padma, gold, coins, elephants, etc.
Mount-White owl and Elephant
Festivals-Diwali (Lakshmi Puja), Sharad Purnima, Varalakshmi Vratam
Personal information
Siblings-Alakshmi
Consort-Vishnu
Children-Kamadeva (according to some texts) Narakasura and 18 others (as Bhūmi)
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Lakshmi Pooja , is a Hindu religious festival that falls on Amavasya (new moon day) of
Krishna Paksha (Dark fortnight) in the Vikram Samvat Hindu calendar month of Ashwin, on the
third day of Deepawali and is considered as the main festive day of Deepawali.
According to legend, Lakshmi, the goddess of wealth and lord Vishnu's wife, visits her
devotees and bestows gifts and blessings upon each of them. To welcome the Goddess, devotees
clean their houses, decorate them with finery and lights, and prepare sweet treats and delicacies
as offerings. Devotees believe the happier Lakshmi is with the visit, the more she blesses the
family with health and wealth. In Bengal Lokkhi Pujo or Laxmi puja is performed on Sharada
Purnima day ,the full moon day following Vijaya Dashami. This puja is also known as Kojagori
Lokkhi pujo. Women worship Maa Laxmi in the evening after cleaning their house and
decorating the floor of their houses with alpona. Diwali Puja Vidhi: Step-by-step guide to
perfectly perform Lakshmi puja at home
However the Goddess is worshipped in August month amid ten-day Ganesh festival, three
days of Mahalaxmi puja are the most looked forward to, at least in this part of the state. What
adds grace to this ritual are the sentiments behind it. Though the scriptures have no mention of
Mahalaxmi puja, these nakshatra-based celebrations are held with utmost care and piety.
Anuradha nakshatra in the month of Bhadrapad marks the arrival of the goddess Laxmi, the puja
and mahanaivaidya are held during the Jyeshtha nakshatra and visarjan in the Mul nakshatra on
three consecutive days.The festival has a bigger social dimension than a religious one and thus it
is not restricted to any particular caste.
The scale of celebrations in Vidarbha is much larger than in Konkan or western parts of
Maharashtra where it is celebrated as Khadya cha Mahalaxmi. This itself marks the difference in
grandeur as in Konkan the practice is to collect stones from the river bed and bring them into the
house where they are kept at the altar and worshipped for three days. The prasad too is a simple
ghawan ghatala, a preparation made from rice flour, sugar and coconut.But in Vidarbha the
celebrations boast of lineage, tradition and scale.
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Households here welcome goddess Kanishta and Jyeshtha Gauri along with their children as one
would welcome a daughter on a visit to her maiden home. "Religious celebrations are done with
care but if you add this dimension of treating the goddess like your daughter then the levels of
excitement rise," says Gauri Chandrayan, a state government employee in whose home four
generations ofwomen, 80 years to two years of age, collectively prepare for the festivities.
"There are no restrictions of caste in these celebrations. In fact, we worship and feed a Brahmin
woman and one of other caste during these festivities," says Gauri.If festivals are all about
feasting then this one is quintessential. The elaborate meal served to nearly 100 people and the
fulora or snacks items prepared specially as an offering to the goddess are all done with care and
effort. "Distribution of prasad has always been the social angle of a religious ritual. Family
andfriendsbeing fed after a puja and women coming for haldi kumkum are social gatherings,"
saysNutanChandrayan, a young housewife who is part of the large scale celebrations that take
place at her in-laws place.
The ever-increasing scale is also getting irksome for many.Sunanda Deosarkar, a homemaker
whose family observes an elaborate Mahalaxmi puja, says the focus has now shifted to social
rather than religious. "We now see rank outsiders coming in and asking us if they could have
darshan," she says with bewilderment. Mahalaxmi puja is usually restricted to family members
when all members of the clan come together to prepare and partake the prasad. "But now the
trend is to invite friends and neighbours too. That's the reason why caterers and pandits are
engaged to prepare food and fulora," she adds.Having the last word on the changing times,
woman priest Jayshree Khandekar says, "Mahalaxmi prasad is actually ambil made of jowari.
This is so that the poorest of poor can also welcome the goddess. The festivities also involve
only members of the clan. Today everybody wants to flaunt their prosperity. So the number of
invitees and the scale of feast have grown."
In India
Lakshmi is believed to roam the earth on the night of Lakshmi[2] Pooja. On the evening of
Lakshmi Pooja, people open their doors and windows to welcome Lakshmi, and place diya lights
on their windowsills and balcony ledges to invite her in.
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People wear new clothes or their best outfits as the evening approaches. Then diyas are lit, pujas
are offered to Lakshmi, and to one or more additional deities depending on the region of India;
typically Ganesha, Saraswati, and Kubera. Lakshmi symbolises wealth and prosperity, and her
blessings are invoked for a good year ahead.
On this day, the mothers, who work hard all year, are recognized by the family. Mothers are seen
to embody a part of Lakshmi, the good fortune and prosperity of the household.[4] Small
earthenware lamps filled with oil are lighted and placed in rows by some Hindus along the
parapets of temples and houses. Some set diyas adrift on rivers and streams. Important
relationships and friendships are also recognized during the day, by visiting relatives and friends,
exchanging gifts and sweets.
It is popularly believed that Lakshmi likes cleanliness and will visit the cleanest house first.
Hence, the broom is worshiped with offerings of haldi (turmeric) and sindoor (vermilion) on this
day. Lakshmi Puja consists of a combined puja of five deities: Ganesha is worshiped at the
beginning of every auspicious act as Vighneshvara; goddess Lakshmi is worshiped in her three
forms; Mahalakshmi the goddess of wealth and money, Mahasaraswati the goddess of books and
learning, and Mahakali. Kubera the treasurer of the gods is also worshiped.
The most auspicious time for the puja is decided when “amavasya tithi” prevails during “pradosh
kaal” or the evening time. On this day, the sun enters its second course and passes the
constellation Libra, which is represented by the balance or scale. Hence, the sign of Libra is
believed to suggest the balancing and closing of account books.
After the puja, people go outside and celebrate by lighting up fireworks. The children
enjoy sparklers and variety of small fireworks, while adults enjoy playing with ground chakra,
Vishnu chakra, flowerpots (anaar), sutli bomb, chocolate bomb, rockets and bigger fireworks.
The fireworks signify celebration of Diwali as well a way to chase away evil spirits. After
fireworks, people head back to a family feast, conversations and mithai (sweets, desserts). People
also perform vaibhava Lakshmi vrat for only one day it is believed that doing vrat on Diwali
gives the blessings of vrat doing it for 21 times. Vaibhavalakshmi Vrat (Pious Observance &
Worship of Laxmi) is also celebrated in many parts of India in the month of Margashirsha (ninth
month of Hindu Calendar) every Friday. Vaibhav means “Prosperity and Wealth” and hence
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Goddess Vaibhavalakshmi is believed to protect the devotees from misfortunes and grant them
grace, happiness, wealth and prosperity.
Vaibhavalakshmi Poojan (Worship) is held at Juinagar, Maharashtra, India by Sadguru Shree
Aniruddha Upasana Trust (Mumbai, India) every year with great enthusiasm. Thousands of
devotees participate in this poojan and carry out the rituals with discipline and in harmony.
Puja Procedure
Before beginning the puja, Hindus consider it important to cleanse and purify the space where
the Puja is being carried out. For this, “Guggal” or Loban (Benzoin) is lighted using either coal
or dried pan cakes made of cowdung. Its incense armotic fumes are considered to purify the
atmosphere. However instead, Readmade Dhoop Cones brought from market are also used.
Once the place is smoked and cleansed, the puja begins by laying down a piece of new cloth on a
raised platform. Handfuls of grains are sprayed in the center of the cloth and a kalasha made of
gold, silver, or copper is placed on top. Three-quarters of the kalasha is filled with water and
betel nut, a flower, a coin, and a few rice grains are added to it. Five kinds of leaves are arranged
(if a specified species is not available, leaves from a mango tree are used) and a small dish filled
with rice grains is placed on the kalasha. A lotus is drawn over the rice grains with turmeric
powder and the idol of Goddess Lakshmi is placed over the top of the kalasha, and coins are
placed around it.
The idol of Lord Ganesha is placed in front of the kalasha, on the right hand side pointing
towards the south-west. Ink and business account books of the worshippers are kept on the
platform. Specially blended oils made for puja are used with its ingredients varying, depending
on the deity it's being offered to. A “Panchmukhi Diya” (Five faced lamp) accommodating 5
wicks are lit for this purpose. A special lamp is then lit in front of Lord Ganesha.
The puja begins by offering turmeric, kumkuma and flowers to the Goddess Lakshmi. Then
haldi, kumkum, and flowers are offered to the water, later used for the puja. The river
goddess Saraswati is invoked to become part of that water. Goddess Lakshmi is worshiped and
invoked by reciting Vedic mantras, hymns and prayers addressed to her. Her idol is placed in a
plate and is bathed with panchamrita (a mixture of milk, curd, ghee or clarified butter, honey,
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and sugar) and then with water containing a gold ornament or a pearl. Her idol is cleaned and
placed back on the kalasha. A special lamp is then lit in front of Goddess Lakshmi.
Offerings of sandal paste, saffron paste, garland of cotton beads or flowers, ittar (perfume),
turmeric, kumkum, abir, and gulal are then made to the Goddess Lakshmi. Flowers and garlands,
such as Lotus, Marigold, Rose, Chrysanthemum and leaves of Bael (wood apple tree) are also
offered. An incense stick is lit and dhoop is given to her. An offering of sweets, coconut, fruits,
and tambul is made later. Puffed rice and batasha (varieties of Indian sweets) are placed near the
idol. Puffed rice, batasha, coriander seeds, and cumin seeds are poured or offered to her idol.
In villages, a pot made of bamboo-canes measuring the paddy known as Nana' is filled up to the
brink with freshly harvest paddy. Rice and lentils are also kept with the paddy. The `Mana' is the
symbol of Mahalakshmi. Adoration of the Goddess is done by offering fruits, coconut, banana,
doob-grass, amla, curd, turmeric, flowers, incense etc. It is customary to read out the holy book,
the Eulogy, “Lakshmi Puran” while performing the pooja.
A Swastika symbol is also then drawn on the safe or vault in which the devotee keeps their
valuables and it is worshiped as a symbol of Lord Kubera.
Towards the end of the ritual, Aarti is performed which is dedicated to Goddess Lakshmi. The
Aarti is accompanied by a small bell and is performed in a silent and sublime atmosphere. In
Hindu religion, Lakshmi emerged from the churning of the primordial ocean (Samudra
manthan), choosing Vishnu as her eternal consort.[4] As mentioned in Vishnu Purana, when
Vishnu descended on the Earth as the avatars Rama and Krishna, Lakshmi descended
as Sita, Rukmini, and Satyabama. Lakshmi is also known by the honorific Shri, as she is
endowed with six auspicious qualities (guṇas). She represents the material world of the earthly
realm as the mother goddess, referred to as Prithvi Mata; she is also known by her twin identities
as Bhudevi and Sridevi, and in another form, as Nila Devi.
In Bengali Hindu culture, Lakshmi is considered as the daughter of Durga. She is also an
important deity in Jainism and found in Jain temples. Additionally, in Buddhism, she has been
viewed as a Goddess of abundance and fortune, and is represented on the oldest
surviving stupas and cave temples of Buddhism. In Buddhist sects of Tibet, Nepal, and Southeast
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Asia, Lakshmi Goddess Vasudhara mirrors the characteristics and attributes of the Hindu
Goddess, with minor iconographic differences. Lakshmi is depicted in Indian art as an elegantly
dressed, prosperity-showering golden-coloured woman with an owl as her vehicle, signifying the
importance of economic activity in maintenance of life, her ability to move, work and prevail in
confusing darkness. She typically stands or sits like a yogin on a lotus pedestal, while holding a
lotus in her hand, symbolizing fortune, self-knowledge, and spiritual liberation. Her iconography
shows her with four hands, which represent the four aspects of human life important to Hindu
culture: dharma, kāma, artha, and moksha.
In Hindu text
A painting of Lakshmi on the inner walls of the Tanjore Big temple.
Lakshmi (Lakṣmī) is one of many Hindu deities whose meaning and significance evolved in
ancient Sanskrit texts.[25] Lakshmi is mentioned once in Rigveda, in which the name is used to
mean 'kindred mark, sign of auspicious fortune'.
भद्रै ष ं लक्ष्मीर्ििर्हत र्ि
व र्ि
"an auspicious fortune is attached to their words"
bhadraiṣāṁ lakṣmīrnihitādhi vāci
—Rig Veda, x.71.2
In Atharva Veda, transcribed about 1000 BCE, Lakshmi evolves into a complex concept with
plural manifestations. Book 7, Chapter 115 of Atharva Veda describes the plurality, asserting
that a hundred Lakshmis are born with the body of a mortal at birth, some
good, punya ('virtuous') and auspicious, while others bad, paapi ('evil') and unfortunate. The
good are welcomed, while the bad urged to leave. The concept and spirit of Lakshmi and her
association with fortune and the good is significant enough that Atharva Veda mentions it in
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multiple books: for example, in Book 12, Chapter 5 as punya Lakshmi. In some chapters of
Atharva Veda, Lakshmi connotes the good, an auspicious sign, good luck, good fortune,
prosperity, success and happiness.
Later, Lakshmi is referred to as the goddess of fortune, identified with Sri and regarded as
wife of Viṣṇu (Nārāyaṇa. For example, in Shatapatha Brahmana, variously estimated to be
composed between 800 BCE and 300 BCE, Sri (Lakshmi) is part of one of many theories, in
ancient India, about the creation of universe. In Book 9 of Shatapatha Brahmana, Sri emerges
from Prajapati, after his intense meditation on creation of life and nature of universe. Sri is
described as a resplendent and trembling woman at her birth with immense energy and powers.
The gods were bewitched, desire her and immediately become covetous of her. The gods
approach Prajapati and request permission to kill her and then take her powers, talents and gifts.
Prajapati refuses, tells the gods that males should not kill females and that they can seek her gifts
without violence. The gods then approach Lakshmi, deity Agni gets food, Soma gets kingly
authority, Varuna gets imperial authority, Mitra acquires martial energy, Indra gets
force, Brihaspati gets
priestly
authority,
Savitri
acquires
dominion,
Pushan
gets
splendour, Saraswati takes nourishment and Tvashtri gets forms. The hymns of Shatapatha
Brahmana thus describe Sri as a goddess born with and personifying a diverse range of talents
and powers.
According to another legend, she emerges during the creation of universe, floating over the water
on the expanded petals of a lotus flower; she is also variously regarded as wife of Dharma,
mother of Kāma, sister or mother of Dhātṛ and Vidhātṛ, wife of Dattatreya, one of the nine
Shaktis of Viṣṇu, a manifestation of Prakṛti as identified with Dākshāyaṇī in Bharatasrama and
as Sita, wife of Rama.
In the Epics of Hinduism, such as in Mahabharata, Lakshmi personifies wealth, riches,
happiness, loveliness, grace, charm and splendor. In another Hindu legend, about the creation of
universe as described in Ramayana Lakshmi springs with other precious things from the foam of
the ocean of milk when it is churned by the gods and demons for the recovery of Amṛta. She
appeared with a lotus in her hand and so she is also called Padmā.
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Bas relief of GajaLakshmi at the Buddhist Sanchi Stupa, Stupa I, North gateway, Satavahana
dynasty sculpture, 1st century CE.
Lakshmi is a member of the Tridevi, the triad of great Goddesses. She represents the Rajas guna,
and the Iccha-shakti.
The image, icons, and sculptures of Lakshmi are represented with symbolism. Her name is
derived from Sanskrit root words for knowing the goal and understanding the objective. Her four
arms are symbolic of the four goals of humanity that are considered good in
Hinduism: dharma (pursuit of ethical, moral life), artha (pursuit of wealth, means of
life), kama (pursuit of love, emotional fulfillment), and moksha (pursuit of self-knowledge,
liberation).
In Lakshmi's iconography, she is either sitting or standing on a lotus and typically carrying a
lotus in one or two hands. The lotus carries symbolic meanings in Hinduism and other Indian
traditions. It symbolises knowledge, self-realisation, and liberation in Vedic context, and
represents reality, consciousness and karma ('work, deed') in the Tantra (Sahasrara) context. The
lotus, a flower that blooms in clean or dirty water, also symbolises purity regardless of the good
or bad circumstances in which it grows. It is a reminder that good and prosperity can bloom and
not be affected by evil in one's surrounding.
Below, behind, or on the sides, Lakshmi is very often shown with one or two elephants, known
as Gajalakshmi, and occasionally with an owl. Elephants symbolise work, activity and strength,
as well as water, rain and fertility for abundant prosperity. The owl signifies the patient striving
to observe, see and discover knowledge particularly when surrounded by darkness. As a bird
reputedly blinded by daylight, the owl also serves as a symbolic reminder to refrain from
blindness and greed after knowledge and wealth has been acquired.
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Manuscript painting of Gaja-Lakshmi, ca 1780 AD.// Gaja Lakshmi, Cambodia, ca. 944968
In some representations, wealth either symbolically pours out from one of her hands or she
simply holds a jar of money. This symbolism has a dual meaning: wealth manifested through
Lakshmi means both materials as well as spiritual wealth. Her face and open hands are in a
mudra that signifies compassion, giving or dāna ('charity').
Lakshmi typically wears a red dress embroidered with golden threads, symbolizes fortune and
wealth. She, goddess of wealth and prosperity, is often represented with her husband Vishnu, the
god who maintains human life filled with justice and peace. This symbolism implies wealth and
prosperity is coupled with maintenance of life, justice, and peace.
In Japan, where Lakshmi is known as Kisshōten, she is commonly depicted with the Nyoihōju
gem in her hand.
Nomenclature:
Lakshmi has numerous names and numerous ancient Stotram and Sutras of Hinduism recite her
various names:
Padmā: She of the lotus (she who is mounted upon or dwelling in a lotus)
Kamalā or Kamalatmika: She of the lotus
Padmapriyā: Lotus-lover
Padmamālādhāra Devī: Goddess bearing a garland of lotuses
Padmamukhī: Lotus-faced (she whose face is as like as a lotus)
Padmākṣī: Lotus-eyed (she whose eyes are as beautiful as a lotus)
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Padmahasta: Lotus-hand (she whose hand is holding [a] lotus[es])
Padmasundarī: She who is as beautiful as a lotus
Sri: Radiance, eminence, splendor, wealth
Śrījā: Jatika of Sri
Viṣṇupriyā: Lover of Vishnu (she who is the beloved of Vishnu)
Ulūkavāhinī: Owl-mounted (she who is riding an owl)
Nandika: The one who gives pleasure, vessel made up of clay and Vishnupriya (she who is
the beloved of Vishnu)
Her other names include:[37] Aishwarya, Akhila, Anagha, Anumati, Apara, Aruna, Atibha,
Avashya, Bala, Bhargavi, Bhudevi, Chakrika, Chanchala, Devi, Haripriya, Indira, Jalaja,
Jambhavati, Janamodini, Jyoti, Jyotsna, Kalyani, Kamalika, Ketki, Kriyalakshmi, Kuhu, Lalima,
Madhavi, Madhu, Malti, Manushri, Nandika, Nandini, Nila Devi, Nimeshika, Parama, Prachi,
Purnima, Ramaa, Rukmini, Samruddhi, Satyabhama, Shreeya, Sita, Smriti, Sridevi, Sujata,
Swarna Kamala, Taruni, Tilottama, Tulasi, Vaishnavi, Vasuda, Vedavati, Vidya, and Viroopa.
Upanishads
Shakta Upanishads are
dedicated
to
the
Lakshmi, Saraswati and Parvati. Saubhagyalakshmi
Trinity
(Tridevi)
Upanishad describes
of
goddesses—
the
qualities,
characteristics and powers of Lakshmi. In the second part of the Upanishad, the emphasis shifts
to the use of yoga and transcendence from material craving in order to achieve spiritual
knowledge and self-realisation, the true wealth. Saubhagya-Lakshmi Upanishad synonymously
uses Sri to describe Lakshmi.
Stotram and sutras
Numerous ancient Stotram and Sutras of Hinduism recite hymns dedicated to Lakshmi. She is a
major goddess in Puranas and Itihasa of Hinduism. In ancient scriptures of India, all women are
declared to be embodiments of Lakshmi. For example
Every woman is an embodiment of you.
You exist as little girls in their childhood,
As young women in their youth
And as elderly women in their old age.
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— Sri Kamala Stotram
Every woman is an emanation of you.
— Sri Daivakrta Laksmi Stotram
Hindu Goddess Lakshmi
Ancient prayers dedicated to Lakshmi seek both material and spiritual wealth in prayers.[37]
Through illusion,
A person can become disconnected,
From his higher self,
Wandering about from place to place,
Bereft of clear thought,
Lost in destructive behaviour.
It matters not how much truth,
May shine forth in the world,
Illuminating the entire creation,
For one cannot acquire wisdom,
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Unless it is experienced,
Through the opening on the heart....
Puranas
Lakshmi features prominently in Puranas of Hinduism. Vishnu Purana, in particular, dedicates
many sections to her and also refers to her.Sri, loyal to Vishnu, is the mother of the world.
Vishnu is the meaning, Sri is the speech. She is the conduct, he the behavior. Vishnu is
knowledge, she the insight. He is dharma, she the virtuous action. She is the earth, he earth's
upholder. She is contentment, he the satisfaction. She wishes, he is the desire. Sri is the sky,
Vishnu the Self of everything. He is the moon, she the light of moon. He is the ocean, she is the
shore.
Subhasita, Genomic and Didactic Literature
Lakshmi, along with Parvati and Saraswati, is a subject of extensive Subhashita, genomic and
didactic literature of India.[43] Composed in the 1st millennium BC through the 16th century AD,
they are short poems, proverbs, couplets, or aphorisms in Sanskrit written in a precise meter.
They sometimes take the form of dialogue between Lakshmi and Vishnu or highlight the
spiritual message in Vedas and ethical maxims from Hindu Epics through Lakshmi.[43] An
example Subhashita is Puranartha Samgraha, compiled by Vekataraya in South India, where
Lakshmi and Vishnu discuss niti ('right, moral conduct') and rajaniti ('statesmanship' or 'right
governance')—covering in 30 chapters and ethical and moral questions about personal, social
and political life.
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Vishnu resting on the ocean accompanied by Lakshmi/ A manuscript depicting Samudra Manthan,
with Lakshmi emerging with the lotus in her hands. Diwali celebrations include puja (prayers) to
Lakshmi and Ganesha. Lakshmi is of the Vaishnavism tradition, while Ganesha of the Shaivism
tradition of Hinduism.
Devi Lakshmi is worshipped as:
Ambabai in the Kolhapur Shakti peetha,
Mookambika in Kollur (Karnataka),
Bhagavathi in Chottanikkara Temple (Kerala),
Sri Kanaka Maha Lakshmi in Vishakhapatnam.
In eastern India, Lakshmi is seen as a Devi. Lakshmi, Saraswati, and Parvati are typically
conceptualised as distinct in most of India, but in states such as West Bengal and Odisha, they
are regionally believed to be forms of Durga.
Lakshmi is seen in two forms, Bhudevi and Sridevi, both at the sides of Sri Venkateshwara or
Vishnu. Bhudevi is the representation and totality of the material world or energy, called
the Apara Prakriti, or Mother Earth; Sridevi is the spiritual world or energy called the Prakriti.
Inside temples, Lakshmi is often shown together with Krishna. In certain parts of India, Lakshmi
plays a special role as the mediator between her husband Vishnu and his worldly devotees. When
asking Vishnu for grace or forgiveness, the devotees often approach Him through the
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intermediary
presence
of
Lakshmi.
She
is
also
the
personification
of
spiritual
fulfillment. Lakshmi embodies the spiritual world, also known as Vaikunta, the abode of
Lakshmi-Narayana or what would be considered heaven in Vaishnavism. Lakshmi is the
embodiment of the creative energy of Vishnu, and primordial Prakriti who creates the
universe.[49]
In South India, she is also worshipped as Andal, an incarnation of Lakshmi.
Secondary manifestations
Ashta Lakshmi is a group of eight secondary manifestations of Lakshmi. The Ashta Lakshmi
preside over eight sources of wealth and thus represent the eight powers of Shri Lakshmi.
Temples dedicated to Ashta Lakshmi are found in Tamil Nadu, such as Ashtalakshmi Kovil near
Chennai and in many other states of India.
Ashta Lakshmi
Adi Lakshmi
The First manifestation of Lakshmi
Dhanya Lakshmi
Granary Wealth
Veera Lakshmi
Wealth of Courage
Gaja Lakshmi
Elephants spraying water, wealth of fertility, rains and food.[52]
Santana Lakshmi
Wealth of Continuity, Progeny
Vidya Lakshmi
Wealth of Knowledge and Wisdom
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Vijaya Lakshmi
Wealth of Victory
Dhana / Aishwarya Lakshmi Wealth of prosperity and fortune
Other secondary representations of the goddess include Lakshmi manifesting in three forms: Sri
Devi, Bhudevi and Nila Devi. This threefold goddess can be found, for example, in Sri Bhu
Neela Sahita Temple near Dwaraka Tirumala, Andhra Pradesh, and in Adinath Swami Temple in
Tamil Nadu.
In Nepal, Mahalakshmi is shown with 18 hands, each holding a sacred emblem, expressing a
sacred gesture, or forming a mudra (lotus, pot, mudra of blessing, book, rosary, bell, shield, bow,
arrow, sword, trident, mudra of admonition, noose, skull cap and kettledrum.)[54] In this
representation, Mahalakshmi manifests as a kind, compassionate, tranquil deity sitting not on a
lotus, but on a lion.
Jain tradition
Gaja Lakshmi at Shravanabelagola Temple, Karnataka.
Some Jain temples also depict Sri Lakshmi as a goddess of artha ('wealth') and kama ('pleasure').
For example, she is exhibited with Vishnu in Parshvanatha Jain Temple at the Khajuraho
Monuments of Madhya Pradesh, where she is shown pressed against Vishnu's chest, while
Vishnu cups a breast in his palm. The presence of Vishnu-Lakshmi iconography in a Jain temple
built near the Hindu temples of Khajuraho, suggests the sharing and acceptance of Lakshmi
across a spectrum of Indian religions.[55] This commonality is reflected in the praise of Lakshmi
found in the Jain text Kalpa Sūtra.
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Devas (gods) and asuras (demons) were both mortal at one time in Hinduism. Amrita, the
divine nectar that grants immortality, could only be obtained by churning Kshirasagar ('Ocean of
Milk'). The devas and asuras both sought immortality and decided to churn the Kshirasagar with
Mount Mandhara. The samudra manthan commenced with the devas on one side and the asuras
on the other. Vishnu incarnated as Kurma, the tortoise and a mountain was placed on the tortoise
as a churning pole. Vasuki, the great venom-spewing serpent-god, was wrapped around the
mountain and used to churn the ocean. A host of divine celestial objects came up during the
churning. Along with them emerged the goddess Lakshmi. In some versions, she is said to be
daughter of the sea god since she emerged from the sea.
In Garuda Purana, Linga Purana and Padma Purana, Lakshmi is said to have been born as
daughter of the divine sage Bhrigu and his wife Khyati and was named Bhargavi. According to
Vishnu Purana, the universe was created when the devas and asuras churn the cosmic
Kshirasagar.
Lakshmi
came out
of the
ocean bearing lotus,
along
cow Kamadhenu, Varuni, Parijat tree, Apsaras, Chandra (the
with
divine
moon),
and Dhanvantari with Amrita ('nectar of immortality'). When she appeared, she had a choice to
go to Devas or Asuras. She chose Devas' side and among thirty deities, she chose to be with
Vishnu. Thereafter, in all three worlds, the lotus-bearing goddess was celebrated.
Gaja Lakshmi Puja is another autumn festival celebrated on Sharad Purnima in many parts of
India on the full-moon day in the month of Ashvin (October).[21] Sharad Purnima, also called
Kojaagari Purnima or Kuanr Purnima, is a harvest festival marking the end of monsoon season.
There is a traditional celebration of the moon called the Kaumudi celebration, Kaumudi meaning
moonlight.[65] On Sharad Purnima night, goddess Lakshmi is thanked and worshipped for the
harvests. Vaibhav Lakshmi Vrata is observed on Friday for prosperity.
Countless hymns, prayers, shlokas, stotra, songs, and legends dedicated to Mahalakshmi are
recited during the ritual worship of Lakshmi. These include:
Sri Lalitha Sahasranamam,
Sri Mahalakshmi Ashtakam,
Sri Lakshmi Sahasaranama Stotra (by Sanath kumara),
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Sri Stuti (by Sri Vedantha Desikar),
Sri Lakshmi Stuti (by Indra),
Sri Kanakadhāra Stotram (by Sri Adi Shankara),
Sri Chatussloki (by Sri Yamunacharya),
Narayani Stuti,
Devi Mahatmyam Middle episode,
Argala Stotra,
Sri Lakshmi Sloka (by Bhagavan Sri Hari Swamiji), and
Sri Sukta, which is contained in the Vedas and includes Lakshmi Gayatri Mantra ("Om Shree
Mahalakshmyai ca vidmahe Vishnu patnyai ca dheemahi tanno Lakshmi prachodayat Om").
Archeology:
Greek-influenced statue of Gaja Lakshmi, holding lotus and cornucopia, flanked by two
elephants and two lions. From Kashmir, 6th century AD.
A representation of the goddess as Gaja Lakshmi or Lakshmi flanked by two elephants spraying
her with water, is one of the most frequently found in archaeological sites. An ancient sculpture
of
Gaja
Lakshmi
(from
Sonkh
site
at Mathura)
dates
to
the
pre-Kushan
Empire era.[17] Atranjikhera site in modern Uttar Pradesh has yielded terracotta plaque with
images of Lakshmi dating to 2nd century BCE. Other archaeological sites with ancient Lakshmi
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terracotta figurines from the 1st millennium BCE include Vaisali, Sravasti, Kausambi, Campa,
and Candraketugadh.
The goddess Lakshmi is frequently found in ancient coins of various Hindu kingdoms from
Afghanistan to India. Gaja Lakshmi has been found on coins of Scytho-Parthian kings Azes
II and Azilises; she also appears on Shunga Empire king Jyesthamitra era coins, both dating to
1st millennium BCE. Coins from 1st through 4th century CE found in various locations in India
such
as
Ayodhya,
Mathura,
Ujjain,
Sanchi,
Bodh
Gaya,
Kanauj,
all
feature
Lakshmi.[68] Similarly, ancient Greco-Indian gems and seals with images of Lakshmi have been
found, estimated to be from 1st millennium BCE.
A 1400-year-old rare granite sculpture of Lakshmi has been recovered at the Waghama village
along Jehlum in Anantnag district of Jammu and Kashmir.
The Pompeii Lakshmi, a statuette supposedly thought to be of Lakshmi found in Pompeii, Italy,
dates to before the eruption of Vesuvius in 79 CE.
China
In China, Lakshmi's name is written as Lāhākxīmǐ 'competed-gain hope rice').
Japan
The Japanese goddess of fortune and prosperity, Kishijoten Auspicious Heavens'), corresponds
to Lakshmi.[72] Kishijoten is considered the sister of Bishamon , also known as Tamon or
Bishamon-ten), who protects human life, fights evil, and brings good fortune. In ancient and
medieval Japan, Kishijoten was the goddess worshiped for luck and prosperity, particularly on
behalf of children. Kishijoten was also the guardian goddess of Geishas.
While Bishamon and Kishijoten are found in ancient Chinese and Japanese Buddhist literature,
their roots have been traced to deities in Hinduism.[72]
Tibet and Nepal
In Tibetan Buddhism, Lakshmi is an important deity, especially in the Gelug School. She has
both peaceful and wrathful forms; the latter form is known as Palden Lhamo, Shri Devi Dudsol
Dokam, or Kamadhatvishvari, and is the principal female protector of (Gelug) Tibetan Buddhism
and of Lhasa, Tibet.
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Goddess Vasudhara in Tibetan and Nepalese culture is closely analogous to goddess Lakshmi as
well.
Bali (Indonesia)
Goddess Lakshmi is closely linked to Dewi Sri, who is worshipped in Bali as the goddess of
fertility and agriculture.
This day ‘Laxmi-panchayatan’ enters the Universe. Shri Vishnu, Shri Indra, Shri Kuber, Shri
Gajendra and Shri Laxmi are elements of this ‘panchayatan’ (a group of five). The tasks of these
elements are:
Vishnu
:
Happiness (happiness and satisfaction)
Indra
:
Opulence (satisfaction due to wealth)
Kuber
:
Wealth (one who gives away wealth)
Gajendra :
Carries the wealth
Lakshmi
Divine Energy (Shakti) which provides energy to all the above activities.
:
Importance of Lakshmi Puja
A. Destruction of negative energies: On this particular day, Goddess Lakshmi’s destroyer
(marak) form is active, since it is the new moon day. The spiritual emotion of the person doing
Lakshmi puja activates Goddess Lakshmi’s marak form and destroys the negative frequencies in
the environment.
B. Arrival of other Gods (Devtas): Lord Indra and other male deities also get drawn to the
place of ritualistic worship and follow Goddess Lakshmi. Thus happiness, opulence, prosperity,
stability and wealth is maintained in the premise (Vastu) by worshiping the 5 elements or Deities
– A scholar [through the medium of Pujya (Mrs.) Anjali Gadgil (18/5/05, 10.40 am)]
Many Hindus worship Lakshmi on Diwali, the festival of lights. It is celebrated in autumn,
typically October or November every year. The festival spiritually signifies the victory of light
over darkness, knowledge over ignorance, good over evil and hope over despair.[61]
Before Diwali night, people clean, renovate and decorate their homes and offices.[62] On Diwali
night, Hindus dress up in new clothes or their best outfits, light up diyas (lamps and candles)
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inside and outside their home, and participate in family puja (prayers) typically to Lakshmi.
After puja, fireworks follow, then a family feast including mithai (sweets), and an exchange of
gifts between family members and close friends. Diwali also marks a major shopping period,
since Lakshmi connotes auspiciousness, wealth and prosperity. This festival dedicated to
Lakshmi is considered by Hindus to be one of the most important and joyous festivals of the
year.
On the day of Diwali, Lakshmi puja is performed at every Hindu household of the
country. Lakshmi is the goddess of wealth. The Lakshmi puja is performed in the evening
to invite Goddess Lakshmi at home. People pray and wish for peace, wealth and
prosperity in their and their family members life.
In case you want to perform Diwali puja / Lakshmi puja at home this year and don't know
the steps, check the guide provided below.
Diwali Puja Vidhi: Step-by-Step guide
Diwali Puja Vidhi Step 1: Purify your home
Diwali cleaning is very important. Clean every corner of your house. After cleaning,
sprinkle Gangajal (holy water from river Ganga) to purify the surrounding.
Diwali Puja Vidhi Step 2: Set up puja platform
In your puja room/living room, spread a red cotton cloth on a table/stool and keep a
handful of grains in the center.
Diwali Puja Vidhi Step 3: Place a kalash
Place the kalash (silver/bronze pot) in the middle of grains. Fill the kalash with 75% of
water and put one supari (betel nut), one marigold flower, a coin and some rice grains.
Place 5 mango leaves on the kalash in a circular design.
Diwali Puja Vidhi Step 4: Place idol of Lakshmi and Ganesha for puja
Place the idol of Goddess Lakshmi in the centre and idol of Lord Ganesha on the right
side (South-West direction) of the kalash. Take a small thali and make a small flat
mountain of rice grains, draw a lotus flower with haldi, put some coins and place it in
front of the idol.
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Diwali Puja Vidhi Step 5: Place accounts books/wealth related items
Now place your business/accountancy book and other wealth/business related items in
front of the idol.
Diwali Puja Vidhi Step 6: Apply tilak and light diya
Now apply tilak to Goddess Lakshmi and Lord Ganesh and light diyas. Apply tilak to
kalash also.
Diwali Puja Vidhi Step 7: Offer flowers
Now offer flowers to Lord Ganesh and Lakshmi. Keep some flower in your palm for
prayer.
Diwali Puja Vidhi Step 8: Recite Puja Mantra
Place flower in your palm and join your hands in prayer mode, close your eyes and recite
Diwali puja mantra. After prayer, offer the flower kept in your palm to Ganesha and
Lakshmi.
Diwali Puja Vidhi Step 9: Offer water
Take a Lakshmi idol and bathe it with water followed by panchamrita. Bathe it again with
water, wipe with a clean cloth and place it back on the Kalash.
Diwali Puja Vidhi Step 10: Offer mala (garland)
Put haldi, kumkum and rice to the idol. Place the garland around the neck of the Goddess.
Burn agarbatti and shoop in front of the idol.
Diwali Puja Vidhi Step 11: Offer fruits and sweets
Take coconut, supari, paan leaf and offer it to the goddess. Offer fruit and sweets to the
goddess. Put some flowers and coins in front of the idol.
Diwali Puja Vidhi Step 12: Perform Lakshmi Aarti
Take a diya in a thali, puja bell and perform the Lakshmi aarti.
How to do Lakshmi puja ?
Jyeshtha Gauri Puja 2020: Date, time and significance of Gauri Ganpati, Mahalaxmi puja during
Ganesh Chaturthi festival. New Delhi: The auspicious occasion of Ganesh Chaturthi was
celebrated on August 22, 2020 - Saturday. In Maharashtra, it is one of the major festivals and
continues for 10 long days
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Worship of Goddess Lakshmi (Lakshmi puja)
1. At the break of dawn, one should have an auspicious bath, and then worship the Deities.
2. In the afternoon, a rite for the departed souls (parvanshraddha) and an offering of meals to
Brahmaṇs (Brahmaṇbhojan) is done.
3. In the evening, in a decorated area, Goddess Lakshmi, Deity Vishnu, other Deities and
Deity Kuber are worshipped. A legend says that on this day Deity Vishnu along with
Goddess Lakshmi liberated all the Deities from Bali’s prison and thereafter they all slept in the
ocean. To represent that, everyone should enjoy themselves at home and light lamps everywhere.
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When ritualistically worshipping Goddess Lakshmi (Lakshmi puja), an idol of Lakshmi should
be installed on a seat on which either an octapetalled lotus or a swastik is drawn with consecrated
rice (akshata). Next to Her, an idol of Deity Kuber is placed on a pot (kalash). Then all these
Deities including Lakshmi are offered a Naivedya (Holy food item), a mixture of coagulated
cow’s milk (khava), sugar, cardamom and cloves. Then items like coriander, jaggery, corn
obtained from parched, uncleaned rice, sugar candies (battase), etc. are offered to
Goddess Lakshmi and then distributed to well-wishers and friends. Holding a bundle in the hand
guidance is offered to ancestors. Brahmaṇs and the hungry are offered meals. One stays awake in
the night.
The Puraṇa narrates that on the new moon night of Ashwin the Goddess Lakshmi goes
everywhere in search of an ideal home. Though undoubtedly cleanliness, beauty and excellence
attract Her yet She loves to live in a home inhabited by men who are faithful, dutiful, merciful,
righteous, have control over passions and are devotees of God, and women who are virtuous and
chaste.’
Ritualistic worship of Deity Kuber
Just as the Deities Lakshmi and Deity Indra are worshipped on the religious festival of Kojagari,
Goddess Lakshmi and Deity Kuberare worshipped on this new moon day. Lakshmi is the Deity
of wealth but Deity Kuber is the treasurer. Several people possess the art of earning money but
do not know how to save it. However saving money and spending it appropriately is far more
important than earning it. Since most people do not know how to spend money, their spending is
unwarranted and ultimately, they become bankrupt.
Kuber is the Deity who teaches the art of saving money as He Himself is the treasurer.
Therefore, in this ritual the worship of Goddess Lakshmi and Deity Kuber has been
recommended. Though all people celebrate this festival, the business community in particular
does so with great enthusiasm and splendour.
Coriander seeds and parched corn from parched, uncleaned rice are offered in this ritual of
worship, the reason for this being that coriander seeds (dhane) denote wealth and parched corn
represents prosperity. If a few grains of parched, uncleaned rice are roasted one gets a handful of
parched corn. Since one aspires to acquire the prosperity of Deity Lakshmi, parched corn is
offered symbolically.
Driving off poverty (Alakshmi)
Development of virtues gains importance only if in the process defects are overcome. Just as
one makes efforts to acquire wealth (Lakshmi), poverty (alakshmi) should also be destroyed. To
signify that, on this day a new broom is bought. It is called Lakshmi. At midnight one should
sweep the house with that broom, accumulate the garbage in a dust pan and throw it out. This is
called ‘driving off’ of alakshmi (garbage – poverty). Sweeping the house and throwing the
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garbage out at night is forbidden on other days. When removing the garbage alakshmi is driven
out even by sound created by striking a sifting pan and an earthen vessel covered with a hide.
The act of driving out alakshmi on the day of Lakshmi pujan
Goddess Lakshmī means wealth, prosperity while alakshmi means poverty, misfortune.
Development of virtues gains importance only if one overcomes defects. Just as one makes
efforts to acquire wealth (Lakshmi), poverty (alakshmi) should also be destroyed. On the third
day of Diwāli, in the evening, Goddess Lakshmi is worshipped and this is called
as Lakshmipujan. At midnight, the act of driving out alakshmi is done as given below –
1. A new broom is bought for this act and it is considered as ‘Lakshmi’.
2. It is ritualistically worshipped at midnight and then, the entire house is swept using the new
broom.
3. The rubbish is collected in the dustpan and it is taken out of house. It is recommended to take
it out through the backdoor; however, if there is only one door, then one can take it out from that
door.
4. Throw away the rubbish as far as possible. One can throw it in the rubbish bins kept on the
roads / footpath. If this is difficult, one can throw it in the rubbish bin outside house or
apartment.
5. At the end, express gratitude to Goddess Lakshmi and from next day onwards, start using the
new broom daily for sweeping the floor.
a. On any other days, sweeping and throwing out the rubbish at night is not recommended.
b. If one lives in a fully carpeted house, they can buy new broom and sweep over the carpet and
follow as given in point 3 and 4 above.
Spiritual effect of the act of driving out Alakshmi
1. Rubbish represents alakshmi. At midnight, the subtle components Raja and Tama are
maximum.
2. The rubbish being Raja-Rama predominant, the Raja-Tama components in the atmosphere are
drawn towards it.
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3. When the rubbish is collected in dustpan and thrown out of the house, the RajaTama components too are thrown out of the house. Due to this, the subtle components Sattva are
attracted in the house, and the house becomes sāttvik.
4. Earlier in the evening, due to performing the Lakshmipujan, the Chaitanya (Divine
Consciousness) spreads in the house.
5. In Purāna, it is said that at midnight, Goddess Lakshmi searches for an ideal house. No doubt
the cleanliness and beauty draws Her attention; however, She chooses to live in a house in which
faithful, dutiful, merciful, righteous men live, who have control over passions and are devotees
of God, and women who are virtuous and chaste.
All clothes and
jewellery of the two idols is gathered. A table is prepared to accommodate 2 idols
Two structural bases made of tin are filled-one with rice grains and other with wheat
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Clothing is put on followed by jewellery etc
345
Rice and Wheat symbolizing Agricultural affiliatios of the Goddess Play a role
346
347
Making a din to warn of the coming of the Kaxmi Goddess in the House
348
Fixing the idols
349
350
351
l
352
353
354
CHAPTER XII
SECRETS behind HINDU TEMPLES and their DIVINITY..........??? Murali Vvmmr
Introduction:
The origin of the word temple can be traced to word the "templum" which were used by Roman
soothsayers indicating a section of the sky and also a piece of the ground to gaze and mark divine
signs for foretelling the future. Eventually, “temple” referred to a building constructed at the site.
A Hindu temple refers to in Sanskrit language to “Devaalaya” consisting of two words namely
Deva means “God” and Alaya means “House”.
Purpose:
In Vedic Hindu view, an individual's body is referred as a temple with the indweller as God. The
Vedic seers (Rishis) having realized God within themselves gave designs and functions of
temples in scriptures (agama shastras) of Vedic Hinduism (Sanatana Dharma). Its purpose is to
enable a devotee to use a physical temple and the ritualistic worship as a reminder to the
spiritual journey to be carried out within oneself. In addition, it also serves as a place for
celebrations of Hindu religious festivals.
Architecture:
A Vedic Hindu temple's architecture is a divine and yogic representation of a human being as
shown in the below figure.
The feet represent the spire (rajagopura).
The hands represent the walkway (prakaara) encompassing all around the temple.
The main hall (mandapa) represents the abdomen.
The dwaja sthamba (flag pole) represents the sexual organs.
The entrance porch (antaraala) represents the heart.
The sanctum sanctorum (garbha griha) represents the head.
The deity is consecrated with religious rites in the sanctum sanctorum.
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There is proportionality between the size of the deity in the sanctum sanctorum and the sizes of
the temple construction details. The temple is used as a reminder that our inner spiritual journey
is through internal yoga to realize the indweller God. This analogy is shown in below figure
through the representation of various chakras namely Moolaadhara to Sahasraara in the body to
various
locations.ocations.
FIG1.The simplified structure of temple design
FIG2.secret
behing temple structure.
356
FIG3.parts of temple.
357
represent male reproductive organ.
FIG4.dwaja sthamba
(flagpole)
358
FIG5.represent female reproductive organ.
FIG6.human CHAKRA system.
FIG7.The impact of CHAKRA system.
359
Worship Rituals:
The ritualistic worship (pooja) of consecrated deities (vigrahas) is carried out by priests on behalf
of devotees to remind them of the inward yogic process of approaching the indwelling God. The
various steps in a pooja offered to the deity with prayers and mantras (in Sanskrit) include steps
such as washing feet and giving sacred bath using milk and water. Then with screen closed the
deity is decoratively dressed with special cloths, flowers and ornaments. After the decoration the
screen is opened to devotees to signify removal of veil of illusions so that devotees can see the
beautifully decorated God. Then fruits and food are offered and incense sticks and lamps are
waved to the deity. During the waving of lamp by a priest, devotees need to see with eyes open
the radiating face of the fully decorated deity so that its memory will provide the spiritual joy.
Then the priests distribute the sacred water (teertha) and sacred food (prasada) that devotees
drink and eat for spiritual blessings. Thus the entire ritualistic worship can also be seen as
expressing love, devotion and respect to one's guest of honor. The joyful resonance between the
external and internal worship provides the bliss.
The elaborate worship of consecrated deity along with sacred rituals with Vedic mantras and the
materials used in rituals such as water, milk, flower, incense, sandal paste, bells, conch-shell etc
is to help devotees to focus their mind on the Supreme Being. The Vedic seers have
recommended the temple and rituals so that devotees through sensory experiences can spiritually
experience the bliss of God. It is inspiring to remember the words of my Sadguru Sriranga, a
seer-yogi, "The worship of deities and rituals in a temple should be carried out with child-like
loving mind by the devotees as little children play with joy using their toys as medium.
Role in Vedic Hinduism:
Vedic Hinduism or Santana Dharma is based on the Vedas and Vedic literature. Solutions and
approaches to all levels of inquiry into the nature of soul, universe and God are provided in
Vedic Hinduism. Rituals, Music, Dance, Yoga, Meditation, Vedanta etc express its many facets.
The celebrations of Vedic Hindu festivals bring out the various aspects namely religious,
cultural, educational and social. A devotee focusing on the meaning of the Vedic mantras and
ritualistic procedures will gain the spiritual knowledge. One focusing on the prayers and feelings
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in rituals will experience joy of devotion. One focusing on service in a temple will experience
the joy of selfless service.
A temple plays an important role in providing a sacred place and means for spiritual
development of a seeker.
Concluding Remarks:
A Hindu temple (Devaalaya) has not only religious purpose but also spiritual, cultural,
educational and social objectives. It provides a place for devotees to focus and develop their
spiritual insight. A Hindu temple in essence can be recognized in three forms. The first is oneself
with God within. The second one is a dedicated room (with altar and deities) in a home. The
third one is the Hindu temple in which devotees participate collectively that reflects the
pluralistic nature of Vedic Hinduism or Santana Dharma. Thus a devotee needs to integrate all
the three forms of temples to develop the spiritual insight and enjoy the peace and bliss.
DOUBTS AND CLARIFICATIONS :
1.God exists everywhere. So, a question may be asked why there should be any temples built for
Him. We know that God exists everywhere, but still the idea does not get firmly established in
our mind. It does not get reflected in our daily actions. If one remembers God all the time, how
can one utter any falsehood or commit evil acts?
If God is merely omnipresent, how can He help us? We all long for His grace somehow. So, we
have to worship Him and get His grace. But the agama-shastras tell us how this should be done.
The sun's rays contain a lot of heat energy. If we keep a piece of cloth in the sun, it does not
catch fire by itself. But if we place a lens and focus the sun's heat rays on that piece of cloth,
after some time, we find that the cloth catches fire.
Similarly, electrical energy is everywhere, but in order to bring it to our daily use, we need to
have generators to channel that energy and transmission systems to distribute it at the places
where we need it. In the same way, in order to get the grace of the Omnipresent Lord, we have to
build temples, where we can focus the power of the Lord in a consecrated idol for our benefit in
an easy way.
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2.God knows everything that we want to tell Him. Yet why is it that we go and narrate our
sufferings before Him?
It is just to get peace of mind by emptying our mind before Him. As Nilakanta Dikshita says:
"What is it that you do not know? You know everything. And yet I feel like speaking out things
before you, because my mind is restless; it is only when I empty the contents of my mind that I
can secure peace. That is why I am narrating all this before you."
3.Some people have a doubt whether they should go to temples daily, or not.???
Of course, it is absolutely necessary to do so. In the olden days, people never used to have their
food in their houses unless they heard the temple bell ringing at the time of the morning, noon,
evening and night pujas to the Lord.
It is up to us therefore to nurture the divinity in the temples by ensuring that the pujas are
performed properly and that the temple rituals are observed with diligence. We should see that
the temple premises are kept clean and the deepa is lit every day. We should also see that the
cloth that we offer to Lord is washed daily. If only we could ensure these things, automatically
we shall be able to derive as much benefit, if not more, than what we get by the establishment of
hospitals and other social welfare institutions.
Since a temple is a place of divinity, of course we have to observe certain rules while we are in
the precincts of the temple. For instance, we should not use anything meant for God for
ourselves.
RULES AND REGULATIONS :
>We should not go to the temple in a purposeless manner.
>One should not pass urine or spit or excrete fecal matter within the temple premises and within
the vicinity of the temples.
>Nor should one blow his nose or sneeze or chew pan in the temple, or eat fruits or food, or
sleep or sit with stretched legs, or comb the hair or tie the hair after combing, wear cloth over the
head and over the shoulders, tread over nirmalya or tread over the shadows of the flag staff, idols
etc,
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>nor should one touch the idols or those who do puja to the idols.
> No one should gossip, laugh loudly, or play games or go between the idol and the bali peetha.
>As for pradakshina or going round the temple, one should not stop with just one or two rounds
only but should go round at least thrice.
>One should not have darshan of the Lord at odd hours or at the time of abhisheka or naivedyam.
>One should not enter into the temple and worship when the deity is not in the straight position.
>One should not enter a temple by any passage other than the main gate.
>One should not go empty-handed to a temple merely for seeing the karpura-harati.
>One should offer what one has brought to the priest, have darshan and return without showing
his back to the Lord.
>With folded hands, and reciting stotras , one should perform pradakshinas ranging between 3
and 21 times, preferably in odd numbers.
>As for namaskarams, one should do it an odd number of times for Ishwara, ranging from 3 to
21, and for Devi four times.
>After namaskara, one should do pradakshina and then return home.
All these rules have been prescribed only for our welfare and to preserve the sanctity of the
temples. It is up to us all to observe these rules, protect and nurture the sanctity of our temples,
which have been the greatest heritage.
4.what is the difference between IDOL and (VIGRAHA)DIETY ???
Meaning of Vigraha is ‘Embodiment’, not idol!. Most Hindus find the word idol offensive as it
has a negative connotation because of the way the Bible uses the word. "If there is no life, then it
is idol worship, hedonism.
Pran Pratishtha means infusing life into an idol.Without breath( prana) a human body is nothing.
Similarly, an idol is a piece of metal, wood or stone until life is infused into it. This is done
through a detailed ceremony by chanting mantras requesting God to reside in the idol. Once this
is done the idol becomes deity. Thereafter, it must be bathed, clothed, given ornaments, food,
incense sticks and articles of prayer, followed by arti in the morning and evening.
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Prana pratishthha gives divine powers to an ordinary idol. Not only Ganesha but all idols are
done pran prathishtha before worshipping
The sacred images of God are called arca-vigraha. Arca means 'worship-able' and vigraha means
"form" and so the full translation is the "form to be worshipped." Hindus believe that God agrees
to appear in these forms in order to allow Himself to be worshipped.
The worship of a physical deity can be hard to understand but is integral to developing a
relationship with God in Hinduism. When engaging in the service of the deity all the senses are
deemed to become purified, and this activity helps the mind, body and spirit focus on God.
AGAMA SASTRA :
“Agama Shastra”, which explains the science of temples, Vaastu is considered as the basis for
any type of construction.
Parts of Agama Shastras
There are three main divisions in Agama shastra –
* The Shaiva
* The Shaktha
* The Vaishnava
The Shaiva branch of the Agama deals with the worship of the deity in the form of Shiva. This
branch in turn has given rise to 'Shaiva Siddantha" of the South and the "Prathyabijnana" School
of Kashmir "Shaivisim".
The "Shaktha Agama" prescribes the rules and tantric rituals for worship of Shakthi, Devi the
divine mother.
The third one, "Vaishanava Agama" adores God as Vishnu the protector.
This branch has two major divisions Vaikhanasa and Pancharatra. The latter in turn has a sub
branch called Tantra Sara followed mainly by the Dvaita sect (Madhwas).
Each Agama consists of four parts –
1. The philosophical and spiritual knowledge
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2. The yoga and the mental discipline
3. The specifies rules for the construction of temples and for sculpting and carving the figures of
deities for worship in the temples
4. The rules pertaining to the observances of religious rites, rituals, and festivals
Agama Shastras – Methods and practices:
The Agama shastras are based in the belief that the divinity can be approached in two ways. It
can be viewed as nishkala, formless – absolute; or as sakala having specific aspects.
The Agama methods are worship of images of God through rituals (Tantra), symbolic charts
(Yantra) and verbal symbols (Mantra). Agama regards devotion and complete submission to
the deity as fundamental to pursuit of its aim; and hopes that wisdom, enlightenment (jnana)
would follow, eventually, by the grace of the worshipped deity. The Agama is basically dualistic,
seeking grace, mercy and love of the Supreme God represented by the personal deity, for
liberation from earthly attachments (moksha).
The temple worship is guided by its related Agama texts which invariably borrow the mantras
from the Vedic traditions and the ritualistic details from Tantric traditions.
This has the advantage of claiming impressive validity from Nigama, the Vedas; and at the same
time, carrying out popular methods of worship.
Contradictions and contraventions:
Today, most of the shastras have been changed as per the convenience. It is not practiced and
followed precisely. People have bent the rules and hence, this sacred and precious knowledge
and practice is confined to books.
If Agama shastra was given importance, income to the temple would go down. The tradition set
certain times for public prayer. Now, to get money worship is allowed at all the times and the
Agama tradition got a back seat. Priests also took liberty with traditions and gave up their
customs. Sincerity of priests dwindled. They did not feel the importance of learning the agama
traditions. Priests today are unable to answer some basic questions about the worship
Today, there is demand for various types of temples and agama tradition is compromised now
and devotees’ desire takes precedence.
Prana Pratishtha (Consecration):
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The Agamas prescribe certain objects of worship symbolising in form the Deities or representing
their dwelling places, as perceived by their seers. These are of three kinds:
1. Image, murti, which represents the Deity
in human form with limbs and the like.
2. Emblems which stand for particular Deities.
e.g., Saligram stone for Vishnu, Linga for Siva.
3. Diagrams - geometrical figures consisting of lines and curves, circles and squares and
triangles all of which are symbolic, called Yantras or Mandalas. The Yantra literally means
an instrument, the means by which worship is done. It is looked upon as the body of the Mantra
which itself is ensouled by the Devata. The Yantra is drawn or engraved on metal or stone or on
any surface. Mandala is a figure drawn on a surface and may represent any Devata whereas the
Yantra stands for a particular Devata alone.
These are the figures, pratima, symbols or representations of the Divinity which the worshipper
places before him or her as pratik (symbol), for adoration and worship.
"Prana-pratishtha(consecration)":
The image or the diagram does not by itself become a fit object of worship. It remains but a
material form until it is infused with a life principle. The worshipper contemplates in his or her
inner being the form of the Deity as induced by the physical form before him or her, dwells upon
it with an intense concentration and devotion; a spiritual force is generated as a result, and
transmits this power, released in the consciousness of the person, to the object which then
becomes alive with the spiritual energism. This is called the Prana-pratishtha, installation of
life force.
[to understand easily I am describing with present generation example:
the HARDWARE parts of a computer are meaningless until the OPERATING SYSTEM(OS) is
installed into it…..after it becomes COMPUTER.likewise here a normal idol is meaningless until
PRANA-PRATISTA(CONSECRATION)is done.
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however OPERATING SYSTEM is an interface between hardware and user to understand the
user’s inputs to computer.likewise CONSECRATION is an interface between human beings and
power of god to understand human languages and feelings.]
***Here I am giving example for PRANA PRATISTA of LORD GANESH IDOL
FIG8.GANESH
YANTRA...MANTRA
Indirectly PRANA PRATISTA means giving the power of five elements
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FIG9.The five elements
In modern languages, we use the word prana as synonymous with life. In Sanskrit prANa is the
outgoing breath and apAna is the incoming breath.
hrAm -is the seed or bIjam.
hrIm -is the s’akti or competence/strength.
hrUm -is the kIlaka or that most important component of a machine that makes it work.
These mantrAs are used for the successful invocation of Ganesha into the pratima.
They are used for japa.
These sounds are used to offer salutations to these body parts, during dhyAna(meditaion) or
contemplation.
hrAm – thumbs
hrIm – forefingers
hrOm - middle fingers
hrAIm – ring fingers
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hraum – little fingers
hrAm – heart
hrIm – head
hrOm - s’ikhA.. back of the head
hrAIm – kavaca.. arms crossed across the chest
hraum – nEtratraya – three eyes.. third eye is the spot between the eye brows and slightly up.
hrah – astraya phat (this is a vedic gesture)
bhUh bhuvah svarah om – for the dig bandha.
As a result of these now Divinity is first invoked into You.
Then 2 mantras are chanted to please the dEvI prANa s’akti.
Then we say(in SANSKRIT),
“Om, hrAm, hrIm, krOm, ya ra la va s’a Sa sa ham Lam ksham”
Meaning of above MANTRA:
the prAna od varasiddhivinayAka is is my prANa and
the jIva (atma/life) of varasiddhi vinAyaka is my jIva.
May Vinayaka come out in the form of ucchvAsa nis’s'vAsa (breath) by speech, mind, eyes,
ears, tongue and nostrils and enter this bimba (image) and stay here comfortably and for a
long time.
…. and then the mantrAs go on.
To such a living form of a Deity is the worship offered, in which not only the mind and heart but
the whole body of the worshipper participates. Traditionally this worship has sixteen stages:1. Asana (seating of the image
2. Svaagat (welcome of the Deity)
3. Paadya - water to cleanse the feet
4. Arghya -offerings
5. Aachman - water for sipping and cleaning the lips
6. Aachman offered again
7. Madhuparka - honey, ghee, milk and curds
8. Snaan - water to bathe the Deity
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9. Vastra - garments
10. Aabharana ( ornaments)
11. Gandha - sandal paste or perfume
12. Pushpa - flowers
13. Dhupa - incense
14. Dipa - light
15. Naivedya - food for consecration
16. Vandana - prayerful homage
***WHAT ARE THE MANTRA , TANTRA & YANTRA........???
YANTRA :
Yantra is a complex subject by a variety of ways and situations where it is used. Some say that
yantra is composed of
yam = hold, hold (as in yama = hold back) +
tra = protect instrument
I like to translate as
Yantra is a machine that contains and protects the mind.
Yantra-s are instruments, apparatus, machines, devices for meditation, worship, protection,
magic, alchemy and technology. They can be drawings, symbols, diagrams, cosmogramme
(devotion, representing a deity), devices, objects (alchemy, amulets), instruments (surgical),
machinery (machine flying robot) and buildings (temples).
So the pair mantra / yantra is part of many mystical rituals, religious and symbolic around the
world. From the profane to the sacred sound and form, go together, interact, complement and
destroy.
Examples of YANTRA :
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FIG10.The SNAKE(kaal sarpa) yantra..
FIG11.The SURYA Yantra./FIG12. The SREE Yantra.
MANTRA :
A mantra is a sound, syllable, word, or group of words that is considered capable of "creating
transformation" (spiritual transformation).Its use and type varies according to the school and
philosophy associated with the mantra.
Mantras (Devanāgarī मन्त्र) originated in the Vedic tradition of India, later becoming an essential
part of the Hindu tradition and a customary practice within Buddhism, Sikhism, and Jainism. The
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use of mantras is now widespread throughout various spiritual movements which are based on,
or off-shoots of, the practices in the earlier Eastern traditions and religions.
For the authors of the Hindu scriptures of the Upanishads, the syllable Aum, itself constituting a
mantra, represents Brahman, the godhead, as well as the whole of creation.
The Sanskrit word mantra- (also n. mantram) consists of the root
man-means "to think" (also in manas "mind") and
the suffix -tra, means designating tools or instruments, hence a literal translation would be
"instrument of thought.
Mantras were originally conceived in the Vedas. Most mantras follow the written pattern of two
line "shlokas" although they are often found in single line or even single word form.
The most basic mantra is Aum, which in Hinduism is known as the "pranava mantra," the source
of all mantras.
Examples of MANTRA :
FIG13.Most Basic Mantras.
FIG14.GAYATRI Mantra.
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FIG15.NavaGraha Mantras.
TANTRA :
Tantra (Sanskrit: तन्त्र , "loom, warp"; hence "principle, system, doctrine", from the two root
words tanoti "stretch,
extend,
expand",
and trayati "liberation"),
anglicised tantricism or tantrism or tantram, is the name scholars give to an inter-religious
spiritual movement that arose in medieval India, expressed in scriptures (called "Tantras").
An important characteristic of this movement was that it is a radically positive, world-embracing
vision of the whole of reality as an expression of a joyous Divine Consciousness (for example, as
the divine play of Shakti and Shiva.). Tantric spiritual practices and rituals aim to bring about an
inner realization of this truth, bringing freedom from ignorance and rebirth in the process.
Though not the case with most Tantric practices, in some schools of "left-handed" Tantra
(Vamachara), ritual sexual practice is employed as a way of entering into the underlying
processes and structure of the universe.
According to Tantra, "being-consciousness-bliss" or Satchidananda has the power of both selfevolution and self-involution. Prakriti or "reality" evolves into a multiplicity of creatures and
things, yet at the same time always remains pure consciousness, pure being, and pure bliss. In
this process of evolution, Maya (illusion) veils Reality and separates it into opposites, such as
conscious and unconscious, pleasant and unpleasant, and so forth.
Examples of TANTRA :
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Architecture & Divinity-CELESTIAL MYSTERIES
Dr Uday Dokras Ph D Stockholm, SWEDEN
Consulting Editor Ms. Srishti Dokras-ARCHITECT
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