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Architecture & Divinity-Celestial Mysteries Consulting Editor Ms. Srishti Dokras-ARCHITECT Dr Uday Dokras Indo Nordic Author’s Collective, Stockholm SWEDEN,Tampere FINLAND and Nagpur INDIA 1 2 Consulting Editor Ms. Srishti Dokras-ARCHITECT Dr Uday Dokras ARCHITECT C Celestial Mysteries of Divinitty & Architecture Dr. Uday Dokras B.Sc., B.A. (managerial economics) LL.B. Nagpur University, INDIA Graduate Studies, Queen’s University, Kingston, CANADA MBA CALSATATE USA Graduate Diploma in Law, Stockholm University, SWEDEN Ph.D. Stockholm University, SWEDEN Indo Swedish Author’s Collective, Stockholm SWEDEN and Nagpur INDIA 3 Indo Swedish Author’s Collective. STOCKHOLM.SWEDEN 4 5 Gautama Buddha-Hindu version rst Edition 2020 Copyright 2020 Uday Dokras. All Rights Reserved. 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I N R 1500/- Euro 120 7 CONTENTS 8 Acknowledgement 9 CHAPTER I I N T R O D U C T I O N-God and architecture 9 CHAPTER II-Divine Character: The Evolution of Religious Architecture Claudio Nieto: 34 BOOK I-ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE 48 Introduction to this Section 49 CHAPTER III-THE CONCEPT OF HOUSE INTERIORS IN ISLAM 51 CHAPTER IV-(“ ISLAMIC”) MATHEMATICS AS ART 57 Chapter V Architecture of Al-Masjid an-Nabawī,TheMosque of the Prophet 68 CHAPTER VI-The Architecture of Al Hambra 88 CHAPTER VII-Arabesque in Islamic Architecture 105 PART III HINDU DIVINITY THROUGH ARCHITECTURE OF ITS TEMPLES pages 111 Introduction to Part III 111 INTRODUCTION to INDIAN ARCHITECTURE – Takio Kamia What is Hindu Architecture 123 Chapter VII-Design Elements.towards Divinity 151 Architecture of a Hindu temple 180 CHAPTER VIII-ELEMENTS OF INDIAN TEMPLES 184 CHAPTER IX-Acoustics(SACRED SOUND) IN HINDU TEMPLE 195 PART IV-BOOK IV-LOCAL DESIGN ELEMENTS OF DIVINITY 291 Chapter X GANESH STATHPANA-Idol Worship at Home in Maharashtra during Ganesh Chaturthi in August 292 CHAPTER XI Gauri or Laxmi Puja 317 8 Acknowledgement To all the Gods of all Religions. Turn a Kind eye to our writings INTRODUCTION God and architecture 9 Abstract: A temple/Church (from the Latin word templum) is a building reserved for religious or spiritual rituals and activities such as prayer and sacrifice. It is typically used for such buildings belonging to all faiths where a more specific term such as church, mosque or synagogue is not generally used in English. These include Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism among religions with many modern followers, as well as other ancient religions such as Ancient Egyptian religion. The form and function of temples is thus very variable, though they are often considered by believers to be in some sense the "house" of one or more deities. The word comes from Ancient Rome, where a templum constituted a sacred precinct as defined by a priest, or augur. It has the same root as the word "template", a plan in preparation of the building that was marked out on the ground by the augur. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth. And the earth was without form, and void; and darkness was upon the face of the deep. And the Spirit of God moved upon the face of the waters. And God said, Let there be light: and there was light. And God saw the light, that it was good: and God divided the light from the darkness. And God called the light Day, and the darkness he called Night. And the evening and the morning were the first day. And God said, Let there be a firmament in the midst of the waters, and let it divide the waters from the waters. And God made the firmament, and divided the waters which were under the firmament from the waters which were above the firmament: and it was so. And God called the firmament Heaven. And the evening and the morning were the second day. And God said, Let the waters under the heaven be gathered together unto one place, and let the dry land appear: and it was so. And God called the dry land Earth; and the gathering together of the waters called he Seas: and God saw that it was good. Genesis 1 (Bible: King James Version) For millennia, houses are being built not only as dwellings but also places where one could keep God- a dwelling place for God. In fact, amongst the Hindu Temples, there is a presumption that the diety is living and needs to sleep eat and rest. However since long places of worship channelised the design and construction talents of the populations onto their love of God. Traditional religious architecture is above all an architecture of life, from the overall form down to the smallest ornamental detail, because God is identified with life and with love. The need to provide shelter from the elements and serve everyday needs led to the construction of roofs and walls that defined spaces adapted to human use. Traditional buildings and cities were assemblies 10 of such basic components, put together in ways that had been found to promote particular and overall functioning. More importantly, going beyond mere function, those structures combined ornament and other details that somehow seemed necessary. Even when structures were designed as a whole, their form and organization followed the evolved principles that had led to successful construction in the past. The results included the great historical styles of architecture, and the most-loved and most functional buildings and cities East and West. According to Christianity, God is an architect. After darkness and chaos God swept across the formless void and lifted up an enormous dome to separate water from water, thereby opening up space for all living things to become. Without the help of the sun or stars, God commanded light to pierce the solid darkness. With Spirit alone, God brought order to the universe. Then, within an ordered universe, intelligent life—society, civilization— could begin. When finished, God was satisfied and observed that it was very good. Humanity reflects the image of the Great Architect who set the earth on its foundation (Ps 104:5). Psalm 104:5 He set the earth on its foundations; it can never be moved. Just as God set the foundation of Earth, Architecture defines how we live and expresses our thoughts. It reflects our shaping of the world in order to inhabit it, and the geometry of what we build is far from neutral. The built environment, like the biological and other natural systems that it engages, needs to function reliably in complex and adaptive ways on many different levels. Such adaptive and sustainable systems have similar characteristics that, despite distinct origins, develop in a broadly similar manner. There is then, a heightened sensitivity for faithful architecture in what one might call sacred space; the physical localization wherein God’s presence is guaranteed. The ideology of contemporary architecture is detached from nature and from God. It creates buildings that are dangerously detached from human beings. Traditional religions, despite periodic failings and fanaticisms, arose out of the evolution of human culture, and are thus far more grounded in real human needs. More importantly, they celebrate humans as rich and complex beings, with capabilities far beyond those of a machine. This makes religions more rational, and less divisive, than pseudo-religions based on irrational will. A Greek or Hindu temple, a sixteenth-century mosque, or a Gothic cathedral connects us to each other, to the past, and to the world. A modernist building or urban design does not. Even someone from a different civilization and religious tradition can tell the difference. " 11 I have purposely written the “a” of architecture in the title of this Chapter in ‘small’ and not ‘CAPS ‘ because architecture will always be sunservient to Divinity and in fact the reason for its existence is the attracton towards the divine. Sacred places are often pictorial reflections of the universe and its design and partake of its holiness. The domes of Christian churches are symbols of heaven, the altar a symbol of Christ, the Holy of Holies of the Temple of Jerusalem a symbol of the Lord, the Holy of Holies in Hindu shrines (Temples) a symbol of the divinity, and the prayer niches in mosques a symbol of the presence of Allah. As soon as the early Christians were at liberty to build churches according to their own mind, they took pains to make them significant of their religion. Probably at first the Christians took for the purposes of their worship such buildings as they could get, adapting them to their uses as best they might. But when they grew strong enough and independent enough to build as the heart and imagination dictated, then they showed themselves careful to make their houses of God in shape and dimension suggestive of what they believed." These old builders were Churchmen, and made their Churchmanship and their belief felt in their work. A deep and true symbolism was carried out in the plan and construction of their churches. Thus Christian churches at an early day came to be built in the form of a cross. This was not only the most ornamental form of structure; it was much more: it made the very fabric of the church the symbol of our faith in Christ crucified. Some chancels of old churches were even built with a slight deflection from the line of direction of the nave, thus representing the inclination of our Saviour's head upon the Cross. It made also the gathering together of each congregation of His Church -- which is His mystical Body -- the symbol of that body itself: that part in the nave representing His body, that in the transepts His outstretched arms, that in the choir His head. And so, also, "the united prayers and praises of the congregation make, as it were, in their very sound the sign of the Cross." When human architects set out to create sacred space, we look to breach the chaos and give order to our lives. As modern people, we are constantly bombarded by information, noise, and news and aggressively marketed to by those who want to sell us something. Sacred space can lift up a dome of silence and hold back the tide of modern life. A sacred space can allow contemplation, reflection, and the overview required to make moral choices. Moreover, architecture is not only a means by which humans communicate and relate to one another; architecture is the avenue by which God and His creation relate to one another. Let us 12 Temples are the focal points of religious worship. Through architectural representation they can express religious ideology. From the late Dark Ages to the Classical Period and beyond, humanity had been consistently struggling with their understanding of God, divinity, and the world around them. In the historic and prehistoric evidence of humanity we see a constant attempt to understand the nature of the world around us and how it interacts with us. One of the most ancient understandings of the nature of the world and all within it comes through the notion of divinity. Harboring a belief in the divine is an effort to understand not only the world, but also its relation to us. Religion is the organization and patterning of a conception of divinity. In many historical civilizations we see the reflection of religion in human creations. Temple architecture is only one creation through which religion and divinity are expressed, but it is potentially a powerfully persuasive medium, which can support tremendous intricacy of expression. Through an understanding of temple architecture, we can hope to have an insight into the nature of divinity in a particular religion.1 Architecture has always had a role to play in religious worship - here's our pick of the best modern religious buildings, from one of the largest mosques in the world to a diminutive chapel built to honour a 15th-century hermit. The mainland Greeks expressed their conception of divinity in many ways through the design and function of Archaic and Classical temples of the Doric order. As the Islamic religious calendar is based on the lunar cycle, the moon became a source of inspiration and a unifying element of the design. The building of somemosques such as -The Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan al Nahyan Mosque- alters character as the lunar cycle progresses, bathed in cool white light at the full moon, but shifting colour every two evenings, and growing gradually bluer as the moon wanes. On the fourteenth evening the mosque is lit in deepest blue to signify darkness - yet the viewer is never able to perceive the building changing from one colour to the next. Church Architecture:The church architecture refers to the buildings of Christian churches. It has evolved over the two thousand years of the Christian religion, partly by innovation and partly by imitating other architectural styles as well as responding to changing beliefs, practices and local traditions. From the birth of Christianity to the present, the most significant objects of transformation for Christian architecture and design were the great churches of Byzantium, the Romanesque abbey churches, Gothic cathedrals and Renaissance basilicas with its emphasis on harmony. These large, often ornate and architecturally prestigious buildings were dominant features of the towns and countryside in which they stood. However, far more numerous were 13 the parish churches in Christendom, the focus of Christian devotion in every town and village. While a few are counted as sublime works of architecture to equal the great cathedrals and churches, the majority developed along simpler lines, showing great regional diversity and often demonstrating local vernacular technology and decoration. With the rise of distinctively ecclesiastical architecture, church buildings came to influence secular ones which have often imitated religious architecture. In the 20th century, the use of new materials, such as steel and concrete, has had an effect upon the design of churches. The history of church architecture divides itself into periods, and into countries or regions and by religious affiliation From house church to church From the first to the early fourth centuries most Christian communities worshipped in private homes, often secretly. Some Roman churches, such as the Basilica of San Clemente in Rome, are built directly over the houses where early Christians worshipped. Other early Roman churches are built on the sites of Christian martyrdom or at the entrance to catacombs where Christians were buried. With the victory of the Roman emperor Constantine at the Battle of Milvian Bridge in 312 AD, Christianity became a lawful and then the privileged religion of the Roman Empire. The faith, already spread around the Mediterranean, now expressed itself in buildings. Christian architecture was made to correspond to civic and imperial forms, and so the Basilica, a large rectangular meeting hall became general in east and west, as the model for churches, with a nave and aisles and sometimes galleries and clerestories. While civic basilicas had apses at either end, the Christian basilica usually had a single apse where the bishop and presbyters sat in a dais behind the altar. While pagan basilicas had as their focus a statue of the emperor, Christian basilicas focused on the Eucharist as the symbol of the eternal, loving and forgiving God. The first very large Christian churches, notably Santa Maria Maggiore, San Giovanni in Laterano, and Santa Costanza, were built in Rome in the early 4th century. Characteristics of the early Christian church building 14 Plan of Old St Peter's Basilica, showing atrium (courtyard), narthex (vestibule), central nave with double aisles, a bema for the clergy extending into a transept, and an exedra or semi-circular apse. The church building as we know it grew out of a number of features of the Ancient Roman period:  The house church  The atrium  The basilica  The bema  The mausoleum: centrally-planned building  The cruciform ground plan: Latin or Greek cross Atrium When Early Christian communities began to build churches they drew on one particular feature of the houses that preceded them, the atrium, or courtyard with a colonnade surrounding it. Most of these atriums have disappeared. A fine example remains at the Basilica of San Clemente in Rome and another was built in the Romanesque period at Sant'Ambrogio, Milan. The descendants of these atria may be seen in the large square cloisters that can be found beside many cathedrals, and in the huge colonnaded squares or piazza at the Basilicas of St Peter's in Rome and St Mark's in Venice and the Camposanto (Holy Field) at the Cathedral of Pisa. Basilica Early church architecture did not draw its form from Roman temples, as the latter did not have large internal spaces where worshipping congregations could meet. It was the Roman basilica, used for meetings, markets and courts of law that provided a model for the large Christian church and that gave its name to the Christian basilica. 15 Both Roman basilicas and Roman bath houses had at their core a large vaulted building with a high roof, braced on either side by a series of lower chambers or a wide arcaded passage. An important feature of the Roman basilica was that at either end it had a projecting exedra, or apse, a semicircular space roofed with a half-dome. This was where the magistrates sat to hold court. It passed into the church architecture of the Roman world and was adapted in different ways as a feature of cathedral architecture. The earliest large churches, such as the Cathedral of San Giovanni in Laterano in Rome, consisted of a single-ended basilica with one apsidal end and a courtyard, or atrium, at the other end. As Christian liturgy developed, processions became part of the proceedings. The processional door was that which led from the furthest end of the building, while the door most used by the public might be that central to one side of the building, as in a basilica of law. This is the case in many cathedrals and churches. Bema As numbers of clergy increased, the small apse which contained the altar, or table upon which the sacramental bread and wine were offered in the rite of Holy Communion, was not sufficient to accommodate them. A raised dais called a bema formed part of many large basilican churches. In the case of St. Peter's Basilica and San Paolo Fuori le Mura (St Paul's outside the Walls) in Rome, this bema extended laterally beyond the main meeting hall, forming two arms so that the building took on the shape of a T with a projecting apse. From this beginning, the plan of the church developed into the so-called Latin Cross which is the shape of most Western Cathedrals and large churches. The arms of the cross are called the transept. Mausoleum One of the influences on church architecture was the mausoleum. The mausoleum of a noble Roman was a square or circular domed structure which housed a sarcophagus. The Emperor Constantine built for his daughter Costanza a mausoleum which has a circular central space surrounded by a lower ambulatory or passageway separated by a colonnade.Santa Costanza's burial place became a place of worship as well as a tomb. It is one of the earliest church buildings that was central, rather than longitudinally planned. Constantine was also responsible for the building of the circular, mausoleum-like Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem, which in turn influenced the plan of a number of buildings, including that constructed in Rome to house the remains of the proto-martyr Stephen, San Stefano Rotondo and the Basilica of San Vitale in Ravenna. 16 The circular or polygonal form lent itself to those buildings within church complexes that perform a function in which it is desirable for people to stand, or sit around, with a centralized focus, rather than an axial one. In Italy, the circular or polygonal form was used throughout the medieval period for baptisteries, while in England it was adapted for chapter houses. In France, the aisled polygonal plan was adopted as the eastern terminal and in Spain, the same form is often used as a chapel. Other than Santa Costanza and San Stefano, there was another significant place of worship in Rome that was also circular, the vast Ancient Roman Pantheon, with its numerous statue-filled niches. This too was to become a Christian church and lend its style to the development of Cathedral architecture. Latin cross and Greek cross Most cathedrals and great churches have a cruciform groundplan. In churches of Western European tradition, the plan is usually longitudinal, in the form of the so-called Latin Cross, with a long nave crossed by a transept. The transept may be as strongly projecting as at York Minster or not project beyond the aisles as at Amiens Cathedral. Many of the earliest churches of Byzantium have a longitudinal plan. At Hagia Sophia, Istanbul, there is a central dome, the frame on one axis by two high semi-domes and on the other by low rectangular transept arms, the overall plan being square. This large church was to influence the building of many later churches, even into the 21st century. A square plan in which the nave, chancel and transept arms are of equal length forming a Greek cross, the crossing generally surmounted by a dome became the common form in the Eastern Orthodox Church, with many churches throughout Eastern Europe and Russia being built in this way. Churches of the Greek Cross form often have a narthex or vestibule which stretches across the front of the church. This type of plan was also to later play a part in the development of church architecture in Western Europe, most notably in Bramante's plan for St. Peter's Basilica. Comparative plans 17 Early Christian: House Church at Dura, Syria, domestic rooms around a courtyard were adapted as a meeting place and baptistry. Byzantine: Chora Church, Istanbul: a domed church with an apsidal chancel, galleries at either side and a narthex. A modified cross-in-square plan. Romanesque: Eschau Church, France: a cruciform plan with apse and aisles, west portal, and side entrance.The division of the Roman Empire in the fourth century AD, resulted in Christian 18 ritual evolving in distinctly different ways in the eastern and western parts of the empire. The final break was the Great Schism of 1054. Eastern Orthodoxy and Byzantine architecture Eastern Christianity and Western Christianity began to diverge from each other from an early date. Whereas the basilica was the most common form in the west, a more compact centralized style became predominant in the east. These churches were in origin martyria, constructed as mausoleums housing the tombs of the saints who had died during the persecutions which only fully ended with the conversion of Emperor Constantine. An important surviving example is the Mausoleum of Galla Placidia in Ravenna, which has retained its mosaic decorations. Dating from the 5th century, it may have been briefly used as an oratory before it became a mausoleum. These buildings copied pagan tombs and were square, cruciform with shallow projecting arms or polygonal. They were roofed by domes which came to symbolize heaven. The projecting arms were sometimes roofed with domes or semi-domes that were lower and abutted the central block of the building. Byzantine churches, although centrally planned around a domed space, generally maintained a definite axis towards the apsidal chancel which generally extended further than the other apses. This projection allowed for the erection of an iconostasis, a screen on which icons are hung and which conceals the altar from the worshippers except at those points in the liturgy when its doors are opened. The architecture of Constantinople (Istanbul) in the 6th century produced churches that effectively combined centralized and basilica plans, having semi-domes forming the axis, and arcaded galleries on either side. The church of Hagia Sophia (now a museum) was the most significant example and had an enormous influence on both later Christian and Islamic architecture, such as the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem and the Umayyad Great Mosque in Damascus. Many later Eastern Orthodox churches, particularly large ones, combine a centrally planned, domed eastern end with an aisled nave at the west. A variant form of the centralized church was developed in Russia and came to prominence in the sixteenth century. Here the dome was replaced by a much thinner and taller hipped or conical roof which perhaps originated from the need to prevent snow from remaining on roofs. One of the finest examples of these tented churches is St. Basil's in Red Square in Moscow. 19 Medieval West Participation in worship, which gave rise to the porch church, began to decline as the church became increasingly clericalized; with the rise of the monasteries church buildings changed as well. The 'two-room' church' became, in Europe, the norm. The first 'room', the nave, was used by the congregation; the second 'room', the sanctuary, was the preserve of the clergy and was where the Mass was celebrated. This could then only be seen from a distance by the congregation through the arch between the rooms (from late mediaeval times closed by a wooden partition, the Rood screen), and the elevation of the host, the bread of the communion, became the focus of the celebration: it was not at that time generally partaken of by the congregation. Given that the liturgy was said in Latin, the people contented themselves with their own private devotions until this point. Because of the difficulty of sight lines, some churches had holes, 'squints', cut strategically in walls and screens, through which the elevation could be seen from the nave. Again, from the twin principles that every priest must say his mass every day and that an altar could only be used once, in religious communities a number of altars were required for which space had to be found, at least within monastic churches. Apart from changes in the liturgy, the other major influence on church architecture was in the use of new materials and the development of new techniques. In northern Europe, early churches were often built of wood, for which reason almost none survive. With the wider use of stone by the Benedictine monks, in the tenth and eleventh centuries, larger structures were erected. The two-room church, particularly if it were an abbey or a cathedral, might acquire transepts. These were effectively arms of the cross which now made up the ground plan of the building. The buildings became more clearly symbolic of what they were intended for. Sometimes this crossing, now the central focus of the church, would be surmounted by its own tower, in addition to the west end towers, or instead of them. (Such precarious structures were known to collapse – as at Ely – and had to be rebuilt.) Sanctuaries, now providing for the singing of the offices by monks or canons, grew longer and became chancels, separated from the nave by a screen. Practical function and symbolism were both at work in the process of development. Factors affecting Church Architecture Across Europe, the process by which church architecture developed and individual churches were designed and built was different in different regions, and sometimes differed from church to church in the same region and within the same historic period. 20 Local Issues: Among the factors that determined how a church was designed and built are the nature of the local community, the location in city, town or village, whether the church was an abbey church, whether the church was a collegiate church, whether the church had the patronage of a bishop, whether the church had the ongoing patronage of a wealthy family and whether the church contained relics of a saint or other holy objects that were likely to draw pilgrimage. Collegiate churches and abbey churches, even those serving small religious communities, generally demonstrate a greater complexity of form than parochial churches in the same area and of a similar date.Churches that have been built under the patronage of a bishop have generally employed a competent church architect and demonstrate in the design refinement of style unlike that of the parochial builder. Many parochial churches have had the patronage of wealthy local families. The degree to which this has an effect on the architecture can differ greatly. It may entail the design and construction of the entire building having been financed and influenced by a particular patron. On the other hand, the evidence of patronage may be apparent only in accretion of chantry chapels, tombs, memorials, fittings, stained glass, and other decorations. Churches that contain famous relics or objects of veneration and have thus become pilgrimage churches are often very large and have been elevated to the status of basilica. However, many other churches enshrine the bodies or are associated with the lives of particular saints without having attracted continuing pilgrimage and the financial benefit that it brought. The popularity of saints, the veneration of their relics, and the size and importance of the church built to honor them are without consistency and can be dependent upon entirely different factors. After the second world war, modern materials and techniques such as concrete and metal panels were introduced in many such places some even in reinforced concrete. American church architecture The split between Eastern and Western Church Architecture extended its influence into the churches we see in America today as well. America's churches are an amalgamation of the many styles and cultures that collided here.There are remnants of the Byzantine inspired architecture in many of the churches, such as the large domed ceilings, extensive stonework, and a maximizing of space to be used for religious iconography on walls and such. 21 Churches classified as Ukrainian or Catholic also seem to follow the trend of being overall much more elaborately decorated and accentuated than their Protestant counterparts, in which decoration is simple. Church architecture shows the values and personal beliefs of the architects who created them, while also showcasing Texan cultural history. Both the Catholic and Protestant buildings showed things such as the architectural traditions, economic circumstances, religious ordinances, and aesthetic tastes of those involved. The movement to keep ethnicities segregated during this time was also present in the very foundations of this architecture. Their physical appearances vary wildly from area to area though, as each served its own local purpose, and as mentioned before, due to the multitude of religious groups, each held a different set of beliefs. English church architecture The history of England's churches is extensive, their style has gone through many changes and has had numerous influences such as 'geographical, geological, climatic, religious, social and historical, shape it. One of the earliest style changes is shown in the Abbey Church of Westminster, which was built in a foreign style and was a cause for concern for many as it heralded change. A second example is St Paul's Cathedral, which was one of the earliest Protestant Cathedrals in England. There are many other notable churches that have each had their own influence on the ever-changing style in England, such as Truro, Westminster Cathedral, Liverpool and Guildford. Between the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, the style of church architecture could be called 'Early English' and 'Decorated'. This time is considered to be when England was in its prime in the category of a church building. It was after the Black Death that the style went through another change, the 'perpendicular style', where ornamentation became more extravagant. An architectural element that appeared soon after the Black Death style change and is observed extensively in Medieval English styles is fan vaulting, seen in the Chapel of Henry VII and the King's College Chapel in Cambridge. After this, the prevalent style was Gothic for around 300 years but the style was clearly present for many years before that as well. In these late Gothic times, there was a specific way in which the foundations for the churches were built. First, a stone skeleton would be built, then the spaces between the vertical supports filled with large glass windows, then those windows supported by their own transoms and mullions.[16] On the topic of church windows, the windows are somewhat controversial as some argue that the 22 church should be flooded with light and some argue that they should be dim for an ideal praying environment. Most church plans in England have their roots in one of two styles, Basilican and Celtic and then we see the later emergence of a 'two-cell' plan, consisting of nave and sanctuary. In the time before the last war, there was a movement towards a new style of architecture, one that was more functional than embellished. There was an increased use of steel and concrete and a rebellion against the romantic nature of the traditional style. This resulted in a 'battle of the styles' in which one side was leaning towards the modernist, functional way of design, and the other was following traditional Romanesque, Gothic, and Renaissance styles, as reflected in the architecture of all buildings, not just churches. Gothic era architecture originated in France during the 12th century. Gothic architecture is a style where curves, arches, and complex geometry are highly emphasized. This emphasis came about because of the true feat it was to be able to create such intricate structures where large amounts of engineers and planning were involved. Creating this feat was meant to be a tribute to god, the more astonishing the church the more commendable. Characteristics The characteristics of a Gothic style church are largely in congruence with the ideology that the more breath-taking a church is the better it represents god. This was accomplished through clever math and engineering. In a time period where complex shapes, especially in huge cathedrals, were not typically found in structures. Through this newly implemented skill of being able to design complex shapes churches consisted of namely pointed arches, curved lights and windows, and rib vaults. Since these newly popular designs were implemented with respect to the width of the church rather than height, width was much more desired rather than height.[20] Art Gothic architecture in churches had a heavy emphasis on art. Just like the structure of the building, there was an emphasis on complex geometric shapes. An example of this is stained glass windows, which can still be found in modern churches. Stained glass windows were both artistic and functional in the way that they allowed colored light to enter the church and create a heavenly atmosphere. Other popular art styles in the Gothic era were sculptures. Creating lifelike depictions of figures, again with the use of complex curves and shapes. Artists would include a high level of detail to best preserve and represent their subject. Time periods and styles 23 The Gothic era began in 12th-century France. It was first coined by historiographer Giorgio Vasari. The era began in north-eastern France and slowly spread throughout the rest of Europe. Multiple styles of Gothic architecture occurred, notably Rayonnant in the 13th century. A style known for its exaggerated geometrical features, making everything as astounding and eyecatching as possible. Shortly after an emerging style was born known as decorated gothic where these geometrical features were being applied to already complex structural forms. Nearing the end of the Gothic period the art style had transcended to being just churches attempting to align themselves with god. Residences, guilds, government buildings all adopted this new architectural style. Reformation : In the early 16th century, the Reformation brought a period of radical change to church design. On Christmas Day 1521, Andreas Karlstadtperformed the first reformed communion service. In early January 1522, the Wittenberg city council authorized the removal of imagery from churches and affirmed the changes introduced by Karlstadt on Christmas. According to the ideals of the Protestant Reformation, the spoken word, the sermon, should be central act in the church service. This implied that the pulpit became the focal point of the church interior and that churches should be designed to allow all to hear and see the minister. Pulpits had always been a feature of Western churches. The birth of Protestantism led to extensive changes in the way that Christianity was practiced (and hence the design of churches). During the Reformation period, there was an emphasis on "full and active participation". The focus of Protestant churches was on the preaching of the Word, rather than a sacerdotal emphasis. Holy Communion tables became wood to emphasise that Christ's sacrifice was made once for all and were made more immediate to the congregation to emphasise man's direct access to God through Christ. Therefore catholic churches were redecorated when they became reformed: Paintings and statues of saints were removed and sometimes the altar table was placed in front of the pulpit, as in Strasbourg Cathedral in 1524. The pews were turned towards the pulpit. Wooden galleries were built to allow more worshippers to follow the sermon. Modernism:The idea that worship was a corporate activity and that the congregation should be in no way excluded from sight or participation derives from the Liturgical Movement. Simple one-room plans are almost of the essence of modernity in architecture. In France and Germany between the first and second World Wars, some of the major developments took place. . Postmodern movements : As with other Postmodern movements, the Postmodern movement in architecture formed in reaction to the ideals of modernism as a response to the perceived 24 blandness, hostility, and utopianism of the Modern movement. While rare in designs of church architecture, there are nonetheless some notable examples as architects have begun to recover and renew historical styles and "cultural memory" of Christian architecture.Architects rediscovered the expressive and symbolic value of architectural elements and forms that had evolved through centuries of building—often maintaining meaning in literature, poetry and art— but which had been abandoned by the modern movement. The Church The Christian Church has many denominations. Churches and chapels have diverse features and worshipping practices, but all value the importance of prayer – both private and communal. Church architecture refers to the architecture of buildings of Christian churches. It has evolved over the two thousand years of the Christian religion, partly by innovation and partly by imitating other architectural styles as well as responding to changing beliefs, practices and local traditions. From the birth of Christianity to the present, the most significant objects of transformation for Christian architecture and design were the great churches of Byzantium, the Romanesque abbey churches, Gothic cathedrals and Renaissance basilicas with its emphasis on harmony. These large, often ornate and architecturally prestigious buildings were dominant features of the towns and countryside in which they stood. However, far more numerous were the parish churches in Christendom, the focus of Christian devotion in every town and village. While a few are counted as sublime works of architecture to equal the great cathedrals and churches, the majority developed along simpler lines, showing great regional diversity and often demonstrating local vernacular technology and decoration. Buildings were at first from those originally intended for other purposes but, with the rise of distinctively ecclesiastical architecture, church buildings came to influence secular ones which have often imitated religious architecture. In the 20th century, the use of new materials, such as steel and concrete, has had an effect upon the design of churches. The history of church architecture divides itself into periods, and into countries or regions and by religious affiliation. 25 The matter is complicated by the fact that buildings put up for one purpose may have been reused for another, that new building techniques may permit changes in style and size, that changes in liturgical practice may result in the alteration of existing buildings and that a building built by one religious group may be used by a successor group with different purposes. Features of churches Churches and chapels have many different internal features, which are designed to help people worship. The features and layout of different denominations can differ somewhat. Catholic churches Catholic churches are traditionally built in the shape of a cross with the top of the cross facing Jerusalem. The east end of the church is called the sanctuary and contains:  the altar – a table where the bread and wine are blessed during the Eucharist  the lectern – a stand where the Bible is read from  the pulpit – where the priest delivers sermons  a crucifix – a cross with Jesus on There is a rail which acts to separate the sanctuary from the place where the congregations sits, known as the nave. In the nave there are often rows of pews where the congregation sit in rows on benches. Around the church there are 14 framed pictures, known as the Stations of the Cross, which show the events of Jesus’ crucifixion. Other features that can be found in the Catholic Church include:  a font – a large stone bowl containing holy water used to baptise babies  a stoup – usually a small basin containing holy water, which Catholics dip their hand in to make the sign of the cross to renew their baptism promises  statues of religious figures, eg Christ, Mary or saints  stained glass windows – often depicting biblical stories or religious teachings  candles – often lit by Catholics when they are praying  an organ to be played during hymn singing  a confessional – a small enclosed cupboard or cabinet, where Catholics can confess their sins to the priest Anglican churches The inside of Anglican churches can be similar in appearance to Catholic churches. Anglican churches are also often in the shape of a cross, with a sanctuary at the east end. 26 Anglican churches are often a lot plainer than Catholic churches, and have fewer statues and candles. An Anglican church will usually have a simple cross displayed rather than a crucifix. Although there may be a font, there won't be a stoup containing holy water. The nave at Llandaff Cathedral in south Wales is, unusually, dominated by a large concrete arch, which supports the organ case Features of chapels Non-conformist chapels are much simpler buildings than churches. Outside, they tend not to have spires on the roofs. Inside, they may have a balcony between the floor and the ceiling to allow more room for the congregation to sit. The internal layout of the chapel serves the main purpose of hearing God's word and singing his praises. At one end is the pulpit or lectern, from where the minister will read the Bible. In front of the pulpit will be a small table used for Holy Communion. The organ is an important part of every chapel. It is used to accompany hymn singing. There is also the baptistery pool in Baptist chapels. The baptistery is situated in front of the pews with a door covering it. This is where adults are baptised. Sacred or religious architecture is sometimes called sacred space. Architect Norman L. Koonce has suggested that the goal of sacred architecture is to make "transparent the boundary between matter and mind, flesh and the spirit." In discussing sacred architecture, Protestant minister Robert Schuller suggested that "to be psychologically healthy, human beings need to experience their natural setting—the setting we were designed for, which is the garden." Meanwhile, Richard Kieckhefer suggests that entering into a religious building is a metaphor for entering into spiritual relationship. Kieckhefer suggests that sacred space can be analyzed by three factors affecting spiritual process: longitudinal space emphasizes the procession and return of sacramental acts, auditorium space is suggestive of proclamation and 27 response, and new forms of communal space designed for gathering and return depend to a great degree on minimized scale to enhance intimacy and participation in worship. Sacral architecture (also known as sacred architecture or religious architecture) is a religious architectural practice concerned with the design and construction of places of worship or sacred or intentional space, such as churches, mosques, stupas, synagogues, and temples. Many cultures devoted considerable resources to their sacred architecture and places of worship. Religious and sacred spaces are amongst the most impressive and permanent monolithic buildings created by humanity. Conversely, sacred architecture as a locale for meta-intimacy may also be non-monolithic, ephemeral and intensely private, personal and non-public. Sacred, religious and holy structures often evolved over centuries and were the largest buildings in the world, prior to the modern skyscraper. While the various styles employed in sacred architecture sometimes reflected trends in other structures, these styles also remained unique from the contemporary of Christianity and Islam, architecture used in religious buildings other structures. increasingly With became the rise centres of worship, prayer and meditation.[ The Western scholarly discipline of the history of architecture itself closely follows the history of religious architecture from ancient times until the Baroque period, at least. Sacred geometry, iconography, and the use of sophisticated semiotics such as signs, symbols and religious motifs are endemic to sacred architecture. Temple architecture A Hindu temple is a symbolic house, seat and body of god. It is a structure designed to bring human beings and gods together, using symbolism to express the ideas and beliefs of Hinduism. The symbolism and structure of a Hindu temple are rooted in Vedic traditions, deploying circles and squares. It also represents recursion and equivalence of the macrocosm and the microcosm by astronomical numbers, and by "specific alignments related to the geography of the place and the presumed linkages of the deity and the patron". A temple incorporates all elements of Hindu cosmos—presenting the good, the evil and the human, as well as the elements of Hindu sense of cyclic time and the essence of life—symbolically presenting dharma, kama, artha, moksa, and karma. 28 The spiritual principles symbolically represented in Hindu temples are given in the ancient Sanskrit texts of India (for example, Vedas and Upanishads), while their structural rules are described in various ancient Sanskrit treatises on architecture (Brhat Samhita, Vastu Sastras). The layout, the motifs, the plan and the building process recite ancient rituals, geometric symbolisms, and reflect beliefs and values innate within various schools of Hinduism. A Hindu temple is a spiritual destination for many Hindus, as well as landmarks around which ancient arts, community celebrations and economy have flourished. Temple architecture of high standard developed in almost all regions during ancient India. The distinct architectural style of temple construction in different parts was a result of geographical, climatic, ethnic, racial, historical and linguistic diversities. Ancient Indian temples are classified in three broad types. This classification is based on different architectural styles, employed in the construction of the temples. Three main style of temple architecture are the Nagara or the Northern style, the Dravida or the Southern style and the Vesara or Mixed style. But at the same time, there are also some regional styles of Bengal, Kerala and the Himalayan areas. One important part of the ancient Indian temples was their decoration. It is reflected in the multitude details of figured sculpture as well as in the architectural elements. Another important component of Indian temples was the garbha-griha or the womb chamber, housing the deity of the temple. The garbha-griha was provided with a circumambulation passage around. However, there are also many subsidiary shrines within temple complexes, more common in the South Indian temple. In the initial stages of its evolution, the temples of North and South India were distinguished on the basis of some specific features like sikhara and gateways. In the north Indian temples, the sikhara remained the most prominent component while the gateway was generally unassuming. The most prominent features of South Indian temples were enclosures around the temples and the Gopurams (huge gateways). The Gopurams led the devotees into the sacred courtyard. There were many common features in the Northern and the Southern styles. These included the ground plan, positioning of stone-carved deities on the outside walls and the interior, and the range of decorative elements. Design 29 The very essence of a Hindu temple is believed to have developed from the ideology that all things are one and everything is associated. The four essential and significant principles which are also aims of human life according to Indian philosophy are the quests for artha wealth and prosperity; kama - sex and pleasure; dharma - moral life and virtues; and moksha self knowledge and realisation. The mathematically structured spaces, intricate artworks, decorated and carved pillars and statues of Hindu temples illustrate and revere such philosophies. A hollow space without any embellishments situated at the centre of the temple, usually below the deity, may also be at the side or above the deity symbolises the complex concept of Purusha or Purusa meaning the Universal principle, Consciousness, the cosmic man or self without any form, however, omnipresent and associates all things. The Hindu temples suggest contemplations, encouragement and further purification of mind and prompt the process of self-realisation in devotees; however the preferred process is left to the convention of individual devotees. Site The areas of Hindu temple sites are usually vast with many of them built near water bodies, in the lap of nature. This is probably because according to ancient Sanskrit texts the most suitable site for a Hindu temple referred as ‘Mandir’ is at close proximity to water bodies and gardens where flowers blossom, chirping of birds and sounds of ducks and swans can be heard and animals can rest without any fear. These places exhibiting peace and tranquillity are recommended by the texts for building Hindu temples elucidating that Gods reside in such places. Although, leading Hindu temples are suggested near natural water bodies like confluence of rivers, river banks, seashores and lakes, according to the ‘Puranas’ and ‘Bharat Samhita’, Mandirs can even be constructed in sites devoid of natural water bodies. However, such suggestions include building up of a pond with water gardens in front of the ‘Mandir’ or towards left. In the absence of both natural and man-made water bodies, water remains typically present during consecration of the deity or the Mandir. Part III of Chapter 93 of the Hindu text Vishnudharmottara Purana also recommends building of temples within caves and chiselled out stones; atop hills amidst spectacular and serene views; within hermitages and forests; beside gardens; and at the upper end of a street of a town. Layout Layout of a Hindu temple pursues a geometrical design known as vastu-purusha-mandala, the name of which is derived from the three vital components of the design namely Vastu meaning Vaas or a place of dwelling; Purusha, meaning the Universal principle; and Mandala 30 meaning circle. Vastupurushamandala is a mystical diagram referred in Sanskrit as a Yantra. The symmetrical and self-repeating model of a Hindu temple demonstrated in the design is derived from the primary convictions, traditions, myths, fundamentality and mathematical standards. According to Vastupurushamandala, the most sacred and typical template for a Hindu temple is the 8x8 (64) grid Manduka Hindu Temple Floor Plan also referred as Bhekapada and Ajira. The layout displays a vivid saffron centre with intersecting diagonals which according to Hindu philosophy symbolises the Purusha. The axis of the Mandir is created with the aid of the four fundamentally significant directions and thus, a perfect square is created around the axis within the available space. This square which is circumscribed by the Mandala circle and divided into perfect square grids is held sacred. On the other hand, the circle is regarded as human and worldly that can be perceived or noticed in daily life such as the Sun, Moon, rainbow, horizon or water drops. Both the square and the circle support each other. The model is usually seen in large temples while an 81 sub-square grid is observed in ceremonial temple superstructures. Each square within the main square referred as ‘Pada’ symbolise a specific element that can be in the form of a deity, an apsara or a spirit. The primary or the innermost square/s of the 64 grid model called Brahma Padas is dedicated to Brahman. The Garbhagruha or centre of the house situated in the Brahma Padas houses the main deity. The outer concentric layer to Brahma Padas is the Devika Padas signifying facets of Devas or Gods which is again surrounded by the next layer, the Manusha Padas, with the ambulatory. The devotees circumambulate clockwise to perform Parikrama in the Manusha Padas with Devika Padas in the inner side and the Paishachika Padas, symbolising facets of Asuras and evils, on the outer side forming the last concentric square. The three outer Padas in larger temples generally adorn inspirational paintings, carvings and images with the wall reliefs and images of different temples depicting legends from different Hindu Epics and Vedic stories. Illustrations of artha, kama, dharma and moksha can be found in the embellished carvings and images adorning the walls, ceiling and pillars of the temples. Pillared outdoor halls or pavilions called Mandapa meant for public rituals with the ones in the east serving as waiting room for devotees adorns the large temples. The Mandir’s spire, usually a tapering conical or pyramidal superstructure with a dome designed adhering principles of concentric squares and circles and referred in North India as Shikhaa and Vimana in South India is symmetrically aligned exactly above the Brahma Pada or the central core of the Mandir. Compounds of many larger temples house smaller temples and shrines 31 that also follow fundamental aspects of grids, symmetry and mathematical perfection. Repetition and mirroring of fractal-like design structure forms a significant principle of Hindu temple designs. The manuals comprising of Hindu temple layouts elucidates plans with squares in the count of 1, 4, 9, 16, 25 and thus, reaching up to 1024. Each plan of different Padas has individual significance, for instance in one pada plan the pada is regarded as the seat for a devotee or hermit to perform yoga, meditation or offer Vedic fire; a four Padas plan, also a meditative design represents a core at the center; and a nine Padas layout that generally forms model of smallest temples has a divine surrounded centre. Although the perfect square grid principle is primarily found in different temples of India, some others hold exception such as the Teli-kamandir and the Naresar temple in Madhya Pradesh and the Nakti-Mata temple in Rajasthan, indicating that Hinduism welcomed flexibility, creativity and aesthetic independence of artists. he Nagara style that is palpable in different parts of India with varied elaborations in different localities has two particular features. The first being presence of several graduated projections or rathakas in the centre of all sides of the square temple, thus bearing a cross-shape with several re-entrant angles on all sides. The second feature includes design of the spire or Shikhara that follow principles of concentric squares and circles and gradually taper in a convex curve while stretching upwards. The Kandariya Mahadeva Temple in Khajuraho in Madhya Pradesh is a fine example of this style. Dravidian Dravidian temple architecture evolved in South India predominantly comprise of temples built of sandstone, soapstone or granite. The square-shaped temple called Vimana has one or more storied pyramidal roof while its cell houses the image or emblem of the God. The Mandapas/Mandapams or porches are built in such a way that these precede and cover the door that leads to the cell. The Gopurams/Gopuras or elaborate gateway-towers or gatepyramids encloses the temples. The Chaultris or pillared halls employed for different purposes forms one of the principal and constant features of this style. Temple tanks, wells, abodes of priests and other important buildings form part of this temple style. The famous Thanjavur temple of Tamil Nadu typifies this style. Badami-chalukya ndian architecture saw an illustrious phase during the Badami Chalukyas rule. The foundation of cave temple architecture was laid by them on the banks of Malaprabha River in Karnataka during 500 and 757 CE. The Badami Cave temples situated in the town of Badami in northern 32 Karnataka dating back to the 6th century is one of the finest examples of this architecture that consist of decorative pillars, finely chiselled ceiling panels and sculptures. More than 150 temples in the historic temple complex situated in the village of Aihole called ‘Cradle of Indian architecture’ and also Group of Monuments of Pattadakal are marked by UNESCO as World Heritage site comprising of architectural edifices like the Virupaksha temple and the Mallikarjuna temple are also brilliant examples of this style. Gadag he Western Chalukya architecture or Gadag style of architecture is a specific style of decorative architecture that originated from the old dravida style and defines the Karnata dravida tradition. Evolved during 11th century it prospered for around 150 years till 1200 CE during the reign of Western Chalukya Empire in the Tungabhadra region of Karnataka and saw construction of around 50 temples. A distinct feature of this style was articulation. Kasivisvesvara Temple at Lakkundi and Saraswati temple in the temple complex of Trikuteshwara at Gadag are some of the temples that illustrate this style. Kalinga This style having three specific types of temples prospered in Odisha and Northern Andhra Pradesh. The three styles are Pidha Deula, Rekha Deula and Khakhara Deula with the first two linked with Shiva, Surya and Vishnu and the latter is predominantly associated with Goddesses Durga and Chamunda. Again the first type comprises of outer halls for offerings and dancing while the latter two comprise of the sanctum sanctorum. The word Deula means temple. The famous Jagannath Temple of Puri and Lingaraj Temple of Bhubaneswar portray Rekha Deula style while Vaital Deula of Bhubaneswar typifies Khakhara Deula and the Sun Temple at Konark remains a prominent example of Pidha Deula. Maru-Gurjara This temple architecture with two notable styles namely Maru-Gurjara and Maha-Maru originated in Rajasthan and its vicinity sometime around 6th century. M?ru-Gurjara temple architecture is considered by scholars as an exclusive Western Indian architectural style that differs distinctly from temple architecture of North India. However, it is regarded to have some associative features with Hoysala temple architecture as sculpturally rich architecture is palpable in both the styles. The Nagda temple in Rajasthan illustrates this style. 33 CHAPTER II Divine Character The Evolution of Religious Architecture Claudio Nieto: Since the beginnings of civilisation, the temple has been the architectural representation of society’s conception of divinity. Several of the greatest construction achievements of all times were accomplished through these buildings. Even though there are plenty of studies on this particular kind of structure, most of them do not consider time as a key element to understand the refinement sequence the temple has experienced. In consequence, this research is primarily based on Julien-David Le Roy’s Plate 1 from The Ruins of the Most Beautiful Monuments of Ancient Greece, which acknowledges the chronological development of temples as the appropriate way to grasp how these buildings evolved. At the time the plate was published, it caused a major revolution on how ‘type’ in Architecture was understood, given that it actually recognised the relevance of ‘time’ for a building’s typological analysis. As a result, studying the plate made possible to critically assess Le Roy’s discourse and determine the accuracy of his principles. Though his analysis is more likely to be based on genre than on type, it provides relevant information about the temple’s evolution which is used as the framework to address the relationship between this kind of building and its progressive architectural sophistication. An enquiry which makes possible to observe how the refinement of the temple is directly related to the way it is occupied. As it became a more public building, it acquired a higher degree of complexity, implicating that the temple’s character is expressed Temple classification by civilisation. Sorted following description from e Ruins of the Most Beautiful Monuments of Greece. 34 Influence exchange among temples. Relationships and development sequence as framed in e Ruins of the Most Beautiful Monuments of Greece. Evolution timeline of the temple. The progressive development timeline clearly shows an increasing level of sophistication in structural systems and architectural configurations. The origins of history and theory of architecture go back to the 18th century during the Enlightenment period. The ideological discourse of this era was founded on the idea that reasoning was the way in which people could understand the universe and therefore improve themselves. This idea and usage of reasoning was first explored by the ancient Greeks, who were considered as a model civilisation. In consequence, intellectuals adopted their heritage in order to establish the new rules of their new ideology. It was within this collective thinking that 35 Neoclassicism as an artistic movement was born, being architecture one of its most representative expressions.1 The ways in which architecture was taught and practiced experienced revolutionary changes – France’s Académie Royale d’Architecture became the most influential school of architecture in Europe. Also, many expeditions to Greece took place at the time. Normally, all the information gathered within these expeditions was later organised and published in books. Among others, Richard Pocoke’s A description of the East and some other Countri , Frederic Louis Norden’s Voyage d’E pt et de Nubie, James Stuart & Nicholas Revett’s The Antiqu of Athens, and Julien-Davide Le Roy’s The Ruins of the Most Beautiful Monuments of Ancient Greece (also referred as The Ruins), embody the effort to explore, study, and share with the world the main source of the time’s ideology. Many of the books written about this topic focused their narrative on the classic orders and how to use them properly.2 However, Le Roy offered a new vision on the subject, a vision which would cause a major revolution, he built an argument based on the relationships that all the buildings he registered had between them, giving less priority to the accuracy of the drawings. This position caused a lot of controversy, his competitors did not receive it in a positive way and tried to affect his career in several ways. On the other hand, French scholars considered the discourse revolutionary and rewarded Le Roy with a position in l’Académie Royale d’Architecture. His work would later influence very important figures such as Jean-Nicolas Durand, Sir John Soane and Quatrèmer de Quincy.3 It was until the second edition of The Ruins (1770) that the Comparative Plate of Temples – Plate 1 – appeared. The use of this kind of drawings was not new at the time it was included in The Ruins (Figure 1-1). For instance, Jacques Tarade, in 1713, made several plates comparing St. Peter’s Basilica in Rome and Notre Dame in Paris. Le Roy first used the plate when he published Histoire de la disposition et d form di érents que l chrétiens ont donné à leurs templ (also referred as Histoire). He made a historical analysis on the evolution of christian churches. His first approach to this kind of representation got expanded and perfected afterwards in the second edition of The Ruins. Plate 1 strengthened and presented in a far clearer way what Le Roy’s ‘Essay on the History of Architecture’ stated since the first edition of the book. A couple of decades later. Perhaps the reason behind the great success and influence that Le Roy’s Plate 1 achieved is that it constitutes one of the first studies of Architecture through type. It had something that its predecessors did not, it was drawn following two ideas: first, the comparative layouts that evidenced architectural elements as well as design premises, and second, the chronological display through three progressive columns.4 Moreover, the two driving ideas combined explained the relationships between the buildings, and how Architecture evolved from a simple 36 hut to a highly refined church. As Robin Middleton’s Introduction to the contemporary version of The Ruins expresses: The new plate illustrating the historical evolution of sacred architecture now has three distinct lines of development: the Phoenicians, the Egyptians, and Hebrews are in one track; the Greeks and Romans in another; the Christians in a third. The aim, though unstated, was to separate the Greeks from the Egyptians and to distinguish the Christians from all the rest. However, the lines of development do follow on, one from another. Continuities are indicated.5 In summary, the ideological discourse of the Enlightenment, together with the collective effort by intellectuals of the time to understand the architectural principles of the ancient world, set the perfect scenario for comparative plates to thrive as the standard mean for analysing architecture. Le Roy’s Plate 1 constitutes a major reference of architectural history and theory during the 18th century, and, according to him, it focuses on the type of building that holds the highest level of perfection and produced the finest innovations in architecture: the temple.6 The plate is taken as the starting point for this research, revising, correcting and completing it. Afterwards, selected case studies, taken from it, will be analysed in detail in order to assess Le Roy’s discourse and study the relations between the selected buildings through a type and genre perspective. The concept of type, as described by Quatrèmere, did not exist until de early 19th century. Therefore, Le Roy’s Plate 1 was no subject of any defined notion of this idea by the time it was produced. Perhaps the plate would have been quite different if a proper conception of type had existed. By analysing Plate 1, the first thing to be pointed out is that it constitutes a study of genre. Nonetheless, at the same time it includes several groups of buildings that can be considered as types, such as the basilica or the cross-plan church. This overlapping of concepts is what makes Plate 1 such a remarkable architectural study and, at the same time, it is what Le Roy failed to acknowledge in his discourse, being the major cause of its inconsistencies. Attempting to define temples of several eras and civilisations as a single type of building is a very difficult task, considering that its architecture changed drastically as it followed different religious logics. However, studying the plate through a genre perspective, clearly identifying all the types contained in it, allowed to identify the typological problems of each type which contributed to the overall sophistication of the temple. 37 Temple of Horus: Massing, Structural analysis, Programmatic analysis Temple of Artemis Ephesus: Massing, Structural analysis, Programmatic analysis Old St. Peter’s Basilica: Massing, Structural analysis, Programmatic analysis -St. Peter’s Basilica: Massing, Structural analysis, Programmatic analysis The comparative analysis reflects that case studies share some common characteristics between them. Yet, these aspects do not work as a rule and therefore cannot be defined as a characteristic of type. For instance, the precinct is an element present in almost all the cases, but it must not be considered as a characteristic of type by itself. In this particular case, a gathering space adjacent to the temple would be a typological problem, an element that was sometimes addressed in an urban scale rather than with an enclosure. Therefore, analysing the urban emplacement of the temple would make possible to detect and understand more of its typological problems. By taking Le Roy’s methodology as the framework for research, the relationship of the buildings with the city was not considered for this study. However, the analysis suggests that an extensive investigation towards this matter would provide a deeper understanding of the temple and its role in society. 38 Comparative analysis of structural systems Above all, despite there are several architectural types involved in the analysis, it is possible to identify a common typological problem among them: the quest for the most possible sophisticated roof. This ‘problem’ produced more advanced and complex architectural elements throughout the evolution sequence of the temple, being the driving idea behind it. Furthermore, the classification of buildings by their ritual performance made possible to identify the reasons that caused this constant typological problem. From the analysis, two outstanding concepts that thrived though the temple’s development history shall be pointed out, symbolism and sophistication. As religious rituals evolved and became more public, symbolism and sophistication increased, being the first one expressed through the parti and the second one through the structure. In other words, it can be concluded that the parti is the mean by which the temple reflects its religious and symbolic significance, while the structure is the mean for expressing its character. Posted by AAPC on December 14, 2015 | Comments Offon Divine Character: The Evolution of Religious Architecture http://projectivecities.aaschool.ac.uk/portfolio/divine-character-theevolution-of-religious-architecture/ Indian architecture is related to the history and religions of the time periods as well as to the geography and geology of the Indian subcontinent. India was crisscrossed by trading routes of merchants from as far away as Siraf and China as well as weathering invasions by foreigners, resulting in multiple influences of foreign elements on native styles. The diversity of Indian culture is represented in its architecture. Indian architecture comprises a blend of ancient and varied native traditions, with building types, forms and technologies from West, Central Asia, and Europe. 39 Hinduism The Brihadeeswarar Temple, Tanjavur, built in the Dravidian style Hindu temple architecture is based on Sthapatya Veda and many other ancient religious texts like the Brihat Samhita, Vastu Shastra and Shilpa Shastras in accordance to the design principles and guidelines believed to have been laid by the divine architect Vishvakarma. It evolved over a period of more than 2000 years. The Hindu architecture conforms to strict religious models that incorporate elements of astronomy and sacred geometry. In Hindu belief, the temple represents the macrocosm of the universe as well as the microcosm of inner space. While the underlying form of Hindu temple architecture follows strict traditions, considerable variation occurs with the often intense decorative embellishments and ornamentation. Main article: Hindu temple architecture Hindu temple architecture is based on Sthapatya Veda and many other ancient religious texts like the Brihat Samhita, Vastu Shastra and Shilpa Shastras in accordance to the design principles and guidelines believed to have been laid by the divine architect Vishvakarma. It evolved over a period of more than 2000 years. The Hindu architecture conforms to strict religious models that incorporate elements of astronomy and sacred geometry. In Hindu belief, the temple represents the macrocosm of the universe as well as the microcosm of inner space. While the underlying form of Hindu temple architecture follows strict traditions, considerable variation occurs with the often intense decorative embellishments and ornamentation. Buddhism Buddhist architecture developed in South Asia beginning in the third century BCE. Two types of structures are associated with early Buddhism: viharas and stupas. Originally, Viharas were temporary shelters used by wandering monks during the rainy season, but these structures later developed to accommodate the growing and increasingly formalized Buddhist monasticism. An existing example is at Nalanda (Bihar). 40 The initial function of the stupa was the veneration and safe-guarding of the relics of the Buddha. The earliest existing example of a stupa is in Sanchi (Madhya Pradesh). In accordance with changes in religious practice, stupas were gradually incorporated into chaityagrihas (stupa halls). These reached their highpoint in the first century BCE, exemplified by the cave complexes of Ajanta and Ellora (Maharashtra). The pagoda is an evolution of the Indian stupa that is marked by a tiered tower with multiple eaves common in China, Japan, Korea, Nepal and other parts of Asia. Buddhist temples were developed rather later and outside South Asia, where Buddhism gradually declined from the early centuries CE onwards, though an early example is that of the Mahabodhi Temple at Bodh Gaya in Bihar. The architectural structure of the stupa spread across Asia, taking on many diverse forms as details specific to different regions were incorporated into the overall design. It was spread to China and the Asian region by Araniko, a Nepali architect in the early 13th century for Kublai Khan. A Hindu Temple on the other hand., should be designed to maintain its ancient aesthetics, mysticism, philosophy, design principle, components, quality, nature and comfort. This can be done with incorporating the Vaastu in building Hindu Temples. In Malaysia, there are no rules to govern the religious buildings. Therefore there are no scale to measure the quality of Hindu Temples. The existing Hindu Temples in Malaysia are of many scales; from icons under trees to medium scale temples. This dissertation, A Study on Hindu Temple Planning, Construction and The Vaastu is to analyse the relevance of Vaastu in building a Hindu Temple, with three temples in Pulau Pinang, Malaysia as the case study. Vaastu is a study related to Building Science hence can be called Science of Building Technology of ancient time, which is also very similar to the modem one. This Science is Universal therefore can be applied to other buildings as well. Latest technology on materials and construction can be incorporated in a Hindu Temple, as long as it does not affect the Vaastu. In order to understand this study, the beliefs of Hinduism, types and characteristics and the components of Hindu Temples are discussed. The study is analysed according to the Primary and Secondary Data. The case studies, the Primary Data are analysed according to The Site and The Temple Design. The analysis of The Site consists of The Sun Movement, The Slope and The Substructures. The Temple design consists of Shapes and Proportion, Measurements, Materials,Construction Principles and Services. All these criteria are then compared among the three temples and with the ancient temple. Other Primary Data are interviews with various individuals related to the study and the data from internal publications. The Secondary Data are accumulated from 41 articles, newspapers, brochures, magazines, books, other related dissertations, websites and egroups. Vaastu, the science applied in Architecture is explained in detail emphasising on the basis of Vaastushastra, which makes the criteria for the analysis. Other fields, which are of nonarchitectural matters but related to the Vastu; Astronomy, Astrology and Ritual Performances correlation and their importance, are explained briefly. The site analysis according to Vaastu is basically good and would reap benefits. But the building itself and the materials do not comply fully to the rules and regulation of the Vaastu. The analysis proves that The Mariamman Temple is the best as per Vaastu. The Sundaresvarar Temple, a recently built temple does not fully incorporate Vaastu in its design. The existing shrine of Thirumurugan Temple is recently being constructed as per Vaastu. The temple built according to Vaastu should be able to provide psychological needs like peace and tranquillity to the visitors. The case studies prove that Vaastu is important but is not fully incorporated in planning and construction of the temples in Malaysia. This study is hoped to bring the awareness of the importance of Vaastu, which is gaining recognition nowadays.2 Defining Islamic Architecture What exactly is Islamic architecture? It might at first seem like a simple question, but in fact scholars have debated its meaning until today. Does it refer to specific architectural features, such as the dome, arch, or vault? Does it imply that only Muslims design, build, and occupy these buildings? Are only religious buildings included in this categorization or does it also include secular buildings used for everyday functions? The answer, is all of the above. Islamic architecture includes religious buildings intended for worship by Muslims and secular buildings built in a predominately Islamic region or used by Muslims. In this lesson, we'll provide a broad overview of historic Islamic architecture, touching on its origin and history, and discuss certain defining styles of buildings and designs commonly associated with it. History as a Distinct Style What is often referred to as Islamic architecture stems from Christian, Persian, and Indian roots. More specifically, the architectural forms and styles came largely from the Byzantine and Sassanian Empires. Interestingly, as Muslims conquered different regions once controlled by other cultures, their early buildings were either renovations of existing buildings or new buildings constructed from the ruins of older buildings. Actually, it was common for Islamic architecture to be quite unique to its location while following certain styling common to Islamic art. 42 Building Types Islamic architecture can include buildings used by Muslims for religious purposes or secular buildings built in a predominately Islamic region. The most important building type in Islamic architecture is the mosque, which is the center of Islamic culture and society. Not only is it a religious space intended for worship, it is also a place for lively discussion about topics relevant to daily life. The first mosque was the Prophet Muhammad's house, which contained many basic design features that were included in later mosques. Two types of mosques are the congregational mosque, which is built to accommodate an entire community, and the smaller type that is intended for a particular ethnic group. While there is no overall unifying style for mosques, they can be generally divided into regional categories. The hypostyle mosque became one of the main styles to emerge. It has a courtyard surrounded by colonnades on three sides. A covered sanctuary at the far end of the courtyard showcases a directional wall that shows a religious practitioner which way to pray. Historically, the next most significant building after the mosque was the religious school; an educational center separate from the mosque. This architectural type slowly transformed from the houses of teachers to eventually incorporate functions such as lecture halls, libraries, residences, baths, and a courtyard. However, there are only a few of these religious school buildings left in existence today. Secular buildings historically included mostly residential structures ranging from palaces to simple houses. Architecturally, there was much focus placed on the separation between private and public space. Houses were inwardly focused dwellings with the private spaces devoted to family life. Palaces included many public spaces for meetings. Other public buildings included public bathhouses, as well as buildings intended for travelers who wanted to rest. Characteristics and Styles While there is much diversity in Islamic architecture, several main design concepts and styles are present in almost all examples of this type of architecture. Let's cover these in a little more detail, one at a time. Focus on interior In general, Islamic buildings have limited architectural expression on the exterior; instead the focus is on the interior. Most of the decoration will be on the inside of the building. Courtyard Another common characteristic is the courtyard, which is both within the walls of the building and open to the sky, providing a private, yet outdoor, space. Not surprisingly, another phrase to 43 describe this architectural idea is 'the architecture of the veil.' It is sometimes also referred to as 'hidden architecture' or 'private,' protecting inhabitants and visitors from the outside world. Islamic architecture comprises the architectural styles of buildings associated with Islam. It encompasses both secular and religious styles from the early history of Islam to the present day. Early Islamic architecture was influenced by Roman, Byzantine, Persian, Mesopotamian architecture and all other lands which the Early Muslim conquests conquered in the seventh and eighth centuries. Further east, it was also influenced by Chinese and Mughal architecture as Islam spread to Southeast Asia. Later it developed distinct characteristics in the form of buildings, and the decoration of surfaces with Islamic calligraphy and geometric and interlace patterned ornament. New architectural elements like cylindrical minarets, muqarnas, arabesque, multifoil were invented. The principal Islamic architectural types for large or public buildings are: the mosque, the tomb, the palace, and the fort. From these four types, the vocabulary of Islamic architecture is derived and used for other buildings such as public baths, fountains and domestic architecture. Many of the buildings which are mentioned in this article are listed as World Heritage Sites. Some of them, like the Citadel of Aleppo, have suffered significant damage in the ongoing Syrian Civil War and other wars in the Middle East. From the eighth to the 11th century, Islamic architectural styles were influenced by two different ancient traditions: 1. Greco-Roman tradition: In particular, the regions of the newly conquered Byzantine Empire (Southwestern Anatolia, Syria, Egypt and the Maghreb) supplied architects, masons, mosaicists and other craftsmen to the new Islamic rulers. These artisans were trained in Byzantine architecture and decorative arts, and continued building and decorating in Byzantine style, which had developed out of Hellenistic and ancient Roman architecture. 2. Eastern tradition: Mesopotamia and Persia, despite adopting elements of Hellenistic and Roman representative style, retained their independent architectural traditions, which derived from Sasanian architecture and its predecessors.[6] The transition process between late Antiquity, or post-classical, and Islamic architecture is exemplified by archaeologic findings in North Syria and Palestine, the Bilad al-Sham of the Umayyad and Abbasid dynasties. In this region, late antique, or Christian, architectural traditions merged with the pre-Islamic Arabian heritage of the conquerors. Recent research on the history of Islamic art and architecture has revised a number of colonialistic ideas. 44 Specifically, the following questions are currently subject to renewed discussions in the light of recent findings and new concepts of cultural history: 1. the existence of a linear development within the Islamic architecture; 2. the existence of an inter- and intracultural hierarchy of styles; 3. questions of cultural authenticity and its delineation. 4. Some characteristics of Islamic architecture were inherited from pre-Islamic architecture of that region while some characteristics like minarets, muqarnas, arabesque, Islamic geometric pattern, pointed arch, multifoil arch, onion dome and pointed dome developed later. Paradise garden Gardens and water have for many centuries played an essential role in Islamic culture, and are often compared to the garden of Paradise. The comparison originates from the Achaemenid Empire. In his dialogue "Oeconomicus", Xenophon has Socrates relate the story of the Spartan general Lysander's visit to the Persian prince Cyrus the Younger, who shows the Greek his "Paradise at Sardis".The classical form of the Persian Paradise garden, or the Charbagh, comprises a rectangular irrigated space with elevated pathways, which divide the garden into four sections of equal size: One of the hallmarks of Persian gardens is the four-part garden laid out with axial paths that intersect at the garden's centre. This highly structured geometrical scheme, called the chahar bagh, became a powerful metaphor for the organization and domestication of the landscape, itself a symbol of political territory. 45 A Charbagh from Achaemenid time has been identified in the archaeological excavations at Pasargadae. The gardens of Chehel Sotoun (Isfahan), Fin Garden (Kashan), Eram Garden (Shiraz), Shazdeh Garden (Mahan), Dowlatabad Garden (Yazd), Abbasabad Garden(Abbasabad), Akbarieh Garden (South Khorasan Province), Pahlevanpour Garden, all in Iran, form part of the UNESCO World Heritage.[29] Large Paradise gardens are also found at the Taj Mahal (Agra), and at Humayun's Tomb (New Delhi), in India or at the Alhambra and Generalife in Granada, Spain Courtyard (Sehan) The traditional Islamic courtyard, a sehan is found in secular and religious structures. 1. When within a residence or other secular building is a private courtyard and walled garden. It is used for the aesthetics of plants, water, architectural elements, and natural light; for cooler space with fountains and shade, and source of breezes into the structure, during summer heat; and a protected and proscribed place where the women of the house need not be covered in the hijab clothing traditionally necessary in public. 46 2. A sehan – courtyard is in within almost every mosque in Islamic architecture. The courtyards are open to the sky and surrounded on all sides by structures with halls and rooms, and often a shaded semi-open arcade. Sehans usually feature a centrally positioned ritual cleansing pool under an open domed pavilion called a howz. A mosque courtyard is used for performing ablutions, and a patio for rest or gathering. Hypostyle hall A hypostyle, i.e., an open hall supported by columns combined with a reception hall set at right angle to the main hall, is considered to be derived from architectural traditions of Achaemenid period Persian assembly halls (apadana). This type of building originated from the Romanstyle basilica with an adjacent courtyard surrounded by colonnades, like Trajan's Forum in Rome. The Roman type of building has developed out of the Greek agora. In Islamic architecture, the hypostyle hall is the main feature of the hypostyle mosque. One of the earliest hypostyle mosques is the Tarikhaneh Mosque in Iran, dating back to the eighth century. Vaulting In Islamic buildings, vaulting follows two distinct architectural styles: While Umayyad architecture continues Syrian traditions of the sixth and seventh century, Eastern Islamic architecture was mainly influenced by Sasanian styles and forms. REFERENCES 1.The Greek Conception of Divinity,Expressed through Mainland,Temple Architecture, Lucas Livingston,November 28, 1998 https://www.saic.edu/~llivin/research/greek_divinity/ConceptionofDivinity.html 2. A STUDY ON HINDU TEMPLE PLANNING, CONSTRUCTION AND THE V AASTU by SUJATAVANIGUNASAGARAN-Thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Masters of Science Building Technology l\1ac 2002, Uni of Malaysia at Kuala Lumpur 47 ‫الفن العربي‬ BOOK I ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE 48 Introduction to this Section This section aims to discuss the meaning, functions and salient characteristics of Islamic architecture. The discussion will be divided into the following sections: (1) the meaning of Islamic architecture; (2) the object of Mathematics and Arabesque into Islamic architecture and what they seeks to achieve; (3) the house and the mosque as examples of Islamic architecture; (4) pragmatism and Islamic architecture of olden times as brought about by the architecture of Al Hambra.We, here seek, to enhance the awareness, both of the professionals and general readership, as to the importance of correctly conceptualizing the theme of Islamic architecture, especially at the present when the signs of a Muslim cultural and civilizational re-awakening are becoming increasingly evident. The nature of the article, along with its content, methodology and conclusions, is conceptual and philosophical, rather than empirical. Islamic architecture, building traditions of Muslim populations of the Middle East and elsewhere from the 7th century on. Islamic architecture finds its highest expression in religious buildings such as the mosque and madrasah. Early Islamic religious architecture, exemplified by Jerusalem’s Dome of the Rock (AD 691) and the Great Mosque (705) in Damascus, drew on Christian architectural features such as domes, columnar arches, and mosaics but also included large courts for congregational prayer and a mihrab. From early times, the characteristic semicircular horseshoe arch and rich, nonrepresentational decoration of surfaces were employed. Religious architecture came into its own with the creation of the hypostyle mosque (see hypostyle hall) in Iraq and Egypt. In Iran a mosque plan consisting of four eyvans (vaulted halls) opening onto a central court was used. These brick-built mosques also incorporated domes and decorated squinches (see Byzantine architecture) across the corners of the rooms. Persian architectural features spread to India, where they are found in the Taj Mahal and Mughal palaces. Ottoman architecture, derived from Islamic and Byzantine traditions, is exemplified by the Selimiye Mosque (1575) at Edirne, Tur., with its great central dome and slender minarets. One of the greatest examples of secular Islamic architecture is the Alhambra. For full treatment of the subject, see Islamic arts.Divine Inspiration: Seven Principles of Islamic Architecture 27 Nov 2008 – 28 Feb 2009. Divine Inspiration; Seven Principles of Islamic Architecture is an exhibition that aims to illustrate the intrinsic relationship between Muslims, their beliefs and how these manifest 49 themselves in everyday architecture. Islam embodies a way of life and serves as a cohesive force amongst ethnically and culturally diverse peoples. There is no essential difference between spiritual and secular art in Islam, allowing the virtues of Islamic architecture to transcend mere form and function. Through the study of seven key Islamic beliefs a cross section of not only Islamic life and practice will be discussed but also the corresponding architectural principles which range from urban planning to detailed ornamentation. The exhibition begins with the primary Islamic belief Tawhid – the concept of Unity and Oneness of God – from this the structure and components of the Islamic city will be unveiled. As the exhibition progresses, it delves into more architectural detail. For example, Muslims are encouraged to be in a state of Dhikr; Remembrance of God, this is illustrated beautifully in the rhythmic chanting, found in the stuccowork and muqarnas (stalactites) vaults of the Alhambra. Each of the key beliefs explored; Tawhid (Unity), Ihtiram (Respect), Ikhlas (Sincerity), Iqtisad (Moderation/ Humility), Haya’ (Modesty), ‘Ilm (Pursuit of Knowledge), Dhikr (Remembrance), will contextualise and shed light on the visible and invisible nature of both the Islamic belief discussed and its corresponding architectural principle. Covering examples from across the globe – discussing their cosmic dimensions – this exhibition will highlight the long interrupted tradition of sacred and scientific knowledge that has gained Islamic architecture a well-deserved reputation of outstanding nobility. The Italian philosopher Umberto Eco once said ‘An aesthetic pleasure arises when the soul finds its own inner harmony duplicated in its object’. This exhibition will demonstrate how that inner harmony is achieved in Islamic architecture, an art form that has consistently retained an intrinsic quality and unique identity, transcending cultural contexts and architectural functions. The physical origins of these characteristics are beautifully illustrated in a series of biomorphic drawings commissioned for the exhibition from the Prince’s School of Traditional Arts. REFERENCES Towards Understanding Islamic Architecture,SPAHIC OMER,Islamic Studies Vol. 47, No. 4 (Winter 2008), pp. 483-510 (28 pages),Published By: Islamic Research Institute, International Islamic University, Islamabad 50 CHAPTER III THE CONCEPT OF HOUSE INTERIORS IN ISLAM ABSTRACT The house of a Muslim accounts as a dwelling place for righteousness, dynamism and confidence. In short, it functions as a mosque, i.e., the place of worship. Angels are supposed to patronize it; Satan runs away from it. The house of a believer is a source, or a cause, of his happiness and fortune. It is a symbol of his robust civilizational awareness, strength and achievements. It is a symbol of his graceful role on earth. What then are the characteristics of anIslamic House? Let us scratch the surface of this Ocean of knowledge about Islamic Interiors Islamic interior designing is about blending art with function. The concept which has its root in the phenomenal structure of Al-Masjid-Al-Nabawi (the second mosque built in the history of Islam), is also a unique blend of designs and patterns of Roman, Byzantine, Persian, Indian and Chinese- regions which were conquered by the Muslims. This very universal blend of concepts makes Islamic interiors a much replicated and celebrated form across the globe. To admire Islamic interiors and their concept one needs to know the various elements that make a building truly Islamic. Islamic architecture encompasses a wide range of both secular and religious styles from the foundation of Islam to the present day. Whilst it does have unique characteristics like its geometric and interlace patterned ornaments, it does draw some influence from Persian, Roman, Byzantine Chinese as Indian architectures as Islam was present from the Near East & North 51 Africa to East Asia.This architectural tradition is predominantly found in two types of places: Muslim-majority countries and lands conquered by Muslims during the Middle Ages. In addition to Arab states—like Algeria, Egypt, and Iraq—Islamic architecture is also prevalent in European regions with Moorish roots, including parts of Spain, Portugal, Italy, and Malta.Though often associated with the Islamic mosque—Muslims’ place of worship—this approach to architecture is also apparent in other edifices, from palaces and public buildings to tombs, forts and houses. Whether religious or secular, however, the splendid style is defined by several common characteristics.Islam as a comprehensive way of life influenced the planning and designing of the houses of its adherents. Not only that, Islam also laid a solid foundation, in some instances in form of laws, for creating what came to be known as the phenomenon of Islamic housing.The Holy Qur’an furnishes Muslims with a comprehensive conceptual framework for housing. The Prophet provided scores of lessons in Islamic housing to his followers while developing the city of Madinah aftermigrating there from Makkah.This framework has been first applied, explained and further enriched by him as revelations came upon him. Such lessons are to be held by Muslims as both universal and everlastingas he is considered as the last and only Messenger of Allah to mankind. And are a part of the sunnah which each and every Muslim is required to follow to whatever extent possible. Islamic Ummah : The” house” occupies an extraordinary place in Islam. It is a family developmentcentre where individuals and families breed and nurture as units of the Islamic ummah (community). In Islam, the house is a place to rest, relax the body and mind, and enjoy legitimate worldly delights. Within the realm of their houses, Muslims also worship, teach, learn and propagate the message of Islam. While the mosque is probably the most important venue in Islam, the house is more than just a place to live. It's regarded as an intimate place of worship, and many aspects of the design and decoration of Islamic houses are done with religious precepts in mind. The Islamic design is not merely a style for decoration; it involves respect for a deeply spiritual way of life. Therefore, there's a difference between Islamic interiors and Islamic-inspired decoration.Most Muslims consider their home an important place of worship and design it accordingly. In this lesson, learn about the main features of Islamic house design and explore some of the most important decorative elements that are used.Elaborate ornamentation, Persian rugs, and wooden lattice 52 windows are all elements of Islamic decoration that have prevailed over time, not only because of their beauty but for their cultural and religious significance. They're conceived in a way to show respect for Allah (God) and the values of Islam. House Design The Quran provides an outline of how a Muslim home should be. Similarly, the prophets have set the example of many different features that should be respected and included in every home. Houses should be as ample and comfortable as possible, and effective ventilation and lighting are very important. Incorporating nature is also appreciated, so gardens and fountains have been part of the Islamic tradition for centuries. Gardens are often seen as representations of paradise, with abundant water and vegetation. Unlike Western gardens, they are for contemplation rather than recreation. The inner courtyard is a common feature in large houses, and it provides natural ventilation, lighting, and also the perfect location for a private intimate garden. Islamic houses as places of worship Inside every Muslim house, there's a space for praying. It can be an entire room or just a little corner but is always away from the busy areas and ideally pointed towards Mecca. A place for studying the Quran is also common and is generally close to the praying area.It was for the reason that the house should function as a leading social institution and a dynamic family development centre, the compulsory prayers, all the rewards that men can procure while performing them in mosques, women at home too. The Hadith literature provides further extensive collection of such statements with Islamic house content. Muslims follow the Hadith with full acceptance as these are the authentic holy sayings and their companions.Even though praying Salah in designated mosque is the norm for contentment in their lives, Muslims do keep a place for prayer in the houses. Rules to Reach a Modern Islamic Interior Design 1. Spatial Planning: Islamic teaching does not provide any direct guiding principle for the placement of the different spaces but focuses on performance of tasks, which inspire spatial planning. Praying five times a day is highly appreciated in Islamic religion and attention to the spatial planning could be influenced by this. 53 2. Zones:The house planning is divided into three major zones according to the privacy requirement including public zone, semi-public zone and private zone. 3. Banned Figurative objects:Rule number one is not to include any figurative objects in the design plan. This means no art with human or animal shapes as well as no freestanding statues or animal figures in furniture or accessories. They decorate with abstract art, landscape or Islamic calligraphy art instead. 4. Colour:Islamic interior design is popular around the world. A large number of Muslims consider the colour green as an Islamic colour. Also, many Muslims prefer brown over black as their choice for a neutral colour. Black is usually associated with funerals and death whereas brown is warm and inviting navy blue, grey and black home decor are the most popular in the Arabic-Islamic modern style homes. 5. Delicate Fixture and Texture:Calligraphy of Quranic verses has had a perennial effect on Islamic design followed by extremely detailed friezes of flowers and geometric patterns. 6. Geometric Patterns: Some distinctive features of modern Islamic architecture include geometric patterns and bright colors, most notably in the tiles known as Zelij. Also, ornamental Islamic calligraphy, open courtyards with lush gardens, and U-shaped entries as well as large domes. 7. Privacy of Homes: Privacy is of utmost importance in a Muslim home. That is why window shades that allow light to penetrate while providing privacy should be selected. In order to bring a shading decorated with Islamic geometric patterns, we add an Islamic vibe to the design of the room. A laser cut screen has been used not just as a functional window, but also to enhance the room.Houses usually have separate bedrooms for the parents, one for female children, and one for male children. Inside each one, the bed is commonly oriented so that the person faces the direction of Mecca when sleeping on the right side or, at least, in a way that the head points towards it. 8. Toilets: When using the toilet, Muslims shouldn't face Mecca nor turn their back to it, and running water is important for cleansing. This led to the development of large bathhouses in ancient times. In modern days, hand showers are often installed next to the toilet. 9. Arched doorways: Arched doorways is the most striking and prominent element of Islamic architecture. The arches (also called the horseshoe arches) can be either round, 54 lobed or pointed, each one adding a spacious feel to the interiors in its own way. These are often ornate with minute embellishments and patterns. 10. Doors should be inward so that the location of bed is not visible from the door to provide privacy among family members. Islamic religion strictly enforces segregation of nonmehram male from female members to maintain privacy. 11. Separate doors are provided for private and public zones. This tradition is adopted in almost all the Muslim countries and separate doors are provided in the main entrance lobby for public space i.e. drawing room; semi-private i.e., living room and kitchen public spaces and private spaces i.e., bedrooms as shown in figure 12. Drawing Rooms: Drawing room is especially reserved for non-mehram33 guest to serve the purpose of hosting. It is placed at an isolated space within a Muslim house so that the women can perform their tasks within a house. 13. Washroom design plays a very important role in Islamic Architectures as certain values are related to its placement. Muslims faces Qibla during prayer, this means that toilet/ WC should not be placed on that direction 14. Windows: Islamic traditions do not allow Muslims to violate visual privacy by looking into neighbour houses through windows, small window have been provided 15. Terraced courtyard is a distinguished feature in house planning of Pakistan. It is provided in some of the contemporary houses to facilitate the female users of the house to enjoy the outdoor environment without sacrificing their privacy. 16. Bedroom. Islamic teaching doesn’t give us any guidelines regarding the interior design of bedroom. But there are some social and ethical guidelines that can lead to better design of bedrooms. Islam religion gives guideline for the placement of bed in a Muslim house. It should be facing Qibla i.e. 260.527164 Clockwise. 17. The concept of Mushrabiya which is an architectural element characteristic of Arabic residences used since the Middle Ages up to the mid-20th century. It is a type of projecting oriel window enclosed with carved wood latticework located on the second story of a building or higher, often lined with stained glass, commonly used on the street side of the building; however, it may also be used internally on the sahn (courtyard) side. The style may be informally known as a "harem window" in English. In many cases today, this has been replaced with modern drawing room in which male and female guests sits together, but not in Arabic countries where they are provided separately. A typical house in Saudi Arabi is known to have: 55 1. First floor is reserved for female family members. 2. Public area i.e., drawing room is connected with semi-public area. 3. Public area is kept separated from semi-public and private areas. 4. Non-hierarchical design of privacy zones. Hierarchical design of privacy zones. 5. Having guest room in semi-public zone. Having guest room in public zone. 6. Have dining room in semi-public layer. Have dining room in public layer. 7. Have one staircase for family and guest. Have two staircases 18. Worship:This precept obviously requires that there should be inside the house a space, irrespective of its size and position, which will be earmarked to function as a place for conducting certain worship activities, both individually and collectively. The followers of Islam are encouraged to have designated spaces in their houses. In short, the house of a believer functions as a form of the mosque, as it were, i.e., the place of worship. Angels patronize it; Satan runs away from it. The house of a believer is a source, or a cause, of his happiness and fortune. Due to the relationships of Islamic countries with the west, Islamic Architecture has been influenced not only by modern technology, new materials and construction methods leading to erosion of some principles in Islamic Architecture. __________________________________________________________________________________ 56 CHAPTER IV (“ ISLAMIC”) MATHEMATICS AS ART ABSTRACT The arabesques and geometric patterns of Islamic art are often said to arise from the Islamic view of the world. These patterns are derived from Geometry, either singly or combined, adorn all types of surfaces, forming intricate and complex arrangements. While geometric ornamentation may have reached a pinnacle in the Islamic world, sources for the basic shapes and intricate patterns already existed in late antiquity. This paper examines the role mathematics played in creating what is known as ISLAMIC ART. Foreword: Mathematics and art are related in a variety of ways. Mathematics has itself been described as an art motivated by beauty. Mathematics can be discerned in arts such as music, dance, painting, architecture, sculpture, and textiles. Mathematics has directly influenced art with conceptual tools such as linear perspective, the analysis of symmetry, and mathematical objects such as polyhedral and the Möbius strip. The Islamic Empire established across Persia, the Middle East, Central Asia, North Africa, Iberia and parts of India from the 8th Century onwards made significant contributions towards mathematics. They were able to draw and fuse together the mathematical developments of both Greece and India. One consequence of the Islamic prohibition on depicting the human form was the extensive use of complex geometric patterns to decorate their buildings, raising mathematics to the form of an art. In fact, over time, Muslim artists discovered all the different forms of symmetry that can be depicted on a 2-dimensional surface. 57 Islamic craftsmen turned geometry into an art form because pictures of people were not allowed in holy places. apart from the algebra, the trigonometry, the optics, the astronomy and the many other scientific advances and inventions of the Islamic Golden Age. Stunning patterns grace mosques, madrasas and palaces around the world. The mathematical elegance of these designs is that no matter how elaborate they are, they are always based on grids constructed using only a ruler and a pair of compasses. Islamic design is based on Greek geometry, which teaches us that starting with very basic assumptions, we can build up a remarkable number of proofs about shapes. Islamic patterns provide a visual confirmation of the complexity that can be achieved with such simple tools. Introduction to Geometric Design in Islamic Art: The principles and teachings of Islam as a way of life, a religious code, and a legal system were promulgated by Muhammad (ca. 570–632 A.D.), an Arab merchant from Mecca. These teachings were revealed to him over a period of many years beginning in 610 and were subsequently codified in the text known as the Qur’an. The word of God, as set out in the Qur’an and handed down in the sayings of Muhammad (known as hadith, or Traditions), forms the core of the religion. The primary premise of the Islamic faith is monotheism, a renunciation of all deities except one, Allah, who alone is the creator, sustainer, and destroyer of life. Islam is Arabic for” submission, “here to the single entity of Allah. The recognition of Muhammad as Allah’s last prophet, a prophet like Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and the others that preceded Muhammad, is also a key element of the belief. Neither the Qur’an nor the Traditions contain specific mandates against figural representation in art. However, both sources take a firm stance against idolatry and the worship of images. These precepts were interpreted strictly by early Islamic religious leaders and exegetes as an injunction against the depiction of human or animal figures, although extant examples of architectural decoration, objects in all 58 media, and illustrated manuscripts belie that stricture. Four types of ornamentation can be found in Islamic art: calligraphy, figural forms (human and animal), vegetal motifs, and geometric patterns. These patterns, either singly or combined, adorn all types of surfaces, forming intricate and complex arrangements. While geometric ornamentation may have reached a pinnacle in the Islamic world, sources for the basic shapes and intricate patterns already existed in late antiquity in the Byzantine and Sasanian empires. Islamic artists appropriated key elements from the classical tradition, then elaborated upon them to invent a new form of decoration that stressed the importance of unity, logic, and order. Essential to this unique style were the contributions made by Islamic mathematicians, astronomers, and other scientists, whose ideas and technical advances are indirectly reflected in the artistic tradition. The basic instruments for constructing geometric designs were a compass and ruler. The circle became the foundation for Islamic pattern, in part a consequence of refinements made to the compass by Arabic astronomers and cartographers. The circle is often an organizing element underlying vegetal designs; it plays an important role in calligraphy, which the Arabs defined as “the geometry of the line”; and it structures all the complex Islamic patterns using geometric shapes. The geometric designs in Islamic art are often built on combinations of repeated squares and circles, which may be overlapped and interlaced, as can arabesques (with which they are often combined), to form intricate and complex patterns, including a wide variety of tessellations. These may constitute the entire decoration, may form a framework for floral or calligraphic embellishments, or may retreat into the background around other motifs. The complexity and variety of patterns used evolved from simple stars and lozenges in the ninth century, through a variety of 6- to 13-point patterns by the 13th century, and finally to include also 14- and 16-point stars in the sixteenth century. Patterns occur in a variety of form in Islamic art including carpets known as kilims, Persian girih and Moroccan zellige tilework, muqarnas decorative vaulting, jali pierced stone screens, ceramics, leather, stained glass, woodwork, and metalwork. Interest in Islamic geometric patterns is increasing in the West, both among craftsmen and artists including M. C. Escher in the twentieth century, and among mathematicians and physicists including Peter J. Lu and Paul Steinhardt who controversially claimed in 2007 that tiling at the Darb-e Imam shrine in Isfahan could generate quasi-periodic patterns like Penrose tiling. 59 These patterns have three basic characteristics: 1. They are made up of a small number of repeated geometric elements. The simple forms of the circle, square, and straight line are the basis of the patterns. These elements are combined, duplicated,interlaced, and arranged in intricate combinations. Most patterns are typically based on one of two types of grid—one composed of equilateral triangles, the other of squares. A third type of grid, composed of hexagons, is a variation on the triangular schema. The mathematical term for these grids is “regular tessellation” (deriving from Latin tesserae, i.e., pieces of mosaic), in which one regular polygon is repeated to tile the plane. 2. They are two-dimensional. Islamic designs often have a background and foreground pattern. The placement of pattern upon pattern serves to flatten the space, and there is no attempt to create depth. Vegetal patterns are may be set against a contrasting background in which the plant -like forms interlace, weaving over and under in a way that emphasizes the foreground decoration. In other instances, the background is replaced by a contrast between light and shade. Sometimes it is impossible to distinguish between foreground and background. Some geometric designs are created by fitting all the polygonal shapes together like the pieces of a puzzle, leaving no gaps and, therefore, requiring no spatial interplay between foreground and background. The mathematical term for this type of construction is “tessellation.” The conception of space in Islamic art is completely different from Western models, which usually adopt a linear perspective and divide the picture space into foreground, middle ground, and background. Artists of the Islamic world were largely uninterested in linear perspective. Of the various styles of Islamic art, it was in Persian painting that a type of three-dimensional space was used in which figures could interact, but this space presented multiple viewpoints and simultaneously featured bird’s-eye and worm’s-eye views. 3. They are not designed to fit within a frame. Geometric ornamentation in Islamic art suggests a remarkable degree of freedom. The complex arrangements and combinations of elements are infinitely expandable; the frame surrounding a pattern appears to be arbitrary and the basic arrangement sometimes provides a unit from which the rest of the design can be both predicted and projected. 60 Pattern formation Further information: Mathematics and art and Girih Many Islamic designs are built on squares and circles, typically repeated, overlapped and interlaced to form intricate and complex patterns. A recurring motif is the 8-pointed star, often seen in Islamic tilework; it is made of two squares, one rotated 45 degrees with respect to the other. The fourth basic shape is the polygon, including pentagons and octagons. All of these can be combined and reworked to form complicated patterns with a variety of symmetries including reflections and rotations. Such patterns can be seen as mathematical tessellations, which can extend indefinitely and thus suggest infinity. They are constructed on grids that require only ruler and compass to draw. Artist and educator Roman Verostko argues that such constructions are in effect algorithms, making Islamic geometric patterns forerunners of modern algorithmic art. The circle symbolizes unity and diversity in nature, and many Islamic patterns are drawn starting with a circle. For example, the decoration of the 15th-century mosque in Yazd, Persia is based on a circle, divided into six by six circles drawn around it, all touching at its centre and each touching its two neighbours' centres to form a regular hexagon. On this basis is constructed a six-pointed star surrounded by six smaller irregular hexagons to form a tessellating star pattern. This forms the basic design which is outlined in white on the wall of the mosque. That design, however, is overlaid with an intersecting tracery in blue around tiles of other colours, forming an elaborate pattern that partially conceals the original and underlying design. A similar design forms the logo of the Mohammed Ali Research Center. 61 One of the early Western students of Islamic patterns, Ernest Hanbury Hankin, defined a "geometrical arabesque" as a pattern formed "with the help of construction lines consisting of polygons in contact." He observed that many different combinations of polygons can be used as long as the residual spaces between the polygons are reasonably symmetrical. For example, a grid of octagons in contact has squares (of the same side as the octagons) as the residual spaces. Every octagon is the basis for an 8-point star, as seen at Akbar's tomb, Sikandra (1605–1613). Hankin considered the "skill of the Arabian artists in discovering suitable combinations of polygons almost astounding." He further records that if a star occurs in a corner, exactly one quarter of it should be shown; if along an edge, exactly one half of it. inscription was added during the reign of Sultan Ahmed III. The tile panels on either side of the door were TOPKAPI PALACE On the lacquered ceiling of the throne, studded with jewels, are foliage patterns accompanied by the depiction of the fight of a dragon, symbol of power, with simurg, a mythical bird. On the throne there is a cover made of several pieces of brocade on which emerald and ruby plaques and pearls are sown. Embossed inscriptions at the main visitors' door, dating from 1856, contain laudatory words for Sultan Abdülmecid I. The main door is surmounted by an embossed besmele, the common placed during later repair work . The Tiled Pavilion is the earliest building of Topkapi Palace, built by Mehmet II (the Conqueror). The striking tiles which adorn the entire building still display strong traces of Seljuk Turkish art in both the designs and the predominance of blue and turquoise. It is for this reason that the building has been transformed into a ceramics museum, where the finest examples of Turkish ceramics from the 12th century to the present day are on display. At the entrance to G’lhane Park is the Alay K÷sk’ (meaning Ceremonial Pavilion) dating from the reign of Mahmud II (1808-1839) who watched various parades and processions from this vantage point. 62 The Topkapı Scroll, made in Timurid dynasty Iran in the late-15th century or beginning of the 16th century, contains 114 patterns including coloured designs for girih tiling and muqarnas quarter or semi domes. The mathematical properties of the decorative tile and stucco patterns of the Alhambra palace in Granada, Spain have been extensively studied. Some authors have claimed on dubious grounds to have found most or all of the 17 wallpaper groups there. Moroccan geometric woodwork from the 14th to 19th centuries makes use of only 5 wallpaper groups, mainly p4mm and c2mm, with p6mm and p2mm occasionally and p4gm rarely; it is claimed that the "Hasba" (measure) method of construction, which starts with n-fold rosettes, can however generate all 17 groups.  Two-dimensional designs for two quarter-dome muqarnas – as a seashell (top), as a fan (bottom). Topkapı Scroll, 15th century Girih tiling in the decagonal pattern on a spandrel from the Darb-e Imam shrine 63 Construction of girih pattern in Darb-e Imam spandrel (yellow line). Construction decagons blue, bowties red. The strapwork cuts across the construction tessellation. Analysis of octagonal patterns in Mughal architecture by Ernest Hanbury Hankin, 1925. 8-pointed stars emerge (lower right) where heavy black lines cross. Decoration in Tomb of I'timād-ud-Daulah, Agra, showing correct treatment of sides and corners. A quarter of each 6-point star is shown in each corner; half stars along the sides. Architectural drawing for brick vaulting, Iran, probably Tehran, 1800–70 1 The four basic shapes, or “repeat units,” from which the more complicated patterns are constructed are: circles and interlaced circles; squares or four-sided polygons; the ubiquitous star pattern, ultimately derived from squares and triangles inscribed in a circle; and multisided polygons. It is clear, however, that the complex patterns found on many objects include a number of different shapes and arrangements, allowing them to fit into more than one category. regional influence and the prevailing lifestyles during ruling dynasties determined the diversity of Islamic ornaments and geometrical patterns. For example, basic 6- and 8-point geometrical patterns, introduced during the late 9th century, are the most pervasive Islamic ornaments. Aside from their originality, the simplicity in construction of these patterns drove architects to use such ornaments in almost all building 64 elements, from floor finishes to minaret surfaces. Whilst the difficulty of the abstract and the complexity of non-constructible geometrical patterns limited their application to accessible elements (Qibla walls, window screens), particularly in Iran and central Asia. Another interesting result is that in contrast to the architects and artisans from other Islamic states, those from Anatolia paid less attention to ornaments and geometrical patterns; they focused more extensively on other aspects of architecture, such as form and master planning. For this reason, only a few examples of complex and sophisticated patterns (aside from the simplest ones) can be found in Anatolia. The relatively stable government and economy during the Mamluk period encouraged architects to design very fine and detailed ornaments that are unique in terms of complexity. The intricate 16-point patterns remained popular in North Africa and Islamic Spain, but only minimally influenced eastern regions, such as Persia, Anatolia, and the Mughal region. Simpler patterns were popular in the Indian subcontinent, which may be attributed to the passion of Indian artisans for symmetrical designs and their insistence on covering all exterior surfaces with ornaments. Such coverage would be difficult to achieve when complex patterns are used. For centuries, Islamic geometrical patterns (IGPs) have been used as decorative elements on walls, ceilings, doors, domes, and minarets. However, the absence of guidelines and codes on the application of these ornaments often leads to inappropriate use in terms of time scale accuracy and architectural matching. Planar symmetries Powerful presence: carpet with double medallion. Central Anatolia (Konya – Karapınar), turn of the 16th/17th centuries. Alâeddin Mosque Planar symmetries have for millennia been exploited in artworks such as carpets, lattices, textiles 65 and tiling. Many traditional rugs, whether pile carpets or flatweave kilims, are divided into a central field and a framing border; both can have symmetries, though in handwoven carpets these are often slightly broken by small details, variations of pattern and shifts in colour introduced by the weaver. In kilims from Anatolia, the motifs used are themselves usually symmetrical. The general layout, too, is usually present, with arrangements such as stripes, stripes alternating with rows of motifs, and packed arrays of roughly hexagonal motifs. The field is commonly laid out as a wallpaper with a wallpaper group such as pmm, while the border may be laid out as a frieze of frieze group pm11, pmm2 or pma2. Turkish and Central Asian kilims often have three or more borders in different frieze groups. Weavers certainly had the intention of symmetry, without explicit knowledge of its mathematics. The mathematician and architectural theorist Nikos Salingaros suggests that the "powerful presence" (aesthetic effect) of a "great carpet" such as the best Konya two- medallion carpets of the 17th century is created by mathematical techni ques related to the theories of the architect Christopher Alexander. These techniques include making opposites couple; opposing colour values; differentiating ar eas geometrically, whether by using complementary shapes or balancing the directionality of sharp angles; providing small - scale complexity (from the knot level upwards) and both small- and large-scale symmetry; repeating elements at a hierarchy of different scales (with a ratio of about 2.7 from each level to the next). Salingaros argues that "all successful carpets satisfy at least nine of the above ten rules", and suggests that it might be possible to create a metric from these rules. Elaborate lattices are found in Indian Jali work, carved in marble to adorn tombs and palaces they often have mirror, double mirror, or rotational symmetry. Some have a central medallion, and some have a border in a frieze group. Girih tiles Islamic art exploits symmetries in many of its artforms, notably in girih tiling. These are formed using a set of five tile shapes, namely a regular decagon, an elongated hexagon, a bow tie, a rhombus, and a regular pentagon. All the sides of these tiles have the same length; and all their angles are multiples of 36° (π/5 radians), offering fivefold and tenfold symmetries. The tiles are decorated with strapwork lines (girih), generally more visible than the tile boundaries. In 2007, the physicists Peter Lu and Paul Steinhardt argued that girih resembled quasi-crystalline Penrose tiling. Elaborate geometric zellige tilework is a distinctive element in Moroccan architecture. Muqarnas vaults are three-dimensional but were designed in two dimensions with drawings of geometrical cells Symmetries are prominent in textile arts including quilting, knitting, cross- stitch, crochet, embroidery and weaving, where they may be purely decorative or may be marks of status. Rotational symmetry of Islamic designs is found in circular structures such as domes; these are 66 sometimes elaborately decorated with symmetric patterns inside and out, as Sheikh Lotfollah Mosque in Isfahan. Items of leafy at the 1619 embroidery and lace work such as tablecloths and table mats, made using bobbins or by tatting, can have a wide variety of reflectional and rotational symmetries which are being explored mathematically. Islamic art exploits symmetries in many of its artforms, notably in girih tiling. These are formed using a set of five tile shapes, namely a regular decagon, an elongated hexagon, a bow tie, a rhombus, and a regular pentagon. All the sides of these tiles have the same length; and all their angles are multiples of 36° (π/5 radians), offering fivefold and tenfold symmetries. The tiles are decorated with strapwork lines (girih), generally more visible than the tile boundaries. In 2007, the physicists Peter Lu and Paul Steinhardt argued that girih resembled quasi-crystalline Penrose tiling. Elaborate geometric zellige tilework is a distinctive element in Moroccan architecture. Muqarnas vaults are three-dimensional but were designed in two dimensions with drawings of geometrical cells. The visual intricacy of Islamic mathematical structures have inspired a variety of artwork -mathematical and otherwise. REFERENCES 1. Freely adopted from Wikipedia. 67 CHAPTER V Medina Architecture of Al-Masjid an-Nabawī – TheMosque of the Prophet َ ‫نَ َب عن‬ َ ‫نا‬ َ َ ‫ن‬ ‫م‬ ََ ‫َلع‬ َ ‫م‬ َ ‫م‬ َ َ َ ‫سل‬ َ ‫ن َو‬ َ ‫بَ َنى‬ َ‫علَ َي ه َال‬ ‫فا‬ ََ َ َ‫ج َََن ة فَ يَل‬ َ َ َ‫ل‬ َ ‫ه َقا‬ َ ‫َر سو ل قا‬ َ ‫ال‬ َ ‫س ج َث‬ ‫صل َ َى ََ اَ لَل‬ ‫ل‬ َ َ َ َ َ َ ‫للِ َم ثل ه م دا‬ ‫الَل بَ َنى‬ “Whoever builds a mosque for God, even the size of a sand-grouse nest, based on piety, [God will build for him a palace in Paradise].” The Prophet( blessings and peace be upon him) 68 A B S T R A CT The Prophet’s Mosque is one of the largest mosques in the world and the second holiest site in Islam after the Grand Mosque in Makkah. Located in Madinah, it was built by Prophet Muhammad in the year 1 AH (622 AD) near his home after building the Quba Mosque,the first mosque in Islam at Mecca. The mosque was expanded many times over the years, in the reign of the Caliphs and the Umayyad, Abbasid and Ottoman states, and then finally in the span of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in 1994 when the largest expansion operation took place. The Prophet’s Mosque is considered to be the first place in the Arabian Peninsula to be lit electrically using light-bulbs in 1327 AH (1909). The original mosque was an open-air building, and served as a community center, a Court and a religious school. The mosque is also home to the tomb of Prophet Muhammad and it is a significant Islamic site to pilgrims for its strong affiliation and connection to the life of the Prophet. Many pilgrims who perform Hajj also travel to Al-Madinah to visit the Prophet’s mosque to performed the ritual of “Itikaaf” (Seclusion and staying in the mosque with the intention of worshipping). Many hotels and local/traditional markets can be found near the mosque. One of the mosque’s most prominent features is the Green Dome; it is built above the prophet’s tomb and the tombs of early Muslim caliphs Abu Bakr As-Siddiq and Omar bin Al-Khattab. The Green Dome is in the Prophet’s Mosque, and was first painted green in 1837, becoming known thereafter as “The Green Dome.” al-Madīnah al-Munawwarah Medina-The Enlightened City The Life of the Prophet: The life of the prophet Muhammad has a direct bearing on the mosque at Medina.The evolution of the concept of mosques as propounded by the Prophet took place with the first and second mosques. His life was full of challenges and it is believed that the God was testing him for an onerous task that would be bestowed upon him later on. His father, Abdullah, died almost six months before Muhammad was born. According to Islamic tradition, Muhammad was sent to live with a Bedouin family in the desert, as desert life was considered healthier for infants. Muhammad stayed with his foster mother, Halimah bint Abi Dhuayb, and her husband until he was two years old. At the age of six, Muhammad lost his biological mother, Amina, to illness and was raised by his paternal grandfather, Abd al-Muttalib, until 69 he died when Muhammad was eight. He then came under the care of his uncle Abu Talib, the new leader of Banu Hashim. Adolescence and Early Adulthood While still in his teens, Muhammad accompanied his uncle on trading journeys to Syria, gaining experience in commercial trade, which was the only career open to him as an orphan. Islamic tradition states that when Muhammad was either nine or twelve, while accompanying a caravan to Syria he met a Christian monk or hermit named Bahira, who is said to have foreseen Muhammed’s career as a prophet of God. As available information is fragmented, it is difficult to separate history from legend and so little is known of Muhammad during his later youth; but it is said that he became a merchant and “was involved in trade between the Indian ocean and the Mediterranean Sea.” Due to his upright character during this time, he acquired the nickname “al-Amin,” meaning “faithful, trustworthy,” and “al-Sadiq,” meaning “truthful.” Muhammad worked as a trader for Khadija, a widow, until he married her in 595 CE at the age of 25. The marriage lasted for 25 years and was reported to be a happy one. Muhammad relied upon Khadija and did not enter into a marriage with another woman during his first marriage. After Khadija’s death, Khawla bint Hakim suggested that Muhammad that should marry Sawda bint Zama, a Muslim widow, or Aisha, daughter of Um Ruman and Abu Bakr of Mecca. Muhammad is said to have asked for arrangements to marry both. He unified Arabia into a single religious polity under Islam. Muslims and Bahá’ís believe he is a messenger and prophet of God. The Hegira or Hijrah, is the migration or journey of the Islamic prophet Muhammad and his followers from Mecca to Medina, in the year 622.The Quran, the central religious text in Islam, alludes to Muhammad’s life which is traditionally defined into two periods: pre-hijra (emigration) in Mecca (from 570 to 622 CE) and post-hijra in Medina (from 622 until 632 CE). While non-Muslims regard Muhammad as the founder of Islam, Muslims consider him to have restored the unaltered original monotheistic faith of Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and other prophets. Muhammad’s First Revelations According to Muslim tradition, Muhammad’s wife Khadija was the first to believe he was a prophet. She was followed by Muhammad’s ten-year-old cousin Ali ibn Abi Talib, close friend Abu Bakr, and adopted son Zaid. Around 613, Muhammad began to preach to the public. Most Meccans ignored and mocked him, but he did begin to gain followers. As Islam spread in Mecca, the ruling tribes began to oppose Muhammad‘s preaching and his condemnation of idolatry. In 622 CE, Muhammad and his followers migrated to Medina in the Hijra to escape persecution, renaming the city Medina in honour of the prophet. Among the first things Muhammad did to ease the longstanding grievances among the tribes of Medina was draft a document known as the Constitution of Medina. 70 Opposition in Mecca According to Ibn Sad, one of Muhammad’s companions, the opposition in Mecca started when Muhammad delivered verses that condemned idol worship and polytheism. The ruling tribes of Mecca perceived Muhammad as a danger that might cause tensions similar to the rivalry of Judaism and Bedouin Polytheism in Yathrib ( latger to be named medina). The powerful merchants in Mecca attempted to convince Muhammad to abandon his preaching by offering him admission into the inner circle of merchants and an advantageous marriage. However, Muhammad turned down both offers. At first, the opposition was confined to ridicule and sarcasm, but later morphed into active persecution. clan’s protection from Muhammad was withdrawn in Mecca, endangering him and his followers. Muhammad took this opportunity to look for a new home for himself and his followers. After several unsuccessful negotiations, he found hope with some men from Yathrib (later called Medina). The Arab population of Yathrib were familiar with monotheism and were prepared for the appearance of a prophet because a Jewish community existed there as well. They also hoped, by the means of Muhammad and the new faith, to gain supremacy over Mecca; the Yathrib were jealous of its importance as the place of pilgrimage. Converts to Islam came from nearly all Arab tribes in Medina; by June of the subsequent year, seventy-five Muslims came to Mecca for pilgrimage and to meet Muhammad. A delegation from Medina, consisting of the representatives of the twelve important clans of Medina, invited Muhammad as a neutral outsider to serve as the chief arbitrator for the entire community. They pledged themselves and their fellow citizens to accept Muhammad into their community and physically protect him as one of their own. The Hijra in 622 CE The Hijra is the migration of Muhammad and his followers from Mecca to Medina, 320 kilometers (200 miles) north, in 622 CE. This marks an important point in the history of Islam. Muhammad had earlier on, instructed his followers to emigrate to Medina until nearly all of them left Mecca. According to tradition, the Meccans, alarmed at the departure, plotted to assassinate Muhammad. In June 622, when he was warned of the plot, Muhammad slipped out of Mecca with his friend Abu Bakr. He stopped at a place called Quba, some miles from the main city, and established a mosque there. After a fourteen-days stay at Quba, Muhammad started for Medina, participating in his first Friday prayer on the way, and upon reaching the city was greeted cordially. 71 The 1st Mosque built by the Prophet at Quba Madinah is also known as Madinah An-Nabi (The City of the Prophet) or Madinah Al- Munawwarah (The Enlightened City), or Medina. In ancient times, the city was known as Yathrib. Located 450 kilometers (200+ miles) north of Makkah, Yathrib was an agricultural center in the harsh desert landscape of the Arabian Peninsula. Blessed with an abundant water supply, the city of Yathrib became a stopping point for caravans passing through, and its citizens were heavily involved in trade. So significant was this migration that the Islamic calendar begins counting time from the year of the Hijrah. Upon arrival in Madinah, one of the first things the Prophet Muhammad wished to do was build a mosque. The story is told that the Prophet Muhammad let his camel loose, and waited to see where it would wander and then stop to rest. The place where the camel stopped was selected as the location of the mosque, which is known as the "Prophet's Mosque" (Masjed An-Nawabi). The entire Muslim community (original residents of Madinah, as well as the migrants who had moved from Makkah) came together to help build the mosque out of mud bricks and tree trunks. The Prophet Muhammad's apartment was constructed on the eastern side, adjacent to the mosque. The new mosque soon became the center of the city's religious, political, and economic life. Throughout Islamic history, the mosque has been expanded and improved upon, until it is now 100 times larger than its original size and can accommodate more than half a million worshippers at a time. 72 A large green dome now covers the Prophet Muhammad's residential quarters, where he is buried along with the first two Caliphs, Abu Bakr and Omar. Over two million Muslim pilgrims visit the Prophet's Mosque each year. Al-Masjid an-Nabawī : ‫ ٱ ِل ِمس ِجد ٱلنِِ ِب ِوي‬is a mosque established and built by the Islamic prophet Muhammad, situated in the city of Medina in the Hejaz region of Saudi Arabia. It is one of the first mosques built by Muhammad, and is now one of the largest mosques in the world. It is the second-holiest site in Islam, after the Great Mosque in Mecca.It is always open, regardless of date or time. The site was originally adjacent to Muhammad's house; he settled there after his migration from Mecca to Medina in 622. He shared in the heavy work of construction. The original mosque was an open-air building. The mosque served as a community center, a court, and a religious school. There was a raised platform for the people who taught the Quran. Subsequent Islamic rulers greatly expanded and decorated it. In 1909, it became the first place in the Arabian Peninsula to be provided with electrical lights.[4] The mosque is under the control of the Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques. The mosque is located in what was traditionally the center of Medina, with many hotels and old markets nearby. It is a major pilgrimage site. Many pilgrims who perform the Hajj go on to Medina to visit the mosque, due to its connection to Muhammad. After an expansion during the reign of the Umayyad caliph Al-Walid I, it now incorporates the final resting place of Muhammad and the first two Rashidun caliphs Abu Bakr and Umar. One of the most notable features of the site is the Green Dome in the south-east corner of the mosque, originally Aisha's house, where the tomb of Muhammad is located. In 1279, a wooden cupola was built over the tomb which was later rebuilt and renovated multiple times in late 15th century and once in 1817. The current dome was added in 1818 by the Ottoman sultan Mahmud II, and it was first painted green in 1837, hence becoming known as the "Green Dome".It is made with limestone. The mosque was built by Muhammad in the first year of the Hijrah (c. 622 CE), after his arrival in Medina. Riding on a camel called Qaswa he arrived at the place where this mosque was built. The land was owned by Sahal and Suhayl, partly as a place for drying dates, and at one end had been previously used as a burial ground. Refusing to "accept the land as a gift", he bought the land and it took seven months to complete the construction of the mosque. It measured 30.5 m × 35.62 m (100.1 ft × 116.9 ft).[8] The roof which was supported by palm trunks was made of beaten clay and palm leaves. It was at a height of 3.60 m (11.8 ft). The three doors of the mosque were Bab-al-Rahmah to the south, Bab-al-Jibril to the west and Babal-Nisa to the east. After the Battle of Khaybar, the mosque was "enlarged".The mosque extended for 47.32 m (155.2 ft) on each side and three rows of columns were built beside the west wall, which became the place of praying. 73 Second Expansion by Umar The second caliph Umar demolished all the houses around the mosque except that of Muhammad's wives to expand it. The new mosque's dimensions became 57.49 m × 66.14 m (188.6 ft × 217.0 ft). Sun-dried mud bricks were used to construct the walls of the enclosure. Besides strewing pebbles on the floor, the roof's height was increased to 5.6 m (18 ft). Umar moreover constructed three more gates for entrance. He also added the Al-Butayha for people to recite poetry. Third Expansion by Uthman The third caliph Uthman demolished the mosque in 649. Ten months were spent in building the new rectangular shaped mosque whose face was turned towards the Kaaba in Mecca. The new mosque measured 81.40 m × 62.58 m (267.1 ft × 205.3 ft). The number of gates as well as their names remained the same. The enclosure walls were made of stones laid in mortar. The palm trunk columns were replaced by stone columns which were joined by iron clamps. Teakwood was used in reconstructing the ceiling filza. 74 Al-Masjid an-Nabawi during the Ottoman Era, 19th century In 707, the Umayyad caliph al-Walid ibn Abd al-Malik (r. 705–715) renovated the mosque. It took three years for the work to be completed. Raw materials were procured from the Byzantine Empire. The area of the mosque was increased from 5,094 square metres (54,830 sq ft) of Uthman's time to 8,672 square metres (93,340 sq ft). A wall was built to segregate the mosque and the houses of the wives of Prophet Muhammad. The mosque was reconstructed in a trapezoid shape with a length of 101.76 metres (333.9 ft). For the first time, porticoes were built in the mosque connecting the northern part of the structure to the sanctuary. For the first time, minarets were built in Medina as he constructed four minarets around it. Abbasid caliph al-Mahdi (r. 775–785) extended the mosque to the north by 50 metres (160 ft). His name was also inscribed on the walls of the mosque. He also planned to remove six steps to the minbar, but abandoned this idea, owing to this causing damage of the woods on which they were built. According to an inscription of Ibn Qutaybah, the caliph al-Ma'mun (r. 813–833) did "unspecified work" on the mosque. Al- Mutawakkil (r. 847–861) Muhammad's tomb lined the enclosure of Prophet with marble. The Mamluk sultan al-Ashraf Qansuh al-Ghawri (r. 1501–1516) built a dome of stone over his grave in 1476. The Green Dome, in Richard Francis Burton's Pilgrimage, ca. 1850 CE Mahmud II's successor, Abdul Majid I (r. 1839–1861), took thirteen years to rebuild the mosque, beginning in 1849. Red stone bricks were used as the main material in reconstruction of the mosque. The floor area of the mosque was increased by 1,293 square metres (13,920 sq ft). On the walls, verses from the Quran were inscribed in Islamic calligraphy. In the northern side of the mosque, a madrasah was built for "teaching Quranic lessons". 75 Saudi Era: View of Masjid-e-Nabawi Gate 21, 22 as seen from the north, the gate with two minarets is Bāb AlMalik Fahd (Arabic: ‫ ِباب ا ِل ِم ِلك فِ ِهد‬, lit. 'Gate of the King Fahd') When Saud bin Abdul-Aziz took Medina in 1805, his followers, the Wahhabis, demolished nearly every tomb dome in Medina in order to prevent their veneration, and the Green Dome is said to have narrowly escaped the same fate. They considered the veneration of tombs and places thought to possess supernatural powers as an offence against tawhid. Prophet Muhammad's tomb was stripped of its gold and jewel ornaments, but the dome was preserved either because of an unsuccessful attempt to demolish its hardened structure, or because some time ago Ibn Abd al-Wahhab wrote that he did not wish to see the dome destroyed despite his aversion to people praying at the tomb. Similar events took place in 1925 when the Saudi ikhwans retook—and this time managed to keep—the city. After the foundation of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in 1932, the mosque underwent several major modifications. In 1951 King Ibn Saud (1932–1953) ordered demolitions around the mosque to make way for new wings to the east and west of the prayer hall, which consisted of concrete columns with pointed arches. Older columns were reinforced with concrete and braced with copper rings at the top. The Suleymaniyya and Majidiyya minarets were replaced by two minarets in Mamluk revival style. Two additional minarets were erected to the northeast and northwest of the mosque. A library was built along the western wall to house historic Qurans and other religious texts. 76 In 1974, King Faisal added 40,440 square metres to the mosque. The area of the mosque was also expanded during the reign of King Fahd in 1985. Bulldozers were used to demolish buildings around the mosque.[32] In 1992, when it was completed, the area of the mosque became 1.7 million square feet. Escalators and 27 courtyards were among the additions to the mosque. A $6 billion project for increasing the area of the mosque was announced in September 2012. After completion, it could accommodate between 1.6 million[34] to 2 million worshippers. In March of the following year, Saudi Gazette reported that demolition work had been mostly complete, including the demolition of ten hotels on the eastern side, in addition to houses and other utilities. Architecture The mosque, masjid in Arabic, is the Muslim gathering place for prayer. Masjid simply means “place of prostration.” Though most of the five daily prayers prescribed in Islam can take place anywhere, all men are required to gather together at the mosque for the Friday noon prayer. Mosques are also used throughout the week for prayer, study, or simply as a place for rest and reflection. The main mosque of a city, used for the Friday communal prayer, is called a jami masjid, literally meaning “Friday mosque,” but it is also sometimes called a congregational mosque in English. The style, layout, and decoration of a mosque can tell us a lot about Islam in general, but also about the period and region in which the mosque was constructed. Diagram reconstruction of the Prophet's House, Medina, Saudi Arabia The home of the Prophet Muhammad is considered the first mosque. His house, in Medina in modern-day Saudi Arabia, was a typical 7th-century Arabian style house, with a large courtyard surrounded by long rooms supported by columns. This style of mosque came to be known as a hypostyle mosque, meaning “many columns.” Most mosques built in Arab lands utilized this style for centuries. 77 Common features The architecture of a mosque is shaped most strongly by the regional traditions of the time and place where it was built. As a result, style, layout, and decoration can vary greatly. Nevertheless, because of the common function of the mosque as a place of congregational prayer, certain architectural features appear in mosques all over the world. Sahn (courtyard) The most fundamental necessity of congregational mosque architecture is that it be able to hold the entire male population of a city or town (women are welcome to attend Friday prayers, but not required to do so).To that end congregational mosques must have a large prayer hall. In many mosques this is adjoined to an open courtyard, called a sahn. Within the courtyard one often finds a fountain, its waters both a welcome respite in hot lands, and important for the ablutions (ritual cleansing) done before prayer. Another essential element of a mosque’s architecture is a mihrab—a niche in the wall that indicates the direction of Mecca, towards which all Muslims pray. Mecca is the city in which the Prophet Muhammad was born, and the home of the most important Islamic site, the Kaaba. The direction of Mecca is called the qibla, and so the wall in which the mihrab is set is called the qibla wall. No matter where a mosque is, its mihrab indicates the direction of Mecca (or as near that direction as science and geography were able to place it). Therefore, a mihrab in India will be to the west, while a one in Egypt will be to the east. A mihrab is usually a relatively shallow niche, as in the example from Egypt, above. In the example from Spain, shown left, the mihrab’s niche takes the form of a small room, this is more rare. Minaret (tower) One of the most visible aspects of mosque architecture is the minaret, a tower adjacent or attached to a mosque, from which the call to prayer is announced. Qubba (dome) Most mosques also feature one or more domes, called qubba in Arabic. While not a ritual requirement like the mihrab, a dome does possess significance within the mosque—as a symbolic representation of the vault of heaven. The interior decoration of a dome often emphasizes this symbolism, using intricate geometric, stellate, or vegetal motifs to create breathtaking patterns meant to awe and inspire. Some mosque types incorporate multiple domes into their architecture, while others only feature one. In mosques with only a single dome, it is invariably found surmounting the qibla wall, the holiest section of the mosque. Because it is the directional focus of prayer, the qibla wall, with its mihrab and minbar, is often the most ornately decorated area of a mosque. 78 Furnishings There are other decorative elements common to most mosques. For instance, a large calligraphic frieze or a cartouche with a prominent inscription often appears above the mihrab. In most cases the calligraphic inscriptions are quotations from the Qur’an, and often include the date of the building's dedication and the name of the patron. Light is an essential feature for mosques, since the first and last daily prayers occur before the sun rises and after the sun sets. Before electricity, mosques were illuminated with oil lamps. Hundreds of such lamps hung inside a mosque would create a glittering spectacle, with soft light emanating from each, highlighting the calligraphy and other decorations on the lamps’ surfaces. Although not a permanent part of a mosque building, lamps, along with other furnishings like carpets, formed a significant— though ephemeral—aspect of mosque architecture. The two tiered mosque has a rectangular plan. The Ottoman prayer hall lies towards the south. It has a flat paved roof topped with 27 sliding domes on square bases. Holes pierced into the base of each dome illuminate the interior. The roof is also used for prayer during peak times, when the domes slide out on metal tracks to shade areas of the roof, creating light wells for the prayer hall. At these times, the courtyard of the Ottoman mosque is also shaded with umbrellas affixed to freestanding columns. The roof is accessed by stairs and escalators. The paved area around the mosque is also used for prayer, equipped with umbrella tents. Sliding domes and retractable umbrella-like canopies were designed by the German architect Mahmoud Bodo Rasch, his firm SL Rasch GmbH, and Buro Happold. ( See later) The Rawdah Today or the Garden The boundaries of the Rawdah today are marked according to the first opinion i.e. the Rawdah is the area between the tomb of the Prophet of his pulpit inside Masjid Nabawi. The Rawdah is rectangular in shape and measures 26.5 metres in length from east to west, although part of it lies in the Sacred Chamber so the accessible area is 22 metres long. From north to south, it measures 15 metres. The total area of the Rawdah is approximately 397.5 square metres.This area was adorned significantly during the Ottoman era in an effort to sanctify and highlight its significance. Today, the colour of the carpet defining the area of the Rawdah is light green and has a floral design, in contrast to the rest of the masjid, which has red carpeting. Part of the Rawdah also lies inside the Sacred Chamber of the Prophet beyond the gold grill and is inaccessible to the public. There are also six pillars within the Rawdah which hold special significance.There are two entrances to the Rawdah which are normally guarded by police officers. The area is only able to hold several hundred at once.The Rawdah area is also accessible to women at certain points in the day. Dimensions The Rawdah is rectangular in shape and measures 26.5 metres in length from east to west, although part of it lies in the Sacred Chamber so the accessible area is 22 metres long. From north to south, it measures 15 metres. The total area of the Rawdah is approximately 397.5 square metres. As previously mentioned, there 79 are six sacred pillars inside the Rawdah area. There are also another two pillars inside the Sacred Chamber which are inaccessible to the public. The six in the Rawdah are marked by large green circles with gold inscriptions. These are: 1. Perfumed Pillar (Ustuwanah al-Mukhallaqah; ‫ )المخلقة اسطوانة‬/ Weeping Pillar (Ustuwanah alHannana; ‫)الحنانة اسطوانة‬ 2. Pillar of the Bed (Ustuwanah al-Sarir; ‫)السرير اسطوانة‬ 3. Pillar of the Guard (Ustuwanah al-Haras; ‫ )الحرس اسطوانة‬/ Pillar of Ali ibn Abi Talib (Ustuwanah Ali ibn Ali Talib; ‫)طالب أبي بن علي اسطوانة‬ 4. Pillar of Delegations (Ustuwanah al-Wufud; ‫)الوفود اسطوانة‬ 5. Pillar of Repentance (Ustuwanah al-Tawbah; ‫ )التوبة اسطوانة‬/ Pillar of Abu Lubabah (Ustuwana Abu Lubabah; ‫)لبابة ابو اسطوانة‬ 6. Pillar of Aisha (Ustuwanat Aisha; ‫ )عائشة السيدة اسطوانة‬/ Pillar of Casting Lots (Ustuwanah al- Qur’ah; ‫ )ال ٌقرعة اسطوانة‬/ Pillar of the Emigrants (Ustuwanah al-Muhajireen; ‫)المهاجرين اسطوانة‬. Each of these pillars has special importance, explained above. Boundaries of the Rawdah Scholars have disagreed about the boundaries of the Rawdah. There are several hadiths that define the During the life of Prophet his houses were situated from the south eastern corner of Masjid Nabawi, where visitors now stand facing the Muwajaha to greet him and his companions, up to the north eastern corner of the mosque. Therefore, they extended along the entire eastern wall of the mosque.From the north eastern corner, they further extended along the northern wall up to the north western corner. The Rawdah would then extend from the pulpit, positioned about midway along the Southern (Qibla) wall of the mosque, up to his houses, which were spread along the eastern and northern walls, until the old Bab al-Rahmah (Door of Mercy).Furthermore, some scholars opine that the narration which reads “Between my house and my pulpit is one of the gardens of Paradise”, the word “house” should be interpreted to mean all of the houses of the Prophet, rather than only Aisha’s house, which later came to contain his grave. 80 Conclusion In the many Hadith’s not quoted here- the Prophet describes the garden of Paradise, which extends throughout all of the areas. But is the Rawdah “Gardens of Paradise”? Should the hadiths regarding this sacred area be taken literally or metaphorically? Some scholars are of the opinion that the Rawdah is like the Gardens of Paradise, in that the peace and tranquillity one feels when worshipping in the Rawdah resembles the peace and tranquillity of Paradise. Others have said that this area is a gateway to the gardens of Paradise and the Pool of al-Kawthar for those perform good deeds in the Rawdah. In other words,worshippers are urged to perform righteous acts within the Rawdah so they will be able to drink from al-Kawthar and attain Paradise on the Day of Judgement. Other scholars have interpreted the Rawdah as being parallel to a garden above it in Paradise. According to other scholars, this very tract of land was bought to the earth from Paradise and will be returned to Paradise after the Day of Judgement. Green Dome It was constructed in 1817 CE during the reign of the Ottoman sultan Mahmud II and painted green in 1837 CE.The chamber adjacent to the Rawdah holds the tombs of Prophet Muhammad and two of his companions, father-in-laws and caliphs, Abu Bakr and Umar ibn al-Khattab. A fourth grave is reserved for ‘Īsā or Jesus, as it is believed that he will return and will be buried at the site. The site is covered by the Green Dome. The dome is located in the south-east corner of the mosque. The structure dates back to 1279 CE, when an unpainted wooden cupola was built over the tomb. It was later rebuilt and painted using different colours twice in the late 15th century and once in 1817. Built in 1279 CE or 678 AH during the reign of Mamluk Sultan Al Mansur Qalawun, the original structure was made out of wood and was colourless, painted white and blue in later restorations. After a serious fire struck the Mosque in 1481, the mosque and dome had been burnt and a restoration project was initiated by Sultan Qaitbay who had most of the wooden base replaced by a brick structure in order to prevent the collapse of the dome in the future, and used plates of lead to cover the new wooden dome. The building, including the Tomb of the Prophet, was extensively renewed through Qaitbay's patronage. The current dome was added in 1818 by the Ottoman Sultan Mahmud II. The dome was first painted green in 1837. 81 Tomb of The Prophet The Prophet’s grave lies within the confines of what used to be his and his wife Aisha's house, the Hujra. During his lifetime it adjoined the mosque. The mosque was expanded during the reign of Caliph al-Walid I to include his tomb. Muhammad's grave is an important reason for the particular high sanctity of the mosque, as the Dome of the Prophet marks the location of the tomb. Millions visit it every year, since it is a tradition to visit the mosque after the pilgrimage to Mecca.The first two Caliphs, Abu Bakr and Umar are buried next to Muhammad. Umar was given a spot next to Muhammad by Aisha, which had originally been intended for her. Muhammad's grave itself cannot be seen as the area is cordoned off by a gold mesh and black curtain. 82 Mihrab is a semicircular niche in the wall of a mosque that indicates the qibla; that is, the direction of the Kaaba in Mecca and hence the direction that Muslims should face when praying. The wall in which a mihrab appears is thus the "qibla wall". Mihrab should not be confused with the minbar, which is the raised platform from which an Imam (leader of prayer) addresses the congregation. The mihrab is located to the left of the minbar. The word mihrab originally had a non-religious meaning and simply denoted a special room in a house; a throne room in a palace, for example. The Fath al-Bari, on the authority of others, suggests the mihrab is "the most honorable location of kings" and "the master of locations, the front and the most honorable." The Mosques in Islam, in addition to Arabic sources, cites Theodor Nöldeke and others as having considered a mihrab to have originally signified a throne room. The term was however subsequently used by the prophet to denote his own private prayer room. The room additionally provided access to the adjacent mosque, and the Prophet would enter the mosque through this room. This original meaning of mihrab – i.e. as a special room in the house – continues to be preserved in some forms of Judaism where mihrabs are rooms used for private worship. In the Qur'an (xix.11), mihrab refers to a sanctuary/place of worship. 83 the word During the reign of Uthman ibn Affan (r. 644–656), the Caliph ordered a sign to be posted on the wall of the mosque at Medina so that pilgrims could easily identify the direction in which to address their prayers (i.e. that of Mecca). The sign was however just a sign on the wall, and the wall itself remained flat. Subsequently, during the reign of Al-Walid ibn Abd al-Malik (Al-Walid I, r. 705–715), when the mosque was renovated and the governor of Medina, ordered that a niche be made to designate the qibla wall (which identifies the direction of Mecca), and it was in this niche that Uthman's sign was placed.Eventually, the niche came to be universally understood to identify the qibla wall, and so came to be adopted as a feature in other mosques. A sign was no longer necessary.The Qur'anic passage (xix.11) that refers to a mihrab – "then he [i.e. Zakariya] came forth to his people from the sanctuary/place of worship" – is inscribed on or over some mihrabs. Mihrabs are a relevant part of Islamic culture and mosques. Since they are used to indicate the direction for prayer, they serve as an important focal point in the mosque. They are usually decorated with ornamental detail that can be geometric designs, linear patterns, or calligraphy. This ornamentation also serves a religious purpose. The calligraphy decoration on the mihrabs are usually from the Qur'an and are devotions to God so that God's word reaches the people. Common designs amongst mihrabs are geometric foliage that are close together so that there is no empty space in-between the art. In Medina, there are two mihrabs in the mosque, one was built by Muhammad and another was built by the third Rashidun caliph Uthman. The one built by the latter was larger than that of Muhammad's and act as the functional mihrab, whereas Muhammad's mihrab is a "commemorative" mihrab. Besides the mihrab, the mosque also has other niches which act as indicators for praying. This includes the miḥrâb Fâṭimah or miḥrāb aṫ-Ṫahajjud , which was built by Muhammad for the Ṫahajjud . Minbar The original minbar (Arabic: ‫ ) ِمـن ِـ ِبـر‬used by Muhammad was a "wood block of date tree". This was replaced by him with a tamarisk one, which had dimensions of 50 cm × 125 cm (20 in × 49 in). Also in 629, a three staired ladder was added to it. The first two caliphs, Abu Bakr and Umar, did not use the third step "due to respect for the Prophet", but the third caliph Uthman placed a fabric dome over it and the rest of the stairs were covered with ebony. The minbar was replaced by Baybars I in 1395, and later by Shaykh alMahmudi in 1417. This was also replaced by a marble one by Qaitbay in the late fifteenth century, which as of August 2013, is still used in the mosque. Minarets The first minarets (four in number) of 26 feet (7.9 m) high were constructed by Umar. In 1307, a minaret titled Bab al-Salam was added by Muhammad ibn Kalavun which was renovated by Mehmed IV. After the renovation project of 1994, there were ten minarets which were 104 metres (341 ft) high. The minarets' upper, bottom and middle portion are cylindrical, octagonal and square shaped respectively. 84 Amazing Medina Haram Piazza Overview and underside view of the shading umbrellas at Al-Masjid an-Nabawi To protect worshipers from the heat of the sun during prayer, as well as from the risk of slipping and falling in the event of rain the Medina Haram Piazza - convertible Shading Umbrellas or Al-Masjid An-Nabawi Umbrellas were erected at the piazza of Al-Masjid an-Nabawi in Medina, by the King of -.King Abdullah bin Abdul Aziz, It is said that this was his own idea on seeing the plight of the devotgees at the squares of the mosque. This project was overseen by the Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques. The shade of the umbrella is spread in the four corners, and the area covered by the shade extends to 143,000 square meters. These umbrellas are aimed Similar structures are built at the square of the mosques worldwide. At Al-Masjid AnNabawi, there are total of 250 umbrellas. The project of 4.7 billion riyals was completed in August 2010, and initially included the construction of 182 umbrellas aligning the pillars of the mosques at the square, and later 68 umbrellas were added in the eastern square, totaling 250 umbrellas. The Saudi Binladin Group has contracted the project's structural planning with the German architectural company SL Rasch GmbH Special and Lightweight Structures led by Mahmoud Bodo Rasch,. As any normal fabric does not provide full protection from ultraviolet rays of the Sun- PTFE fabric was chosen to meet the exceptional requirements. The fabric is characterized by high resistance to tensile strength, wind strength, and its elasticity, chromatic stability, fire resistance, effective shading and suitable light penetration.Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) is a synthetic fluoropolymer of tetrafluoroethylene. Being hydrophobic, non-wetting, high density and resistant to high temperatures, PTFE is an incredibly versatile material with a wide variety of applications, though it's perhaps best-known for its non-stick properties. This highly durable PTFE white fabric was developed by SEFAR Architecture specifically for the project. The shade is painted in white color due to the intensity of light, and a sandy texture was chosen instead of smooth because strong permeability could dazzle people under the umbrellas. In addition, the underside was decorated with oriental motifs made of blue PTFE stripes. 85 86 87 CHAPTER VI The Architecture of Al Hambra ( al-Qal'at al-Ħamrā' = "the red fortress") ‫ٱ ْلح ْم ْرا ء ا ْلقْ ْلعْة‬ From me you are welcomed morning and evening by the tongues of blessing, prosperity, happiness and friendship¨ ¨has decorated me with the robes of his glory and excellence without disguise and has made me the throne of his empire may its eminence be upheld by the master of divine glory and the celestial throne¨ Inscription on the walls ****** Introduction: The Al Hambra or al-Qal'at al-Ħamrā' - "the red fortress" an Arab citadel and palace situated in the Andalusian region of the State of Granada, Spain, is the most renowned building of the Islamic historical legacy-the astonishing achievements of Muslim scholars, scientists, craftsmen, and traders during the few hundred years or so that are called the Golden Age during 750 to 950 AD when the territory of the Muslim Empire encompassed present-day Iran, Syria, Iraq, Egypt, Palestine, North Africa, Spain, and parts of Turkey and drew to Baghdad; producing unparallel intellectual traditions. Apart from that it is the only medieval palace in the world (not just Islamic) which has arrived 882 intact to the present day. The beginning of Islamic conquests of what is known as Spain or Hispania(in those days) began on April 30, 711, Muslim General Tariq ibn-Ziyad landed at Gibraltar and by the end of the campaign most of the Iberian Peninsula were brought under Islamic rule. The importance of this region stems from the fact that many Andalusians participated in the expedition of Christopher Columbus on 3 August 1492 that ended up in the Europeans learning of the existence of the Americas which ended the Middle Ages and signalled the beginning of modernity. Contacts between Spain and the Americas, including royal administration and the shipping trade of Spanish colonies for over three hundred years, came almost exclusively through Andalusia. This conquestorial period lasted till the 10 year Granada war between 1482 and 1491, during the reign of the Catholic Christian monarchs Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon, against the Islamic Nasrid dynasty's Emirate of Granada. It ended with the defeat of Granada and its annexation by Castile, ending all Islamic rule on the Iberian peninsula.. This romantic region’s- Granada's- most emblematic monument and one of the most visited in Spain is the walled city of Alhambra or "palace city" declared a World Heritage site by UNESCO in 1984. 740 metres (2,430 ft) in length by 205 metres (670 ft) at its greatest width, it extends from west-northwest to east-southeast and covers an area of about 142,000 square metres (1,530,000 sq ft) or 35 acres. Alhambra castle complex occupies a small plateau on the south-eastern border of the with buildings may have existed before the arrival of the Moors. On January 2, 1492, Muhammad XII of Granada (King Boabdil) surrendered the Emirate of Granada, the city the Alhambra palace to the Castilian forces. 89 of Granada, and The Alhambra’s architectural importance stems from the fact that it is a reflection of the culture of the last centuries of the Muslim rule of Al Andalus – the Andalusian region of Granada. Completed towards the end of Muslim rule of Spain by Muhammed V, Sultan of Granada (1353–1391. It is a place where artists and intellectuals had taken refuge. It is therefore a testament to Moorish culture in Spain and the skills of Muslim, Jewish, and Christian artisans, craftsmen, and builders of their era. It is said that Muhammad, the major builder of the complex, entered Granada in May 1238 dressed like a Sufi, in a plain wool cap, coarse clothes and sandals, took up residence in the Castle (Al-cazaba ) built by the Zirids in the 11th century; then inspected an area known as Al-Hamra, where there was a small fortress, and laid the foundations there for his future residence and fortress. Soon work began on defensive structures, an irrigation dam, and a dike. The construction would last into the reigns of his successors, and the complex would be known as the Alhambra and would become the residence of all Nasrid rulers up to the surrender of Granada in 1492. The necessary funds for the construction of Alhambra were collected as Tax and also used money sent by the Hafsid ruler of Tunis—intended for defence against the Christians. First reference: The first reference to the Qal‘at al-Ḥamra was during the battles between the Arabs and the Muladies (people of mixed Arab and European descent) during the rule of the ‘Abdullah ibn Muhammad (r. 888–912). In one particularly fierce and bloody skirmish, the Muladies soundly defeated the Arabs, who were then forced to take shelter in a primitive red castle located in the province of Elvira, 90 presently located in Granada. According to surviving documents from the era, the red castle was quite small, and its walls were not capable of deterring an army intent on conquering. The castle was then largely ignored until the eleventh century, when its ruins were renovated and rebuilt by Samuel ibn Naghrela, vizier to the emir Badis ben Habus of the Zirid Dynasty of Al Andalus, in an attempt to preserve the small Jewish settlement also located on the natural plateau, Sabikah Hill. This year, 1238, Abdallah ibn al-Ahmar climbed to the place called "the Alhambra" inspected it, laid out the foundations of a castle and left someone in charge of its construction. The design included plans for six palaces, five of which were grouped in the northeast quadrant forming a royal quarter, two circuit towers, and numerous bathhouses. During the reign of the Nasrid Dynasty, the Alhambra was transformed into a palatine city, complete with an irrigation system composed of acequias for the gardens of the Generalife located outside the fortress. Previously, the old Alhambra structure had been dependent upon rainwater collected from a cistern and from what could be brought up from the Albaicín. The creation of the Sultan's Canal solidified the identity of the Alhambra as a palace-city rather than a defensive and ascetic structure. The hydraulic system includes two long water channels and several sophisticated elevation devices to bring water onto the plateau. Preceding to this early on in the 11th century the Castle of the Alhambra had been developed as a walled town which became a military stronghold that dominated the whole city but the royal residence was established by Muhammad marking the beginning of its halcyon days. The Alhambra became palace, citadel and fortress, and was the residence of the Nasrid sultans and their senior officials, including servants of the court and elite soldiers (13th–14th centuries).Islamic rule in the Iberian peninsula lasted for varying periods ranging from only 28 years in the extreme northwest (Galicia) to 781 years in the area surrounding the city of Granada in the southeast. This Empire added contributions to society such as libraries, schools, public bathrooms, literature, poetry, and architecture. This work was mainly developed through the unification of people of all 91 faiths. The Alhambra is an example of Muslim art in its final European stages, relatively uninfluenced by the direct Byzantine influences found in the Mezquita of Córdoba. In 1492 the Catholic Monarchs, Ferdinand and Isabela, expelled the final Moors from the city of Granada establishing a permanent residency in the Alhambra, and it was here that Christopher Columbus requested royal endorsement for his westward expedition that year. The Catholic Monarchs altered some rooms of the Alhambra after the conquest of the city in 1492, yet in 1527 Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor wanted to construct a permanent residence befitting an emperor and demolished parts of the architectural complex to build a Palace which bears his name, Charles V. Around 1537 he ordered the construction of the Peinador de la Reina, or Queen's dressing room, where his wife Isabel lived, over the Tower of Abu l-Hayyay. TOPOGRAPHY: According to the site's current architect, Pedro Salmeron Escobar, the Alhambra evolved organically over a period of several centuries from the ancient hilltop fortress defined by a narrow promontory carved by the river Daro and overlooking the Vega or Plain of Granada as it 92 descends from the Sierra Nevada. The red earth from which the fortress is constructed is a granular aggregate held together by a medium of red clay which gives the resulting layered brick- and stonereinforced construction its characteristic hue and is at the root of the name of 'the Red Hill' The palace and fortress complex located in was originally constructed as a small fortress in AD 889 on the remains of Roman fortifications, and then largely ignored until its ruins were renovated and rebuilt in the mid-13th century by the Nasrid emir Mohammed ben Al-Ahmar of the Granada, described above, who built its current palace and walls. It was converted into a royal palace in 1333 by Yusuf I, Sultan of Granada. After the conclusion of the Christian Reconquista in 1492, the site became the Royal Court of Ferdinand and Isabella (where Christopher Columbus received royal endorsement for his expedition), and the palaces were partially altered in the Renaissance style. In 1526 Charles I & V commissioned a new Renaissance palace better befitting the Holy Roman Emperor in the revolutionary Mannerist style influenced by humanist philosophy in direct juxtaposition with the Nasrid Andalusian architecture, but it was ultimately never completed due to Morisco rebellions in Granada. Alhambra's last flowering of Islamic palaces was built for the last Muslim emirs in Spain during the decline of the Nasrid dynasty, who were increasingly subject to the Christian Kings of Castile. After being allowed to fall into disrepair for centuries, the buildings occupied by squatters, Alhambra was rediscovered following the defeat of Napoleon, who had conducted retaliatory destruction of the site. The rediscoverers were first British intellectuals and then other north European Romantic travelers. It is now one of Spain's major tourist attractions, exhibiting the country's most significant and wellknown Islamic architecture, together with 16th-century and later Christian building and garden interventions. The Alhambra is a UNESCO World Heritage Site and the inspiration for many songs and stories. What the Moorish poets described as "a pearl set in emeralds", (an allusion to the red color of its buildings and the woods around them) was designed with the mountainous site in mind and many forms of technology were considered. The Moors planted -Alameda de la Alhambra-the park with roses and when overgrown it is covered with wildflowers and grass in the spring, and roses, oranges, and myrtles. Its most characteristic feature today, however, is the dense wood of English elms brought by the Duke of Wellington in 1812.The park has a multitude of nightingales and is usually filled with the sound of running water from several fountains and cascades. These are supplied through a conduit 8 km (5.0 mi) long, which is connected with the Darro at the monastery of Jesus del Valle above Granada. Despite long neglect, willful vandalism, and some ill-judged restoration, the Alhambra endures as an atypical example of Islamic influenced architecture no matter that later Catholic rulers left their impressions on the architectural texture of the expansions of these grand dwellings. The Emirate of 93 Granada which Muhammad founded, and the Nasrid royal house, lasted for two more centuries until it was annexed by Castile in 1492. His other legacy was the construction of the Alhambra, his residence in Granada. His successors would continue to build the palace and fortress complex and reside there, and it has lasted to the present day as the architectural legacy of the emirate. Most of the palace buildings are quadrangular in plan, with all the rooms opening on to a central court, and the whole reached its present size simply by the gradual addition of new quadrangles, designed on the same principle, though varying in dimensions, and connected with each other by smaller rooms and passages. Alhambra was extended by the different Muslim rulers who lived in the complex. However, each new section that was added followed the consistent theme of "paradise on earth". Column arcades, fountains with running water, and reflecting pools were used to add to the aesthetic and functional complexity. In every case, the exterior was left plain and austere. Sun and wind were freely admitted. Blue, red, and a golden yellow, all somewhat faded through lapse of time and exposure, are the colors chiefly employed. The name Alhambra means the red one or the red castle, which refers to the sundried bricks that the outer wall is made of. The decoration consists for the upper part of the walls, as a rule, of Arabic inscriptions—mostly poems by Ibn Zamrak and others praising the palace—that are manipulated into geometrical patterns with vegetal background set onto an arabesque setting ("Ataurique"). Much of this ornament is carved stucco (plaster) rather than stone. Tile mosaics ("alicatado"), with complicated mathematical patterns ("tracería", most precisely "lacería"), are largely used as panelling for the lower part. Metal was also not present very mainly. Similar designs are displayed on wooden ceilings (Alfarje). Muqarnas are the main elements for vaulting with stucco, and some of the most accomplished dome examples of this kind are in the Court of the Lions halls. The palace complex is designed in the Nasrid style, the last blooming of Islamic Art in the Iberian Peninsula, that had a great influence on the Maghreb to the present day, and on contemporary Mudejar Art, which is characteristic of western elements reinterpreted into Islamic forms and widely popular during the Reconquista in Spain. Decorations: The decoration within the palaces comes from the last great period of Andalusian art in Granada. With little of the Byzantine influence of contemporary Abassid architecture, artists endlessly reproduced the same forms and trends, creating a new style that developed over the course of the Nasrid Dynasty. The Nasrids used freely all the stylistic elements that had been created and developed during eight centuries of Muslim rule in the Peninsula, including the Caliphate horseshoe arch, the Almohad sebka (a grid of rhombuses), the Almoravid palm, and unique combinations of them, as well as innovations such as stilted arches and muqarnas (stalactite ceiling decorations). Structurally, the design is simple and does not evince significant innovation. While artistically pleasing it was until the 94 reconquest structurally ad hoc and reliant on the skills of subject artisans and workers. Columns and muqarnas appear in several chambers, and the interiors of numerous palaces are decorated with arabesques and calligraphy. The arabesques of the interior are ascribed to, among other sultans, Yusuf I, Mohammed V, and Ismail I, Sultan of Granada. However, after the Christian conquest of the city in 1492, the conquerors began to alter the Alhambra. The open work was filled up with whitewash, the painting and gilding effaced, and the furniture soiled, torn, or removed.[3] Charles I (1516–1556) rebuilt portions in the Renaissance style of the period and destroyed the greater part of the winter palace to make room for a Renaissance-style structure which was never completed. Philip V (1700–1746) Italianized the rooms and completed his palace in the middle of what had been the Moorish building; he had partitions constructed which blocked up whole apartments. This crude earthiness is counterpointed by the startling fine alabaster white stucco work of the famous interiors Meltwater from the 'Snowy Mountains' is drawn across an arched vault at the eastern tip of the Torre del Agua ('Water Tower') and channeled through the citadel via a complex system of conduits (acequia) and water tanks (los albercones) which create the celebrated interplay of light, sound and surface. Alhambra is about 740 meters (2,430 ft) in length by 205 meters (670 ft) at its greatest width. It extends from west-northwest to east-southeast and covers an area of about 142,000 square meters (1,530,000 sq. ft) or 35 acres. The Alhambra's most westerly feature is the Alcavala (citadel), a strongly fortified position built to protect the original post-Roman districts of Iliberri, now 'Centro', and Gárnata al- yahūd ('Granada of the Jews', now Realejo, and the Moorish suburb of El Albayzín. Due to touristic demand, modern access runs contrary to the original sequence which began from a principal access via the Puerta de la Justicia (Gate of Justice) onto a large souk or public market square facing the Alcazaba, now subdivided and obscured by later Christian-era development.[8] From the Puerta del Vino (Wine Gate) ran the Calle Real (Royal Street) dividing the Alhambra along its axial spine into a southern residential quarter, with mosques, hammams (bathhouses) and diverse functional establishments, and a greater northern portion, occupied by several palaces of the nobility with extensive landscaped gardens commanding views over the Albayzin. All of this was subservient to the great Tower of the Ambassadors in the Palacio Comares, which acted as the royal audience chamber and throne room with its three arched windows dominating the city. The private, internalized universe of the Palacio de Los Leones (Palace of the Lions) adjoins the public spaces at right angles (see Plan illustration) but was originally connected only by the function of the Royal Baths, the Eye of Aixa's Room serving as the exquisitely decorated focus of meditation and authority overlooking the refined garden of Lindaraja/Daraxa toward the city. 95 The rest of the plateau comprises a number of earlier and later Moorish palaces, enclosed by a fortified wall, with thirteen defensive towers, some such as the Torres de la Infanta and Cattiva containing elaborate vertical palaces in miniature. The river Darro passes through a ravine on the north and divides the plateau from the Albaicín district of Granada. Similarly, the Assabica Valley, containing the Alhambra Park, lies on the west and south, and, beyond this valley, the almost parallel ridge of Monte Mauror separates it from the Antequeruela district. Another ravine separates it from the Generalife, the summer pleasure gardens of the emir. Escobar notes that the later planting of deciduous elms obscures the overall perception of the layout, so a better reading of the original landscape is given in winter when the trees are bare. Main Structure: The Alhambra resembles many medieval Christian strongholds in its threefold arrangement as a castle, a palace and a residential annex for subordinates. The alcazaba or citadel, its oldest part, is built on the isolated and precipitous foreland which terminates the plateau on the northwest. All that remains are its massive outer walls, towers and ramparts. On its watchtower, the 25 m (85 ft) high Torre de la Vela, the flag of Ferdinand and Isabella was first raised as a symbol of the Spanish conquest of Granada on 2 January 1492.[3] A turret containing a large bell was added in the 18th century and restored after being damaged by lightning in 1881. Beyond the Alcazaba is the palace of the Moorish rulers, The Nasrid Palaces or Alhambra proper, and beyond this is the Alhambra Alta (Upper Alhambra), originally occupied by officials and courtiers. Access from the city to the Alhambra Park is afforded by the Puerta de las Granadas (Gate of Pomegranates), a triumphal arch dating from the 15th century. A steep ascent leads past the Pillar of Charles V, a fountain erected in 1554, to the main entrance of the Alhambra. This is the Puerta de la Justicia (Gate of Justice), a massive horseshoe archway surmounted by a square tower and used by the Moors as an informal court of justice. The hand of Fatima, with fingers outstretched as a talisman against the evil eye, is carved above this gate on the exterior; a key, the symbol of authority, occupies the corresponding place on the interior. A narrow passage leads inward to the Plaza de los Aljibes (Place of the Cisterns), a broad open space which divides the Alcazaba from the Moorish palace. To the left of the passage rises the Torre del Vino (Wine Tower), built in 1345 and used in the 16th century as a cellar. On the right is the palace of Charles V, a smaller Renaissance building, to construct which part of the Alhambra, including the original main entrance, was torn down. Jennat al Arif -Generalife- It is the outlying set of buildings connected to the Alhambra, of which the foremost is the Palacio de Generalife or Gineralife (the Muslim Jennat al Arif, "Garden of Arif," or "Garden of the Architect"). This villa dates from the beginning of the 14th century but has been restored several times. The Villa de los Martires (Martyrs' Villa), on the summit of Monte Mauror, commemorates by its name the Christian slaves who were forced to build the Alhambra and confined here in subterranean cells.[17] The Torres Bermejas (Vermilion Towers), also on Monte Mauror, are a 96 well-preserved Moorish fortification, with underground cisterns, stables, and accommodation for a garrison of 200 men. Several Roman tombs were discovered in 1829 and 1857 at the base of Monte Mauror. Pools in the Palacio de Generalife (left) and the Partal (right; in the Alta Alhambra of the complex) Plaza de Nazaríes Royal complex Courtyard of the Palace of Charles V is the second largest and important structure consisting of three main parts: Mexuar, Serallo, and the Harem. The Mexuar is modest in decor and houses the functional areas for conducting business and administration. Strapwork is used to decorate the surfaces in Mexuar. The ceilings, floors, and trim are made of dark wood and are in sharp contrast to white, plaster walls. Serallo, built during the reign of Yusuf I in the 14th century, contains the Patio de los Arrayanes (Court of the Myrtles). Brightly colored interiors featured dado panels, yesería, azulejo, cedar, and artesonado. Artesonado are highly decorative ceilings and other woodwork. Lastly, the Harem is also elaborately decorated and contains the living quarters for the wives and mistresses of the Arab monarchs. This area contains a bathroom with running water (cold and hot), baths, and pressurized water for showering. The bathrooms were open to the elements in order to allow in light and air. 97 the Patio de los Arrayanes - Court of the Myrtles The present entrance to the Palacio Árabe (Arab palace), or Casa Real, is by a small door from which a corridor connects to (Court of the Myrtles), also called the Patio de la Alberca (Court of the Blessing or Court of the Pond), from the Arabic birka, "pool". The Birke helped to cool the palace and acted as a symbol of power. Because water was usually in short supply, the technology required to keep these pools full was expensive and difficult. This court is 42 m (140 ft) long by 22 m (74 ft) broad, and in the center, there is a large pond set in the marble pavement, full of goldfish, and with myrtles growing along its sides. There are galleries on the north and south sides; the southern gallery is 7 m (23 ft) high and supported by a marble colonnade. Underneath it, to the right, was the principal entrance, and over it are three windows with arches and miniature pillars. From this court, the walls of the Torre de Comares are seen rising over the roof to the north and reflected in the pond The Patio de los Leones - The Court of the Lions, an example of Islamic Moorish architecture and garden design. or Courtyard of the Lions was built then. Now this is the most emblematic part of the Alhambra. It is an oblong courtyard, (35 m) in length by 66 ft (20 m) in width, surrounded by a low gallery supported on 124 white marble columns. A pavilion projects into the court at each extremity, with filigree walls and a light domed roof. The square is paved with colored tiles and the colonnade with white marble, while the walls are covered 5 ft (1.5 m) up from the ground with blue and yellow tiles, with a border above and below of enameled blue and gold. The columns supporting the roof and gallery are irregularly placed. They are adorned by varieties of foliage, etc.; about each arch there is a large square of stucco arabesques; and over the pillars is another stucco square of filigree work. It lies in the center of the court and is an alabaster basin supported by the figures of twelve lions in white marble, not designed with sculptural accuracy but as symbols of strength, power, and sovereignty. Each 98 hour one lion would produce water from its mouth. At the edge of the great fountain there is a poem written by Ibn Zamrak. This praises the beauty of the fountain and the power of the lions, but it also describes their ingenious hydraulic systems and how they actually worked, which baffled all those who saw them. Around the 1360´s is when the palace as we know today really begins to develop. This fountain is said to represent the heavenly garden of Islam. A large bowl sits on twelve lions; each one has its own individual markings and face. Underneath the base of Lion´s fountain run four water channels. These streams symbolize the four rivers of paradise. Each of the twelve lions spout water into channels below which run across the marble courtyard, creating movement and sounds across the centre of the palace. The Hall of the Two Sisters is adjoining room to the Court. Decorated poems specifically for the space had been in scripted on the walls-probably by the court poet Ibn Zamrak, (1333-1393). with verse wrapped around the impressive walls. This room off the Courtyard of the Lions has two huge marble flagstones on the floor. They have the same dimensions on either side of the entrance. This white stone is from the town of Macael in Almeria. I´m sure that it was quite an ordeal moving these huge flagstones almost 200 kilometres in those days. The ceiling in this room is breath-taking. Inside the white plasterwork creates a dramatic effect. These shapes are muqarnas or a three-dimensional decoration of Islamic architecture initially built to be structural in purpose made out of stone, but here they became crafted decoration to decorate the area between the wall and the dome. 99 Sala de los Abencerrajes -The Hall of the Abencerrages is so named from a legend according to which the father of Boabdil, the last sultan of Granada, having invited the chiefs of that line to a banquet, massacred them there. This room is a perfect square, with a lofty dome and trellised windows at its base. The roof is decorated in blue, brown, red and gold, and the columns supporting it spring out into the arch form in a remarkably beautiful manner. Opposite to this hall is the Sala de las dos Hermanas (Hall of the two Sisters), so-called from two white marble slabs laid as part of the pavement. These slabs measure 500 by 220 cm (15 by 7½ ft). There is a fountain in the middle of this hall, and the roof — a dome honeycombed with tiny cells, all different, and said to number 5000 — is an example of the "stalactite vaulting" of the Moors. 100 Athath almanzil-Furniture: The famous Alhambra vases, very large Hispano-Moresque ware vases made in the Sultanate are the original furniture of the palace. These famous examples of HispanoMoresque ware date from the 14th and 15th centuries. The one remaining in the palace, from about 1400, is 1.3 m (4 ft 3 in) high; the background is white and the decoration is blue, white and gold. Mathematics in Design: Water and geometry are the main design elements in the Alhambra The maze-like corridors of the palace, have many walls covered in brightly coloured ceramic tiles. The tiles cover half of the walls. The Alhambra tiles are remarkable in that they contain nearly all, if not all, of the seventeen mathematically possible wallpaper groups. This is a unique accomplishment in world architecture. M. C. Escher's visit in 1922 and study of the Moorish use of symmetries in the Alhambra tiles inspired his subsequent work on tessellation, which he called "regular divisions of the plane" As 101 this historic period is of great importance, we can still see coloured tiles across Andalusia today. These tiles apart from being decorative, keep walls cooler in summertime and protect them too. Tiling done with mathematical precision was intended to be aesthetically pleasing. Geometrical calculations were used in the tile patterns creating an infinite design to cover as much distance as needed for each space. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. All those centuries ago the colours of the tiles were created with these materials: Blue – Cobalt Purple or Black -Manganese Green – Iron Red or Green- Copper White – Tin Yellow – Lead or Antimony Above the tiles, higher up towards the walls geometrical shapes or poetic inscriptions abound. Towards the top of the walls quotations from the Koran appear, intentionally situated far from the ground. The Salón de los Embajadores - The design of this throne room is based on many square shapes. Consequently, Mathematicians and architects appreciate this room due to its symmetry and precision. The room is said to have had brightly coloured rugs, beautiful vases and musical instruments around in earlier times. It occupies all the Torre de Comares. It is a square room, the sides being 12 m (37 ft) in length, while the center of the dome is 23 m (75 ft) high. This was the grand reception room, and the throne of the sultan was placed opposite the entrance. The grand hall projects from the walls of the palace, providing views in three directions. In this sense, it was a "mirador"- a turret or tower attached to a building and providing an extensive view from which the palace's inhabitants could gaze outward to the surrounding landscape. The tiles are nearly 4 ft (1.2 m) high all round, and the colors vary at intervals. Over them is a series of oval medallions with inscriptions, interwoven with flowers and leaves. There are nine windows, three on each facade, and the ceiling is decorated with white, blue and gold inlays in the shape of circles, crowns and stars. The walls are covered with varied stucco works, surrounding many ancient escutcheons. 102 Inscriptions: Some inscriptions are beautiful poetry whereas others provide information on construction dates of building within the Alhambra. Even more inscriptions cover phrases such as “There is no victor but Allah” which appears many times. Also recurring words like “happiness” or “blessing” appear often throughout the palace. These words are there to protect the monarch honoured in each courtyard. Similarly, other phrases appear such as: “Rejoice in good fortune, because Allah helps you” or “Be sparse in words and you will go in peace.” It seems like the men choosing these texts for the palace walls were poets but also politicians. This wall decoration was an elaborate form of political propaganda. These palace officials reflected the authority and power of the Sultan. Visible to anyone entering the rooms at the heart of the Al Andalus kingdom. Abundant inscriptions were added year by year. Such as the one in the Throne room: ¨From me you are welcomed morning and evening by the tongues of blessing, prosperity, happiness and friendship¨ ¨has decorated me with the robes of his glory and excellence without disguise and has made me the throne of his empire may its eminence be upheld by the master of divine glory and the celestial throne¨ Starry Ceilings: The intricate cedar wood ceiling has exacting measurements. Extremely difficult to put into place it consists of 8017 multicoloured panels. Symbolizing the seven heavens of Islamic Paradise. Diagonal lines radiate from the centre representing the four trees of life. The ceiling is decorated with lots of stars. Painted to shine like ivory, mother of pearl and silver. Also, worth noticing is the difference between the 8 pointed and 16 pointed stars. Most of the room would have 103 been in a dim light, ensuring cooler temperatures. the latticework on the windows allows filtered light into the room. The effect of the light from the windows shone around the throne. This would surround the sultan in diffused light in a dim room creating a position of power and mystery. The throne would be set upon something to give it height too. Last word: The Alhambra is the best example of Islam architecture in Europe. It took many months and years of work to decorate the palace interiors. One of the inscripted poems best describes this architectural feat: The portico is so beautiful that the palace competes in beauty with the sky. You dressed it with such an exquisite lamé, that the loom of the Yemen is forgotten. ¡How many arches are high on its summit, on the columns that are adorned by the light, like spheres that turn above the glowing pillar of the dawn! The columns are so beautiful in every way, that their success flies from mouth to ear: the marble throws its clear light, which invades the black corner that blackens the shadow; its highlights iridesce, and one would say that they are, in spite of their size, pearls. 104 CHAPTER VII Arabesque in Islamcic Architecture arabesque/ˌarəˈbɛsk/nou n 1.an ornamental design consisting of intertwined flowing lines, originally found in ancient Islamic art. "arabesque scrolls" An arabesque is a pattern of curving lines layered with intertwined elements, like vines and leaves, and abstract forms that don't resemble anything found in nature. Decorative arabesque patterns can be found covering surfaces on buildings like mosques, as well as items like ceramic tiles and glassware. Religion played an important role in the arabesque's development. When Islam rose around 700 AD and spread through the Middle East, it came with rules forbidding depictions of creatures like humans and animals, especially on things like buildings with a religious purpose. As a result, Islamic artists instead based their imagery on geometry, calligraphy (the art of beautiful writing), and the arabesque. These elements didn't have recognizable creatures, so they could be used to adorn sacred spaces without relying on figural art. It's a very different idea about decoration than was found in Western culture at the time. The arabesque traces its history to the Near and Middle East. Around 1000 AD, possibly near Baghdad, Muslim artists developed images of vines, flowers and lines into an intricate, spectacular art form. Such designs are considered biomorphic, which means they resemble natural forms without depicting specific creatures or 105 plants. Arabesque designs use elements like spiral and curving forms in an infinitely repeated, usually symmetrical pattern. Designs may feature many layers of interwoven figures and line. Sometimes, geometric figures are also included, as are forms called kapali, linear figures with closed ends. Arabesque designs on surfaces create a sense of pleasing overall rhythm and patterns. As the Islamic religion spread, arabesques could be found on walls of mosques and palaces, on ceramic tiles and vessels, and on glassware. Arabesques have now been identified with fundamental element of Islamic art but they develop what was already a long tradition by the coming of Islam. The past and current usage of the term in respect of European art can only be described as confused and inconsistent. Some Western arabesques derive from Islamic art, but others are closely based on ancient Roman decorations. In the West they are essentially found in the decorative arts, but because of the generally non-figurative nature of Islamic art, arabesque decoration is there often a very prominent element in the most significant works, and plays a large part in the decoration of architecture. The arabesque is a form of artistic decoration consisting of "surface decorations based on rhythmic linear patterns of scrolling and interlacing foliage, tendrils" or plain lines, often combined with other elements. Another definition is "Foliate ornament, used in the Islamic world, typically using leaves, derived from stylised half-palmettes, which were combined with spiralling stems".It usually consists of a single design which can be 'tiled' or seamlessly repeated as many times as desired. Within the very wide range of Eurasian decorative art that includes motifs matching this basic definition, the term "arabesque" is used consistently as a technical term by art historians to describe only elements of the decoration found in two phases: Islamic art from about the 9th century onwards, and European decorative art from the Renaissance onwards. Interlace and scroll decoration are terms used for most other types of similar patterns. Eventually the Islamic arabesque found its way to Europe, mostly through two avenues. It came through Southern Italy and Sicily, because they were close to geographic regions in which the Islamic faith had taken hold. These areas were also influenced by similar designs found on ancient Roman artifacts. Variations on the arabesque also developed on the Iberian peninsula in places like Spain, the westernmost edge of Islam's spread. The architecture of Mughal monuments in India offers many examples of arabesque art. The Taj Mahal, tomb of Emperor Akbar, tomb of I’timād-ud-Daulah, the Fatehpur Sikri, the Agra Fort, the 106 Red Fort and several others. The arabesque has also been defines as a vegetal design consisting of full and half palmettes as an unending continuous pattern in which each leaf grows out of another. It is symbolic of the unity of faith of Islam. The beautiful and striking designs created on many Mughal monuments are actually a combination of the arabesque-vegetal, geometric patterns and Islamic calligraphy. Islamic art is diverse and made up of stunning patterns, due to the absence of figures which could make it an object of worship, which is prevented in Islam. However, the core of the art is symmetry and harmony. There is an effort to convey the structure of everything through pattern. Geometry is an important element, it is sacred geometry with an inner and outer meaning. Arabesque art depictions, mostly combined with geometry and calligraphy have two types, the first is about the principles that govern the order of the world. Geometric forms have a built in symbolism. The principles include the basics of what makes objects structurally sound yet pleasing to the eye. The square has equal sides and represents the important elements of nature, earth, air, fir and water. The physical world is symbolised by a circle that inscribes the square and would collapse upon itself without any of the four elements. The second type is based on the flowing nature of vegetal forms, representing the feminine life-giving force. The third type is the mode of Islamic calligraphy. it is also called the art of the spoken word. Many proverbs and passages from the Holy Quran can be seen in arabesque art. The coming together of these three forms create the arabesque in its entirety. The art is not just mathematically precise but beautiful and symbolic. Many Islamic designs are based on squares and circles, interlaced to form complex patterns. A common motif is the 8-pointed star made of 2 squares, one rotated 45 degrees with respect to the other. Another basic shape is the polygon, mostly pentagon and octagon. Islamic artwork is found in jaali work or trellis tiling, woodwork, kilims or rugs, leather book bindings, metalwork, ceramics and ceilings. A glimpse into this fascinating world of visual art includes images from two important tombs in Agra, North of India, both from 17th century Mughal era. “Islamic art can be best described as a sacred art. It is an art that is made purely for the sake of spiritual and religious devotion and expression, rather than art that is used to express the artist’s own personal message or story. Traditionally the artist detaches himself from any praise or recognition of his work. Islamic art also embodies and expresses the teachings of Islam, whether it’s through more obvious forms such as calligraphy and miniature painting, or more abstract 107 approaches through the use of geometry and arabesque. Islamic art has also been compared to a form of dhikr or a remembrance of God, which in turn is a form of worship in a much more creative manner.” 1 For me personally Islamic art is a way for me to discover more about my own religion from a different perspective and approach. It is also a way for me to discover myself and through every piece I create I learn something new and invaluable.” SIGNIFICANCE OF ARABESQUE IN ISLAM The arabesques and geometric patterns of Islamic art are often said to arise from the Islamic view of the world. To Muslims, these forms, taken together, constitute an infinite pattern that extends beyond the visible material world. To many in the Islamic world, they concretely symbolize the infinite, and therefore un-centralized, nature of the creation of the one God (Allah). Furthermore, the Islamic Arabesque artist conveys spirituality without the iconography of Christian art. Arabesque art consists of a series of repeating geometric forms which are occasionally accompanied by calligraphy. To the adherents of Islam, the Arabesque is symbolic of their united faith and the way in which traditional Islamic cultures view the world. There are two modes to arabesque art. There are two modes to arabesque art. The first recalls the principles that govern the order of the world. These principles include the bare basics of what makes objects structurally sound and, by extension, beautiful. In the first mode, each repeating geometric form has a built-in symbolism ascribed to it. For example, the square, with its four equilateral sides, is symbolic of the equally important elements of nature: earth, air, fire and water. Without any one of the four, the physical world, represented by a circle that inscribes the square, would collapse upon it and cease to exist. The second mode is based upon the flowing nature of plant forms. This mode recalls the feminine nature of life giving. The basic geometrical shapes used for inlay of geometrical arabesque are majorly constructed through repetition of lines and arcs. The regular repetition of such elements creates a kind of pattern which is then inlayed with different colors or materials and improves the aesthetic value of the surface. Muslim artisans also perfected the technique of creating decorative motifs of flowers, vines, and other graphics in precise geometric patterns. These “arabesque” motifs often cover walls, pottery, and other decorative objects and are governed by geometric and mathematical principles. The vines curve around and split off at very precise angles. 2 108 The term ARABESQUE was first used in the West in Italian, where rabeschi was used in the 16th century as a term for "pilaster ornaments featuring acanthus decoration, specifically "running scrolls" that ran vertically up a panel or pilaster, rather than horizontally along a frieze. From there it spread to England, where Henry VIII owned, in an inventory of 1549, an agate cup with a "fote and Coeur of siluer and guilt embossed with Rebeske work", and William Herne or Heron, Serjeant Painter from 1572 to 1580, was paid for painting Elizabeth I's barge with "Rebeske work. Unfortunately, the styles so described can only be guessed at, although the design by Hans Holbein for a covered cup for Jane Seymour in 1536 (see gallery) already has zones in both Islamic-derived arabesque/Moresque style (see below) and classicallyderived acanthus volutes. The use of "arabesque" as an English noun first appears, in relation to painting, in William Beckford's novel Vathek in 1786. Arabesque is also used as a term for complex freehand pen flourishes in drawing or other graphic media. The Grove Dictionary of Art will have none of this confusion, and says flatly: "Over the centuries the word has been applied to a wide variety of winding and twining vegetal decoration in art and meandering themes in music, but it properly applies only to Islamic art", so contradicting the definition of 1888 still found in the Oxford English Dictionary: "A species of mural or surface decoration in colour or low relief, composed in flowing lines of branches, leaves, and scroll-work fancifully intertwined used in Moorish and Arabic decorative art (from which, almost exclusively, it was known in the Middle Ages), representations of living creatures were excluded; but in the arabesques of Raphael, founded on the ancient Græco-Roman work of this kind, and in those of Renaissance decoration, human and animal figures, both natural and grotesque, as well as vases, armour, and objects of art, are freely introduced; to this the term is now usually applied, the other being distinguished as Moorish Arabesque, or Moresque."3 Claims are often made regarding the theological significance of the arabesque, and its origin in a specifically Islamic view of the world; however, these are without support from written historical sources as, like most medieval cultures, the Islamic world has not left us documentation of their intentions in using the decorative motifs they did. At the popular level such theories often appear uninformed as to the wider context of the arabesque. In similar fashion, proposed connections between the arabesque and Arabic knowledge of geometry remains a subject of debate; not all art historians are persuaded that such knowledge had reached, or was needed by, those creating arabesque designs, although in certain cases there is evidence that such a connection did exist. The case for a connection with Islamic mathematics is much stronger for the development of the geometric patterns with which arabesques are often combined in art. Geometric decoration often uses patterns that are made up of straight lines and regular angles but are clearly derived as a whole from curvilinear arabesque patterns; the extent to which these too are described 109 as arabesque varies between different writers. Many arabesque patterns disappear at (or "under" as it often appears to a viewer) a framing edge without ending, and thus can be regarded as infinitely extendable outside the space they actually occupy; this was certainly a distinctive feature of the Islamic form, though not without precedent. Most but not all foliage decoration in the preceding cultures terminated at the edge of the occupied space, although infinitely repeatable patterns in foliage are very common in the modern world in wallpaper and textiles.4 Jali: This form of architectural decoration is found generally in Islamic Architecture but also found in Hindu Temples .Early jali work was built by carving into stone, generally in geometric patterns, while later the Mughals used very finely carved plant-based designs, as at the Taj Mahal. They also often added pietra dura inlay to the surrounds, using marble and semi-precious stones. A jali or jaali, (Bengali: জা লিা, Urdu: ‫ جالی‬Hindi:जা ली jālī, meaning "net") is the term for a perforated stone or latticed screen, usually with an ornamental pattern constructed through the use of calligraphy and geometry. The jali helps in lowering the temperature by compressing the air through the holes. Also when the air passes through these openings, its velocity increases giving profound diffusion.[clarification needed] It has been observed that humid areas like Kerala and Konkan have larger holes with overall lower opacity than compared with the dry climate regions of Gujarat and Rajasthan. With compactness of the residential areas in the modern India, jalis became less frequent for privacy and security matters. R E F E R E N C ES 1. THE CRUCIAL ROLE OF GEOMETRY IN ISLAMIC ART, BY MALIKKA BOUAISSA .ARTJULY 27, 2013, http://www.alartemag.be/en/en-art/the-crucial-role-ofgeometry-in-islamic-art/ 2. Freely adopted from : Existence of Arabesque in Islamic Architecturel, Ar. Pooja Singh, International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 7, Issue 6, June 2017 3. Arabesque (Islamic Art) - Western Arabesque, http://www.liquisearch.com/arabesque_islamic_art/western_arabesque 4. Arabesque (Islamic Art) - Islamic Arabesque http://www.liquisearch.com/arabesque_islamic_art/islamic_arabesque 110 PART III BOOK III HINDU DIVINITY THROUGH TE ARCHITECTURE OF ITS TEMPLES 111 Introduction to Part III Ancient Indian thought divides time into four different periods. These durations are referred to as the Krta; Treta; Dvapara; and Kali. The first of these divisions (Krta), is also known as satya-yuga, or the Age of Truth. This was a golden age without envy, malice or deceit, characterized by righteousness. All people belonged to one caste, and there was only one god who lived amongst the humans as one of them. In the next span (Treta-yuga), the righteousness of the previous age decreased by one fourth. The chief virtue of this age was knowledge. The presence of gods was scarce and they descended to earth only when men invoked them in rituals and sacrifices. These deities were recognizable by all. In the third great division of time, righteousness existed only in half measure of that in the first division. Disease, misery and the castes came into existence in this age. The gods multiplied. Men made their own images, worshipped them, and the divinities would come down in disguised forms. But these disguised deities were recognizable only by that specific worshipper. Kali-yuga is the present age of mankind in which we live, the first three ages having already elapsed. It is believed that this age began at midnight between February 17 and 18, 3102 B.C. Righteousness is now one-tenth of that in the first age. True worship and sacrifice are now lost. It is a time of anger, lust, passion, pride, and discord. There is an excessive preoccupation with things material and sexual. Temples appeared on the horizon only in the Kali-yuga. During this existing last phase, temples (as public shrines), began to be built and icons installed. But the 112 gods ceased to come down and appear in their own or disguised forms. However, their presence could be felt when the icons were properly enshrined, and the temples correctly built. In contrast to the previous periods when the gods were available to all equally, now it is only the priests, belonging to a traditional hierarchy of professional worshippers, who are the competent individuals to compel this presence. From the contemporary point of view, temples act as safe haven where ordinary mortals like us can feel themselves free from the constant vagaries of everyday existence, and communicate personally with god. But our age is individualistic if nothing else. Each of us requires our own conception of the deity based on our individual cultural rooting. In this context it is interesting to observe that the word ‘temple,’ and ‘contemplate’ both share the same origin from the Roman word ‘templum,’ which means a sacred enclosure. Indeed, strictly speaking, where there is no contemplation, there is no temple. It is an irony of our age that this individualistic contemplative factor, associated with a temple, is taken to be its highest positive virtue, while according to the fact of legend it is but a limitation which arose due to our continuous spiritual impoverishment over the ages. We have lost the divine who resided amongst us (Krta Yuga), which is the same as saying that once man was divine himself. But this is not to belittle the importance of the temple as a center for spiritual nourishment in our present context, rather an affirmation of their invaluable significance in providing succour to the modern man in an environment and manner that suits the typical requirements of the age in which we exist. Making of the Temple The first step towards the construction of a temple is the selection of land. Even though any land may be considered suitable provided the necessary rituals are performed for its sanctification, the ancient texts nevertheless have the following to say in this matter: “The gods always play where groves, rivers, mountains and springs are near, and in towns with pleasure gardens.” Not surprisingly thus, many of India’s ancient surviving temples can be seen to have been built in lush valleys or groves, where the environment is thought to be particularly suitable for building a residence for the gods. No matter where it is situated, one essential factor for the existence of a temple is water. Water is considered a purifying element in all major traditions of the world, and if not available in reality, it must be present in at least a symbolic representation in the Hindu 113 temple. Water, the purifying, fertilizing element being present, its current, which is the river of life, can be forded into inner realization and the pilgrim can cross over to the other shore (metaphysical). The practical preparations for building a temple are invested with great ritual significance and magical fertility symbolism. The prospective site is first inspected for the ‘type,’ of the soil it contains. This includes determining its color and smell. Each of these defining characteristics is divided into four categories, which are then further associated with one of the four castes: - White Soil: Brahmin - Red Soil: Kshatriya (warrior caste) - Yellow Soil: Vaishya - Black Soil: Shudra Similarly for the smell and taste: - Sweet: Brahmin - Sour: Kshatriya - Bitter: Vaishya - Astringent: Shudra (a reminder perhaps of the raw-deal which they have often been given in life) The color and taste of the soil determines the “caste” of the temple, i.e., the social group to which it will be particularly favourable. Thus the patron of the temple can choose an auspicious site specifically favourable to himself and his social environment. After these preliminary investigations, the selected ground needs to be tilled and levelled: Tilling: When the ground is tilled and ploughed, the past ceases to count; new life is entrusted to the soil and another cycle of production begins, an assurance that the rhythm of nature has not been interfered with. Before laying of the actual foundation, the Earth Goddess herself is impregnated in a symbolic process known as ankura-arpana, ankura meaning seed and arpana signifying offering. In this process, a seed is planted at the selected site on an auspicious day and its germination is observed after a few days. If the growth is satisfactory, the land is deemed suitable for the temple. The germination of the seed is a metaphor for the fulfilment of the inherent potentialities which lie hidden in Mother Earth, and which by extension are now transferred to the sacred structure destined to come over it. 114 Levelling: It is extremely important that the ground from which the temple is to rise is regarded as being throughout an equal intellectual plane, which is the significance behind the levelling of the land. It is also an indication that order has been established in a wild, unruly, and errant world. Now that the earth has been ploughed, tilled and levelled, it is ready for the drawing of the vastu-purusha mandala, the metaphysical plan of the temple. The Metaphysical Architecture of the Temple The basic plan of a Hindu temple is an expression of sacred geometry where the temple is visualized as a grand mandala. By sacred geometry we mean a science which has as its purpose the accurate laying out of the temple ground plan in relation to the cardinal directions and the heavens. Characteristically, a mandala is a sacred shape consisting of the intersection of a circle and a square. The square shape is symbolic of earth, signifying the four directions which bind and define it. Indeed, in Hindu thought whatever concerns terrestrial life is governed by the number four (four castes; the four Vedas etc.). Similarly, the circle is logically the perfect metaphor for heaven since it is a perfect shape, without beginning or end, signifying timelessness and eternity, a characteristically divine attribute. Thus a mandala (and by extension the temple) is the meeting ground of heaven and earth. These considerations make the actual preparation of the site and laying of the foundation doubly important. Understandably, the whole process is heavily immersed in rituals right from the selection of the site to the actual beginning of construction. Indeed, it continues to be a custom in India that whenever a building is sought to be constructed, the area on which it first comes up is ceremonially propitiated. The idea being that the extent of the 115 earth necessary for such construction must be reclaimed from the gods and goblins that own and inhabit that area. This ritual is known as the ‘pacification of the site.’ There is an interesting legend behind it: Once when Shiva was engaged in a fierce battle with the demon Andhaka, a drop of sweat fell from Shiva’s forehead to the ground, accompanied by a loud thunder. This drop transformed into a ravenously hungry monster, who attempted to destroy the three worlds. The gods and divine spirits, however, rushed at once on to him and held him down. When the demon fell on the ground face downwards, the deities lodged themselves on to the different parts of his body and pressed him down. It is because of this reason that the recumbent individual came to be known as ‘Vastu,’ which means the lodgement of the gods. He is pictured as lying down inside the mandala with his arms and legs so folded as to cover the whole area, and his head pushed into the north-eastern corner of the square. As many as forty-five gods are lodged on his body directly on the limbs and joints. This vastu-purusha is the spirit in mother-earth which needs to be pacified and is regarded as a demon whose permission is necessary before any construction can come up on the site. At the same time, care is taken to propitiate the deities that hold him down, for it is important that he should not get up. To facilitate the task of the temple-architect, the vastu-mandala is divided into square grids with the lodging of the respective deities clearly marked. It also has represented on it the thirty-two nakshatras, the constellations that the moon passes through on its monthly course. In an ideal temple, these deities should be situated exactly as delineated in the mandala. 116 In the central grid of the vastumandala sits Brahma, the archetypal creator, endowed with four faces looking simultaneously in all directions. He is thus conceived as the ever-present superintending genius of the site. At this exact central point is established the most important structure of the sacred complex, where the patron deity of the temple is installed. Paradoxically this area is the most unadorned and least decorated part of the Sanctum of a Hindu Temple temple, almost as if it is created in an inverse proportion to its spiritual importance. Referred to as the sanctum sanctorum, it is the most auspicious region in the whole complex. It has no pillars, windows or ventilators. In addition to a metaphysical aspect, this shutting off of air and light has a practical side to it too. It was meant to preserve the icon, which, in olden days, was often made of wood. Also, besides preventing the ill effects of weathering, the dark interior adds to the mystery of the divine presence. Throughout all subsequent developments in temple architecture, however spectacular and grandiose, this main shrine room remains the small, dark cave that it has been from the beginning. Indeed it has been postulated (both by archaeology and legend), that the temple developed from the cave-shrine of the extremely remote past. This is another instance in Hinduism where the primitive and the modern, along with all the developments in-between, can be seen to co-exist remarkably and peacefully. 117 When the devotee enters a temple, he is actually entering into a mandala and therefore participating in a power-field. The field enclosures and pavilions through which he must pass to reach the sanctum are symbolic. They represent the phases of progress in a man’s Dilwara Temple, Mount Abu, Rajasthan journey towards divine beatitude. In accordance with this scheme of transition, architectural and sculptural details vary from phase to phase in the devotee’s onward movement, gradually preparing him for the ultimate, awesome experience, which awaits him in the shrine. This process mirrors the four-phased spiritual evolution envisaged in yoga, namely the waking state (jagrat); dream state (swapna); the state of deep sleep (sushupti); and finally the Highest state of awareness known in Sanskrit as turiya. This evolution takes place as follows: On reaching the main gateway, the worshipper first bends down and touches the threshold before crossing it. This marks for him the fact that the transition from the way of the world to the way of god has been initiated. Entering the gateway, he or she is greeted by a host of secular figures on the outer walls. These secular images are the mortal, outward and diverse manifestations of the divinity enshrined inside. In this lies a partial explanation behind the often explicit erotic imagery carved on the outer walls of temples like those at Khajuraho, where the deity inside remains untouched by these sensuous occurrences. Such images awaken the devotee to his mortal state of existence (wakefulness). The process of contemplation has already begun. 118 As he proceeds, carvings of mythological themes, legendary subjects, mythical animals and unusual motifs abound. They are designed to take one away from the dull and commonplace reality, and uplift the worshipper to the dreamy state. The immediate pavilion and vestibule before the icon are restrained in sculptural decorations, and the prevailing darkness of these areas are suggestive of sleep-like conditions. Finally the shrine, devoid of any ornamentation, and with its plainly adorned entrance, leads the devotee further to the highest achievable state of consciousness, that of semi-tranquillity (turiya), where all boundaries vanish and the universe stands forth in its primordial glory. It signifies the coming to rest of all differentiated, relative existence. This utterly quiet, peaceful and blissful state is Chhapri Temple, Central India the ultimate aim of all spiritual activity. The devotee is now fully-absorbed in the beauty and serenity of the icon. He or she is 119 now in the inner square of Brahma in the vastu- mandala, and in direct communion with the chief source of power in the temple. The thought behind the design of a temple is a continuation of Upanishadic analogy, in which the atman (soul or the divine aspect in each of us) is likened to an embryo within a womb or to something hidden in a cave. Also says the Mundaka Upanishad: ‘The atman lives where our arteries meet (in the heart), as the spokes of the wheel meet at the hub.’ Hence, it is at the heart center that the main deity is enshrined. Befittingly thus, this sanctum sanctorum is technically known as the garba-griha (womb-house). The garbhagriha is almost always surrounded by a circumambulatory path, around which the devotee walks in a clockwise direction. In Hindu and Buddhist thought, this represents an encircling of the universe itself. No description of the Hindu temple can be complete without a mention of the tall, often pyramid-like structure shooting up the landscape and dominating the skyline. Kandariya Temple Khajuraho 120 This element of temple architecture is known as ‘shikhara,’ meaning peak (mountain). It marks the location of the shrine room and rises directly above it. This is an expression of the ancient ideal believing the gods to reside in the mountains. Indeed, in South India the temple spire is frequently Temple of Minakshi, Madurai carved with images of gods, the shikhara being conceived as mount Meru, the mythical mountain-axis of the universe, on the slopes of which the gods reside. 121 Temple of Mahabodhi, Bodhgaya In North India too, it is worthwhile here to note, most goddess shrines are located on mountain tops. Since it rises just above the central shrine, the shikhara is both the physical and spiritual axis of the temple, symbolizing the upward aspiration of the devotee, a potent metaphor for his ascent to enlightenment. Conclusion Man lost the divinity within himself. His intuition, which is nothing but a state of primordial alertness, continues to strive towards the archetypal perfect state where there is no distinction between man and god (or woman and goddess). The Hindu Temple sets out to resolve this deficiency in our lives by dissolving the boundaries between man and divinity. This is achieved by putting into practice the belief that the temple, the human body, and the sacred mountain and cave, represent aspects of the same divine symmetry. Truly, the most modern man can survive only because the most ancient traditions are alive in him. The solution to man’s problems is always archaic. The architecture of the Hindu temple recreates the archetypal environment of an era when there was no need for such an architecture. 122 INTRODUCTION to INDIAN ARCHITECTURE – Takio Kamia http://www.kamit.jp/01_introdctn/5_mattan/mattan_eng.htm In the September 2000 issue of "Journal of Architecture and Building Science" of the Architectural Institute of Japan Hinduism is the dominant religion in India as shown by its name; people do not become Hindus but are born as Hindus. The word Hindu is originally derived from the River Sindhu in Sanskrit (Indus in English), from which the S-sound dropped out, used by Persians to indicate the people living along and over the Indus. The area was called Hindustan (the country of Hindus) or Indos in Greek, and its language Hindi and religion Hinduism as well. Though considered as a religion, Hinduism is different from the Western notion of religion, rather being the living system of the Indians in a broad sense, including their social customs, conventions and manners. 1. WHAT IS HINDU ARCHITECTURE ? Hinduism did not have a particular founder as in Christianity or Islam. It subsumed every phenomenon in the vast territory of India, including even local faiths and tribal gods, so they could even be contradictory to each other. According to Hindu theory, even Buddhism and Jainism are nothing but sects of Hinduism. In the field of architecture too, those of Buddhism and Jainism, which were brought up in the same climate as that of Hinduism, have no great disparities from Hindu architecture, making it possible to say that their structural systems and forms of their components are completely the same. However, if Hindu architecture is geographically positioned as Indian architecture, it would mean that Hindu architecture could not exist outside India. In order to avoid this inconvenience, I will not adopt a geographical definition but treat it on the basis of religious and historical distinction from Buddhist, Jain, and Islamic architecture. On this occasion, secular buildings, such as residences, palaces, forts and others, must be excluded, that is, Hindu architecture in this article indicates only Hindu temples. 2. THE ESSENCE of HINDU TEMPLES 123 Principal Plan and Cross Section of a Hindu Temple (Malikarjuna Temple in Aihole, 8th century) (From "Encyclopaedia of Indian Temple Architecture" II-1, 1988 ) The predecessor of Hinduism is called Brahmanism, in which only Brahmans (priests), the highest class among four varnas into which people were divided by birth in ancient India, could intermediate between gods and believers. It was essentially a religion of rituals emphasizing sacrifices of animals to gods. On the other side, Buddhism and Jainism were atheistic religions established around the 6th century B.C.E. in contradiction to the caste system and the sacrificial practices of Brahmanism, so their temples were fundamentally places of pursuing enlightenment for monks and expounding teachings to lay people. Hinduism, which was established around the beginning of the Common Era, was a highly developed stage of Brahmanism in preparedness for theoretical dispute. Absorbing folk faiths and local divinities in various regions, it was a thoroughgoing pantheistic religion based on, above all, reverence for the gods that originated in the Vedas. Every Hindu temple has one of those gods enshrined as the main deity, and is as hospitable to it as if it were a living personality. The essential quality of the Hindu temple is the ‘House of God’, though it differs from the metaphorical manner in the Christian church, as a Hindu temple is considered as an actual place for a god to dwell, eat, and sleep. 124 The cardinal room, where is the statue is set into which a god is to enter, was called a ‘Garbhagriha’ literally meaning a ‘womb house’, and its frontal hall, where priests and followers entertain and worship the god, was called a ‘Mandapa’, then became the fundamental form of Hindu temples. 3. CAVE TEMPLES and ROCK-CARVED TEMPLES Unfinished rock-carved temple It is presumed that ancient India was abundant in wood and most temples were built of timber, though none have survived. The ancient architecture that we can see now is made up of cave temples, which were excavated into rocky mountains and architecturally carved in detail. This form was initiated by Buddhist monks and workers, executing as many as a few hundred in number from the 2nd century B.C.E. across India. The oldest Hindu cave temples are a small group at Udayagiri from the 5th century of the Gupta Dynasty, where many of the earliest Hindu sculptures are also extant. Because in this age integral stone buildings, moving out of the phase of mixed structures of timber and stone, began to be constructed, cave temples were to develop hand in hand with stone architecture. The plan form of was also established through this process, as can be seen in the Hindu cave temples of Ellora, excavated in the 7th and 8th centuries, most of which took this form. On the other hand, since the Hindus preferred sculpture more than any of the formative arts, they wanted to make even their architectural works as if sculptures. Monolithic temples, sculpted not as caves but directly upon one rock in the round in this attitude, are called ‘rock-carved temples’. Started in Mahabalipuram in the 7th century, it attained its apogee in the Kailasa Temple at Ellora in the 8th century. Such a sculptural character in Indian architecture would stay as the fundamental feature in later stone temples too. 4. WAYS of SOLEMNIZING TEMPLES 125 Plan of the Gondeshvara Temple in Sinnar, in the Pancha-yatana Form (From the "Mediaeval Temples of the Dakhan" by Henry Cousens, 1931) Although simplest Hindu temples did not have Mandapas, constituted of only a Garbhagriha (sanctum) accompanied with a porch, they gradually increased in scale, in accordance with the establishment of the form . The Garbhagriha itself did not enlarge, because it is a square room enclosed with windowless thick walls, but extended its plan, encircled with a circumambulatory corridor for worship, and it came to be surmounted with a stone piled tower, displaying its sculptural exterior view. The Mandapa, in front of the Garbhagriha, was also fundamentally a square hall with four pillars, occasionally becoming a great hypostyle hall. In order to solemnize temples, architects often increased the number of Mandapas, placing them in a line in the front, and occasionally added an open Mandapa without peripheral walls, the porches, and even an independent shrine for a Nandi (bull), vehicle for Shiva, all in line on the axis. The reason for this manner is that a Hindu temple was destined to have a determined axial direction, following the fact that Garbhagriha as a god’s abode had only one entrance door in front to be locked at night. This restriction made the temple impossible to spread in four directions, and engendered another method for the solemnization of temples, adding four small independent shrines in four diagonal corners on the podium, giving the 126 entire temple the form of Pancha-yatana (five shrines). 5. THE NORTHRN and SOUTHERN TYPES Vishvanatha Temple of the Northern type, Khajuraho Through the great development of Hindu temple architecture in the medieval period, rivalling stone architecture in Europe and the Middle East, its style was roughly divided into two: the Southern Type and Northern Type. It might have reflected the differences of likings between northern Indo-Aryans and southern Dravidians, languages of which were in completely different branches. The item that shows the difference between them most clearly was the design of their towers over the sanctuary. In the Northern Type, the tower soars in the shape of an artillery shell, which is called a ‘Shikhara’. On the top of the Shikhara is a fluted disk, an Amalaka, imitating the shape of a sacred fruit, Anmalok, and further on top of it is a pitcher-like finial, a Kalasha. Similar small Shikharas with the same components are piled up to make a greater Shikhara, repeating this cycle in several layers to form the whole intricate body. As opposed to this, in the Southern Type, lined mini-shrines make a horizontal story and many stories piled up in steps form a pyramidal tower. On top of it is a large hemispheric or octagonal dome-like crown stone, which is called a ‘Shikhara’ in southern India, literally meaning a mountain summit in Sanskrit. Among the Southern Type temples, the Karnataka region engendered star-shaped plans for Garbhagrihas and a unique form composed of several Garbhagrihas and a shared Mandapa, displaying their towers in the intermediate shape of the Northern and Southern Types. 6. CORRESPONDENCE to CLIMATE 127 A Himalayan woodenTemple at Sungra Although the Indian subcontinent belongs to the zone of monsoon to a large extent, its large geographical expanse includes diversity from the cold district of the Himalayas to southern India in the subtropical zone through arid western India embracing a great desert. Hindu temples have also a wide variety corresponding to those climates. The foremost element bringing about the variation is the building materials. Central India, possessing a large number of sturdy rocky mountains, became the most crowded area for cave temples. The delta regions along the Indus in the west and the Ganges in the east do not produce stone of good quality, so brick has been used as the main material since the time of the Indus Valley Civilization. Brick temples in Bengal covered with terra-cotta panels, baked with carvings executed on not fully dried clay, dyed villages the color of Indian red. Wooden temples descended from ancient architecture to some extent are seen in the Himalayan region in the north and the Kerala region in the south, both of which are blessed with much precipitation and forests. Especially in mountainous Himachal Pradesh there are curious wooden temples surmounted with conical or gambrel roofs, completely different in shape from stone temples in the lower Indian planes. However, what underlies these wooden temples is the composition of ; there is no difference between these and stone temple in indicating the abode of god by its wooden ‘Shikhara’ on a small chamber. 7. OUTWARD from the INDIAN SUBCONTINENT 128 Lorojonggrang Temple at Prambanan, Java, Indonesia Indian culture was propagated to Southeast Asia mainly through trade. Hindu architecture was brought to Burma (Myanmar), Khmer (Cambodia), Champa (Vietnam), and Java and Bali (Indonesia) in indistinguishable forms from Buddhist architecture. In this process, it produced various transfigurations according to the traditions and climates. The best representative example is the Lorojonggrang Temple at Prambanan, Java, dedicated to Shiva. Partly because of the ancient custom of ancestor worship in Java, a ‘house of god’ also came to have the character of a mausoleum for forefathers. This is probably the reason why most temples were not accompanied with Mandapas but a porch only, located in the center of its podium. The form of their towers was based on the Southern Type, in which horizontal floors were piled up in steps. Khmer architecture’s transfiguration is best shown in the Angkor Vat, in which the temple and king’s tomb were united in one, conforming to the ‘Deve-Raja’ (god-king) philosophy, constructing its precincts on a vast scale than ever existed in India, on a square plan like an enlarged form of Mandala. It was made possible by the grace of the form of the Chaturmukha (four-faced shrine) plan developed in Jain temples, which was brought to Southeast Asia along with Hindu architecture. As a result, in contrast to Hindu temples in India, those in Southeast Asia could spread in four directions, forming great Mandala-like plans. In the Garbhagriha of the Angkor Vat, as a four-faced shrine, there would have been enshrined the God Vishnu. Its tower is thought to have originated from the artillery shell shape of the Northern Type. PLAYING WITH SCULPTURES Architects sometimes say “this part is play”, when they make some shapes or employ some ingenious device to give viewers a feeling of pleasure or curiosity over and above the bare functions of the buildings that they are designing. However, when formally considering what the play in architecture is, it is difficult to recall typical examples of ‘architectural play’. Buildings are projected in order to meet certain strong needs, and architects, a normally 129 serious species, are immersed day and night in how amply they can create convenient and comfortable buildings on a limited budget. They do not often play at the expense of their clients unless the building is for the function of playing itself, such as amusement parks or game rooms. Then, let us inspect whether the situation was alike in the past, focusing on the historical stone architecture of India. Wall sculptures on the Parshvanatha Temple, Khajuraho When it comes to Indian architecture, one would recall Hindu temples decorated with innumerable sculptures, and suppose that play must be plentifully enjoyed in Indian architecture. However, most of those sculptures, such as statues of deities, are means of edification of religious tenets; even Mituna statues (sexual coupling) are explanations of a doctrine of Hindu Tantrism. They bear a practical function, and cannot be called pure play. There are occasionally sculptures unrelated to religious doctrines, exemplified by the figure shown above in which a woman poses flirtatiously, wearing eye shadow, on the wall of a Jain temple at Khajuraho. An example expressing play more clearly is seen in a wall panel at the Hindu temple of Mukteshvara in Bhubaneshvar, shown below. If you conceal the lower half of this square panel by hand, you can see a lying woman. Then conceal the right half, and she stands up on one knee. Next, conceal the left half, and another woman is standing on her hands. Lastly conceal the upper half, she is turning a somersault. This is utter play without any relation to the practicality of the building, reminding us of the works of M. C. Escher or Shigeo Fukuda. 130 A terra-cotta panel on the wall of the Mukteshvara Temple, Bhubaneshvar, 10th century However, if I were asked whether the above-mentioned examples are real ‘play in architecture’, I would reply that I do not think so. Both of those temples are orthodox pieces of architecture, seeming not to playing so much, that is, their play is nothing but ‘sculptural play’. Whether in the West or the East, play in sculptures furnished on edifices would often be seen in every period. Then, what kind of examples could exist, if one had played in architecture itself? VARIOUS TECHNIQUES There is the Mausoleum of the saint Salim Chishty in the grand courtyard of the Great Mosque of Fathehpur Sikri, the abandoned Mughal capital near Agra. One can recognize that this renowned building’s walls make geometric patterns combining white marble and blackish stone, but when going inside and looking back at the wall, one realizes that the stone that looked blackish is actually a delicate screen of the same white marble. It is, so to say, a magic stone wall, looking only like a blackish solid stone as an exterior view, impossible to see through from the outside, but possible from inside, out to the courtyard. 131 ___ Mausoleum of Salim Chishty, Fathehpur Sikri Although those stone panels can be imagined being quite vulnerable, having been made so delicately, they are actually very sturdy marble boards of 5 to 10 cm in thickness, drilled in a systematic pattern. It is as strong enough as to not break even if strongly kicked. Is this play? Again, no. In India, constantly hot, and rainy every day in the wet season, even stone buildings have protruding stone eaves (amazing for us Japanese) and have to be well ventilated. This trellised stone wall is an Indian time-honored technique for ventilation and prevention of trespass as well, often seen in Mughal architecture too. Then, how about the case of the Mausoleum of Humayun? This enormous tomb of the Mughal emperor in the capital Delhi is completely covered with marquetry of red sandstone and white marble. This elaborate method in stone architecture, equivalent to Byzantine mosaics, is the technique that was most highly developed in Mughal architecture. Though edifices covered with stone have been increasing in recent times in Japan, it is rare to find it finished with such laborious marquetry. However, this is also an orthodox architectural technique for finishing buildings, and we are not able to call it play. ___ Mausoleum of Humayun and Jantar Mantar, Delhi When pursuing examples of play not in finishing but in architectural form itself, the buildings of the Jantar Mantar (observatories) are recalled. Although their unique singular 132 forms, still extant in Jaipur, Delhi, Banaras and other places, are so extravagant as to make German Expressionist works inconspicuous, they are also not play but practical forms. Jai Singh II, the intelligent Maharaja of Jaipur in the 18th century, had an untiring passion for science, constructing huge observatories in various cities in northern India. His research and assemblage of the essence of leading-edge sciences at that time and pursuit of the most functional and rational forms based on them bore fruit in these astonishing architectural figures. It is quite interesting that neither traditional elements of Hindu architecture nor the details of Islamic architecture are used here, but as the outcome of scientific development, it would not have been play. PLAY IN ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE As we saw in the above sections, it is quite difficult to find examples of play in architecture itself in India. Then, is there nothing at all around the world? In point of fact, I notice that the spirit of play pervaded not only sculpture but also architecture of the mediaeval period in Europe, which was strictly controlled by the Christian religion. The famous Romanesque abbey, Santo Domingo de Silos, in northern Spain has a magnificent courtyard encircled with beautiful cloisters. A compound pillar of four columns in the west cloister is conspicuous because of being twisted; those columns are all slanted as if the masons had carelessly set their tops and bottoms at wrong positions, giving a quite eccentric posture to the pillar. Since this pillar is actually monolithic, and not twisted in the least, it can sufficiently support its heavy vertical load. This aspect of the pillar is not connected to the practicality of the building; on the contrary it is a joke or an expression of a spirit of humor, enjoying tricking viewers in their sense of sight. 133 Cloisters of the abbey of Santo Domingo de Silos Although it is a surprise that such a joke or play is done in a monastery, which normally would be quite austere, one can notice that similar behavior in architecture is seen in various places during a tour of Romanesque architecture in Europe; some columns bend or meander like spaghetti and others buckle as if they cannot sustain a too heavy load. If the ornamentation such as sculpture is categorized in the secondary elements of architecture, Romanesque architecture would be the first instance of play in the primary elements of architecture such as columns, beams and arches. Though there are a large number of examples of play in sculptures in India, I know of no examples of making a joke in the primary elements of architecture. However, is this perspective too narrow to see examples of ‘play in architecture’? In the category of sculpture, there is a difference between those set independently on the surface of buildings and those carved inseparably from the primary elements of architecture. In the latter cases, if some carvings are intended to give enjoyment to the viewer, without relation to practicality, they might also be called ‘play in architecture’. Window screens of the Sanprati Raja Temple, Girnar PLEASURE IN INDIAN ARCHITECTURE Given this viewpoint, plenty of examples of ‘play in architecture’ can be instantly 134 recalled. Typical examples are the Derwara Temples in the bosom of Mt. Abu and the Adinatha Temple soaring alone among deep mountains at Ranakpur. The Vimala Vasahi is a temple donated by a minister of the Solanki Dynasty on Mt. Abu; it is made of white marble, surface of which is exquisitely carved except the floors, while the Adinatha Temple at Ranakpur has about 400 columns similarly carved, none of which is said to have the same pattern. An example of this principle applied to windows is in the Sanpraty Raja Temple on Mt. Girnar, in which play can be seen in all the window screens of different patterns. Moreover sculptures on the domical ceilings of the temples on Mt. Abu are enormously complex and delicate beyond imagination; according to tradition, sculptors were paid in proportion to the amount of marble that they carved off, so they carved more and more intricately. ___ A domical ceiling at Mt. Abu and pillars of the Vitthala Temple Such spectacular architectural components can be seen above all in the architecture of Vijayanagara, the last Hindu dynasty in southern India, as seen in the above photograph of the Vitthala Temple, every pillar of which is carved out so fantastically and endlessly, in a way that cannot be found other than in India throughout the world. This extreme world, mixing religious passion and artistic eagerness, seem to have fallen into a slight decadence beyond the spirit of play. If one supposes that temples and palaces are always decorated brilliantly, so they are not ‘play in architecture’, I can show a yet more astonishing example: the stepwells existing mainly in the state of Gujarat, western India. Originally they were nothing other than practical facilities, but their steps leading to the bottom of the wells consist of stone columns and beams, which are carved with unbelievable magnificence, though they were not for the use of kings or nobles. The 135 photo shows the stepwell at the small village of Adalaj, which can be reached by a onehour bus ride from Ahmadabad. Villagers can take a cool rest on the landings of the stairs during days of insufferable heat. ___ Stepwell at Adalaj, India, and Khaju Bridge in Isfahan, Iran It is a piece of underground architecture; one can see only an entrance part on the ground, and all the the other parts were constructed below the ground. The perspective view of its subterranean framework of columns and beams emerging in the dark, bathed in the light from the sky, is quite fantastic. It is one of the two greatest achievements of civil engineering construction for common people, exceeding simple utility, and attaining artistic beauty with splendid space and decoration, ranking alongside the Khaju Bridge on the Zayandeh River in Isfahan, Iran. ACROMEGALY in ARCHITECTURE What is Acromegaly in architecture? It is the tendency in design to devote tremendous energy on spaces and forms of minor importance and make them more conspicuous than those of main functions of the building, in other words, it is the attitude of giving explicit independency to some less important parts rather than subordinating them to the central scheme. Such a design attitude would be rejected by orthodox view of architecture and criticized by the rationalistic mind. However, that ‘orthodoxy’ is only defined in modern Europe or Japan, and cannot be called universal for all ages and areas. 136 Temple of Horus with soaring Pylon, Edfu, Egypt When looking at the temple architecture of ancient Egypt for example, its rectangular precincts are entirely surrounded with high walls like a fortress, making it impossible to figure out from the outside what is within, on the contrary one part of the temple is massively displayed, the gigantic pair of pylons on one short side wall. The pylons are a temple gateway, soaring high-rise stone buildings in a pair, sandwiching a huge entrance door to the precincts between them, and connected to each other over the entrance door, looking like a single edifice. The surfaces of these magnificent pylons are embellished with various ornaments such as relief sculptures of gods or kings. The impression of the total external appearance of Egyptian temples is determined entirely by pylons, other components are completely hidden within high walls, even the upper part of the central sanctuary is not made visible from outside. Even when going into the temple, one finds that the sanctuary is nothing but a small dark room, and one wonders why the architect made only its gateway so majestic and neglected the physical form of its central shrine, which would have been esteemed as the most important architectural component. This is ‘acromegaly in architecture’. Functionally, the gate is only an entrance to the precincts, with the ability to be locked regularly or on occasion, not demanding to be as huge as to surpass the principal space; this way of thinking is the spirit of modern rationalism. The ancient Egyptians did not think so. They must have considered that the gate itself is the face of the building complex, and just as human personality and character permeates a face, the ‘raison dêtre’ of a building should be likewise expressed in the gate. They must never have thought that giving majesty to a minor component of a temple would harm the dignity of its main shrine. In the case of the largest piece of temple architecture in ancient Egypt, the Great Temple of Amun in Karnak, larger pylons were constructed in front each time the scale of the temple was enlarged, eventually reaching six pairs in number. Such acromegalic 137 architecture could be considered a curious anomaly in the history of world architecture. Gopuras in the Arnachaleshvara Temple DRAVIDIAN TEMPLES in SOUTHERN INDIA However, there was another architecture in the world, which also held such mentality, other than Egyptian; the early modern Hindu temples of the so-called Dravidian Style in southern India. Although during the age of the Chola Empire in the medieval period, Vimanas (main shrines) were given tremendous figures with heights reaching up to more than 60m, such as the Brihadishvara Temple in Thanjavur , the mode of temple architecture thoroughly changed in the 14th century during the Vijayanagara Dynasty. Leaving main shrines as small as they were when first built, and encircling the whole precincts as a rectangle with walls, architects came to construct magnificent tower gates at the entrances, which are not called pylons but gopuras. In the course of time, their precincts were further enlarged and surrounded with high walls as in ancient Egypt, erecting huger gopuras. In the cases of important temples, this cycle was repeated many times; the number of gopuras occasionally increased to more than ten and the highest ones could attain to over 70m in height. (Note) In the city of Tiruvannamalai, as the result of the repeated enlargement of the Arnachaleshvara Temple, its imposing gopuras soar like skyscrapers in Manhattan, looking down the town scape and the surrounding landscape. Since the main shrine is very small and located in the central enclosure, its existence 138 cannot figured out from outside. It would be difficult for current architects to even consider that these ten majestic skyscrapers are nothing but gates of a temple. Though the reason for the change in direction to acromegaly in Dravidian temple architecture is not yet clear, we can also find similar acromegaly, or the phenomena of the independency of elements constituting a whole, in the design of a gopura itself. The North Gopura of the Minakshi-Sundareshvara Temple The Minakshi-Sundareshvara Temple in Madurai, which is considered to be the best representative of Dravidian temples in early modern ages, has as many as 12 gopuras, mainly erected in the 17th century. The great gopura at the northern side has ten stories and is about 45m in height. Its upper stories are gradually set back from the lower stories, delineating a slightly concave curve in silhouette, and rising high into the sky like a Gothic cathedral. As for the material of this gopura, only the ground floor, which stands high astride an entrance passageway, is made of stone, and the superstructure constituting the upper nine stories is of brick, the surface of which is elaborately sculpted and colorfully plastered. Its base plan is standardized rectangular and the top is surmounted with a barrel vaulted enormous stone ridgepole. COMPOSITONAL PRINCIPLES of GOPURAS Indian temple architecture is popularly known to be covered with numerous sculptures of gods, animals and human couples, but when observing details of a gopura, one will see that it is made far more architecturally than sculpturally. Let us look slightly left of the center in the second story of the north gopura of Madurai (photo and diagram below). There is a Shala, or a temple-form unit (a basic temple form of two stories) of the 139 Dravidian style, carved minutely. Each story of the gopura has such temple units lined up innumerably. On the top of the photo can be seen the bottom part of the temple-form unit in the third story, and its central axis is a little deviated from that of the one below because of the setback of upper stories into slightly reduced proportion. A Shala (temple-form unit) on the second stair of the North Gopura, (the Minakshi-Sundareshvara Temple, Madurai) Disassembly of the Shala (above photo) into its self-similar elements When looking carefully into this complete temple-form unit (1 on the disassembly diagram), which is a self-sufficient temple enshrining a sculpted goddess, one can realize that three smaller Shalas (temple units) are stacked on its central axis (2 - 4 on the diagram), each of which is a complete independent temple of two stories, and furthermore one can find minimum-sized temples in and around them (5 - 14). 140 In short, this temple unit in the second story has an intricate telescopic structure comprised of 14 temples that are all self-sufficient independent buildings, with a sanctuary, front columns on a podium, eaves, and a vault-like roof on the second floor columns. Though the proportions of temple units are full of variety, each story of the gopura has a line of some 30 units of telescopic structure, so if a gopura has ten stories, it can be calculated to contain 3,000 to 4,000 temples in total. Since the Minakshi-Sundareshvara Temple has twelve gopuras, surprisingly close to 30,000 temples are embedded throughout its entire precincts in a telescopic way. While that great number is quite something, the architectural method in which minimum temples are combined with each other to make small temples, which in turn are joined together to form middle sized temples, which are piled up to compose a large gopura is extremely unique, never known in the world other than in India. However huge and complicated Gothic cathedrals might be, their components, arches, pillars, buttresses, turrets, traceries and so on, never take the form of independent church buildings. From what derived the impulses that gave such inclusion into a gopura, which has the function of a mere gate, and granted a temple form to each inferior element in spending considerable energy? Vimana of the Mallikarjuna Temple, Kuruvatti COLUMN BASE DESIGN In order to explore this further, let us examine another appearance of acromegaly in 141 architecture. It is also in southern India but from an age when vimanas were erected greater than gopuras: a mediaeval Hindu temple in the Karnataka region. Close to the end of the 10th century, Indian stone architecture had almost attained to its highest technical accomplishment, in spite of being wooden-like post and beam structure. The Mallikarjuna Temple in Kuruvatti was built in the late Chalkyan Style, which is just the middle form between the Northern and Southern temple styles. (The temple is especially famous by the sculptures on its column capitals on its facade). Plan of the Mallikarjuna Temple, Kuruvatti (From "Encyclopaedia of Indian Temple Architecture" by M.A. Dhaky, American Institute of Indian Studies, 1996) Its plan consists of the Garbhagriha (sanctuary), an Antarala (anteroom) and a Mandapa (hall) with three entrance porches. The Mandapa has four columns as usual to sustain the ceiling beams. The chlorite columns take a form like a stack of round disks, which are supposed to have been produced with a lathe. The most interesting factor is their elaborate column bases. 142 Column Base of the Mallikarjuna Temple They are probably the most exuberantly decorated column bases in the world. In contrast to the round shape shaft, each base is square in outline, standing on a geometrically chiseled podium, four corners of which have small fluted columns with a three tiered capitals, on which are mini-temples of two stories. On each face, between these corner columns, is carved a high towered temple of one story on four mini-columns. This tower has an artillery shell shape called a Shikhara, which is composed of a stack of small Shikharas and surmounted with an Amalaka (fluted disk) and a Kalasha (finial). Apart from volute ornament around the Shikhara, it is a complete northern type temple with even a statue of the main deity carved between the minicolumns. In short, each of these four columns in the Mandpa contains four northern type temples back to back on its column base. Since a Stambha (pillar or column) in India symbolizes the vertical axis connecting heaven and earth, the center of each column is the independent axis of the universe, having four temples (houses of gods) facing the four directions (the world). In the first place, the main shrine of a Hindu temple is a Garbhagriha (womb house as a sanctuary), which enshrines a Linga (phallus as a symbol of Shiva), erecting a Shikhara (high tower as a large Linga) over it and crowning it with a Kalasha (Himalayan Mt. Kailasa as an abode of Shiva), so it is interpreted as the axis of the universe connecting the earth for men and the heaven for gods. In this Mallikarjuna Temple, the Mandapa also forms a symbolic sacred place surrounded by four columns, each of which stands as an independent axis of the universe, plainly 143 indicating that the temple is a cosmos with the omnipresence of Hindu gods. Usually in Western architecture since the ancient Greeks, people do not pay much attention to column bases compared to capitals, the Indian sprit, which is to make every column in a Mandapa an axis of the universe, has the foot of each column immanent of the universe, making its extremity hypertrophy to tremendous density and elaboration in form. It has to be said that the method which filled some thousand temples into a single Gopura in southern type Hindu temples take root on the same spirit as this. The temple composition, which gave extreme prominence to only the entrance gates and left the main shrines smaller, and manifoldly encircled the precincts by high walls, is not seen in the world other than in ancient Egypt and in early modern southern India. What relationship was able to exist between these two remote regions both in time and distance? As according to geophysics the current Indian Subcontinent was integrated with the African continent eons ago, might the memory of remote ancestors of some hundred million years past revived in a common architectural constitution? Architecture of Hindu Temples Hindu architecture, representing a plurality of beliefs, is commonly divided into the northern Nagara and southern Dravidian styles. LEARNING OBJECTIVES Differentiate between the northen Nagara and southern Dravidian styles of Hindu temple architecture KEY TAKEAWAYS Key Points 144  Hindu art represents a plurality of beliefs and has deeply influenced the painting, sculpture, and architecture of the Indian subcontinent. Architecture and sculpture are inextricably linked in Hindu temples, which are usually devoted to a number of different deities .  A Hindu temple generally consists of an inner sanctum, in which the idol of the deity is housed; a congregation hall; and sometimes an antechamber and porch.  Two main styles of temples exist in India: the north Indian Nagara style, characterized by a beehive shaped central tower, and the south Indian Dravidia style, characterized by a graduated tower with multiple layered pavilions.  The period between the 6th and 12th centuries was marked by the appearance of a large number of Hindu states and was a productive and creative period for Hindu temple architecture. Key Terms  shikhara: The tower surmounting a Hindu temple.  om: A sacred, mystical syllable used to invoke God in Hindu prayer and meditation. Introduction: Hinduism and Hindu Art Hinduism is the predominant religion of the Indian subcontinent. Dating back to the Iron Age , it is often called the oldest living religion in the world. Hinduism has no single founder and is a conglomeration of diverse traditions and philosophies rather than a rigid set of beliefs. Most Hindus believe in a single supreme God who appears in many different manifestations as devas (celestial beings or deities), and they may worship specific devas as individual facets of the same God. Hindu art reflects this plurality of beliefs, and Hindu temples, in which architecture and sculpture are inextricably connected, are usually devoted to different deities. Deities commonly worshiped include Shiva the Destroyer; Vishnu in his incarnations as Rama and Krishna; Ganesha, the elephant god of prosperity; and different forms of the goddess Shakti (literally meaning “power”), the primordial feminine creative principle. These deities are often portrayed with multiple limbs and heads, demonstrating the extent of the god’s power and ability. Hindu art is also characterized by a number of recurring holy symbols, including the om , an invocation of the divine consciousness of God; the 145 swastika, a symbol of auspiciousness; and the lotus flower, a symbol of purity, beauty, fertility, and transcendence. Hindu Temples A Hindu temple generally consists of a garba griha (“womb chamber”), the inner sanctum in which the murti , or idol of the deity, is housed; a congregation hall; and sometimes an antechamber and porch. The garba griha is surmounted by a shikhara , or tower. Two main styles of temples exist in India: the northern Nagara style and the southern Dravida style. The Nagara Style In the northern Nagara style, the shikhara takes the shape of a curvilinear beehive. The temple is a square with a number of graduated projections in the middle of each side, giving a cruciform shape with a number of re-entrant angles on each side. The projections in the plan are also carried upwards to the top of the shikhara, giving a strong emphasis on vertical lines in elevation . 146 Lingaraj Temple, Bhubaneshwar, Orissa: The 11th century Lingaraj Temple is a fine example of the north Indian Nagara style of temple architecture, marked by its curvilinear, beehive-shaped shikhara. The Dravidian Style In the southern Dravidian style, the tower or gopuram consists of progressive smaller stories of pavilions. These temples were square in plan and pyramidal in shape; included porches (mandapams) and pillard halls (chaultris or chawadis); and contained tanks or wells for water to be used for sacred purposes or the convenience of the priests. 147 Brihadeeswarar Temple Gopuram Detail: The Brihadeeswarar Temple in Tanjore has the tallest Dravida style tower (216 feet) in India. The multiple stories are ornately carved. History and Well-Known Temples The earliest Hindu temples found in India date back to the Gupta period (ca. 320–550 CE); one of these is the Dashavatara Vishnu Temple in Deogarh in central India, built ca. 500 CE. The period between the 6th and 12th centuries was marked by the appearance of a large number of states, most of which were ruled by Hindu dynasties . This was a deeply productive and creative period for Hindu temple architecture, and many beautiful examples survive to the present day. Some surviving works include the monumental , rock-cut Kailashnath Temple (754–774 CE) dedicated to Shiva at Ellora in the western state of Maharashtra; the 11th century Brihadeeswarar Temple in Tanjore in the southern state of Tamil Nadu, which is India’s largest temple; and the Sun Temple (1238–1250 CE) at Konarak in Orissa. Although many Hindu temples were destroyed during the period of Muslim rule in India (12th to 18th centuries), Hindu influence on Indian art and architecture has withstood the test of time and continues to shape works of art. Hindu Sculpture Hindu sculpture represents the themes of its religion through its depiction of deities and recurring symbols, such as the lotus flower. LEARNING OBJECTIVES Evaluate the religious themes that contribute to an understanding of Hindu sculpture KEY TAKEAWAYS Key Points  Most Hindus believe in a single supreme God who appears in many different manifestations as devas, or celestial beings or deities ; Hindu sculpture reflects this plurality of beliefs. 148  Because religion and culture are inseparable with Hinduism , recurring symbols such as the gods and their reincarnations, the lotus flower, and extra limbs make their appearances in many sculptures of Hindu origin.  Deities are often portrayed with multiple limbs and heads, demonstrating the extent of the God’s power and ability.  Hindu sculpture is characterized by recurring holy symbols such as the om , an invocation of the divine consciousness of God; the swastika, a symbol of auspiciousness; and the lotus flower, a symbol of purity, beauty, fertility, and transcendence.  Sculpture is inextricably linked with architecture in Hindu temples, which are usually devoted to a number of different deities. Key Terms  Hinduism: A religion or a way of life found most notably in India and Nepal; with over one billion followers, it is the world’s third largest religion by population.  dharma: A key concept with multiple meanings in the Indian religions Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism, and Jainism; in Hinduism, it signifies behaviors that are considered to be in accord with the order that makes life and universe possible, including duties, rights, laws, conduct, virtues, and “right way of living.” Themes of Hindu Art and Sculpture Hinduism is a conglomeration of diverse traditions and philosophies rather than a rigid set of beliefs. Most Hindus believe in a single supreme God who appears in many different manifestations as devas (celestial beings or deities), and they may worship specific devas as individual facets of the same God. Hindu sculpture, as seen in other forms of Hindu art, reflects this plurality of beliefs. Because religion and culture are inseparable with Hinduism, recurring symbols such as the gods and their reincarnations, the lotus flower, extra limbs, and even the traditional arts make their appearances in many sculptures of Hindu origin. 149 Depictions of Deities Deities commonly worshiped and portrayed through sculpture include Shiva the Destroyer; Vishnu in his incarnations as Rama and Krishna; Ganesha, the elephant god of prosperity; and different forms of the goddess Shakti (literally meaning “power”), the primordial feminine creative principle. These deities are often portrayed with multiple limbs and heads, demonstrating the extent of the god’s power and ability. For example, the goddess Sarasvati is always depicted with a minimum of four arms: two of the arms will be playing a vina, representing the tuning of her knowledge; her other two hands often hold prayer beads and a scripture, both of which represent her devotion to her spirituality. As the goddess of learning and art, she is depicted in this way as very capable and powerful in her area of expertise. Shiva Nataraja, the Lord of the Dance: Nataraja from Tamil Nadu, India. Chola dynasty copper alloy sculpture, ca. 950–1000 CE. The deity is depicted as having multiple arms, as is common for idols of Hindu gods. 150 Symbols in Hindu Sculpture Hindu sculpture is also characterized by a number of recurring holy symbols, including the om, an invocation of the divine consciousness of God; the swastika, a symbol of auspiciousness; and the lotus flower, a symbol of purity, beauty, prosperity, fertility, and transcendence. The lotus flower is associated with these attributes due to its own process of blossoming: the flower grows out of mud and rests atop the water in which it grows, illustrating the hardship it must endure in order to achieve maximum beauty. Many deities have their name based on the Sanskrit word for lotus, such as Lakshimi. In addition to these symbols, flowers, birds, animals, instruments, symmetric mandala drawings, objects, and idols are all part of symbolic iconography in Hinduism. Connection to Architecture Sculpture is inextricably linked with architecture in Hindu temples, which are usually devoted to a number of different deities. The Hindu temple style reflects a synthesis of arts, the ideals of dharma , beliefs, values , and the way of life cherished under Hinduism. Elaborately ornamented with sculpture throughout, these temples are a network of art, pillars with carvings, and statues that display and celebrate the four important and necessary principles of human life under Hinduism—the pursuit of artha (prosperity, wealth), the pursuit of kama (pleasure, sex), the pursuit of dharma (virtues, ethical life), and the pursuit of moksha (release, self-knowledge). LICE HTTPS://COURSES.LUMENLEARNING.COM/BOUNDLESS-ARTHISTORY/CHAPTER/HINDU- ART/NSES AND ATTRIBUTIONS 151 CHAPTER VIII Design Elements.towards Divinity Divinity is a recurring concept throughout Hinduism and other world religions. The word ‘divine’ has become associated with God or other supernatural being – a power that is greater than man.Ancient texts originating from India talk about divinities in reference to the many Gods of the Hindu pantheon. These texts appear to have influenced the myths of later civilisations and modern day religions.Although it is said there are some 330 million gods in Hinduism, divine Yogis understand there is just One Supreme God – Brahman – which is personified by the Trimurti; Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva. he Trimurti are the Highest Divinities of the Hindu pantheon. Yet Hindus with an in-depth understanding of the True Self – the Atman, realise that the Trimurti are merely aspects of our inner life. Essentially, human beings have the potential to become God-like by connecting with the ‘divine’ power that is within us. The divine power within us is the Atman and we connect with the Supreme Universal Divinity which is the mysterious Brahman. God in Man Hindu texts written thousands of years ago teach us how to develop the qualities of divinity. Religious texts make no bones that God resides in man. The Svetasvatara Upanishad describes the Atman as the God that resides within. Similarly, in the Christian Bible, Genesis 1:27 states: “God created mankind in his own image.” Although the Catholic Church personifies God as some supernatural Sky Daddy, the texts imply that man has the divine qualities of God if we choose to discover our true Self – the Atman – the God that resides within. In the Bhagavad Gita, Lord Krishna talks about the ‘divine mystery’ being a royal secret. Kings, crowns and thus royalty are used in esoteric symbolism to represent Yogis – enlightened beings. This ‘royal secret’ is knowledge that can only be gained through self-examination. Eventually, the process of self-examination results in a revelation – the point of self-realisation, or if you like, an understanding on an deeper, emotional level. A spiritual aspirant therefore has to search for the divine power within. And the God in ancient myths demonstrates what we have to do in order to become an enlightened soul and ‘see the face of God.’ Where is the divine power within? This is a question that is open to debate. Yogis teach us that we can access our divine power through the breath. By breathing from the pit of the stomach and using the whole diaphragm, we fall deeper into trance. 152 In deep meditation, we are able to access levels of consciousness which connect us to the divine. By training the mind to empty and concentrate on an intention, you can explore and discover the divine in you. The ancient Chinese call this energy centre the Tan Tien. This is where the chi energy starts. Hindus have a similar concept which explains how the chi energy emerges and passes through the chakra system. The Tan Tien is situated about an inch below the navel, in the middle of the sacral chakra and the solar plexus chakra. These are arguably the two most important chakras – although this is open for debate and many people will have alternative opinions. My reasoning behind this statement is because the sacral chakra is the energy centre for creation. The ancient Sanskrit word for the sacral chakra is Svadhisthana which means ‘dwelling place of the Self.’ In other words, where the Atman resides. Atman remember is the individual God that resides within – your personal divine power that connects you to the Universal divinity which is Brahman. The Solar Plexus chakra is regarded as the control room. This powerful energy centre can be used for burning away old values that no longer serve us in order to bring in new values. Among the Hindu Gods the Solar Plexus is the divine power of Shiva and Shakti. So together, the sacral chakra and the solar plexus chakra can be used to help us transform from an ordinary mortal and develop the divine qualities reflected in the mythological Gods. The qualities of a divine Being Yogis explain that to access divine knowledge, we must transcend the bounds of reason and logic that we typically apply to things in the physical world. When we let go and allow our minds to wander beyond the five physical senses, we connect with our divine self and acquire knowledge that enables us to dissolve the ego. Throughout history we have heard stories about these revelations being grandiose epiphanies – visits from God. In reality, self-realisation is far less dramatic, although is usually accompanied by feelings of light-headedness and a release of tension felt leaving the body. We tend to call them ‘Eureka moments’ or ‘ha-ha moments.’ The truth about yourself comes from within. By internalising your thoughts and examining your actions, you understand more about yourself. This is how to connect with your higher self and expand your conscious awareness. he Vedas inform us that divine qualities are fearlessness, love, gratitude, appreciation, compassion, patience, honesty, control of emotions and purity of mind. Men that oppose the qualities of divine beings in Hindu mythology develop demonical qualities that we find in the Asuras; ignorance, anger, arrogance, hate, selfishness, materialism, indulgence, boastfulness and jealousy.As children we develop the qualities of the Asuras because we do not know any better unless guided by adults; parents, teachers, spiritual leaders etc.Sadly, many of us our 153 misled by the glamorous ideal of a life you can have. In essence, these fantastical ideals steer us away from the inner Truth of the divine Self.So essentially, you have a choice. Chase a non-realistic dream that magazines promise. Or look within, touch the divine Self and create the life you want for yourself.1 Hinduism is considered to be the oldest religion in the world. But it is much more than that. Hindu mythology has been tolerant of other religions and traditions since its inception. In terms of scripture, it is a delightful concoction of epic stories of morality and righteousness. These stories give us ideal characters like Rama, Laxamana, and the Pandavas. The Vedas give us an insight into ancient science and astronomy. Epics like Mahabharata and Ramayana narrate divine stories of the never-ending battle between good and evil. These are the reasons that the rich history of Hindu mythology is fascinating for both Hindus and non-Hindus. Origin of Temples Going back to the history, the ancient period is divided into four stages and is called as the Krta, Treta, Dvapara and Kali. The Krta also known as the Satya Yuga was called the golden age or the age of truth where there was no malice, deceit and had only righteousness. They all believed that there was only one god who lived among the humans. Then came the Treta Yuga where righteousness deteriorated by one fourth and here the main virtue was to acquire knowledge. They considered that god was a scarce entity and would descend to earth only when men invoked them in rituals and sacrifices. During the third division of time called the Dvapara Yuga, righteousness existed only in half the amount and eventually misery, disease, caste came into existence. The presence of god multiplied and each individual started forming groups and having their own images of god. However Kaliyuga is the present age of mankind. It is said that this age began at midnight between February 17 and 18, 3102 BC with righteousness being only one tenth. It is the time of anger, lust, pride, discord and there is very little room for true worship and sacrifice. Individuals are more involved with materialistic satisfaction and sexual desires. Temples appeared during Kali Yuga. During this phase temples were built and icons were installed however, the gods ceased to come down. In contrast to the previous periods where the gods were available to all the individuals equally, in Kaliyuga only the priests who belong to the traditional 154 hierarchy of professional worshipers and at the same time competent individuals could compel the presence of the almighty. Architecture Temples are located strategically at a place where the positive energy is abundantly available from the magnetic and electric wave distributions of north/south pole thrust. The main idol is placed in the core center of the temple, known as “*Garbhagriha*” or *Moolasthanam*. In fact, the temple structure is built after the idol has been placed. This *Moolasthanam* is where earth’s magnetic waves are found to be maximum. We know that there are some copper plates, inscribed with Vedic scripts, buried beneath the Main Idol. What are they really? No, they are not God’s / priests’ flash cards when they forget the *shlokas*. The copper plate absorbs earth’s magnetic waves and radiates it to the surroundings. Thus a person regularly visiting a temple and walking clockwise around the Main Idol receives the beamed magnetic waves and his body absorbs it. This is a very slow process and a regular visit will let him absorb more of this positive energy. Scientifically, it is the positive energy that we all require to have a healthy life. I. Satya Yuga Hindu mythology clearly states that all living beings pass through a continuous cycle of creation and destruction, the Maha Yuga. This cycle repeats itself over four different epochs or Yugas. The first of these Yugas is the Satya Yuga, which spans a period of 1,728,000 years. The Satya Yuga is said to be the golden age of truth and enlightenment. In this age, people attained an ideal state of mind and their actions were always reasoned and virtuous. The sacred texts further state that there was a surplus flow of ideas and thoughts between people. Everyone led an honest life and adhered to the truth. Everyone had acquired the answer to the ultimate question – the origin of everything. And since there was virtually nothing to conceal, even the tiniest thread of thought was accessible to everyone without verbal communication. Human physiology also significantly differed from the one that we exhibit today. People used to be around 155 31.5 feet (21 cubits or 80cm) tall. They also had a lifespan that stretched over hundreds of thousands of years. II. Treta Yuga This represents the second age in the cycle of Maha Yuga. The Hindu scripts state that Treta Yuga spans a period of 1,296,000 human years. By the advent of Treta Yuga, the presence of sattva or goodness in human nature had slowly started to diminish. Whatever goodness or virtue that remained in people was now accompanied by an ever-increasing amount of tamas and rajas. Tamas represented the darkness in human nature and rajas constituted all the passion a human could conjure. By now, people had nurtured an acute level of intellect, but they had also lost a good deal of control over their body and its physiology. People’s stature was now smaller than during the Satya Yuga, with the average human being around 14 cubits tall, but there were some exceptional beings who had attained a godly build and divine persona such as the characters Rama, Laxamana, Ravana, and Hanumana who were considered godlike for their extraordinary strength and inimitable intellect. III. Dwapar Yuga Dwapar Yuga represents the third age right after Treta Yuga. Also known as the Bronze Age, the Dwapar Yuga is said to have lasted for 864,000 human years. It represents an age where goodness and evil in human nature are neck and neck. As the human body loses satva or purity, people attain a far greater control over their body than their intellect. By the time Dwapar Yuga was at its peak, man had already lost control over his innermost body and knowledge. He became more attracted to the materialistic aspects of the world, succumbing to his ever-increasing desires. Only intellectuals like Bhisma, Dharmaraja, and Vidura were able to escape this fate. Eventually, there was a gradual decline in the moral fiber of society in general. People with enormous physicality became increasingly offensive in their thirst for desire and power. The average human lifespan had also come down to 1,000 years. IV. Kali Yuga 156 The last age in the ever-repeating cycle of Maha Yuga is the Kali Yuga. It is also the shortest, lasting for 432,000 human years. The current time period falls under Kali Yuga, and it is also referred to as the Iron Age. The Kali Yuga represents hypocrisy and instability like never before. Human nature is significantly corrupted by the temptations of sin and only a little conscience remains. The human body is at its lowest in terms of physicality and intellect. An average man is only 3.5 cubits tall and lives for around 100 to 120 years. Citing the ancient Hindu scripts, it is estimated that around 5,000 years of Kali Yuga have already passed by. It is also predicted that when Kali Yuga reaches its dying years, the lifespan of man will be no more than 20 years. This age has been highlighted by man’s unprecedented longing for materialism. In a stark contrast to previous ages, human lives have been corrupted by ignorance and the connection to one’s inner self has been lost. 2 Temples are the focal points of religious worship. Through architectural representation they can express religious ideology. From the late Dark Ages to the Classical Period and beyond, humanity had been consistently struggling with their understanding of God, divinity, and the world around them. In the historic and prehistoric evidence of humanity we see a constant attempt to understand the nature of the world around us and how it interacts with us. One of the most ancient understandings of the nature of the world and all within it comes through the notion of divinity. Harboring a belief in the divine is an effort to understand not only the world, but also its relation to us. Religion is the organization and patterning of a conception of divinity. In many historical civilizations we see the reflection of religion in human creations. Temple architecture is only one creation through which religion and divinity are expressed, but it is potentially a powerfully persuasive medium, which can support tremendous intricacy of expression. Through an understanding of temple architecture, we can hope to have an insight into the nature of divinity in a particular religion.3 Architecture has always had a role to play in religious worship - here's our pick of the best modern religious buildings, from one of the largest mosques in the world to a diminutive chapel built to honour a 15th-century hermit. The mainland Greeks expressed their conception of divinity in many ways through the design and function of Archaic and Classical temples of the Doric order. As the Islamic religious calendar is based on the lunar cycle, the moon became a source of inspiration and a unifying element of the design. The building of somemosques such as -The Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan al Nahyan Mosque- alters character as the lunar cycle progresses, bathed in cool white light at the full moon, but shifting colour every two evenings, and growing gradually bluer as the moon wanes. On the fourteenth evening the mosque is lit in deepest blue to signify darkness - yet the viewer is never able to perceive the building changing from one colour to the next. Sacred or religious architecture is sometimes called sacred space. Architect Norman L. Koonce has suggested that the goal of sacred architecture is to make "transparent the boundary between matter and mind, flesh and the spirit." In discussing sacred architecture, Protestant minister Robert Schuller suggested that "to be psychologically healthy, human beings need to experience their natural setting—the setting we were designed for, which is the garden." Meanwhile, Richard Kieckhefer suggests that entering into a religious building is a metaphor for entering into spiritual relationship. Kieckhefer suggests that sacred space can be analyzed by three factors affecting spiritual process: longitudinal space emphasizes the procession and return of sacramental acts, auditorium space is suggestive of proclamation and response, and new 157 forms of communal space designed for gathering and return depend to a great degree on minimized scale to enhance intimacy and participation in worship. Sacral architecture (also known as sacred architecture or religious architecture) is a religious architectural practice concerned with the design and construction of places of worship or sacred or intentional space, such as churches, mosques, stupas, synagogues, and temples. Many cultures devoted considerable resources to their sacred architecture and places of worship. Religious and sacred spaces are amongst the most impressive and permanent monolithic buildings created by humanity. Conversely, sacred architecture as a locale for meta-intimacy may also be non-monolithic, ephemeral and intensely private, personal and non-public. Sacred, religious and holy structures often evolved over centuries and were the largest buildings in the world, prior to the modern skyscraper. While the various styles employed in sacred architecture sometimes reflected trends in other structures, these styles also remained unique from the contemporary architecture used in other structures. With the rise of Christianity and Islam, religious buildings increasingly became centres of worship, prayer and meditation.The Western scholarly discipline of the history of architecture itself closely follows the history of religious architecture from ancient times until the Baroque period, at least. Sacred geometry, iconography, and the use of sophisticated semiotics such as signs, symbols and religious motifs are endemic to sacred architecture. Design Elements of a Hindu temple A Hindu temple is a symmetry-driven structure, with many variations, on a square grid of padas, depicting perfect geometric shapes such as circles and squares. 158 Susan Lewandowski states that the underlying principle in a Hindu temple is built around the belief that all things are one, everything is connected. A temple, states Lewandowski, "replicates again and again the Hindu beliefs in the parts mirroring, and at the same time being, the universal whole" like an "organism of repeating cells". The pilgrim is welcomed through mathematically structured spaces, a network of art, pillars with carvings and statues that display and celebrate the four important and necessary principles of human life—the pursuit of artha (prosperity, wealth), the pursuit of kama (desire), the pursuit of dharma (virtues, ethical life) and the pursuit of moksha (release, self-knowledge). At the centre of the temple, typically below and sometimes above or next to the deity, is mere hollow space with no decoration, symbolically representing Purusa, the Supreme Principle, the sacred Universal, one without form, which is present everywhere, connects everything, and is the essence of everyone. A Hindu temple is meant to encourage reflection, facilitate purification of one's mind, and trigger the process of inner realization within the devotee.[2] The specific process is left to the devotee's school of belief. The primary deity of different Hindu temples varies to reflect this spiritual spectrum. The site The appropriate site for a Mandir, suggest ancient Sanskrit texts, is near water and gardens, where lotus and flowers bloom, where swans, ducks and other birds are heard, where animals rest without fear of injury or harm.[2] These harmonious places were recommended in these texts with the explanation that such are the places where gods play, and thus the best site for Hindu temples.[2][26] While major Hindu mandirs are recommended at sangams (confluence of rivers), river banks, lakes and seashore, the Brhat Samhita and Puranas suggest temples may also be built where a natural source of water is not present. Here too, they recommend that a pond be built preferably in front or to the left of the temple with water gardens. If water is neither present naturally nor by design, water is symbolically present at the consecration of temple or the deity. Temples may also be built, suggests Visnudharmottara in Part III of Chapter 93,[29] inside caves and carved stones, on hill tops affording peaceful views, mountain slopes overlooking beautiful valleys, inside forests and hermitages, next to gardens, or at the head of a town street. In practice most temples are built as part of a village or town.[30] Some sites such as the capitals of kingdoms and those considered particularly favourable in terms of sacred geography had numerous temples. Many ancient capitals vanished and the surviving temples are now found in a rural landscape; often these are the best-preserved examples of older styles. Aihole, Badami, Pattadakal and Gangaikonda Cholapuram are examples. The plan 159 The 8x8 (64) grid Manduka Hindu Temple Floor Plan, according to Vastupurusamandala. The 64 grid is the most sacred and common Hindu temple template. The bright saffron centre, where diagonals intersect above, represents the Purusha of Hindu philosophy. The design, especially the floor plan, of the part of a Hindu temple around the sanctum or shrine follows a geometrical design called vastu-purusha-mandala. The name is a composite Sanskrit word with three of the most important components of the plan. Mandala means circle, Purusha is universal essence at the core of Hindu tradition, while Vastu means the dwelling [31] [32] structure. Vastupurushamandala is a yantra. The design lays out a Hindu temple in a symmetrical, self-repeating structure derived from central beliefs, myths, cardinality and mathematical principles. The four cardinal directions help create the axis of a Hindu temple, around which is formed a perfect square in the space available. The circle of mandala circumscribes the square. The square is considered divine for its perfection and as a symbolic product of knowledge and human thought, while circle is considered earthly, human and observed in everyday life (moon, sun, horizon, water drop, rainbow). Each supports the other. The square is divided into perfect square grids. In large temples, this is often a 8x8 or 64 grid structure. In ceremonial temple superstructures, this is an 81 sub-square grid. The squares are called ‘‘padas’’.[6][33] The square is symbolic and has Vedic origins from fire altar, Agni. The alignment along cardinal direction, similarly is an extension of Vedic rituals of three fires. This symbolism is also found among Greek and other ancient civilizations, through the gnomon. In Hindu temple manuals, design plans are described with 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81 up to 1024 squares; 1 pada is considered the simplest plan, as a seat for a hermit or devotee to sit and meditate on, do yoga, or make offerings with Vedic fire in front. The second design of 4 padas has a symbolic central core at the diagonal intersection, and is also a meditative layout. The 9 pada 160 design has a sacred surrounded centre, and is the template for the smallest temple. Older Hindu temple vastumandalas may use the 9 through 49 pada series, but 64 is considered the most sacred geometric grid in Hindu temples. It is also called Manduka, Bhekapada or Ajira in various ancient Sanskrit texts. Each pada is conceptually assigned to a symbolic element, sometimes in the form of a deity or to a spirit or apasara. The central square(s) of the 64 is dedicated to the Brahman (not to be confused with Brahmin), and are called Brahma padas . In a Hindu temple's structure of symmetry and concentric squares, each concentric layer has significance. The outermost layer, Paisachika padas, signify aspects of Asuras and evil; the next inner concentric layer is Manusha padas signifying human life; while Devika padas signify aspects of Devas and good. The Manusha padas typically houses the ambulatory.[2] The devotees, as they walk around in clockwise fashion through this ambulatory to complete Parikrama (or Pradakshina), walk between good on inner side and evil on the outer side. In smaller temples, the Paisachika pada is not part of the temple superstructure, but may be on the boundary of the temple or just symbolically represented. The Paisachika padas, Manusha padas and Devika padas surround Brahma padas, which signifies creative energy and serves as the location for temple's primary idol for darsana. Finally at the very centre of Brahma padas is Garbhagruha(Garbha- Centre, gruha- house; literally the centre of the house) (Purusa Space), signifying Universal Principle present in everything and everyone.[2] The spire of a Hindu temple, called Shikhara in north India and Vimana in south India, is perfectly aligned above the Brahma pada(s). A Hindu temple has a Shikhara (Vimana or Spire) that rises symmetrically above the central core of the temple. These spires come in many designs and shapes, but they all have mathematical precision and geometric symbolism. One of the common principles found in Hindu temple spires is circles and turning-squares theme (left), and a concentric layering design (right) that flows from one to the other as it rises towards the sky. Beneath the mandala's central square(s) is the space for the formless shapeless all pervasive all connecting Universal Spirit, the Purusha. This space is sometimes referred to as garbhagriya (literally womb house) - a small, perfect square, windowless, enclosed space without ornamentation that represents universal essence. In or near this space is typically a murti. This is the main deity image, and this varies with each temple. Often it is this idol that gives it a local name, such as Vishnu temple, Krishna temple, Rama temple, Narayana temple, Siva temple, Lakshmi 161 temple, Ganesha temple, Durga temple, Hanuman temple, Surya temple, and others. It is this garbhagriya which devotees seek for ‘‘darsana’’ (literally, a sight of knowledge,[35] or vision. Above the vastu-purusha-mandala is a high superstructure called the shikhara in north India, and vimana in south India, that stretches towards the sky.[31] Sometimes, in makeshift temples, the superstructure may be replaced with symbolic bamboo with few leaves at the top. The vertical dimension's cupola or dome is designed as a pyramid, conical or other mountain-like shape, once again using principle of concentric circles and squares (see below). Scholars such as Lewandowski state that this shape is inspired by cosmic mountain of Mount Meru or Himalayan Kailasa, the abode of gods according to its ancient mythology. In larger temples, the outer three padas are visually decorated with carvings, paintings or images meant to inspire the devotee.[2] In some temples, these images or wall reliefs may be stories from Hindu Epics, in others they may be Vedic tales about right and wrong or virtues and vice, in some they may be idols of minor or regional deities. The pillars, walls and ceilings typically also have highly ornate carvings or images of the four just and necessary pursuits of life—kama, artha, dharma, and moksa. This walk around is called pradakshina. Large temples also have pillared halls called mandapa. One on the east side, serves as the waiting room for pilgrims and devotees. The mandapa may be a separate structure in older temples, but in newer temples this space is integrated into the temple superstructure. Mega temple sites have a main temple surrounded by smaller temples and shrines, but these are still arranged by principles of symmetry, grids and mathematical precision. An important principle found in the layout of Hindu temples is mirroring and repeating fractal-like design structure,[36] each unique yet also repeating the central common principle, one which Susan Lewandowski refers to as “an organism of repeating cells”. Exceptions to the square grid principle Predominant number of Hindu temples exhibit the perfect square grid principle.[38] However, there are some exceptions. For example, the Teli ka Mandir in Gwalior, built in the 8th century CE is not a square but is a rectangle consisting of stacked squares. Further, the temple explores a number of structures and shrines in 1:1, 1:2, 1:3, 2:5, 3:5 and 4:5 ratios. These ratios are exact, suggesting the architect intended to use these harmonic ratios, and the rectangle pattern was not a mistake, nor an arbitrary approximation. Other examples of non-square harmonic ratios are found at Naresar temple site of Madhya Pradesh and Nakti-Mata temple near Jaipur, Rajasthan. Michael Meister states that these exceptions mean the ancient Sanskrit manuals for temple building were guidelines, and Hinduism permitted its artisans flexibility in expression and aesthetic independence.[6] The Hindu text Sthapatya Veda describes many plans and styles of temples of which the following are found in other derivative literature: Chaturasra (square), Ashtasra (octagonal), Vritta (circular), Ayatasra (rectangular), Ayata Ashtasra (rectangular-octagonal fusion), Ayata Vritta (elliptical), Hasti Prishta (apsidal), Dwayasra Vrita (rectangular-circular fusion); in Tamil literature, the Prana Vikara (shaped like a Tamil Om sign, ) is also found. Methods of combining squares and circles to produce all of these plans are described in the Hindu texts. Nashik Maharashtra temple, cross section and plan (1910 sketch) 162 Vrindavan Uttar Pradesh temple plan/Khajuraho Madhya Pradesh temple plan/Puri Odisha temple complex plan/Bhubneshwar Odisha, a smaller temple plan/Halebidu Karnataka temple plan/Chidambaram Tamil Nadu temple plan The temples were built by guilds of architects, artisans and workmen. Their knowledge and craft traditions, states Michell, were originally preserved by the oral tradition, later with palm-leaf manuscripts.[40] The building tradition was typically transmitted within families from one generation to the next, and this knowledge was jealously guarded. The guilds were like a corporate body that set rules of work and standard wages. These guilds over time became wealthy, and themselves made charitable donations as evidenced by inscriptions. The guilds covered almost every aspect of life in the camps around the site where the workmen lived during the period of construction, which in the case of large projects might be several years. The work was led by a chief architect (sutradhara). The construction superintendent was equal in his authority.[40] Other important members were stonemason chief and the chief image-maker who collaborated to complete a temple. The sculptors were called shilpins. Women participated in temple building, but in lighter work such as polishing stones and clearing. Hindu texts are inconsistent about which caste did the construction work, with some texts accepting all castes to work as a shilpin. The Brahmins were the experts in art theory and guided the workmen when needed. They also performed consecration rituals of the superstructure and in the sanctum. In the earliest periods of Hindu art, from about the 4th century to about the 10th century, the artists had considerable freedom and this is evidenced in the considerable variations and innovations in images crafted and temple designs. Later, much of this freedom was lost as iconography became more standardized and the demand for iconometry consistency increased. This "presumably reflected the influence of brahman theologians" states Michell, and the "increasing dependence of the artist upon the brahmins" on suitable forms of sacred images. The "individual pursuit of self-expression" in a temple project was not allowed and instead, the artist expressed the sacred values in the visual form through a temple, for the most part anonymously. 163 Dashavatara temple sculpture at Deogarh, completed about 500 CE. The sponsors used contracts for the building tasks. Though great masters probably had assistants to help complete principal images in a temple, the reliefs panels in a Hindu temple were "almost certainly the inspiration of a single artist". Schools of temple building tradition Along with guilds, surviving texts suggest that several schools of Hindu temple architecture had developed in ancient India. Each school developed its own gurukuls (study centres) and texts. Of these, state Bharne and Krusche, two became most prominent: the Vishwakarma school and the Maya school.[45][46] The Vishwakarma school is credited with treatises, terminology and innovations related to the Nagara style of architecture, while the Maya school with those related to the Dravida style. The style now called Vesara bridges and combines elements of the Nagara and the Dravida styles, it probably reflects one of the other extinct schools. Some scholars have questioned the relevance of these texts, whether the artists relied on silpa sastras theory and Sanskrit construction manuals probably written by Brahmins, and did these treatises precede or follow the big temples and ancient sculptures therein. Other scholars question whether big temples and complex symmetric architecture or sculpture with consistent themes and common iconography across distant sites, over many centuries, could have been built by artists and architects without adequate theory, shared terminology and tools, and if so how. According to Adam Hardy – an architecture historian and professor of Asian Architecture, the truth "must lie somewhere in between". According to George Michell – an art historian and professor specializing in Hindu Architecture, the theory and the creative field practice likely co-evolved, and the construction workers and artists building complex temples likely consulted the theoreticians when they needed to. Various styles of architecture 164 Architecture of the Khajuraho temples The ancient Hindu texts on architecture such as Brihatsamhita and others, states Michell, classify temples into five orders based on their typological features: Nagara, Dravida, Vesara, ellipse and rectangle. The plan described for each include square, octagonal and apsidal. Their horizontal plan regulates the vertical form. Each temple architecture in turn has developed its own vocabulary, with terms that overlap but do not necessarily mean exactly the same thing in another style and may apply to a different part of the temple.[50] Chronologically, the early Hindu temples are often called classical (up to 7th or 8th century), while those after the classical period through 12th or 13th century are sometimes referred to as medieval. However, states Michell, this is inappropriate for Hindu architecture given India's artistic tradition to conserve its heritage and architectural framework, while evolving ideas. The style of Hindu temple architecture is not only the result of the theology, spiritual ideas, and the early Hindu texts but also a result of innovation driven by regional availability of raw materials and the local climate.[51] Some materials of construction were imported from distant regions, but much of the temple was built from readily available materials. In some regions, such as in south Karnataka, the local availability of soft stone led to Hoysala architects to innovate architectural styles that are difficult with hard crystalline rocks.[51] In other places, artists cut granite or other stones to build temples and create sculptures. Rock faces allowed artists to carve cave temples or a region's rocky terrain encouraged monolithic rock-cut temple architecture. In regions where stones were unavailable, innovations in brick temples flourished. Hindu temple architecture has historically been affected by the building material available in each region, its "tonal value, texture and structural possibilities" states Michell I. Dravida and Nagara architecture 165 Dravidian (South Indian) Hindu Temple Architecture Of the different styles of temple architecture in India, the Nagara architecture of northern India and the Dravidian architecture of southern India are most common. Other styles are also found. For example, the rainy climate and the materials of construction available in Bengal, Kerala, Java and Bali Indonesia have influenced the evolutions of styles and structures in these regions. At other sites such as Ellora and Pattadakal, adjacent temples may have features drawing from different traditions, as well as features in a common style local to that region and period. In modern era literature, many styles have been named after the royal dynasties in whose territories they were built. Feature Nagara architecture Dravidian architecture Main temple Sikhara above sanctum spire (tower) Vimana that may be multistorey (talas), the top of which is called the sikhara Mandapa spire (tower) No Yes Straight-edged pyramidal, Curvature of Curvilinear centred over the sanctum, also straightsometimes curvilinear centred the spire edged pyramidal over the sanctum[note 2] Typically single (Vimana may be multi-storey) Sanctum Single or multi-storey Plan Mandapa, sanctum and tower plans are predominantly Chaturasra (square); uncommon: Ashtasra, Vritta, Ayatasra, Ayata same, plus Prana Vikara Ashtasra, Ayata Vritta, Hasti Prishta, Dwayasra Vrita Gopuram Characteristic, but not essential; after 10th century often higher than the vimana. May be several, on all sides of the compound, serving as landmarks for pilgrims Not a prominent feature 166 sacred pools, many pillared mandapas in temple grounds sacred pools, fewer pillared mandapas in temple (used for rites of passage grounds (separate dharmashala), prakara walls rare ceremonies, choultry, temple (e.g. Odisha after 14th century), single or multiple rituals), prakara walls became entrances into temple common after 14th century, single or multiple entrances into temple Other features Major styles sub- Geography Latina, Phamsana, Sekhari, Valabhi Tamil (upper and lower Dravidadesa), Karnata, Andhra northern, western and central of the Indian southern parts of the Indian subcontinent subcontinent, southeast Asia Chronology of surviving Late Kushana era, early Gupta: rudimentary archaic; Late Gupta era: rudimentary; stone6th-10th century: zenith 6th-10th century: zenith masonry monuments Regional styles The architecture of the rock-cut temples, particularly the rathas, became a model for south Indian temples. Architectural features, particularly the sculptures, were widely adopted in South Indian, Cambodian, Annamese and Javanese temples. Descendants of the sculptors of the shrines are artisans in contemporary Mahabalipuram. Badami Chalukya architecture The Badami Chalukya Architecture style originated by 5th century in Aihole and was perfected in Pattadakal and Badami. Chalukya Architecture of temples at Aihole and Pattadakal 167 Mallikarjuna temple complex at Aihole, is a historic site of ancient and medieval era Buddhist, Hindu and Jain monuments in north Karnataka, India dated from the sixth century through the twelfth century CE. The Virupaksha temple (or Lokesvara temple) at Pattadakal, built by queen Lokamahadevi (queen of Badami Chalukya King Vikramaditya II) around 740 CE, now a World Heritage Site. Between 500 and 757 CE, Badami Chalukyas built Hindu temples out of sandstone cut into enormous blocks from the outcrops in the chains of the Kaladgi hills. In Aihole, known as the "Cradle of Indian architecture," there are over 150 temples scattered around the village. The Lad Khan Temple is the oldest. The Durga Temple is notable for its semi-circular apse, elevated plinth and the gallery that encircles the sanctum sanctorum. A sculpture of Vishnu sitting atop a large cobra is at Hutchimali Temple. The Ravalphadi cave temple celebrates the many forms of Shiva. Other temples include the Konthi temple complex and the Meguti Jain temple. Pattadakal is a World Heritage Site, where one finds the Virupaksha temple; it is the biggest temple, having carved scenes from the great epics of the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. Other temples at Pattadakal are Mallikarjuna, Kashivishwanatha, Galaganatha and Papanath. Gadag architecture:The Gadag style of architecture is also called Western Chalukya architecture. The style flourished for 150 years (1050 to 1200 CE); in this period, about 50 temples were built. Some examples are the Saraswati temple in the Trikuteshwara temple complex at Gadag, the Doddabasappa Temple at Dambal, the Kasivisvesvara Temple at Lakkundi, and the Amriteshwara temple at Annigeri. which is marked by ornate pillars with intricate sculpture. This style originated during the period of the Kalyani Chalukyas (also known as Western Chalukya) Someswara I. Gadag/Western Chalukya style Architecture of temples 168 Stepped floorplan of Dattatreya Temple (one side of the shrine) with five projections at Chattarki in Gulbarga district, 12th century CE Mahadeva Temple at Itagi, Koppal district in Karnataka, also called Devalaya Chakravarti, 1112 CE, an example of dravida articulation with a nagara superstructure. Kalinga architecture-The three types of Deulas 169 Rekha and Pidha Deula of the Konark Sun Temple/Khakhara Deula of the Vaital Deula The design which flourished in eastern Indian state of Odisha and Northern Andhra Pradesh are called Kalinga style of architecture. The style consists of three distinct type of temples namely Rekha Deula, Pidha Deula and Khakhara Deula. Deula means "temple" in the local language. The former two are associated with Vishnu, Surya and Shiva temple while the third is mainly with Chamunda and Durga temples. The Rekha deula and Khakhara deula houses the sanctum sanctorum while the Pidha Deula constitutes outer dancing and offering halls. The prominent examples of Rekha Deula are Lingaraj Temple of Bhubaneswar and Jagannath Temple of Puri. One of the prominent example of Khakhara Deula is Vaital Deula. The Konark Sun Temple is a living example of Pidha Deula. Navlakha Temple, Ghumli, Gujarat, 12th century Māru-Gurjara architecture Māru-Gurjara architecture, or Solaṅkī style, is a style of north Indian temple architecture that originated in Gujarat and Rajasthan from the 11th to 13th centuries, under the Chaulukya dynasty (or Solaṅkī dynasty).[71] Although originating as a regional style in Hindu temple architecture, it became especially popular in Jain temples and, mainly under Jain patronage, later spread across India and to diaspora communities around the world. On the exteriors, the style is distinguished from other north Indian temple styles of the period in "that the external walls of the temples have been structured by increasing numbers of projections and 170 recesses, accommodating sharply carved statues in niches. These are normally positioned in superimposed registers, above the lower bands of moldings. The latter display continuous lines of horse riders, elephants, and kīrttimukhas. Hardly any segment of the surface is left unadorned." The main shikhara tower usually has many urushringa subsidiary spirelets on it, and two smaller sideentrances with porches are common in larger temples. Devotions in the Swaminarayan temple in Houston, Texas (2004) Mahadev Temple Koppel Karnataka Interiors are if anything even more lavishly decorated, with elaborate carving on most surfaces. In particular, Jain temples often have small low domes carved on the inside with a highly intricate rosette design. Another distinctive feature is "flying" arch-like elements between pillars, touching the horizontal beam above in the centre, and elaborately carved. These have no structural function, and are purely decorative. The style developed large pillared halls, many open at the sides, with Jain temples often having one closed and two pillared halls in sequence on the main axis leading to the shrine. 171 Southeast Asia as part of Greater India. See our papers on Champa,Prembanab, Angkor Vat and also our books on the same in researchgate.net and academia.in Architecture of the southeast nations was inspired by the Indian temple architecture, as those were Indianised as part of the Greater India. Champa architecture The profile of the 13th-century Po Klong Garai Temple near Phan Rang includes all the buildings typical of a Cham temple. From left to right one can see the gopura, the saddle-shaped kosagrha, and mandapa attached to the kalan tower. Between the 6th and the 16th century, the Kingdom of Champa flourished in present-day central and southern Vietnam. Unlike the Javanese that mostly used volcanic andesite stone for their temples, and Khmer of Angkor which mostly employed grey sandstones to construct their religious buildings, the Cham built their temples from reddish bricks. The most important remaining sites of Cham bricks temple architecture include Mỹ Sơn near Da Nang, Po Nagar near Nha Trang, and Po Klong Garai near Phan Rang. Typically, a Cham temple complex consisted of several different kinds of buildings. [75] They are kalan, a brick sanctuary, typically in the form of a tower with garbahgriha used to host the murti of deity. A mandapa is an entry hallway connected with a sanctuary. A kosagrha or "fire-house" is a temple construction typically with a saddle-shaped roof, used to house the valuables belonging to the deity or to cook for the deity. The gopura was a gate-tower leading into a walled temple complex. These building types are typical for Hindu temples in general; the classification is valid not only for the architecture of Champa, but also for other architectural traditions of Greater India Indonesian architecture 172 Prambanan temple (Shivagrha) of Central Java, an example of the 9th century Indonesian Javanese Hindu temple architecture with mandala layout and prasad tower crowned with stylized ratna-vajra. Temples are called candi (pronounced [tʃandi]) in Indonesia, whether it is Buddhist or Hindu. A Candi refers to a structure based on the Indian type of single-celled shrine, with a pyramidal tower above it (Meru tower in Bali), and a portico for entrance, mostly built between the 7th to 15th centuries. In Hindu Balinese architecture, a candi shrine can be found within a pura compound. The best example of Indonesian Javanese Hindu temple architecture is the 9th century Prambanan (Shivagrha) temple compound, located in Central Java, near Yogyakarta. This largest Hindu temple in Indonesia has three main prasad towers, dedicated to Trimurti gods. Shiva temple, the largest main temple is towering to 47 metre-high (154 ft). The term "candi" itself is believed was derived from Candika, one of the manifestations of the goddess Durga as the goddess of death. The candi architecture follows the typical Hindu architecture traditions based on Vastu Shastra. The temple layout, especially in central Java period, incorporated mandala temple plan arrangements and also the typical high towering spires of Hindu temples. The candi was designed to mimic Meru, the holy mountain the abode of gods. The whole temple is a model of Hindu universe according to Hindu cosmology and the layers of Loka. The candi structure and layout recognize the hierarchy of the zones, spanned from the less holy to the holiest realms. The Indic tradition of Hindu-Buddhist architecture recognize the concept of arranging elements in three parts or three elements. Subsequently, the design, plan and layout of the temple follows the rule of space allocation within three elements; commonly identified as foot (base), body (centre), and head (roof). They are Bhurloka represented by the outer courtyard and the foot (base) part of each temples, Bhuvarloka represented by the middle courtyard and the body of each temples, and Svarloka which symbolized by the roof of Hindu structure usually crowned with ratna (sanskrit: jewel) or vajra. Khmer architecture 173 A diagram map of Angkor Wat reveal the concentric square galleries. On the right is an aerial view of the central structure of Angkor Wat, in front of it lies the cruciform terrace. Before the 14th century, the Khmer Empire flourished in present-day Cambodia with its influence extended to most of mainland Southeast Asia. Its great capital, Angkor , "Capital City", derived from Sanskrit "nagara"), contains some of the most important and the most magnificent example of Khmer temple architecture. The classic style of Angkorian temple is demonstrated by the 12th century Angkor Wat. Angkorian builders mainly used sandstone and laterite as temple building materials. The main superstructure of typical Khmer temple is a towering prasat called prang which houses the garbhagriha inner chamber, where the murti of Vishnu or Shiva, or a lingam resides. Khmer temples were typically enclosed by a concentric series of walls, with the central sanctuary in the middle; this arrangement represented the mountain ranges surrounding Mount Meru, the mythical home of the gods. Enclosures are the spaces between these walls, and between the innermost wall and the temple itself. The walls defining the enclosures of Khmer temples are frequently lined by galleries, while passage through the walls is by way of gopuras located at the cardinal points. The main entrance usually adorned with elevated causeway with cruciform terrace. GLOSSARY: The Hindu texts on temple architecture have an extensive terminology. Most terms have several different names in the various Indian languages used in different regions of India, as well as the Sanscrit names used in ancient texts. A few of the more common terms are tabulated below, mostly in their Sanscrit/Hindi forms. Illustrative Hindu text mention / design rules Term Explanation Adhisthana stylobate, plinth, base typically with Manasara XIV, Ka mouldings on the side, on which a temple mikagama 35, Supr building or pillar stands abhedagama 31 174 Image Illustrative Hindu text mention / design rules Term Explanation Amalaka a crowning ornament on the top of shikara, shape of an Indian amalok fruit that looks Mayamata like a cogged wheel. The amalaka supports silpasastra the kalasha. Antarala lit. interior space of any building; in temples, Manasara XV, it is the intermediate space (vestibule, XXIII; Kamikagam antechamber) between the sanctum and space a XXXV where pilgrims gather Ardhamandapa half hall at each entrance, usually the reception area that connects to the mandapa Ayatana Agni Purana XLIII, Mat assembly hall, grounds inside a temple or sya monastery compound Purana CCLXX, C handogya Upanishad 6.8.2 Bhadra a projection often aligned to one of the cardinal directions; typically of central part of Manasara XXXwalls; decoration or a projected porch for XXXIV pilgrims; also may be a tower storey projection 175 Manasara XIV, Ka mikagama 35, Supr abhedagama 31 Image Illustrative Hindu text mention / design rules Term Explanation Gana a mythical dwarf or goblin usually with a protruded belly and with humorous expression Garbhagriha The womb-house, adytum, sanctum sanctorum; it is the loci of the temple and the darshana, the spiritual space that Hindus circumambulate clockwise about. This is where the main murti image is placed. Brihat Samhita LXI Usually the space is very plain, with no distractions from the murti, which is rich in symbolism. A large temple may have many shrines, each with a garbhagriya. Gavaksha one of the arch motifs; it is horseshoe-shaped, found with windows or for decorating spires, pillars and other elements Gopuram a gateway at entrance or one that connects two sacred spaces of the temple; becomes very large in South Indian temples, which may have several; it has roots in ancient Indian monasteries and the Vedic word gomatipur;[88] Hara neck ornament such as necklace 176 Agni Purana XLII, Man asara XI, XXXIII verses 1-601, LVIII Image Illustrative Hindu text mention / design rules Term Explanation Jala a trellis, stone grille, net, first seen in 6thcentury temples Jagati any moulded base or pedestal for the temple or a statue that extends out, part of platform that forms a terrace to stand on or circumambulate around on, while reading the reliefs and friezes Kalasha Agni the pinnacle element of a temple, a vase Purana CIV, Kami finial, cupola or pitcher kagama 55 Kunda temple tank, stepwell, pool, usually with steps, public utility for taking a dip; often connected to a nearby river or mountain stream Lata liana, creeper-style plant, vine, one type of scroll work; also found on sikhara Makara a mythical fusion sea creature with fishcrocodile like face, trunk or snout, legs Suprabhedagama 3 sometimes with lion claws and a tail; vahana 1.68-72 of Varuna 177 Samaranganasutradhara LXVIII, Agni Purana XLII, Supr abhedagama 31.19 Garuda Purana XLVI, Mah anirvana tantra XIII Image Term Explanation Illustrative Hindu text mention / design rules Mandapa pillared hall or pavilion, with pillars usually carved; a mandapa is typically square, rectangle, octagonal or circular; it may have walls with perforated stone windows, it may just be open on some or all sides. Large temples may have many interconnected mandapas. It is a gathering place, a place for pilgrims to rest (choultry), a part of the circumambulation space, or to wait during prayers or Sanskara (rite of passage) rituals. A mandapa may have a tower (shikhara) of its own, but it is lower than that above the sanctum. Manasara XXXIIXXXIV, Kamikaga ma 50, Brihat samhita, Vishnu Purana 6.124-136 Mulaprasada main shrine in a temple complex Nisha niche on temple walls or in pillars for sculptures or stele Nyasa the art of arranging images and friezes to create a narrative or composition, in some Vastusutra texts it refers to relative placement of images Upanishad VI within a panel to summarize a Hindu legend or fable; also a form a ritual. Prakara wall that separates an inner zone of temple ground from an outer zone; typically concentric, defensive and fortified, a feature added after the wars and plunders starting in the 14th-century 178 Image Illustrative Hindu text mention / design rules Term Explanation Prastara entablature, horizontal superstructure of Manasara XVI; Ka bands and moldings above column capitals, mikagama LIV sometimes functions as a parapet of a storey Ratha a facet or vertical offset projection on the plan of the sanctum and shikhara above, or other structure. It is generally carried up from the bottom of the temple to the superstructure. A ratha, meaning cart, is also the temple chariot used for processing the murti at festivals, and a "ratha temple" is one designed to resemble a cart, with wheels on the sides, and often horses. The most famous example is the Sun Temple, Konarak. Sala Round barrel-roofed, wagon-roofed pavilion; rooted in the thatched roofed stall for people or cattle tradition, then other materials of construction; any mansion or griha; a pilgrim services building with mandapas or pillared Manasara XXXV veranda or both inside the temple complex, verses 1-404 Hindu texts describe multi-storey Sala; in south, sala are structures used as a decorative motif, or an actual roof, as at the top of gopurams; rooted in ancient thatched roof styles. Sikhara/Vimana In North India, the tower above the sanctum (entire spire above mulaprasada); in South Brihat Samhita LVI India, that top part of tower that is above the vimana 179 Image Illustrative Hindu text mention / design rules Term Explanation Stambha A pillar; it can be a load bearing element or an independent standing element with diya (lamps) and Hindu icons below, Manasara XV, Kas around and / or on top; the designs vary yapa silpa significantly by region, in Kerala Hindu sastra IX temples they are at the entrance; on festive occasions the wick lamps are loaded with oil and lit up. Sukanasa an external ornamented feature over the entrance to the garbhagriha or inner shrine. It sits on the face of the sikhara tower (in South Agni Purana XLII India, the vimana) as a sort of antefix. Can refer to the antarala below as well. Tala tier or storey of a shikhara, vimana or gopuram Torana any arch or canopy motif, ornament or architectural member in temples and buildings; it also refers to an arched gateway Urushringa subsidiary turret-like shikharas on the side of Brihat the main shikhara; the primary turret is Samhita LVI, Agni called shringa Purana CIV 180 Garuda Purana XLVII, Ma nasara XLVI verses 1-77 Image Single storey gopura (Dravidian architecture)/Two storey gopura (Dravidian architecture)/ Pillar elements (shared by Nagara and Dravidian) Entablature elements/A vimana with mandapam elements (Dravidian architecture)/ Athisthana architectural elements of a Hindu temple Architecture of a Hindu temple (Nagara style).Each style is an interpretation of the need to create an ambiance that will propel the visitor to proximities of divinity.These core elements are evidenced in the oldest surviving 5th–6th century CE temples. The Meenakshi temple complex of Madurai, mostly built between 1623 and 1655 CE, a large complex in the Dravidian architecture of South India, dominated by gopuram gatehouse towers. The two main shrines are much smaller, with gold tops.//A Badami Shiva temple in Karnataka. Hindu temple architecture as the main form of Hindu architecture has many varieties of style, though the basic nature of the Hindu temple remains the same, with the essential feature an inner sanctum, the garbha griha or womb-chamber, where the primary Murti or the image of a deity is housed in a simple bare cell. Around this chamber there are often other structures and buildings, in the largest cases covering several acres. On the exterior, the garbhagriha is crowned by a towerlike shikhara, also called the vimana in the south. The shrine building often includes an circumambulatory passage for parikrama, a mandapa congregation hall, and sometimes an antarala antechamber and porch between garbhagriha and mandapa. There may further mandapas or other buildings, connected or detached, in large temples, together with other small temples in the compound. 181 Hindu temple architecture reflects a synthesis of arts, the ideals of dharma, beliefs, values and the way of life cherished under Hinduism. The temple is a place for Tirtha—pilgrimage.[2] All the cosmic elements that create and celebrate life in Hindu pantheon, are present in a Hindu temple—from fire to water, from images of nature to deities, from the feminine to the masculine, from kama to artha, from the fleeting sounds and incense smells to Purusha—the eternal nothingness yet universality—is part of a Hindu temple architecture.[2] The form and meanings of architectural elements in a Hindu temple are designed to function as the place where it is the link between man and the divine, to help his progress to spiritual knowledge and truth, his liberation it calls moksha. The architectural principles of Hindu temples in India are described in Shilpa Shastras and Vastu Sastras The Hindu culture has encouraged aesthetic independence to its temple builders, and its architects have sometimes exercised considerable flexibility in creative expression by adopting other perfect geometries and mathematical principles in Mandir construction to express the Hindu way of life. Kailasa temple, Ellora, the largest rock-cut Hindu temple/ Udaigiri cave lion There are hardly any remains of Hindu temples before the Gupta dynasty in the 4th century CE; no doubt there were earlier structures in timber-based architecture. The rock-cut Udayagiri Caves are among the most important early sites, built with royal sponsorship, recorded by inscriptions, and with impressive sculpture. The earliest preserved Hindu temples are simple cell-like stone temples, some rock-cut and others structural, as at Temple 17 at Sanchi. By the 6th or 7th century, these evolved into high shikhara stone superstructures. However, there is inscriptional evidence such as the ancient Gangadhara inscription from about 424, states Meister, that towering temples existed before this time and these were possibly made from more perishable material. These temples have not survived. Examples of early major North Indian temples that have survived after the Udayagiri Caves in Madhya Pradesh include those at Tigawa, Deogarh, Parvati Temple, Nachna (465). Bhitargaon, the largest Gupta brick temple to survive, Lakshman Brick Temple, Sirpur (600-625 CE); Rajiv Lochan temple, Rajim (7th-century). Gop Temple in Gujarat (c. 550 or later) is an oddity, with no surviving close comparator. No pre-7th century CE South Indian style stone temples have survived. Examples of early major South Indian temples that have survived, some in ruins, include the diverse styles at Mahabalipuram, 182 from the 7th and 8th centuries. However, according to Meister, the Mahabalipuram temples are "monolithic models of a variety of formal structures all of which already can be said to typify a developed "Dravida" (South Indian) order". They suggest a tradition and a knowledge base existed in South India by the time of the early Chalukya and Pallava era when these were built. Other examples are found in Aihole and Pattadakal. By about the 7th century most main features of the Hindu temple were established along with theoretical texts on temple architecture and building methods.[16] From between about the 7th and 13th centuries a large number of temples and their ruins have survived (though far fewer than once existed). Many regional styles developed, very often following political divisions, as large temples were typically built with royal patronage. In the north, Muslim invasions from the 11th century onwards reduced the building of temples, and saw the loss of many existing ones.[16] The south also witnessed Hindu-Muslim conflict that affected the temples, but the region was relatively less affected than the north.[17] In late 14th century, the Hindu Vijayanagara Empire came to power and controlled much of South India. During this period, the distinctive very tall gopuram gatehouse actually a late development, from the 12th century or later, typically added to older large temples. South-East Asian Hindu temples Prambanan in Java, Indonesia (9th century) and Angkor Wat in Cambodia (12th century), examples of Southeast Asian Hindu temple architecture. Both temples were modelled after Mount Meru in Hindu cosmology. Possibly the oldest Hindu temples in South East Asia dates back to 2nd century BC from the Oc Eo culture of Mekong Delta from southern Vietnam. They were probably dedicated to a sun god, Shiva and Vishnu. The temple were constructed using granite blocks and bricks, one with a small stepped pond.[18] The cultural sphere often called Greater India extended into South-East Asia. The earliest evidence trace to Sanskrit stone inscriptions found on the islands and the mainland Southeast Asia is Võ Cạnh inscription dated to 2nd or 3rd century AD in Vietnam or in Cambodia between 4th and 5th-century CE. Prior to the 14th-century local versions of Hindu temples were built in Myanmar, Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam. These developed several national traditions, and often mixed Hinduism and Buddhism. Theravada Buddhism prevailed in many parts of the SouthEast Asia, except Malaysia and Indonesia where Islam displaced them both. Hindu temples in South-East Asia developed their own distinct versions, mostly based on Indian architectural models, both North Indian and South Indian styles.[23] However, the Southeast Asian temple architecture styles are different and there is no known single temple in India that can be the source of the Southeast Asian temples. According to Michell, it is as if the Southeast Asian architects 183 learned from "the theoretical prescriptions about temple building" from Indian texts, but never saw one. They reassembled the elements with their own creative interpretations. The Hindu temples found in Southeast Asia are more conservative and far more strongly link the Mount Meru-related cosmological elements of Indian thought than the Hindu temples found in the subcontinent. Additionally, unlike the Indian temples, the sacred architecture in Southeast Asia associated the ruler (devaraja) with the divine, with the temple serving as a memorial to the king as much as being house of gods. Notable examples of Southeast Asian Hindu temple architecture are the Shivaist Prambanan Trimurti temple compound in Java, Indonesia (9th century), and the Vishnuite Angkor Wat in Cambodia (12th century). 17th-century palm leaf manuscript page on temple building, Odisha. REFERENCE 1. 2. 3. https://www.antaryami.com/hinduism/what-is-the-meaning-of-divine/ 2https://www.ancienthistorylists.com/india-history/top-10-interesting-hindu-mythology/ The Greek Conception of Divinity,Expressed through Mainland,Temple Architecture, Lucas Livingston,November 28, 1998 https://www.saic.edu/~llivin/research/greek_divinity/ConceptionofDivinity.html#:~:text=Temples%20are%20the%20f ocal%20points,they%20can%20express%20religious%20ideology.&text=And%20from%20the%20time%20of,expressing%2 0these%20conceptions%20in%20architecture. 184 CHAPTER IX ELEMENTS OF INDIAN TEMPLES For entire details see my 400 page book on HINDU TEMPLE PANORAMA also on this and the other sites. Plan: The earliest architecture in India is that of cottage type. It is a circular, bottle or dome shaped. Mud and Bamboo sticks were used for construction. In the course of evolution number of plans were incorporated in the temple architecture, such as circular plan, square, rectangular, elliptical, upsidal, stellar, etc. A text like Manasara mentions 32 types of square plans 1 . Plan is essential for any structural temple. Plans of the temples depend upon the number of components that existed within the temple. The simplest plan of the temple consists of a garbhagriha and sabhamandapa or porch. This simple plan does not imply that the structure belonged to the earliest period. The temples constructed in the later period also have simple plans. Construction of a temple depends upon the financial position of the builder. When an antarala is added in-between garbhagriha and mandapa, then the plan of the temple hecomes little larger. When a pradakshinapatha (circumambulatory path) is added to garbhagriha and antarala, the plan of the temple becomes wider. Then it is called as Sandhara' temple. In the course of time, number of components of the, temple increased like mandapas, shrines for subsidiary deities; priikaras, etc, and the plan of the temple became large and wider. Mandala: With the arrival of Agamas in Hindu religion, the details of architecture became more sophisticated in the temple and reflected the fundamental symbolism of Mandalas. The Yoga Tattva Upanishad speaks about 185 the symbolism in terms of the five fundamental elements that constitute the material basis of the entire cosmos. Earth elements are represented by' a 'Square', Water with a 'semicircle', fire by a 'Triangle', air by a 'six- angled figure' and ether (sky) by a circle. The point without dimension dot (bindu) is the focus of all energy . The icon in the sanctum occupies the central position and the temple represents the other necessary forms. The architectural details of a sophisticated temple reflect this fundamental symbolism. The above five forms are represented in a Mandala known as Vishva-Karma Mandala,' which is regarded as fundamental to all temple architecture 3 . The four sides of the Mandala symbolize the four main directions and the corners of the square represents four mid-directions and each of the eight quarters is presided over by a deity. The inner circle symbolizes the 'Creator' (Brahma), which is symbolic of activity, guarded by the eight directions. The Mandala is symbolic of the entire universe. The 'allmaker' (Creator) is also the progenitor. The whole mass of scripture, consisting of manuals of architecture, sculpture and painting collectively are known as Agama. Early temples were reputed to be built by this All-maker . In early days, this vertical emphasis was laid on only one tier (prathama tala). Later, number of tiers (talas) were added to this superstructure. It was believed that the entire area, which the vimana or sikhara overlooked was rendered holy and the area covered by this sikhara, would be prosperous. Superstructures of temples of Kalinga type are simple with series of receding courses forming stepped pyramids. Another type of superstructure that is of storyed type contains several talas (storeys).) Texts like Vishnu Tilaka, Manasara, Mukutaganta, Silparatna, layamata and Isana Shivaguru Paddhati and Bhave Prakasana give broad account of sikhara features such as Nagara, Dravida and Vesara. In addition to these Nagara, Dravida and Vesara type sikharas, Vishnu Mn Ira and Markhandcya Samhita grouped the temples into nine and added six more types such as Sarvadesika, Kalinga, Varata, Mandira, Bhavana and .yoga. But Silvaprasna and liana Shivaguru Paddhati referred only three classifications, Nagar. Dravida and Vesara Nagara: Actually means squarish, cruciform in plan and its sikhara has a vertical emphasis. Vesara: Circularly emphasized horizontal aspect shape, like domical or octagonal or in the shape of vaulted roof. Another feature is storeyed towers and tall gopuras. It is a combination of Dravida and Nagara style of Sikhara features. Dravida- Polygonal or octagnal (six or eight sided): It is circular in plan or apsidal. General conception is that Nagara type of temples prevails in the land between the Himalayas and Vindhya ranges. Vesara type of temples exists inbetween Vindhya ranges and Krishna river and Dravida type of temples prevails inbetween River Krishna and Kanyakumari'7. 186 The term sikhara meaning 'Mountain peak' may indicate that it signified 'Meru' meaning mountain or Kai lasa , , so tall and sacred place of Shiva. The North Indian vimana or Sikhara is crowned by a large circular (Wheel shaped) capstone block known as 'amalaka' (ribbed disc resembling an amalaka fruit, Emblic Myrobalan), while its South Indian counterpart ends in a cupola (Srnga) or Wagon roof (khakra). The South Indian vimana is broader and shorter than the North Indian vimana. The North Indian temples rise from a pedestal (Pitha or Jagati), though the wall (tiara) and main body (gandi) to the head (mastaka), which consists of a rib, is surmounted by a 'skull' (khapuri) on which is installed the Kalasa (finial). And on top of finial will be seen the weapon (ayudha) of the deity, a trident or a discus flag e.g. Jagati( See my paper on Jain temple Jagati elsewhere on academia.edu and researchgate.net) Temples in Orissa and Khajuraho The The Jaina temple at Cudne, Goa stands on Pitha (Jagati) like North Indian temple. Compared to the North Indian Temple Sikharas, in the Dravidian vimana, the height is less emphasized. The plan of the Virnana could be round or square. It could also be six- sided or eight- sided. It could retain one form uniformly from the base to the top or combine two or more plans at different storeys, sometimes as many as sixteen, but the prevailing style is devoid of such differentiation into storeys. It rises above the sanctum with flat roof of the sanctum (Bhumika or Kapotha) as its base (adhisthana). Kalasa It was an old custom to install a crowing member in the form of a sacrificial 'Vase (Kalasa)' made of metal. kalasa denotes a mark of exaltation . It occupies the topmost part of the temple below the Ayuda. (Pineal). Porch The rectangular porch in front of the Sanctum sanctorium (Mukhamandapa or Mukha —sala) is a pillared hall, allowing the devotees to stand and watch the worship rituals as they are conducted inside the sanctum. When the temple became popular and devotees increased, the sanctum needed additional hall and this porch became merely a vestibule (antarala) 21 . Its main function is to accommodate more devotees of the temple. The porch (vestibule) is structurally connecting the sanctum with the additional hall (assembly hall). Like the antarala in front of the sanctum, a low raised structure called `Sukhanasi' crowned antarala. It is erected in front of the Sikhara, which stands on sanctum proper. Unlike the sanctum covered by flat roof stone slabs, antarala is also filled in the similar manner, which serves as the base (adhisthana) for the super structure. 187 The doors of the temple must always be two panelled and the two are described as mother and daughter ' Brihat-Samahita prescribes that the door must be located in the middle of the front wall and that it must be in the same direction as the idol. According to Agnipurana, the door must always be placed in one of the four directions and never in the corners. Suprabhediigama recommends gateways in all the four directions on the outer wall. Texts mentioned that Devadar wood is best for temple doors. . Texts prescribe the rules about the several aspects of door like jamb, lintel (dwara-sakha), door panels (kabata), door joints (dwara sandhi), door planks (phalaka), bolt (kila-bhajana), tower over the door way (dwara gopura) and the chamber associated with the door way (dwara-koshtha). Dwiira-Sakha (door jamb) is single panelled in early temples without much ornamentation. Ornamentation developed in the later period in the door panels, and it became familiar as Sakhas in temple architecture such as Lata Sakha, Patra Sakha, Pushpa Sakha, etc. The popular simple form of doorconsists of only three sakhas in it. Sometimes the images of Gajalakshmi or Ganesh at the centre of lintel occasionally with Purnakumbhas on either side, Dweirapalas or Ganga, Yamuna or Purnakumbhas at the base also can be seen in the Dwara Sakhas in the medieval period. Mahadeva temple at Curdi is the best example for tri-sakha dw&a. Tri-sakha dwara also can be seen at Saptakoteswar temple at Opa. 188 Taluka. Pranala or water chute takes out ablution water from garbhagriha. It passes through garbhagriha wall (generally towards north) and extends to a considerable length away from wall (e.g Pranalas of Mahadev temple, Curdi and Tambdi Surla were extended up to the adhisthana mouldings of the temple). Majority of the pranalas are in simple long block with a channel cut into it. Some pranalas are highly decorated and the mouths of the Icirtimukhas are crocodile or ox or makara or lion or creeper scroll etc., emerge as channel. Generally main deity used to be placed over the pranala in al- most all the temples in Goa. Some prdruilas have beautiful mouldings like as in the Adhisthana of the temple, e.g., Brahma temple in Sattari A Chandrasilis (MoonStones) Chandrasila— or Moonstones were in the form of semicircular slabs on floor in front of doors forming a step in the beginning or in the main entrance (e.g, in front of the rock cut cave temples at Haravalem). The terminology itself suggests their shape i.e., semi circular 26. Their outline was carved on the floor slabs later (mainly in front of the garbhagriha door e.g. Curdi, Tambdi Surla and Opa temples. Subsequently, the semi-circle took leaf shape with a point at the centre and two scrolls on the sides. The Chandrsirds in the Mahadev temple at Curdi, Tambdi Surla and Saptakoteshwar temple at Opa with a pointed tip are shown in relief on the floor slab in front of the garbhagriha doors. 189 Kopeshwar temple. Highly ornamented chandrashila at entrance Air and light entrances: chandrasiliis(Windows) or Jalavatayanas meant for allowing light and air into temples have provided artists with a space for exhibiting their skill by carving creepers, flowers, figures and several perforations. Some Jalavatayanas are decorated with creepers containing circular perforations Torana is another interesting feature involved in stylized temples. Temples like Mahalasa, Manguesh, Naguesh, etc, have chitra toranas in the drooped wall of their Mandapa ceilings. Besides Chitra torana, the texts mention two other types of torana 1) Patra torana (fashioned like the lotus leaves) and 2) Makara torana (arch with makara). The Makara torana enshrined in the temple was suitable for the residence of Brahmins and Kshatriyas while Chitratoranas was suitable for Vaisyas and Patratorana was useful for Sudras. Sabhainandapa or Navaranga or MaCamandapa When the temple became very popular and the participants increased in number there was a 190 need for an additional hall of larger dimension to sanctum and antarala to accommodate large assemblies. (e .g. Navaranga). This sabhamandapa used to be pillared hall with or without kakshasana. These type of larger halls were found more in some places according to the requirements of the temple such as Natya mandapa, Bhoga mandapa, Kalyana mandapa etc., and they can be seen mainly in Orissan temple architecture. Mahadeva temple at Tambdi Surla is the best example for its sabhamandapa with kakshasana. Modem temples like Malialsa, Ramn-ath etc., have kakshasanas within the large 96 97 halls (Mandapas) but those are not aesthetic enough like that of Tambdi Surla temple. The area of the temple comprising of the sanctum and the halls as well as the tanks and gardens came to be enclosed by a wall (prakara). But this was a later innovation and can be seen in many of the South Indian temples. Walls The treatment of walls also depicts a wide range from simple plain to decorated with pilasters, turrets and figures. Some of the mukhamandapas and Sabhamandapas are open and some are covered with jalavatayanas (perforated door screens) niches and figures. Mahadev Temple at Tambdi Surla and temple fragments of Saptakoteshwar temple near St Cajetan Church, Old Goa are the best examples. Chajjas: A projected horizontal band called bandana runs in the middle of the wall of sanctum and antarala of Tambdi Surla temple with Kudya stambhas with regular intervals resembling the features of later Chalukyan period. Eaves The main function of eave or chajja is to protect wall from rainwater. It projects forward from the ceiling level, so that water is thrown away from wall surface. The slightly projecting eaves with curved upper surface to facilitate the flow of water are found in several temples. Especially in Goa, the rainfall is more and it continues for a long period. Hence almost all the structures in Goa require slanty roofs and eaves for easy disposal of rainwater. Ceilings Ceilings are different types. 1) Domical ceiling 2) Flat ceiling 3) Rectangular ceiling 4) Square ceiling 5) Circular ceiling 6) Rotated squares ceiling 7) Octagonal ceiling, etc., 191 Placing smaller triangular slabs over the corners of the lower square forms the upper square. A flat slab is placed at the top for covering the central gap. The space of the ceiling is reduced at the top by creating these squares. The lower square is exactly half of the ankara and the upper square is half of that of the lower. A flat slab one-fourth of the size of the ankara is used at the top. The squares not only reduce the areas but also break the monotony of the comparatively plain interior 29. This type of ceiling 98 99 appeared in the rock cut cave at Khandepar for the first time in Goa where the ceilings of the monolithic rock are cut in the shape of trabeat (lantina type). This system became more sophisticated in the structural temples such as Mahadev temple at Curdi and Tambdi Surla in the later period. The central bays in the Nandimandapa ceiling is decorated with a variety of circular inverted lotus in the same temple. Here lotus petals were more projected and a lotus bud was shown very prominently in the centre and the star shaped central lotus is encircled with similar type of lotuses. The ceiling slabs of eastern side bay of mandapa are also adorned with the star shaped circular lotuses in it. Similarly, in the later temples like Mahalasa, Manguesh, Nciguesh, Shantadurga, have lotus decoration in ,mkjnbvcyghthe wooden ceilings in the mandapas. These temples generally have domical shape ceilings on the octagonal base for sanctum. The domical ceilings are almost plain and no decorations are found in them. 100 Pillars Pillars supporting the corners of garbhagriha and antarala are known as canton pillars. The canton pillars are prominently shown in the rock-cut cave architecture. Rock cut caves at Khandepar is the best example for this feature. Here the canton pillars are chiselled in the monolithic rock in the corners of garbhagriha and antarala, canton pillars can be made out of basalt (volcanic rock). Pillars supporting various mandapas of temples are found in various shapes, such as square pillars, round pillars, projected square pillars, octagonal pillars, sixteen sided pillars, star shaped pillars etc. These pillars consist of a pedestal, shaft, capital, abacus and corbels. Square Pillars: Square pillars first appeared in the rock cut cave temples. These pillars are simple massive and plain, and can be seen in the rock cut cave temples at Harvalem, Limgaon, Veliguem 192 Surla, Narve, Kusyacherann in Goa. 101 Round Pillars: Simple round pillars consist of a lower square block and the remaining circular portion with pot at the top. This type of pillars can be seen in the Nandimandapa of Mahadev temple at Curdi. These pillars have a square base, a rectangular malasthana, an octagonal and a circular shaft with a top pot and a square capital with pothikas on its top. Accessory structures Very few temples contain accessory structures like Nandi shrine or Nandi mandapa separately in front of the temple or otherwise these are attached to the main temple. Some temples have separate shrines for subsidiary deities, (Parivara- devta or Gramdevta) on either side of the main temple or backside or in the front of the main temple. Maximum number of accessory structures in Goa belongs to Ravalnath, Sateri, Ganesh and Durga. Tulasi Tulasi is the most important plant for Hindus. because Lakshmi's presence is recognized in the Tulasi plant. Every year on the twelfth day of the bright half of Kartik, Tulasi Vivah (marriage) is celebrated. Tulasi or holy basil is worishpped with profound respect everywhere. People keep a Tulasi plant in front of their house on a specially made stand called Tulasi Vrindavan and worship with great veneration to keep the 193 environment free from bactereous and unwanted prying eyes (burl nazar) into their houses. Dhvaja-Stambha (FLAG-STAFF): Hayasirsha — samhita, a Pancharatra text reveals that a building (prasada) without a flag would be in vain. 'Shiva-sarvasva' describes the purpose of the flag as indication of the insignia of the deity or of the characteristic vehicle of the icon that is within the sanctum. Ancient texts mentioned that where the flag was hoisted in front of the temple; Gods as well as manes used to be delighted. The text also assigns Vishnu (protector) to the top, Brahma (creator) to the middle and Shiva (destroyer) to the bottom of the 107 flag-staff. 36 . Hosting the flag suggests setting out to conquer. The devotee coming into the temple would have firm resolve to conquer his own baser nature. To look at the flag would be a reminder for him in this regard. The Sanskrit word for the flag or banner dhvaja strictly means whatever that is raised. Whatever raises man to a higher level of understanding and activities is a dhvaja. It is a call that God is high and above. The characteristic animal and the insignia of the icon on the banner gives a direction to the devotee's desire and will. When the devotee sees the banner and bows before it, he resolves to rise higher. The benefit of the flag-mast is here said to be "obtainment of all that is desired". The canonical texts favour wooden or bamboo poles. In course of time, the wooden pole was covered with copper, brass or even with silver. Bali-Pitha (The Dispensing Seat): The sanctum, adytum garbhagriha, which is the most important structural detail, is closely associated with the Bali-Pitha that is installed in front of the sanctum directly facing the icon. 194 Actually there will be several 'seats' of this nature, installed in various ritualistically determined positions inside the enclosure and outside the sanctum. However, the one in front of the sanctum is the 'Chief seat'. (Pradhana-pitha). It is a low stone altar, frequently planned in the form of a flat, relatively elaborate form with a base, cornices, wall surface and the top lotus. The canons specify that the real temple should comprise of the sanctum, the tower on top of it, the icon inside it and the dispensing seat in front of it 3:9. 110 Water Tank: Water tank or snanaghat is essential for Hindu temple. Before entering into the temple, the devotee must purify (parishuddh) with taking bath or clean and wash hands and legs and head. Water tank is also necessary for daily requirement of water for deities and cleaning of temple. Providing Snanaghat (bathing ghat or pushkar) on the banks of major rivers near the temple is ancient practice jri India. All the 12 major rivers in India have bathing ghats to celebrate `Pushkar'. The Pushkar celebrations come once in twelve years after rotation at all the major rivers from North to South (e.g., Ganga nadi pushkar. Yamuna nadi pushkar, Godavari nadi pushkar and Krishna nadi Pushkar. 195 CHAPTER X Acoustics IN HINDU TEMPLE Acoustical knowledge of ancient Hindus “Expressed in the Vedic language, which is derived from classical Sanskrit, the verses of the Vedas were traditionally chanted during sacred rituals and recited daily in Vedic communities. The value of this tradition lies not only in the rich content of its oral literature but also in the ingenious techniques employed by the Brahmin priests in preserving the texts intact over thousands of years. To ensure that the sound of each word remains unaltered, practitioners are taught from childhood complex recitation techniques that are based on tonal accents, a unique manner of pronouncing each letter and specific speech combinations.” (World Intangible Cultural Heritage – ICH) UNESCO Proclamation 2003 Sound plays a very important role in Hindu worship spaces both at homes and temples. In Hindu temples the two chambers that have reverberant acoustic characteristics are the Garbha-Griha where the deity is consecrated and the Ardha-Mantapa which is a chamber in front of Garbha-Griha. Acoustics plays a major role in Vedic Hinduism from Mantras to Music. Acoustics for Hindu sages was not only a tool of science, but also a spiritual medium to understand life in all its aspects. The above video samples are provided as an experience of the various roles of sound and its environments. A visit to a traditional Hindu temple during rituals and an Indian music or dance concert will provide more in-depth experience of acoustics in Hinduism. The Vedas, which are the foundational literature of Hinduism, are the collection of mantras chanted with precise acoustical characteristics. Oral tradition has been very efficient in transmitting the Vedic chanting from master to disciple over generations. Vedic chants in Hindu worship are well known. In addition to Vedic chants, Instruments such as Conch-Shells, Bells and Gongs are commonly used to enhance the spiritual experience of the devotees during the worship. Acoustics and Vedic Tradition “It would form a fascinating chapter of history to try and trace the gradual development of musical instruments and musical knowledge, from the rhythmic chanting of Rig-Veda in the ancient home of the Aryan race to the Indian music of the present day” -- Sir C. V. Raman (1922) 196 Acoustics has played important roles in all cultures and religions of the world. This is natural as acoustics deals with sound, one of the senses of perception. In Hinduism, acoustics is of major importance in various aspects of life, namely spirituality, religion, culture, science, art, etc Vedas, the revealed literature of Hinduism, is an infinitely large collection of mantras (chants). These mantras describe the various facets of knowledge dealing with life and cosmos. It is through precise oral tradition from antiquity to present times that these mantras are taught by teachers (Vedic pundits) to disciples. This transfer of knowledge through recitation requires a pure mind with precision in intonation and pronunciation for both teacher and disciples. Chanting of Veda Mantras: The language of Veda mantras is called Chandas and is quite similar to current Sanskrit language with some differences in grammar. Sounds of the Veda mantras carry the listeners to spiritual experiences. The acoustical characteristics, in addition to the clear phonetic articulation of chants, have deep impact on the listeners. It is shown by this author that the intrinsic pitch difference effects can be overridden in Vedic chanting. The video clip attached below is from a Vedic school "Sri Sarvaraya Veda Pathasala" in Kapileswaram, Andhra Pradesh, India. In the segment shown, both teachers and disciples are chanting in a practice session. The sitting arrangement is in two rows to facilitate alternate chanting. Sounds of Conch-shells and Bells: The chants from Vedas are extensively used in worship and sacrament rituals at homes and temples. In Hindu temples, sounds from conch-shells, bells and musical instruments are used along with worship rituals. It is interesting to note that sound from a conch-shell has a sharp tonal quality that can be recognized while listening. It has a very high Q-factor. The video clip below shows the ending of a ritual in which a lamp is waved as an offering to the deity and then brought to devotees to receive the light of God. The conch-shells are blown and bells are rung in addition to the chanting by priests during the waving of a lamp. This video clip is from the Hindu Temple and Cultural Society in Bridgewater, New Jersey. Music and Hinduism: In addition to communication and entertainment, the Vedic literature emphasizes that speech and music have a spiritual role. Speech connects the abstract thoughts and physical actions. The phonetics 197 and grammar of Sanskrit language bring out the spiritual effects through prayers, chants, etc. The sacred role of speech is emphasized in the unison of thought-speech-action as a spiritual goal. The classical music according to Hinduism has divine origin and is a medium primarily for spiritual experiences. There are two types of classical music of India namely Carnatic and Hindustani. Music is also a driving force for dance. Music transforms the listeners. In the words of yogi-seer Sriranga Sadguru, "Music should become the bridge that takes the listeners from sensual level to spiritual level of Atman". The classical vocal and instrumental music of Hindu culture synthesize both art and science of acoustics. In particular the sounds from the percussion instruments Mridangam and Tabla are melodious to hear in addition to their rhythms. Musical Pillars of Hindu Temples : Acoustics plays a very important role in Vedic metaphysics. An evolutionary order is given for the five elements of nature. The Vedic evolutionary order is from the subtle to gross i.e. space, air, fire, water and earth. This order of elements is matched with senses of perception as shown in the table below. Element Senses of Perception Space Sound (hear) Air Touch and Sound Fire See, Touch and Sound Water Taste, See, Touch and Sound Earth Smell, Taste, See, Touch and Sound The Vedic metaphysics emphasizes that sound is the only descriptor of space but also can be used in sensing other four elements. Hence acoustics has received primary importance in Vedic Hinduism. In ancient India, the Hindu temples played important roles in all aspects of life such as for worship, a space for art performance, and for education. The video clip attached below shows a musical performance from granite pillars. This special hall, called Purandhara Mantapa, was built in the 16th century during the time of Vijayanagara Empire in Hampe, Karnataka, India. In physics, sound is a vibration that propagates as an acoustic wave, through a transmission medium such as a gas, liquid or solid. In human physiology and psychology, sound is the reception of 198 such waves and their perception by the brain. Only acoustic waves that have frequencies lying between about 20 Hz and 20 kHz, the audio frequency range, elicit an auditory percept in humans. In air at atmospheric pressure, these represent sound waves with wavelengths of 17 meters (56 ft) to 1.7 centimetres (0.67 in). Sound waves above 20 kHz are known as ultrasound and are not audible to humans. Sound waves below 20 Hz are known as infrasound. Different animal species have varying hearing ranges. A distinct use of the term sound from its use in physics is that in physiology and psychology, where the term refers to the subject of perception by the brain. The field of psychoacoustics is dedicated to such studies. Webster's 1936 dictionary defined sound as: "1. The sensation of hearing, that which is heard; specif.: a. Psychophysics. Sensation due to stimulation of the auditory nerves and auditory centers of the brain, usually by vibrations transmitted in a material medium, commonly air, affecting the organ of hearing. b. Physics. Vibrational energy which occasions such a sensation. Sound is propagated by progressive longitudinal vibratory disturbances (sound waves)." [13] This means that the correct response to the question: "if a tree falls in the forest with no one to hear it fall, does it make a sound?" is "yes", and "no", dependent on whether being answered using the physical, or the psychophysical definition, respectively. The physical reception of sound in any hearing organism is limited to a range of frequencies. Humans normally hear sound frequencies between approximately 20 Hz and 20,000 Hz (20 kHz). The upper limit decreases with age. Sometimes sound refers to only those vibrations with frequencies that are within the hearing range for humans or sometimes it relates to a particular animal. Other species have different ranges of hearing. For example, dogs can perceive vibrations higher than 20 kHz. As a signal perceived by one of the major senses, sound is used by many species for detecting danger, navigation, predation, and communication. Earth's atmosphere, water, and virtually any physical phenomenon, such as fire, rain, wind, surf, or earthquake, produces (and is characterized by) its unique sounds. Many species, such as frogs, birds, marine and terrestrial mammals, have also developed special organs to produce sound. In some species, these produce song and speech. Furthermore, humans have developed culture and technology (such as music, telephone and radio) that allows them to generate, record, transmit, and broadcast sound. 199 Noise is a term often used to refer to an unwanted sound. In science and engineering, noise is an undesirable component that obscures a wanted signal. However, in sound perception it can often be used to identify the source of a sound and is an important component of timbre perception Soundscape is the component of the acoustic environment that can be perceived by humans. The acoustic environment is the combination of all sounds (whether audible to humans or not) within a given area as modified by the environment and understood by people, in context of the surrounding environment. There are, historically, six experimentally separable ways in which sound waves are analysed. They are: pitch, duration, loudness, timbre, sonic texture and spatial location.[16] Some of these terms have a standardised definition (for instance in the ANSI Acoustical Terminology ANSI/ASA S1.1-2013). More recent approaches have also considered temporal envelope and temporal fine structure as perceptually relevant analyses. The sound of a sacred space is a fundamental acoustic experience of people in a society. Accordingly, cultural conventions play a major role in how this is perceived. To the present day in the Christian Oc- cident, churches are widely expected to exhibit a particularly good reverberating sound. Many sacred spaces are crowned by a dome, which symbolises the heavens and the house of God not just visually but also acoustically. In synagogues and in mosques, the need to hear the sermon or prayers clearly has always been and still is of greater importance. However, these spaces with the holy shrine, the aron ha-kodesh, positioned against the wall that faces Jerusalem or the mihrab, the deep niche for the imam in the qibla wall that faces Mecca - also have a certain numinous quality. The general expecta- tion is that a sacred space will conform to acoustic tradition. One reason for this may be that in the clamour and commotion of the world around us, aural perception has become ever more sidelined to the subconscious. Paradoxically, this makes the architectonic creation of acoustic environments more difficult. However, the greater freedom of formal expression and material design afforded by modern construction has also made new and impressive solutions possible in the field of acoustics. Byzantines Churches: Scientists have theorized that the reverberations of sound are omnipresent and eternal. The faint traces of sound thus may be present in churches, even when buildings stand 200 empty. When sound is coupled with icons, the perceived marriage of sound and image evokes emotional and spiritual reactions in the faithful. Can these traces of sound be documented scientifically, or are they the product of our own expectations of sacred space? Can the transformative effects of sound in Orthodox churches be compared to those in modern concert halls? How do the sound effects of medieval churches differ from those of modern Orthodox churches, which frequently make use of microphones and even organs? Two years ago, as part of an international group of scholars, we began to map sounds in the Orthodox churches of medieval Thessaloniki, the second most important city of the Byzantine empire, a city with a rich tradition of ecclesiastical architecture and hymn composition. The ongoing collaboration of art historians, architects, musicologists, chanters, and acoustical engineers generated innovative questions and continues to yield some surprising answers. Even when the doors of churches were closed, the Byzantines believed that the saints—captured in their painted icons—continued to interact with one another on behalf of the faithful in a powerful and perpetual process of intercession. Were these interactions imagined, or can we perceive the echoes of sacred words exchanged within the walls of the church? Chambers for Sacred Sound Unlike other forms of worship that include musical instruments, the medieval Orthodox liturgy was spoken and intoned by priests, chanters, and choirs. The need for audibility imposed requirements on speech intelligibility that, in turn, guided the acoustical design of the spaces. Like the most finely tuned concert hallsTemples were constructed as sound spaces. When a sound stops being emitted, the space around the source takes over. This is most readily observed when we clap our hands and listen, but it can also be observed in the short silences between spoken or chanted words. The sound bounces from surfaces until it eventually decays below our audibility limit. The time it takes for a sound, once stopped, to decay to an inaudible level is an important characteristic of large spaces and is called reverberation time. Measurements demonstrate that the reverberation time is generally longer in spaces with larger volumes A is a sacred utterance, a numinous sound, a syllable, word or phonemes, or group of words in Sanskrit believed by practitioners to have religious, magical or spiritual powers. Some mantras have a syntactic structure and literal meaning, while others do not and a temple practice since ages. 201 The earliest mantras were composed in Vedic Sanskrit in India, and are at least 3000 years old.[6] Mantras now exist in various schools of Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism. The use, structure, function, importance, and types of mantras vary according to the school and philosophy of Hinduism and Buddhism. Mantras serve a central role in tantra. In this school, mantras are considered to be a sacred formula and a deeply personal ritual, effective only after initiation. In other schools of Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism or Sikhism, initiation is not a requirement. Mantras come in many forms, including ṛc (verses from the Rigveda for example) and sāman (musical chants from the Sāmaveda for example. They are typically melodic, mathematically structured meters, believed to be resonant with numinous qualities. At its simplest, the word (Aum, Om) serves as a mantra, it is believed to be the very first sound which was originated on earth. Aum sound when produced creates a reverberation in the body which helps the body and mind to be calm. In more sophisticated forms, mantras are melodic phrases with spiritual interpretations such as a human longing for truth, reality, light, immortality, peace, love, knowledge, and action. Some mantras without literal meaning are musically uplifting and spiritually meaningful. Bells have symbolic meaning in Hinduism. The curved body of the bell represents Ananta. The clapper or tongue of the bell represents Saraswati, who is the goddess of wisdom and knowledge. The handle of the bell represents Prana Shakti - vital power and is symbolically linked to Hanuman, Garuda, Nandi (bull) or Sudarshana Chakra. Ghanta is the Sanskrit term for a ritual bell used in Hinduistic religious practices. The ringing of the bell produces what is regarded as an auspicious sound. Hindu temples generally have one metal bell hanging at the entrance and devotees ring the bell while entering the temple which is an essential part in preparation of having a darshan. A bell is also rung by priests during Pūjā or Yajna - during the waving of light, burning of incense in front of the deity, while bathing the deity and while offering food or flowers here are bells specially made to produce the long strains of the sound Aum. 202 A hanging ghanta in a temple in Tamil Nadu. The bell is generally made out of brass. A clapper is attached to the inside and the bell makes a high pitched sound when rung. The top of the bell handle is usually adorned with a brass figure - bells intended for use in the worship of Lord Shiva will have a figure of Lord Nandi, while those used in the worship of Lord Vishnu or his avatars as Rama, Narasimha or Krishna will have a figure of Garuda or Panchajanya shanka or Sudarshana Chakra. In Hinduism, bells are generally hung at the temple dome in front of the Garbhagriha. Generally, devotees ring the bell while entering into the sanctum. It is said that by ringing the bell, the devotee informs the deity of his/her arrival. The sound of the bell is considered auspicious which welcomes divinity and dispels evil.[4] The sound of the bell is said to disengage mind from ongoing thoughts thus making the mind more receptive.[5] Bell ringing during prayer is said to help in controlling the ever wandering mind and focusing on the deity. In Hinduism, the mantra chanted while ringing the bell is Aagamaardhamtu devaanaam gamanaardhamtu rakshasaam, devataahvaana Kuru ghantaaravam krutva lanchanam I ring this bell indicating the invocation of divinity, so that virtuous and noble forces enter; and the demonic and evil forces, from within and without, depart. 203 From Kundalini Yoga perspective, the sound of bell energizes Chakras and balances the distribution of energy in body. Also, the number of times the bell should be sounded depends on the number of letters in the mantra; accordingly the bell should be sounded 8, 16, 24, or 32 times. In Shilpa Shastras it is mentioned that bell should be made of panchadhatu - five metals, namely, copper, silver, gold, zinc and iron. These 5 metals represent the pancha bhoota. Everyone rings the bell first as they go to the temple. But let us tell you what its health benefits are. Ringing bells in the temple has a different significance. Many believe that the sound of the bell is also a means of delivering their prayers to God. But we're giving you the scientific reason behind it. Swami Madhusudan, a meditation teacher at Art of Living, explained the use of ringing bells in the temple. For your information, the temple bells are made up of cadmium, zinc, nickel, chromium, and magnesium, whose voice goes far. It balances the right and left part of your brain. As soon as you ring the bell, a loud noise is created, the sound echoes for 10 seconds. The duration of this echo is good enough to activate all 7 healing centers in your body. This means that these sounds are beneficial for your health. Scientists say that these sounds bring clarity in the brain's thoughts, which makes you get into a situation when you understand more things than before. These voices increase your concentration, keep you alert or alert. It also removes negative thoughts on your mind. So by now, you must have known how much the ringing hour sound in the temple is beneficial to you. Moreover, its voice gives you peace of mind. In Vedic Hinduism sound has received major emphasis through mantras, music, religion and spirituality. It is well known that sound plays a very important role in Hindu worship spaces both at homes, community halls and temples. It is observed that both Garbha-Griha and Ardha-Mantapa significantly contribute to the acoustical enhancement of the spiritual experience of the devotees. The effects of Vedic chants in Hindu worship are well known. In addition to Vedic chants musical instruments such as conch-shells, bells and gongs are also very commonly used to enhance the spiritual experience of the devotees during the worship. It is known that sounds of these instruments along with Vedic chanting during the prayer would enable the wandering mind of the devotees to focus on the worship rituals. In this study, evaluations of acoustical characteristics of these instruments have been carried out by sounding individually as well as collectively. Measurements are carried out in an anechoic chamber, community worship hall and temple. The observed sound spectra indicate that the measured frequencies are collection of all individual frequencies. Also the 204 frequencies are distinct and are spread across from low to high frequencies in the active hearing range, which contribute to the spiritual experience of the devotees. Music: Hindu music is music created for or influenced by Hinduism. It includes Indian classical music, Kirtan, Bhajan and other musical genres. Raagas are a common form of Hindu music in classical India.The most common Hindu bhajan in North India is "Om Jai Jagdish Hare." The names of Gods are religiously chanted, often including Vishnu and his incarnations, Shiva and the Goddess (Parvati, Shakti, Vaishnodevi). A very common scale in Hindu music is 1 2 3 4 5 6 7, which can be harmonized into a chord progression. A bhajan is a Hindu devotional song, often of ancient origin. Bhajans are often simple songs in lyrical language expressing emotions of love for the Divine, whether for a single God/Goddess, or any number of divinities. Many bhajans feature several names and aspects of the chosen deity, especially in the case of Hindu sahasranamas, which list a divinity's 1008 names. Great importance is attributed to the singing of bhajans with Bhakti, i.e. loving devotion. "Rasanam Lakshanam Bhajanam" means the act by which we feel more closer to our inner self or God, is a bhajan. Acts which are done for the God is called bhajan. Traditionally, the music has been Indian classical music, which is based on ragas and tala (rhythmic beat patterns) played on the Veena (or Been), Sarangi Venu (flute), Mridanga(or Tabla) (traditional Indian instruments). The Sikh Scripture contains 31 ragas and 17 talas which form the basis for kirtan music compositions. Hindus are even said to have achieved Moksha through devoting music to God. For example in the Rig Veda Gargi, the wife of Yajnavalkya, through her excellence in veena playing, an incident that caused Sage Yagnavalkya to write the famous verse: "Veena Vadama Tatvagnaha Sruthi Jathi Visharada Talagnanacha Aprayasena Mokshamargam Gachachathi" ("Yagnavalkya Siksha") 205 There have also been several music-saints (e.g. Sant Tyagaraja) and poet-saints (e.g. Sant Ravidas). The origin and development of temple music is traced by musicians and patrons alike to temple rituals and festivals. However, it is difficult either to support their assertion with concrete evidence or to determine the historical depth of this tradition if in fact that was the case, due to the paucity of the historical evidence. Kirtan-This is the communal, call-and-response chanting of mantras, often with instruments and dance. Kirtans are deeply rooted in Vedic tradition. Indian classical music-The origins of Indian classical music can be found from the oldest of scriptures, part of the Hindu tradition, the Vedas. Samaveda, one of the four Vedas, describes music at length.With the disintegration of feudalism, music and Carnatic music, once confined to the precincts of temples and royal durbar halls, stepped out and started filling social gaps of interactions. Construction Techniques in Acoustic Planning of a Temple Building Noise control inside a building is achieved by following construction techniques while construction of a building. The construction techniques of walls, windows, doors and floors and selection of appropriate building materials are discussed for better acoustic control in buildings. The discomfort of noise within the building goes on increasing if the structural elements within the building too don’t show any resistance against the noise. It is found that the noise transmission is intercepted when it passes through the walls, floors, windows, ceilings and the building doors. 206 The Sound Transmission Class (STC) A certain parameter has to be used in order to compare the performance of different construction materials. One such parameter is the sound transmission class(STC). The sound transmission class can be defined as the numerical value equal to the number of decibels in terms of reduction of sound when it passes through a material, which is intended to have some insulating property. This can make one understand that a high value of STC implies the material possess a high insulating property. It basically works on the influence of external frequencies of the areas of the partition where the sound originates and where the receiving of the sound takes place. This can be explained by an example. Let us assume the desired level of sound internally is 45 decibels and the external level of noise is 85decibels, then we require a partition material that has a sound transmission class value of 40 STC for adequate acoustic comfort. STC is a sound transmission class rating which is put forward by the American society of Testing and Measurement. This acts as a parameter to guide an architect to know which material would suit the most, to have an essential acoustic feature by the reduction of noise but in those days,the temple architects must have had their own rules passed down from one to another,or mentioned in the Agamas that today are lost to us. Construction Techniques in Acoustic Planning of a Building The structural elements and their construction for controlling noise in buildings are mentioned below. Construction of Walls for Noise Control in Buildings Wall are an important structural element in all kind of buildings, that provides protection from the noise externally as well as internally. The usage of different wall materials or the usage of different design for the wall would bring variation in the insulating properties of the element. 207 The figure below shows the difference in sound attenuation with variation in wall design. The methods employed for noise control in buildings are explained in the following: 1. Wall Mass and the Thickness are Increased The massiveness of a material is an efficient parameter that resists noise. Hence concrete walls are more insulating than wooden walls. Another way of increasing the insulating property is to add more thickness for the walls. The increase of thickness of walls would result in more mass which in turn increase insulation. A reduction of 6 decibel sound happens by this method of construction. But the techniques must be carried out keeping in mind the cost and economy. Wall construction that undergoes vibration under huge frequencies of sound has to be avoided. Fig.1. Different Wall Design Techniques Showing the Variation of Sound Attenuation 2. Use of Cavity Partition in Buildings for Noise Control The sound transmission can be resisted by the usage of airspace between the two partition walls. The air space can also be placed in between two or more layers. This concept is more effective than a single wall of equal weight, which is found to be more economical. 3. Increase Airspace Width of Walls The increase in airspace will obviously increase the noise insulation property. But the huge increase in the width of air space is difficult to design and consumes more space. 4. Increasing the Stud Spacing 208 It is found by a study that the spacing between the studs would increase the sound transmission capacity of the room. Say an increase of 2 to 5 decibel STC is determined for a stud spaced 24 inches than those spaced at 16 inches. 5. Usage of Studs in a Staggered Manner The arrangement of studs in a staggered manner as shown in figure-1, where studs are placed alternatively would help in noise absorption, thus reducing noise intensity. Fig.2. Figure Shows Variety of Wall Types, their Cost Comparison and STC Values 6.Studs and Panels held together by Resilient Materials Making use of inexpensive resilient layers like glass or fiber board, or semi-resilient attachments which are inert in nature, will help in reducing the STC rate by two to five decibels. 7. Panels Used are Dissimilar Using different thickness and materials for panels would help in reduction of noise, thus increasing the sound insulating quality of walls. 8.Sound Absorbing Blankets Used in the Airspace The sound absorbing blankets are also called as isolation blankets which are placed in the airspace arrangement, that are provided between the panels. This blanket enables an increase in sound attenuation. Mineral or rock wool, wood fibers or fiberglass are some the materials used to make these blankets. These blankets have an attenuation capability up to 10 decibels. The method is more effective where lightweight construction is more prominent. 9.The Cracks and Edges are Sealed 209 The full advantage of a high-performance wall can be brought out only when it is properly sealed and crack free. The perimeter of the wall must be properly sealed. Formation of cracks or holes would affect the insulation property of the wall. It has been observed that a hole of the 1-inch square will result in a reduction of STC of the wall by 10. Fig.3. Depicts Before and After the Sealing of Cracks Construction of Windows for Acoustic Control in Buildings Windows are one of the weakest elements of a building. Their inappropriate position or open condition would affect the performance of insulating walls. Therefore, it is recommended to have acoustical consideration in the arrangement of windows. The graph below shows the variation of STC values of the wall, for the different area occupied by the windows which are shown in percentages. The following measures can be employed to reduce the noise entering the building through the windows: 1.Windows can be Closed Permanent sealing or closing of the windows are the best measures to reduce the direct effect of noise. Permanent sealing becomes essential when an air conditioning system must be enabled. So, sealing acts as a constant solution for noise. The masking of noise is an effect that is facilitated by the air conditioning system, which is discussed in the following topics. 210 2. Windows Size can be Reduced The loss of contribution of total partitions can be reduced by making the window size to small. Small windows do have certain other advantages like:  Expensive acoustic windows can be excluded  Usage of glass is reduced The method faces certain disadvantages too. The decrease of window size is limited, as the window size should follow certain rules and regulations. Its decrease by, say from 50 to 20 % would only bring up a change of 3 decibels. 3. Glass Thickness can be Increased The more thickness the glass gains, the more resistant towards the noise. If sealing is not desired, the glass thickness can be increased. Further, the glass can be laminated with a tough plastic, which is transparent in nature. This is both shatter and noise resistant. Construction of Doors for Acoustic Control in Buildings Doors are considered very difficult to handle than windows, acoustically. Replacing a hollow core door by a solid door is one of the solutions. This is found relatively expensive. The sound insulation can be increased if at the bottom and at the top, a drop bar or gasket stops are installed. Another solution is to reduce their use in walls facing noise directly. Install doors on the wall that is shielded. Construction of Floors for Acoustic Control in Buildings Special acoustical treatment is the only way to reduce the vibration of floors due to heavy noise. Installing a heavy concrete floor or using a floating floor is some of the treatment methods. Floating floor involves using a concrete or wooden slab over the existing one, which is separated by a resilient material. 211 Noise Control in Buildings by use of Masking This method involves the drowning of noise with the help of a background noise. This is effective during noise fluctuations. Masking can be created by soft music, electronic devices or air conditioning systems and heating systems. By contrast, noise from church bells, the call to prayer from a mosque, or other religious buildings m ay be drowned out in decibel terms by the surrounding hubbub. However, judging by the furor over t he recent decision by a mosque in Oxford, England, to obtain permission from the local council to am plify its call to prayer (azan), it appears that noise emanating from religious buildings may be viewed quite differently. BIBLIOGRAPHY & REFERENCES 1. The History of Western Civilization Told Through the Acoustics of its Worship Spaces D. Lubmana and B. Kiserb a,bDavid Lubman & Associates, 14301 Middletown Lane, Westminster, CA 927834514 https://www.icacommission.org/Proceedings/ICA2001Rome/5_02.pdf 2. Sacred Space and the City: Religious Buildings and Noise Pollution,Samantha Knights,2007https://www.researchgate.net/publication/265148054_Sacred_Space_and_the_City_Religious_Build ings_and_Noise_Pollution 3. ACOUSTICS OF CHANTS, CONCH-SHELLS, BELLS AND GONGS IN HINDU WORSHIP SPACES M.G. Prasad and B. Rajavel Noise and Vibration Control Laboratory, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Stevens Institute of Technology, Hoboken, New Jersey, 07030, USA. e-mail: mprasad@stevens.edu 4. ACOUSTICS OF CHANTS, CONCH-SHELLS, BELLS AND GONGS IN HINDU WORSHIP SPACES, Marehalli Prasad,B Rajavel Conference: ACOUSTICS 2013, At: New Delhi, India https://www.researchgate.net/publication/270758839_ACOUSTICS_OF_CHANTS_CONCHSHELLS_BELLS_AND_GONGS_IN_HINDU_WORSHIP_SPACES#:~:text=Sound%20plays%20a%20very%2 0important,in%20front%20of%20Garbha%2DGriha. 5. https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-7643-8276-6_4 6. Freely copied and adopted from the excellent article -Construction Techniques in Acoustic Planning of a Building,Neenu Arjun,EDITORhttps://theconstructor.org/building/construction-techniques-inacoustic-planning-of-a-building/14976/ 212 CHAPTER X Divinity & Idols: The stone or metal deity images in Hindu temples and shrines are not mere symbols of the Gods. They are the form through which their love, power and blessings flood forth into this world. We may lik-en this mystery to our ability to communicate with others through the telephone. We do not talk to the telephone; rather we use it as a means of communication with another person. Without the telephone, we could not converse across long distances; and without the sanctified icon in the temple, we cannot easily commune with the Deity. Divinity can also be invoked and felt in a sacred fire, or in a tree, or in the enlightened person of a satguru. In our temples, God is invoked in the sanctum by highly trained priests. Through the practice of yoga, or meditation, we invoke God inside ourself. Yoga means to yoke oneself to God within. The image or icon of worship is a focus for our prayers and devotions. Another way to explain icon worship is to acknowledge that Hindus believe God is everywhere, in all things, whether stone, wood, creatures or people. So, it is not surprising that they feel comfortable worshiping the Divine in His material manifestation. The Hindu can see God in stone and water, fire, air and ether, and inside his own soul. Indeed, there are Hindu temples which have in the sanctum sanctorum no image at all but a yantra, a symbolic or mystic diagram. However, the sight of the 213 image en-hances the devotee's worship. Elaboration: In Hinduism one of the ultimate attainments is when the seeker transcends the need of all form and symbol. This is the yogi's goal. In this way Hinduism is the least idol-oriented of all the religions of the world. There is no religion that is more aware of the transcendent, timeless, formless, causeless Truth. Nor is there any religion which uses more symbols to represent Truth in preparation for that realization. Humorously speaking, Hindus are not idle worshipers. I have never seen a Hindu worship in a lazy or idle way. They worship with great vigor and devotion, with unstinting regularity and constancy. There's nothing idle about our ways of worship! (A little humor never hurts.) But, of course, the question is about "graven images." All religions have their symbols of holiness through which the sacred flows into the mundane. To name a few: the Christian cross, or statues of Mother Mary and Saint Theresa, the holy Kaaba in Mecca, the Sikh Adi Granth enshrined in the Golden Temple in Amritsar, the Arc and Torah of the Jews, the image of a meditating Buddha, the totems of indigenous and Pagan faiths, and the artifacts of the holy men and women of all religions. Such icons, or graven images, are held in awe by the followers of the respective faiths. The question is, does this make all such religionists idol worshipers? The answer is, yes and no. From our perspective, idol worship is an intelligent, mystical practice shared by all of the world's great faiths. The human mind releases itself from suffering through the use of forms and symbols that awaken reverence, evoke sanctity and spiritual wisdom. Even a fundamentalist Christian who rejects all forms of idol worship, including those of the Catholic and Episcopal churches, would resent someone who showed disrespect for his Bible. This is because he considers it sacred. His book and the Hindu's icon are much alike in this way. Murti embodiment, or solid object') is a general term for an image, statue or idol of a deity or mortal in Indian culture. In Hindu temples, it is a symbolic icon. A murti is itself not a god in Hinduism, but it is a shape, embodiment or manifestation of a deity. Murti are also found in some nontheistic Jainism traditions, where they serve as symbols of revered mortals inside Jain temples, and are worshiped in murtipujaka rituals. 214 A murti is typically made by carving stone, wood working, metal casting or through pottery. Ancient era texts describing their proper proportions, positions and gestures include the Puranas, Agamas and Samhitas. The expressions in a murti vary in diverse Hindu traditions, ranging from Ugra symbolism to express destruction, fear and violence (Durga, Kali), as well as Saumya symbolism to express joy, knowledge and harmony (Saraswati, Lakshmi). Saumya images are most common in Hindu temples. Other murti forms found in Hinduism include the linga. A murti is an embodiment of the divine, the Ultimate Reality or Brahman to some Hindus. In religious context, they are found in Hindu temples or homes, where they may be treated as a beloved guest and serve as a participant of puja in Hinduism. In other occasions, it serves as the centre of attention in annual festive processions and these are called utsava murti. The earliest murti are mentioned by Pāṇini in 4th century BCE. Prior to that the agnicayana ritual ground seemed to served as a template for the temple. Murti is sometimes referred to as murthi, or vigraha or pratima. The earliest mention of the term murti occurs in primary Upanishads composed in the 1st millennium BCE, particularly in verse 3.2 of Aitareya Upanishad, verse 1.13 of Shvetashvatara Upanishad, verse 6.14 of Maitrayaniya Upanishad and verse 1.5 of Prashna Upanishad. For example, the Maitrayaniya Upanishad uses the term to mean a "form, manifestation of time". The section sets out to prove Time exists, acknowledges the difficulty in proving Time exists by Pramana (epistemology in Indian philosophy), then inserts a theory of inductive inference for epistemological proof as follows, On On account of subtleness account of of it Time, this the is the Time proof is of its reality; demonstrated. Because without proof, the assumption which is to be proved, is not admissible; But, that which is itself to be proved or demonstrated, when one comprehends it in its parts, becomes the ground of proof, through which it brings itself into consciousness (in the inductive way). — Maitri Upanishad 6.14 215 Krishna Temple Madura is a photograph by Kantilal Patel which was uploaded on November 25th, 2011. One of the earliest firm textual evidence of Deva images, in the sense of murti, is found in Jivikarthe Capanye by the Sanskrit grammarian Pāṇini who lived about 4th century BCE. He mentions Acala and Cala, with former referring to images in a shrine, and the latter meaning images that were carried from place to place. Panini also mentions Devalaka, meaning custodians of images 216 of worship who show the images but do not sell them, as well as Jivika as people whose source of livelihood was the gifts they received from devotees. In ancient Sanskrit texts that follow Panini's work, numerous references are found to divine images with terms such as Devagrha, Devagara, Devakula, Devayatana and others. These texts, states Noel Salmond, strongly suggest that temples and murti were in existence in ancient India by about 4th century BCE. Recent archaeological evidence confirms that the knowledge and art of sculpture was established in India by the Maurya Empire period (~3rd century BCE). By early 1st millennium BCE, the term murti meant idols, image or statue in various Indian texts such as Bhavishya Purana verse 132.5.7, Brihat Samhita 1.8.29 and inscriptions in different parts of India. The term murti has been a more generic term referring to an idol or statue of anyone, either a deity, of any human being, animal or any art. Pratima includes murti as well as painting of any nonanthropomorphic object. In contrast, Bera or Bimba meant "idol of god" only, and Vigraha was synonymous with Bimba.[2] Murti in diverse Hindu traditions vary widely in their expression. Raudra or ugra images express destruction, fear and violence, such as Kali image on left. Shanta or saumya images express joy, knowledge and harmony, such as Saraswati (centre). Saumya images are most common in Hindu temples. Linga murti (right) are an alternate form. A murti in contemporary usage is any image or statue. It may be found inside or outside a temple or home, installed to be moved with a festive procession (utsava murti), or just be a landmark. It is a significant part of Hindu iconography, and is implemented in many ways. Two major categories include:  Raudra or Ugra - are images that were meant to terrify, induce fear. These typically have wide, circular eyes, carry weapons, have skulls and bones as adornment. These idols were worshipped by soldiers before going to war, or by people in times of distress or errors. Raudra deity temples were not set up inside villages or towns, but invariably outside and in remote areas of a kingdom. Shanta and Saumya - are images that were pacific, peaceful and expressive of love, compassion, kindness and other virtues in Hindu pantheon. These images would carry symbolic icons of peace, knowledge, music, wealth, flowers, sensuality among other things. In ancient India, these temples were predominant inside villages and towns. Beyond anthropomorphic forms of religious murti, some traditions of Hinduism cherish aniconism, where alternate symbols are shaped into a murti, such as the linga for Shiva, yoni for Devi, and the saligrama for Vishnu. 217 Shilpa Shastras, Tantra, and Āgama (Hinduism) Murti, when produced properly, are made according to the design rules of the Shilpa Shastras. They recommend materials, measurements, proportion, decoration and symbolism of the murti. Explanation of the metaphysical significance of each stage of manufacture and the prescription of specific mantras to sanctify the process and evoke and invoke the power of the deity in the image are found in the liturgical handbooks the Agamas and Tantras. In Tantric traditions, a murti is installed by priests through the Prana pratishta ceremony, where mantras are recited sometimes with yantras (mystic diagrams), whereby state Harold Coward and David Goa, the "divine vital energy of the cosmos is infused into the sculpture" and then the divine is welcomed as one would welcome a friend. According to Gudrun Buhnemann, the esoteric Hindu tantric traditions through texts such as Tantra-tattva follow elaborate rituals to infuse life into a murti. Some tantra texts such as the Pancaratraraksa state that anyone who considers an icon of Vishnu as nothing but "an ordinary object" made of iron "goes to hell". The use of murti and particularly the prana pratistha consecration ceremony, states Buhnemann, has been criticised by Hindu groups. These groups state that this practice came from more recent "false tantra books", and there is not a single word in the Vedas about such a ceremony. A Hindu prayer before cutting a tree for a murti Oh Tree! you have been selected for the worship of a deity, Salutations to you! I worship you per rules, kindly accept it. May all who live in this tree, find residence elsewhere, May they forgive us now, we bow to them. —Brihat Samhita 59.10 - 59.11 The artists who make any art or craft, including murti, were known as shilpins. The formally trained Shilpins shape the murti not in accordance with fancy but in accordance with canonical manuals such as the Agamas and the Shilpa Shastras texts such as Vishvakarma. The material of construction range from clay to wood to marble to metal alloys such as panchaloha. The sixth century Brihat Samhita and eighth century text Manasara-Silpasastra (literally: "treatise on art using method of measurement"), identify nine materials for murti construction – gold, silver, copper, stone, wood, sudha (a type of stucco, mortar plaster), sarkara (gravel, grit), abhasa (marble types), and earth (clay, terracotta). For abhasa, the texts describe working methods for various types of marble, specialised stones, colours, and a range of opacity (transparent, translucent and crystal). Brihat Samhita, a 6th-century encyclopaedia of a range of topics from horticulture to astrology to gemology to murti and temple design, specifies in Chapter 56 that the pratima (murti) height should 218 be of the sanctum sanctorum's door height, the Pratima height and the sanctum sanctorum room's width be in the ratio of 0.292, it stand on a pedestal that is 0.146 of sanctum room width, thereafter the text describes 20 types of temples with their dimensions. Chapter 58 of the text describes the ratios of various anatomical parts of a murti, from head to toe, along with the recommendation in verse 59.29 that generally accepted variations in dress, decoration and dimensions of local regional traditions for the murti is the artistic tradition. Proper murti design is described in ancient and medieval Indian texts. They describe proportions, posture, expressions among other details, often referencing to nature. The texts recommend materials of construction, proportions, postures and mudra, symbolic items the murti holds in its hands, colours, garments and ornaments to go with the murti of each god or goddess, vehicles of deities such as Garuda, bull and lion, and other details. The texts also include chapters on the design of Jaina and Buddhist murti, as well as reliefs of sages, apsaras, different types of devotees (based on bhakti yoga, jnana yoga, karma yoga, ascetics) to decorate the area near the murti. The texts recommend that the material of construction and relative scale of murti be correlated to the scale of the temple dimensions, using twelve types of comparative measurements. In Southern India, the material used predominantly for murti is black granite, while material in North India is white marble. However, for some Hindus, it is not the materials used that matter, but the faith and meditation on the universal Absolute Brahman. More particularly, devotees meditate or worship on the formless God (nirguna Brahman) through murti symbolism of God (saguna Brahman) during a puja before a murti, or the meditation on a Tirthankara in the case of Jainism, thus making the material of construction or the specific shape of the murti not spiritually important. According to John Keay, "Only after achieving remarkable expertise in the portrayal of the Buddha figure and of animal and human, did Indian stonemasons turn to producing images of the orthodox 'Hindu' deities". This view is, however, not shared by other scholars. Trudy King et al. state that stone images of reverential figures and guardian spirits (yaksha) were first produced in Jainism and Hinduism, by about 2 century BCE, as suggested by Mathura region excavations, and this knowledge grew into iconographic traditions and stone monuments in India including those for Buddhism 219 . 220 Ganesh A murti of mother goddess Matrika, from Rajasthan 6th century CE. Major Hindu traditions such as Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Shaktism and Smartaism favour the use of murti. These traditions suggest that it is easier to dedicate time and focus on spirituality through anthropomorphic or non-anthropomorphic icons. Hindu scriptures such as the Bhagavad Gita, states in verse 12.5, It is much more difficult to focus on God as the unmanifested than God with form, due to human beings having the need to perceive via the senses. In Hinduism, states Jeaneane Fowler, a murti itself is not god, it is an "image of god" and thus a symbol and representation. A murti is a form and manifestation, states Fowler, of the formless Absolute.[ Thus a literal translation of murti as 'idol' is incorrect, when idol is understood as superstitious end in itself. Just like the photograph of a person is not the real person, a murti is an image in Hinduism but not the real thing, but in both cases the image reminds of something of emotional and real value to the viewer. When a person worships a murti, it is assumed to be a manifestation of the essence or spirit of the deity, the worshipper's spiritual ideas and needs are meditated through it, yet the idea of ultimate reality or Brahman is not confined in it. A collection of modern-day murti featuring the elephant-headed God, Lord Ganesha. 221 Devotional (bhakti movement) practices centred on cultivating a deep and personal bond of love with God, often expressed and facilitated with one or more murti, and includes individual or community hymns, japa or singing (bhajan, kirtan or aarti). Acts of devotion, in major temples particularly, are structured on treating the murti as the manifestation of a revered guest, and the daily routine can include awakening the murti in the morning and making sure that it "is washed, dressed, and garlanded." In Vaishnavism, the building of a temple for the murti is considered an act of devotion, but non-murti symbolism is also common wherein the aromatic Tulsi plant or Saligrama is an aniconic reminder of the spiritualism in Vishnu. These puja rituals with the murti correspond to ancient cultural practices for a beloved guest, and the murti is welcomed, taken care of, and then requested to retire. Christopher John Fuller states that an image in Hinduism cannot be equated with a deity and the object of worship is the divine whose power is inside the image, and the image is not the object of worship itself, Hindus believe everything is worthy of worship as it contains divine energy emanating from the one god. According to the Agamas, the bimba murti (स्थूलमूर्ति / र्िम्बमूर्ति ) is different from the mantra murti from the perspective of rituals, gestures, hymns and offerings. Some Hindu denominations like Arya Samaj and Satya Mahima Dharma reject idol worship. Murti and temples were well established in South Asia, before the start of Delhi Sultanate in the late 12th century CE. They became a target of destruction during raids and religious wars between Islam and Hinduism through the 18th-century. During the colonial era, Christian missionaries aiming to convert Hindus to Christianity wrote memoirs and books that were widely distributed in Europe, which Mitter, Pennington and other scholars call as fictionalised stereotypes, where murti were claimed as the evidence of lack of spiritual heritage in primitive Hindus, of "idolatry and savage worship of stones" practices akin to Biblical demons, calling Murti as monstrous devils to eroticised bizarre beings carved in stone. The British Missionary Society with colonial government's assistance bought and sometimes seized, then transferred murti from India and displayed it in their "trophies" room in the United Kingdom with the note claiming that these were given up by Hindus who now accept the "folly and sin of idolatry".In other instances, the colonial British authorities, seeking additional government revenue, introduced Pilgrim Tax on Hindus to view murti inside major temples. The missionaries and orientalist scholars attempted to justify the need for colonial rule of India by attacking murti as a symbol of depravity and primitiveness, arguing that it was, states Tanisha 222 Ramachandran, "the White Man's Burden to create a moral society" in India. This literature by the Christian missionaries constructed the foundation of a "Hindu image" in Europe, during the colonial era, and it blamed murti idolatry as "the cause for the ills of Indian society". By 19th-century, ideas such as pantheism (universe is identical with god), contained in newly translated Sanskrit texts were linked to idolatry of murti and declared as additional evidence of superstitions and evil by Christian missionaries and colonial authorities in British India. The polemics of Christian missionaries in colonial India triggered a debate among Hindus, yielding divergent responses.. It ranged from activists such as Rammohun Roy who denounced all murti, to Vivekananda who refused to denounce murti and asked Hindus in India and Christians in the West to introspect, that images are used everywhere to help think and as a road to ideas, in the following words, Superstition is a great enemy of man, but bigotry is worse. Why does a Christian go to church? Why is the cross holy? Why is the face turned toward the sky in prayer? Why are there so many images in the Catholic Church? Why are there so many images in the minds of Protestants when they pray? My brethren, we can no more think about anything without a mental image than we can live without breathing. By the law of association the material image calls up the mental idea and vice versa. — Vivekananda, World Parliament of Religions Religious intolerance and polemics, state Halbertal and Margalit, have historically targeted idols and material symbols cherished by other religions, while encouraging the worship of material symbols of one's own religion, characterising the material symbols of others as grotesque and wrong, in some cases dehumanising the others and encouraging the destruction of idols of the others. The outsider conflates and stereotypes the "strange worship" of the other religions as "false worship" first, then calls "false worship" as "improper worship and false belief" of pagan or an equivalent term, thereafter constructing an identity of the others as "primitive and barbarians" that need to be saved, followed by justified intolerance and often violence against those who cherish a different material symbol than one's own.[69] In the history of Hinduism and India, states Pennington, Hindu deity images (murti) have been a religious lens for focusing this anti-Hindu polemic and was the basis for distortions, accusations and attacks by non-Indian religious powers and missionaries.[ Ancient Indian texts assert the significance of murti in spiritual terms. The Vāstusūtra Upaniṣad, whose palm-leaf manuscripts were discovered in the 1970s among remote villages of Orissa – four in Oriya language and one in crude Sanskrit, asserts that the doctrine of murti art making is founded on the principles of origin and evolution of universe, is a "form of every form of cosmic creator" that 223 empirically exists in nature, and it functions to inspire a devotee towards contemplating the Ultimate Supreme Principle (Brahman). This text, whose composition date is unknown but probably from late 1st millennium CE, discusses the significance of images as, state Alice Boner and others, "inspiring, elevating and purifying influence" on the viewer and "means of communicating a vision of supreme truth and for giving a taste of the infinite that lies beyond". It adds (abridged): From the contemplation of images grows delight, from delight faith, from faith steadfast devotion, through such devotion arises that higher understanding (parāvidyā) that is the royal road to moksha. Without the guidance of images, the mind of the devotee may go astray and form wrong imaginations. Images dispel false imaginations. (... ) It is in the mind of Rishis (sages), who see and have the power of discerning the essence of all created things of manifested forms. They see their different characters, the divine and the demoniac, the creative and the destructive forces, in their eternal interplay. It is this vision of Rishis, of gigantic drama of cosmic powers in eternal conflict, which the Sthapakas (Silpins, murti and temple artists) drew the subject-matter for their work. — Pippalada, Vāstusūtra Upaniṣad, Introduction by Alice Boner et al In the fifth chapter of Vāstusūtra Upaniṣad, Pippalada asserts, "from tattva-rupa (essence of a form, underlying principle) come the pratirupani (images)". In the sixth chapter, Pippalada repeats his message that the artist portrays the particular and universal concepts, with the statement "the work of the Sthapaka is a creation similar to that of the Prajapati" (that which created the universe). Nontheistic Jaina scholars such as Jnansundar, states John Cort, have argued the significance of murti along the same lines, asserting that "no matter what the field – scientific, commercial, religious – there can be no knowledge without an icon", images are part of how human beings learn and focus their thoughts, icons are necessary and inseparable from spiritual endeavours in Jainism. While murti are an easily and commonly visible aspect of Hinduism, they are not necessary to Hindu worship. Among Hindus, states Gopinath Rao, one who has realised Self (Soul, Atman) and the Universal Principle (Brahman, god) within himself, there is no need for any temple or divine image for worship. Those who have yet to reach this height of realisation, various symbolic manifestations through images, idols and icons as well as mental modes of worship are offered as one of the spiritual paths in the Hindu way of life. This belief is repeated in ancient Hindu scriptures. For example, the Jabaladarshana Upanishad states: A yogin perceives god (Siva) within himself, images are for those who have not reached this knowledge. (Verse 59) — Jabaladarsana Upanishad, 224 Introduction: All religions have been engaging in idolatry without actually knowing it – it’s always hard to see whether someone is really worshipping something, or just using it as a symbol of a totally different thing. Are Christians idol worshippers? Exodus 20:4, 5: “You must not make for yourself a carved image or a form like anything that is in the heavens above or that is on the earth underneath or that is in the waters under the earth. You must not bow down to them nor be induced to serve them, because I Jehovah your God am a God exacting exclusive devotion.” The Christians worship the statue of Jesus or the Cross or Jesus in the cross in their Church. Catholics pray to Mary and have statues of her. Isn’t that idolatry? If you come to India, especially South India, you can see thousands of new Churches made as replica of Hindu temples, with Dwaja Sthamba (flag banner high column) among other things, creating more idols to worship. I don’t think anything other than the cemetery in the Churches that doesn’t fit into external culture. Christianity is almost Indianised. During first few centuries Jesus was pictured as Asiatic – bald, bearded and short – because of Asian origin. Later all images of Jesus became that of a European white man. So their idol clearly is Jesus Christ of European race. Can a Christian worship a black or Asian Jesus? Their main idols are Christ and Cross. Islam doesn’t have direct “idol worship” as Christians or Hindus do. The first condition to be a Muslim is: the act of worship should be devoted to Allah Alone. Allah says (interpretation of the meaning): “And they were commanded not, but that they should worship Allah, and worship none but Him Alone (abstaining from ascribing partners to Him).” [Al-Bayyinah 98:5] But you can see Idolatry in that religion too. Islam asks Muslims to pray towards Mecca. Direction or destination is focal point – an idol as per definition. Something becomes sacred only when you worship it. Muslims worship the black Kaaba Stone in Mecca. There are three explanations for the stone – (1) As per Islamic belief- it is sent by their god, Allah (2) Some serious historians say it’s a Shiv Linga (3) some people claim it’s a Meteorite. Whatever it is, Kaaba is an important icon that they worship. Zamzam water in Makkah is also sacred for them. Let alone idols, Islam strictly prohibits worshipping any man-made objects. Millions of copies of Holy Quran are printed in many printing presses by men and made into book form by man. Isn’t it a man-made object? How can it be worshipped? If you say it is a representation of god’s words, it is an idol by definition. The printed quotes are photo-framed, kept in the wall and worshipped. It’s also 225 man-made. Alphabets used to describe god are also man-made images. Most of the Mosques (place of worship) have photograph of Kaaba. Some are visiting Dargah (grave of a revered religious figure) to offer worship. To my understanding, Muslims are forbidden to, and therefore do not, worship Prophet Mohammed. Muslims shouldn’t even keep images of him. But indirectly they do. If anybody talks one word against him, he/she will be cut into pieces. Isn’t that fanatic worship? Millions of Muslims worship holy hair of Prophet Mohammed and now building India’s biggest mosque Sha’re Mubarak Masjid (literally: Blessed Hair Grand Mosque) in Kerala. You can also find images of Muhammad’s face in manuscript illustrations from hundreds of years ago, some of which are on display at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York. Some of the earliest Islamic coins were minted with Muhammad’s face on them! The celebration of Muhammad birthday is contradictory to Islamic law. But India has official Holiday on Prophet’s birthday similar to Christmas and Krishna Jayanti. What is it other than iconic worship? I agree lot of Muslims still worship only the formless God. But, they are still praying to a God which has all other attributes except that of “form”. Therefore they only seem to be rejecting the attribute of “form”, whereas they still seem to accept all other attributes in God (omnipotence, omnipresence etc.) which are also accepted by people from other religions who worship and pray to God using idols. Even atheist philosophies like Marxism follow Idolatry. They have created Martyrs who they worship with garland and flowers. They call it “Rakthasakshi Mandapam”- Temple for martyrs. The world capital of superstitious worship is communist China. Even African tribals are better than Chinese when it comes to superstitions and idol worships. From a Western viewpoint, Hindus are still worst. They worship almost everything. Apart from 33 crores Gods and Goddesses, they worship rat, cow, stones, birds, sexual organs, mountain, weapons etc. They have made idols or icons out of almost everything in this universe. But Hindus have the honesty and courage to admit that, “Yes we do have idol worship and that is important to our religion.” An Idol is an adjective of God. Idol is NOT an equivalent word for Vigraha (body or form) and Bimba (image, picture or object) in Sanskrit. The word ‘idol’ may be inadequate to mean ‘Vigraha’, except to indicate that the ‘shilpa’ or ‘figure’ indicates a kind of ‘model’ through which to visualize God. In Sanskrit, “Viseshal Grahyathe ithi Vigraha” (The One which is acceptable or liked or holds passionately) is Vigraham. 226 In early stages of one’s quest for divinity, a representative form becomes necessary. That’s how the concept of Vigrahas (idols) came up in all religions. Vigraha (Vishesham Grihamiti = Special abode), Pratima (Mam prati = In front of me), Bimba smile emoticon Image) or Moorti smile emoticon the utensil to fill) are synonyms of Vigraha. The purpose of Vigraha is actually to help the seekers to focus on the concepts. So, the seekers are seeing the manifestation of a divine power in such idol. They believe use of an idol or a physical symbol in worship and prayer is intended to enhance the focus on Brahmam (the universal or supreme god) with respect to a certain attribute (Saguna) of Brahmam. Such Idol worship is called “Saguna Aradhana” (Worshipping forms and names) in India. Contrary to popular misconceptions, idol is not the god for Hindus. For the beginners, it is like this: Those who wish to offer worship to the Brahmam in whichever form he/she prefers, invite ‘That’ into the favourite ‘Vigraha’. Aavahayami (I invite), Sthapayami (I establish/seat), Poojayami (I worship). Then we offer water, flowers, leaves, fragrant substances, delicious food, music, dance etc. as part of worship to ‘That’. Then we ask ‘That’ to grant our wishes and needs. At the end of the day or period of worship, we offer the pooja again and ask ‘That’ to leave the Vigraha. This process is called Visarjana (disperse). Then it becomes just an idol. In short, if you carefully observe you can see all religions and ideologies have some form of idol worship – it may be a statue, book, person, symbol, icon or thing. Everybody worships either images and or political symbols. The only difference would be in the method or degree in worshipping. It is thus quite apparent for the entire mankind – all religions – whether it is atheism, pluralism, animism, fanaticism, fundamentalism, gurudom, kingdom of priests and extreme materialism, the idol worship comes natural. Man creates various idols or images and then stuck there. They fight and kill for those idols. So, there is no point in anybody holding a “Holier than Thou” attitude. Why can’t a believer move beyond idols or images? Because human mind needs some form of image or imagery to its very survival. This is the limitation of all religions. So, our ancestors, the great sages, found that humans have to move beyond beliefs if he/she wants to realize the truth. They should go beyond idolatry – it is Nirguna Aradhana. The only religion that talks about truly formless and undefined god is Sanatan Dharma. It says the Brahmam – the divine power – is truly without a form, a gender or anything for that matter, while all other religions believe that god has a gender, a race and a language. As Sankracharya says, “To describe Brahmam even the words recoil.” So anybody trying to describe god through words or images (Idolatry) is like blinds describing elephant. You have to go beyond a 227 name and a form (shape) to realise the Brahmam. (Lalitha Sahasranamam says ‘Nama roopa vivarjitha’) Vedas say the Brahmam is formless, ineffable (nirguna) and Unmoved Mover. Upanishads describe Nirguna Brahmam- the ineffable God as, “Whole is that, whole too is this and from the whole, whole cometh and take whole, yet whole remains.” This cannot be understood with using mind as the mind CANNOT go beyond images (idols) or beliefs. That’s the reason our ancestors said God is an experience to be experienced by the experiencer. It cannot be explained. It cannot be described. In his final stages of quest, a Sanatan Dharma follower realizes and sees god’s presence in everything in the universe (Isavasyam idam sarvam). That’s why he prays “May all beings be happy” (Lokah Samastah Sukhino Bhavantu). That’s how the universal compassion develops. That’s how the inclusive philosophy of non-violence, equality and tolerance develops. That’s why ancient Indians could welcome and accept all religions, ideologies and philosophies including Atheism. No beliefs in the world can take a human being to such elevated higher dimension. the whole idea of doing idol worship or not-doing idol worship is a malicious propaganda to convert people from older religions. Idols are used as means to worship God or its infinite representations. No Hindus consider that there are two Param-Atma or supreme God, but they consider that he has infinite representation & yet no form because God is totality of all things & non-things. Hindus consider God to be in all things, everywhere, omnipresent, omni-potent & considered world to be just manifestation of his own self out of his mere wish. And Idols are ways to focus some positive manifestation of God to remove all other distractions. They used lamps, stones, pictures, or music for same purpose. No Ram, Shiva or Ganesh worshiper will say that you are worshiping wrong God, because they are clear that you select the channel or image that you love most, focus on that characteristics but eventually you merge to same God. While Upanishads are the first to describe one God that pervades all, before any other religion could even come into being, still later religions could use propaganda & disparage Hinduism. The whole idea of idol worship or not idol worship is a big deceitful propaganda. Hindus philosophy defines the whole thing in one of the most clear languages known to humans Sanskrit & in of of the most refined philosophies as accepted by best philosophers world wide. God of Upanishads is most in sync whatever scientists and greater philosophers have found till date. a Hindu believes God exists in stones. But he understands that it doesn’t mean God is the stone. 228 One must realize that Hindus do not worship any idol but worship God through the image. The best explanation of image worship that I have come across is that of Swami Tapasyananda: …Worship of a God who is not also the Absolute is idolatry, and a mere Absolute, who is characterless and is irresponsive, is not better than matter. The Vedanta accepts the Supreme as both Personal and Impersonal. When the votary in the course of his spiritual development becomes depersonalized on achieving the elimination of his ego-based body-mind, he will be able to understand the true Impersonal. Till then, that is, so long as he is a person, the Impersonal and the Absolute can only mean for him a Personal Being who is much more than what he, a person, has grasped or can grasp of Him. To illustrate, the Impersonal-Personal Divine of the Vedanta is the ocean and the God of adoration of the devotee is like a big field or backwater into which the water of that ocean has flowed. The many deities that form the object of worship of Vedantism are like these tanks and backwaters in the analogy. They are so many manifestations of the Personal-Impersonal Sat-chit-ananda in the thought structures of those who adore Him, or are forms adopted by Him for the achievement of cosmic purposes in his world-play. The worship of these forms with an understanding of the infinitude that informs their finitude ...... is the only form of true worship that the human mind is capable of, so long as man remains a limited person. The other ideas of the Divine which Semitic religions hold – their so called boasted monotheism – is only a form of disguised idolatry; for when it is said that Jehovah is a jealous God, or that there is no God but Allah, it is obvious that the Supreme Being is being identified as an exclusive individual and not as an expression of an Infinite Being in terms of the human mind. When the link with the Infinite is forgotten, a Deity, whether it is a monotheistic entity or a polytheistic being becomes a mere idol. Real worship of the Supreme Being is possible only when the principle of Vedantic theism is understood – that principle being the perception of the Infinite Personal-Impersonal Being through a limited manifestation of Him. A Vedantic Deity is never aggressive, demanding the overthrow of other deities. But, a monotheistic Deity, always a jealous God, cannot tolerate another Deity. As Toynbee has pointed out, the monotheistic Deity of the Semitics is only an apotheosis of the group or tribal consciousness of certain people, a sentiment that held together societies before nationalism took its place. Just as the nationalistic patriotism is eager to absorb all other countries, that form of group consciousness masquerading as monotheism wants to supplant all other religions and establish its Deity in their sanctuaries. Proselytism, for which many religions stand but which has no place in the Vedantic 229 scheme, is the consequence of the Infinite Being but a personalisation of the group consciousness of a people. The principle enunciated above in regard to Deities is applicable also to worship of God in holy images, which critics, who are practicing real idolatry, have stigmatised as idolatry. The Vedantin’s God is not an individual as the Semite’s. He is the Universal Spirit who has manifested as All-Nature. He is one with all, and if a person with faith wants to see Him anywhere, He is present there. Like water running all through the ground, He is everywhere; and if the well of faith is dug, He becomes available for worship. A holy image is thus a point at which His real presence is available for imperfect man to apprehend and commune with. It is not a mere means for practising concentration as some apologists say. It is much more. It is a point of real communion with the Divine when the eye of faith reveals Him as accepting the worship and offering made by the devotee. [Adapted from Swami Tapasyananda’s introductory remarks in ‘A Primer of Hinduism’ by D.S.Sarma] Murthi Puja became a subject of intense debate in 19th century Bengal mainly due to Christian missionary propaganda. Even educated Bengali Hindus began opposing murthi Puja. I am posting below a conversation between M and Sri Ramakrishna where M asks Sri Ramakrishna about murthi puja. Idols in the Hindu Way of Life – Why Are They Worshipped? . 230 India is one place where they went into elaborate systems of idol-making. This has been misunderstood by other cultures as worshiping some doll as a god. No. Here, people are very much aware that it is we who create the shapes and forms. If you look at it from the standpoint of modern science, we know today that everything is the same energy, but everything is not the same in the world. This energy can be like an animal or this energy can function like the Divine. When I say “the Divine,” I am not talking about you as a being. I am talking about the body itself. The physical body itself can be transformed into a Divine entity if we just reorganize our systems in a particular way. Hindu is a cultural identity, not a religious identity. In the Hindu way of life, the only important thing in human life is his liberation. For example, between the full moon day and the new moon day, each of the fourteen nights are so different. Today, we live with so much electric light, so you don't know the difference. Suppose you lived on a farm or in a forest where there was no electricity, then every night would be very different because the moon comes up at different times and it has different shapes and forms. But it is the same moon. It is not a different entity. The same moon has different impacts at different times. Just a little rearrangement, see what a difference it has made. Similarly, if you re-arrange the energy system in the body, this body which is just a mass of flesh right now, can become a divine entity. The whole system of yoga is oriented towards this. Gradually, if you give it sufficient attention and practice, you will see that this body is no longer just craving for self-preservation and procreation, it has become something else altogether. It is no longer just a physical entity. Though it is physical, though it is biology, it need not be limited to the physical. It can function and operate in a completely different dimension. Its very presence can become different. It is from this context that many yogis who made their bodies in a certain way, allowed people to worship their bodies. They themselves would not be there in the body, but they let people worship their body because it has become like a divine entity. It is a reorganized energy – completely engineered. The Hindu Way of Life One fundamental thing that I would like to clear up about the Hindu way of life is, with the Hindu, there is no “ism” because it is a geographical and cultural identity. Anyone born in the land of Indus is a Hindu. There is no particular belief system, god or ideology which you can call as the Hindu way 231 of life. Whatever you do in this culture is Hindu. You can worship a man-god and be a Hindu. You can worship a woman-god and be a Hindu. You can worship a cow and be a Hindu. You can worship a tree and be a Hindu. Or you don’t worship anything and you can be a Hindu. Hindu is a cultural identity, not a religious identity. In the Hindu way of life, the only important thing in human life is his liberation. Mukti is the only goal. The Science of Idol-Making There is a whole science of idol-making where a certain form is created with a particular material and energized in a certain way. Different idols are made in different ways where they relocate or rearrange the chakras in certain places to make them into completely different possibilities. Idolmaking is that science through which you manifest the energy in a particular way so that your quality of life can be enhanced. The temple was not created as a place of God or a place of prayer. It was created as a place of energy where everyone could go and make use of it. Temples in India, were built as a very deep science. They were not created for worship. When I say temple, I am referring to the ancient temples. Most modern temples are built just the way you build shopping complexes. Temple building is a very deep science. If the basic aspects of the temple – the size and shape of the idol, the mudra that the idol holds, the parikrama, the garbha griha, and the mantras used to consecrate the idol are properly matched, a powerful energy system is created. In Indian tradition, no one told you that if you go to a temple, you must worship and give money and ask for something. This is something that people have started now. Traditionally, they told you, if you go to the temple, you must sit for a while and come. But today you just touch your bottom to the floor and run away. This is not the way. You are required to sit there because there is a field of energy that has been created. In the morning, before you go out into the world, the first thing you do is you go sit in the temple for a while. This is a way of recharging yourself with very positive vibrations of life so that you go into the world with a different perspective. The temple was not created as a place of God or a place of prayer. No one was ever allowed to lead a prayer. It was created as a place of energy where everyone could go and make use of it. 232 1. Till the realisation of perfect knowledge a man should continue the ritualistic worship of Shiva. 59-60. In order to convince the world, the rituals must be continued. Just as the sun is reflected in many vessels, in the same manner, O devas, know that the supreme Brahman, Shiva, assumes the form of whatever is seen or heard in the world real or unreal. 2. There is difference in vessels but not in the water they contain. This is what those who know the real meaning of the Vedas say. 3. "Lord Shiva is within the heart of beings in this world." Of what avail are images to those who have the real knowledge? 4. Having an image is very auspicious for a person who has no such knowledge. It is a ladder that enables him to climb to a higher position. 5. It is very difficult to climb to a position without a support. The image is only a means to achieve the Nirguna Shiva. 6. The attainment of the Nirguna through a Saguna is certainly possible. In this manner, the symbols of all lords are conductive to steady faith and belief. 7. This lord is very great and this is the mode of worship of that lord. If there is no image, of what avail are scents, sandal paste, flowers etc? 8. Till the realisation of true knowledge, the image shall necessarily be worshipped. If any one does not worship the image before he attains perfect knowledge, his downfall is sure. These are aesthetic expressions of devotion in architecture and sculpture, music and painting. Idols are the personifications of the Almighty or the natural forces, in one aspect or another for a closer identification and understanding of them rather conveniently by common people, who feel a more intimate and trustworthy relationship with the deity with his assumed and acknowledged form and figure in their hearts and before their eyes. Temples were located and built in a manner to best utilise the magnetic energy and desirable properties of earth and mother nature to help a devotee to concentrate and meditate more peacefully. Besides temples serve as centres of religious discourses, festive celebrations and social interactions. The practice of Idol Worship in Hinduism. In Indian society, idol worship is one of the major superstitions that preclude the development of a scientific bent of mind….. Almost all societies of the world practiced them in one form or another during certain period. But, considering its evil effect, many societies began to shed ‘Idol worship’. Jewish society dropped it during 600 BC. European societies gave-up idol worship from the third century onwards synchronizing with the spread of 233 Christianity. Arabian societies dispensed with idolatry from the seventh century onwards coinciding with the spread of Islam….. “In India, idolatry remains as an integral part of Hindu religion. It is being given much importance by the priestly class to further their interests. Many fictitious stories about the effectiveness of the worship of the idols of Gods and Goddesses are being spread by the priestly class. Believing those fictitious stories, Hindus throng the temples in large numbers to worship the different idols….. “The masses assume that by worshipping idols, their sins will be forgiven and they will be rewarded in this life as well as after life. Only under that notion, they perform costly pilgrimages to the so called holy places and fill the temple coffers with money and valuables. This illusion prevents people from acquiring worldly wisdom. It also averts people from realizing the value of thought and work. As a result, people live in vain hope. They expect wonders to happen in their lives. Under this false hope, they don’t involve themselves in any productive and creative activities sincerely. This wrong mental attitude towards life and work acts as a major hurdle to our progress.” Idol-worship has been the favorite weapon Hinduphobic people who have used it to criticize Hinduism for the last many centuries. It is considered as the foremost evidence that establishes Hinduism as being nothing more than a set of superstitions. The passages about ‘idolworship’ that have been quoted at the beginning are from an article titled ‘Superstition and Indians’ by N. Anandan, published in the July 2011 issue of ‘The Modern Rationalist.’ Though the article is a few years old, the views expressed in the article clearly sums up the view of many self-claimed liberals, rationalists, and secularists of present society about the issue of idol worship in Hinduism. Now let us see what idol worship really is and how valid are these assessments and criticisms. Idol Worship and Moksha Photo: The Hindu ‘Idol Worship’ or ‘Image worship’ is one of the central aspects of Hindu practice. Sanatana Dharma has created a wide framework of spiritual practices and lifestyle choices to suit people of different temperaments and competencies. Hence, it has an equal place for those who worship nature as well as those who contemplate on their innermost self. Further, these diverse practices are not segregated belief systems distinct from one another as many scholars have concluded over last few centuries. Instead, these diversities are expressions of one united wholeness. There is a unity in the goal that various spiritual paths lead to as well as in the framework that upholds these diverse paths. The ultimate goal of Hinduism is Moksha or Liberation and every aspect of life, both secular and spiritual have been propounded to assist a person to eventually attain this goal. Hence, there is clearly a unity in the ultimate goal. Further, there is another unity that interconnects all the various paths and stays beneath them, and acts as the very foundation of them. It is the unity provided by Dharma which upholds life and which is the framework that has made it 234 possible for such diverse paths to express itself without losing the eye on the goal. Hence, Idol worship is one of the prominent valid means that a person can adopt to travel the path that leads to Moksha. The validity of the worship of idols is its efficacy in helping a devotee to connect with his object of devotion i.e. Brahman. In fact, the worship of the idol is not about worshiping stone or wood. Instead, it is about worshiping Brahman/God who has manifested in the form of a Devata (deity) in that idol. Before proceeding further, let us briefly understand how Brahman is understood in Hinduism. Concept of God in Hinduism God or Supreme reality is referred by the term ‘Brahman’ in Hinduism. Unlike some religions that conceive God as a creator who is different from his creations, Hinduism recognizes that Brahman is both transcendent reality as well as immanent reality. Hindu scriptures speak about Brahman as being present in all objects as their very innermost SelfAtman. The term Brahman therefore refers to the transcendent aspect and the term Atman to the immanent aspect. Hence, the often quoted Vedanta definition of Moksha as the realization of ‘Brahma-Atma-Aikyam-Union of Brahman and Atman’. The scriptures further speak about Brahman in its transcendent absolute state as being nameless, formless, attribute-less, and birth-less infinite whole. At the same time, the scriptures also recognize that this Brahman can take an infinite number of forms and names as well. He is formless, yet a repository of all forms. Hence, the famous Veda statement “One truth is called by various names” (Rig Veda 1.164.46). Yaska in his Nirukta says that there is only one God, and that God appears as Agni on the physical universe, as Indra in the middle realms, and as Savitr in the celestial realms. Further, various other deities in these three realms are various aspects of these three manifestations of God.(1) Therefore, though Brahman is one infinite whole without any forms, he himself assumes various forms of Devatas/deities to uphold the Universe. Hence, various Devatas are in essence non-different from Brahman, but in their limited aspect (of name and form), they represent particular aspect/attribute of Brahman. Therefore, Devatas serve as a bridge between devotees (who cannot comprehend Brahman because He is beyond perception) and Brahman (who is the end goal of spiritual path). Worship or Upasana in Hinduism As mentioned about, Moksha is possible only by the realization of Brahman as being non-different from the innermost Self (Atman). In other-words, Moksha is possible through Self-Realization or Atma Jnana. But, people in general are completely attached to the material objects. A person identifies himself with his name, body, and his possessions. Therefore, in order to truly realize the innermost Self, a person must remove the false identifications with his possessions, with the body and the mind. But, this is not easy. The mind is full of thought patterns called Vrittis. The mind is further afflicted by impurities like lust, anger, delusion, pride, etc. that increase the attachment to the body and 235 material objects. Hence, the false identifications can be removed only by purifying the mind by removing the impurities and further calming the mind by bringing thought Vrittis to rest. Yoga Sutra calls this as “Chitta-Vritti Nirodha”. This purification and the stilling of mind in turn is brought about by the practice of duties (Dharma Anushtana) and devotion (Bhakti/Upasana). It is for this reason, the Vedas are divided into Karma Khanda (duty/actions portion), Upasana Khanda (Meditation/devotion portion) and Jnana Khanda (Knowledge portion). The purpose of Upasana is to attain one-pointed concentration, so that the mind can be stilled. Upasana literally means ‘to sit near or become close to.’ Hence, the act of worship is nothing but bringing a devotee close to his devata/deity. In fact, Mahanirvana Tantra (14.123) defines worship as the union of the Jiva (individual) with Atman (God). How is this closeness achieved? By the practice of various external and internal spiritual practices. In fact, every external practice has been designed such that it induces certain internal transformations. The external practices may be in the form of Yajna (fire ritual), Tarpana (using water), or Murti puja (representing earth element) wherein the Devata is invoked in the fire, water, or the idol respectively. These external practices are accompanied by internal meditations on the Devatas. These internal meditations itself are referred as Pratyahara (withdrawal of senses), Dharana (concentration), Dhyana (meditation) in Patanjali Yoga. These meditations are referred as Vidyas (Knowledge of the deities) in the Upanishads. It is by concentrating on the Nama (name), Mantra, or the Rupa (form) of the Devata, a person purifies the mind and removes all thought Vrittis of it. Therefore, Upasana is inevitable for spiritual progress. But, this Upasana is not a one size fits all kind of practice. Instead, there are hundreds of methods of Upasanas that have been explained in various scriptures to help people of various temperaments. Idol-Worship is one such important and very effective mode of worship. Philosophy behind the practice 236 of Idol Worship Photo: e www.newindianexpress.com The most important element of Idol worship is Idol itself. Idol called as ‘Murti’ is both a symbol for God as well as His abode. An Idol is basically a form, an image that represents a particular Devata. Hence, the primary function of an Idol is that of ‘Pratima’. It acts as a symbol that helps a devotee to 237 have a connection, to have some perception of the essence of Devata, who otherwise is beyond sensory perception. Thus, Idol can be understood as a reflection, an image that gives a glimpse of the Devata, just as a photograph of a person helps one to remember him. This function of the Idol or Murti as a Pratima is very crucial in the practice of one pointed concentration and meditation. A meditator who thus meditates realizes that the Idol itself is neither Brahman nor Devata, but it is a reflection, an image of the Devata that aids concentration. This concentration will further lead to deep meditation on that form, which will slowly result in the manifestation of the real Devata within the mind. This fact is further brought out in the iconography details that is associated with each deity. Devatas have many common features, yet each one of them have some unique features as well. These are not accidental or the products of imagination of some artists of the old. Instead, each element of the iconography represents a particular element about that Devata. For example, the moon on Shiva’s head represents Shiva as being endowed with pure Knowledge. Similarly, the ten hands depicted in some deities represent the 10 directions that include the top and bottom. The idols are made only according to the iconographic descriptions given in various scriptures and not otherwise. These show that, idols act as symbols for decoding the essence of various deities and when concentrated upon the idols, thought Vrittis corresponding to those aspects of Devatas are formed in the mind. This kind of meditation where external or internal aids are used as props to attain one-pointed concentration is well established in the Upanishads, Puranas, as well as Tantrika literatures. But, this is only one way of worshiping Devatas using Idols. The other way is self-evident in the very name with which the idols are referred- ‘Murti’. Murti literally means form, manifestation, embodiment, or simply an abode. Hence, idol is not simply a symbol, but it is a place that can hold the energy and the essence of the particular manifestation of Brahman. That is, the idol is nothing but a body of the Devata. It is for this reason, the worship of the Devata begins with Prana Pratishtapana where in the life-force, the essence, as well as the form of the deity is infused into the stone or wooden idol. This is done through procedures like Kumbabhishekam etc. in the temples. In fact, without consecration, the stone idol remains simply a stone and does not become a Pratima (image) of God. Regarding this, S.K. Ramachandra Rao, a renowned author and Sanskrit scholar says: “The devotee knows that the image of a god is a mere artefact and toy unless it is properly consecrated. And consecration involves the investment of the devotee’s devotion and passion, and getting the devotee effectively related to the particular god invoked in the image. Rituals are naturally important for transforming an artefact into an icon. The icon is meant to accommodate the rituals, so that human devotion can flower out in the light of God that is reflected through the icon.”(2) Therefore, the idols are not just the symbol or a 238 reflection of the Devata, but it is the very abode of the Devata. A common criticism of Idol worship is that Hindus worship the stone and other such insentient objects. But, as seen above it is not the stone that is worshiped, but the Devata who has occupied the stone idol for a duration of time, who is worshiped. Jagadguru Sri Abhivnava Vidyatheertha MahaSwamiji, the late Shankaracharya of ‘Sringeri Peetham’ says: “We do not worship mere stones. If we did, then, on seeing a stone idol, we would have addressed it as, ‘O Stone’ and not as ‘O Lord.’ We use idols as aids to worship, realizing that it is He who resides in them. In the temple deities, the divine presence is installed through the Kumbhabhishekam performed to consecrate the idols. This is strengthened by the sincerity and tapas (austerity) of the priests performing the worship, and by the special characteristics of certain idols. Though without form Ishwara (God) is capable of giving Darshana (appearing in front of) to His devotees. He indeed does so.”(3) Photo: http://belurmath.org/ The fact that idols act as an abode, or a body of the deity can also be ascertained by the manner in which they are made and the philosophy that guides the idol making. The work of art is no different from that of Yoga. In the Hindu scheme of life, all actions are indeed a Yoga, or a Yajna when they are done with one pointed concentration and without the hankering of the results. Hence, for a sculptor, his making of idols for worship itself is a Yoga. When a sculptor is commissioned to make an idol, he is supposed to prepare himself thoroughly through purification rituals, withdrawal from mundane routine, and meditate. The sculptor then contemplates on the Dyana mantra (meditation mantras giving iconographic descriptions of the deities) for an extensive period till the image of the deity becomes stable and clear in his mind. It is for this reason the Shilpa-Shastra(4) (treatise on sculpting) says that a sculptor must be well versed with Atharvaveda, treatises of sculpture, and the Vedic mantras by which the deities are invoked. Shukracharya says: “Let the imager establish images in temples by meditation on the deities who are the objects of his devotion. For the successful achievement of this Yoga, the lineaments of the image are described in books to be dwelt upon in detail. In no other way, not even by direct and immediate vision of the actual object, is it possible to be so absorbed in contemplation, as thus in the making of images.”(5) Therefore, a sculptor should not make any idols by looking at other idols. For then, there will not be any spiritual element in the idol thus made. Instead, the sculptor must become so completely absorbed in the deity such that he must be pre-occupied with this even during mundane activities like eating food, going to sleep, etc. By such a practice, a sculptor is not only able to perceive clearly the image of the Devata in his mind, but he will also perceive the very presence of Devata all around him. Only an image carved out after such contemplation of God, can truly become worthy of worship. (6) Thus, Ananda K. Coomaraswamy concludes: “the imager is required, after 239 emptying his heart of all extraneous interests, to visualize within himself an intelligible image, to identify himself with therewith, and holding this image as long as is necessary, then only to proceed to the work of embodiment in stone, metal, or pigment.”(7) These clearly establish few points: An idol is first and foremost a symbol, a reflection of God who is formless. An idol is the body or an abode that a particular form of God occupies. An idol itself is prepared and concentrated, such that it becomes a proper body that can be occupied by the deity. Therefore, instead of assuming Idol worship as stone worship, a correct understanding is that it is the worship of a Deity who has temporarily taken the idol as an abode or body. Now, just as human souls re-incarnate by changing bodies, similarly, the deities can be invoked in a new idol, once the old ones are degenerated, or broken, or are simply become unfit for worship. This is clearly witnessed in the Puri festival of Nabakalebara, in which Lord Jagannatha is given a new body by installing new idols once every 19 years. Hence, no questions of Hindu Gods being harmed when an idol is broken, or Gods being insulted when some rationalist urinates on the idols arises. Such statements and actions only goes to depict not only the crass ignorance of such people, but also their perverted thinking. Much of the misconception and criticism of Idol worship has been because of the perception of Idol worship in isolation and the subsequent branding of them as superstition. But, when idol worship is perceived from the standpoint of the framework of spirituality and worship, idol worship is just one among the various practices that can help a person to travel the path towards Moksha. An analysis of certain criticisms that have been made against Idol worship will be taken up in the next part. The Idol—A Prop For The Spiritual Neophyte Idol is a support for the neophyte. It is a prop of his spiritual childhood. A form or image is necessary for worship in the beginning. It is an external symbol of God for worship. It is a reminder of God. The material image calls up the mental idea. Steadiness of mind is obtained by image worship. The worshipper will have to associate the ideas of infinity, omnipotence, omniscience, purity, perfection, freedom, holiness, truth, omnipresence. It is not possible for all to fix the mind on the Absolute or the Infinite. A concrete form is necessary for the vast majority for practising concentration. To behold God everywhere and to practise the presence of God is not possible for the ordinary man. Idol worship is the easiest form of worship for the modern man. A symbol is absolutely indispensable for fixing the mind. The mind wants a prop to lean upon. It cannot have a conception of the Absolute in the initial stages. Without the help of some external aid, 240 in the initial stages, the mind cannot be centralised. In the beginning, concentration or meditation is not possible without a symbol. EVERYONE AN IDOL-WORSHIPPER There is no direct reference to worship of idols in the Vedas (HB: There is reference to thinking image of Bhagwan and doing dhyan which is form of Saanketik Sadhna or Saanketik Moorti Pujan, idol worship). The Puranas and the Agamas give descriptions of idol-worship both in the houses and in the temples. Idol-worship is not peculiar to Hinduism. Few newest religions adopted this great concept: christians worship the cross. They have the image of the cross in their mind. The Mohammedans keep the image of Kaaba stone when they kneel and do prayers, but ignorantly deny the same. The people of the whole world, save a few Yogis and Vedantins, are all worshippers of idols. They keep some image or the other in the mind. [HB: Even calling gods by names like allah or jesus is connoting image of god in the form of symbol or name. ॐ is the symbol that is also beginning of Idol worship.] The mental image also is a form of idol. The difference is not one of kind, but only one of degree. All worshippers, however intellectual they may be, generate a form in the mind and make the mind dwell on that image. Everyone is an idol-worshipper. Pictures, drawing, etc., are only forms of Pratima. A gross mind needs a concrete symbol as a prop or Alambana; a subtle mind requires an abstract symbol. Even a Vedantin has the symbol OM for fixing the wandering mind. It is not only the pictures or images in stone and wood that are idols. Dialectics and leaders also become idols. So, why condemn idolatry? A MEDIUM FOR ESTABLISHING COMMUNION WITH GOD Idols are not the idle fancies of sculptors, but shining channels through which the heart of the devotee is attracted to and flows towards God. Though the image is worshipped, the devotee feels the presence of the Bhagwan in it and pours out his devotion unto it. It is the appalling ignorance of the modern sensual man that clouds his vision and prevents him from seeing Divinity in lovely and enchanting idols of His form. The very scientific advances of this century ought to convince you of the glory of idol worship. How are the songsters and orators confined to a small box-like thing to be called a radio? It is a mere piece of a mechanical lifeless structure which breaks into a thousand pieces if you throw it away violently; and yet, if you know how to handle it, you can hear through it, the music that is being played several thousands of miles away, the discourse that is being delivered in the remotest part of the globe. Even as you can catch the sound waves of people all over the world 241 through the radio receiving set, it is possible to commune with the all-pervading Bhagwan through the medium of an idol. The divinity of the all-pervading ‘God is vibrant in every atom of creation. There is not a speck of space where He is not. Why do you then say that He is not in the idols? There are others who would glibly say, “Oh, God is all-pervading formless being. How can He be confined to this idol?” Are these people ever conscious of His omnipresence? Do they always see Him and Him alone in everything? No. It is their ego that prevents them from bowing to the idols of God and with that motive puts this lame excuse forward! Empty vessels only make much sound. A practical man who does meditation and worship, who is full of knowledge and real devotion keeps always silence. He influences and teaches others through silence. He only knows whether a Murti is necessary in the beginning for concentration or not. However intellectual one may be, he cannot concentrate without the help of some symbol in the beginning. An intellectual and learned person, on account of his pride and vanity only says, “I do not like a Murti. I do not wish to concentrate on a form.” He cannot concentrate on the formless one. He thinks that people will laugh at him when they come to know that he is meditating on a form. He never does any meditation on the formless one. He simply talks and argues and poses. He wastes his life in unnecessary discussions only. An ounce of his practice is better than tons of theories. Intellect is a hindrance in the vast majority of intellectual persons. They say that the existence of Brahman is a guess work, Samadhi is a bluff of the mind and Self-realisation is an imagination of the Vedantins. Deluded souls! They are steeped in ignorance. They are carried away by their secular knowledge which is mere husk when compared to the Knowledge of the Self. There is no hope of salvation for such people. First their wrong Samskaras should be flushed by good Samskaras through Satsanga. Then only they will realise their mistakes. May the Bhagwan bestow on them clear understanding and thirsting for real knowledge! A Symbol of God – Idol Worship Knowing The Presence of Bhagwan Pratima (idol) is a substitute or symbol. The image in a temple, though it is made of stone, wood or metal, is precious for a devotee as it bears the mark of his Bhagwan, as it stands for something which he holds holy and eternal. A flag is only a small piece of painted cloth, but it stands for a soldier for something that he holds very dear. He is prepared to give up his life in defending his flag. Similarly the image is very dear to a devotee. It speaks to him in its own language of devotion. Just as the flag arouses martial valour in the soldier, so also the image arouses devotion in the devotee. The Bhagwan is superimposed on the image and the image generates divine thoughts in the worshipper. 242 A piece of ordinary white paper or coloured paper has no value. You throw it away. But, if there is the stamp or picture of the King or Emperor on the paper (currency notes), you keep it safe in your money purse or trunk. Even so, an ordinary piece of stone has no value for you. You throw it away. But, if you behold the stone Murti of Bhagwan Krishna at Pandharpur or any other Murti in shrines, you bow your head with folded hands, because there is the stamp of the Bhagwan on the stone. The devotee superimposes on the stone Murti his own Beloved and all the attributes of the Bhagwan. When you worship an image, you do not say, “This image has come from Jaipur. It was brought by Prabhu Singh. Its weight is 50 lbs. It is made of white marble. It has cost me Rs, 500/-.” You superimpose all the attributes of the Bhagwan on the image and pray, “O Antaryamin (Inner Ruler)! You are all-pervading; you are omnipotent, omniscient, all-merciful. You are the source for everything. You are self-existent. You are Sat-Chit-Ananda. You are eternal, unchanging. You are the Life of my life, Soul of my soul! Give me light and knowledge! Let me dwell in Thee for ever.” When your devotion and meditation become intense and deep, you do not see the stone image. You behold the Bhagwan only, who is chaitanya. Image worship is very necessary for beginners. AN INTEGRAL PART OF VIRAT For a beginner, Pratima is an absolute necessity. By worshipping an idol, Isvara is pleased. The Pratima is made up of the five elements. The five elements constitute the body of the Bhagwan. The idol remains an idol, but the worship goes to the Bhagwan. [HB: Bhagwan is controller of Five elements. He is beyond and within Five elements. Five elements gave birth to Universe and planets – every element of this earth. We cannot access materials which are beyond these five elements, we need five elements (idol) to pray to Bhagwan]. Pandav’s son Arjun is the only and most fortunate person in this Mahayug (Sat, Treta, Dwapar, Kali) to get the Virat roop darshan of Shree Krishn. If you shake hands with a man, he is highly pleased. You have touched only a small part of his body and yet he is highly pleased. He smiles and welcomes you. Even so, the Bhagwan is highly pleased when a small portion of His Virat (cosmic) body is worshipped. An idol is a part of the body of the Bhagwan. The whole world is His Body, Virat Form. The devotion goes to the Bhagwan. The worshipper superimposes on the image the Bhagwan and all His attributes. He does Shodasopachara for the idol, the sixteen kinds of paying respects or service to the Bhagwan, such as Padyam (water for washing the feet), Arghyam, Asana (seat), Snana (bathing), offering clothes, Achamana (water for sipping), applying sandal paste, offering flowers (Archana), burning incense, waving of lights and camphor, Maha Naivedyam, etc. The wandering mind is fixed now in this form of worship. The 243 aspirant gradually feels the nearness of the Bhagwan. He attains purity of heart and slowly annihilates his egoism. To the worshipper who believes the symbol, any kind of image is the body of the Bhagwan under the form of stone, clay, brass, picture, Saligram, etc. Such worship can never be idolatry. All matter is a manifestation of God. God is present in everything which exists. Everything is an object of worship, for all is a manifestation of God who is therein worshipped. The very act of worship implies that the object of worship is superior and conscious. This way of looking at things must be attained by the devotee. The untutored mind must be trained to view things in the above manner. IDOL WORSHIP DEVELOPS DEVOTION Idol worship makes concentration of mind simpler and easier. You can bring before your mind’s eye the great Lilas the Bhagwan has played in His particular Avataras in which you view Him. This is one of the easiest modes of Self-realisation. [HB: It lets you trust Bhagwan completely without causing distress to fellow humans.] Just as the picture of a famous warrior evokes heroism in your heart, a look at the picture of God will elevate your mind to divine heights. Just as the child develops the maternal Bhava (mother-feeling) of the future caressing, nursing, protecting mother by playing with its imaginary toy-child made up of rags and suckling the child in an imaginary manner, so also the devotee develops the feeling of devotion by worshipping the Pratima and concentrating on it. REGULAR WORSHIP UNVEILS THE DIVINITY IN THE IDOL Regular worship with correct recitment of mantras*, Puja and other modes of demonstrating our inner feeling of recognition of Divinity in the idol unveils the Divinity latent in it. This is truly a wonder and a miracle. The picture comes to life. The idol speaks. It will answer your questions and solve your problems. The God in you has the power to awaken the latent Divinity in the idol. It is like a powerful lens that focuses the sun’s rays on to a bundle of cotton. The lens is not fire and the cotton is not fire either nor can the sun’s rays, by themselves, burn the cotton. When the three are brought together in a particular manner, fire is generated and the cotton is burnt. Similar is the case with the idol, the Sadhaka and the all-pervading Divinity. Puja makes the idol shine with divine resplendence. God is then enshrined in the idol. From here, He will protect you in a special manner. The idol will perform miracles. The place where it is installed is at once transformed into a temple, a Vaikuntha or a Kailasa in reality. Those who live in such a place are freed from miseries, from diseases, from 244 failures and from Samsara itself. The awakened Divinity in the idol acts as a guardian blessing all, conferring the highest good on those who bow to it. : Vedic mantras decode the positive energy which is already around us, mantras are keys to unleash the power within and around. The mantras are given by Bhagwan himself so that we can easily chant them and meet Bhagwan]. THE IMAGE, A MASS OF CHAITANYA The idol is only a symbol of the Divine. A devotee does not behold therein a block of stone or a mass of metal. It is an emblem of God for him. He visualises the Indwelling Presence in the Murti or image. All the Saiva Nayanars or saints of South India attained God-realisation through worship of the Lingam, the image of Bhagwan Siva. For a devotee, the image is a mass of Chaitanya or consciousness. He draws inspiration from the image. The image guides him. It talks to him. It assumes human form to help him in a variety of ways. The image of Bhagwan Siva in the temple of Madurai in South India helped the fuel-cutter and the old woman. The image in the temple of Tirupati assumed human form and gave witness in the court to help his devotees. There are marvels and mysteries. Only the devotees understand these. There are many incidents when Banke Bihari actually helped his devotees. WHEN IDOLS BECAME ALIVE For a Bhakta or a sage, there is no such thing as Jada or insentient matter. Everything is Vasudeva or Chaitanya—Vasudevah Sarvam Iti. The devotee beholds actually the Bhagwan in the idol. Narsi Mehta was put to the test by a Raja. The Raja said: “O Narsi, if you are a sincere devotee of Bhagwan Krishna, if as you say the idol is Bhagwan Krishna Himself, let this idol move.” According to the prayer of Narsi Mehta, the idol moved. The sacred bull Nandi before Siva’s idol took the food offered by Tulasidas. The Murti played with Mira Bai. It was full of life and Chaitanya for her. You will like: Ghar Wapsi, Revert to Hinduism Needed to Save Indian Hindu 245 When Appayya Dikshitar went to Tirupati temple in South India, the Vaishnavas refused him admission. The next morning they found the Vishnu Murti in the temple changed into Siva Murti. The Mahant was much astonished and startled, asked pardon and prayed to Appayya Dikshitar to change the Murti again into Vishnu Murti. Kanaka Das was a great devotee of Bhagwan Krishna in Udipi, in the district of South Kanara in South India. He was not allowed to enter the temple on account of his low birth [HB: Caste system invoked by britishers. Native Hindus believed in Varna System]. Kanaka Das went round the temple and saw a small window at the back of the temple. He seated himself in front of the window. He was soon lost in singing songs in praise of Bhagwan Krishna. Many people gathered round him. They were very much attracted by the sweet melody of his music and the depth of his devotion. Bhagwan Krishna turned round to enable Kanaka Das to get His Darshan. The priests were struck with wonder. Even today, pilgrims are shown the window and the place where Kanaka Das sat and sang. The Murti is the same as the Bhagwan, for it is the vehicle of expression for the Mantra-Chaitanya which is the Devata. The same attitude should the devotee have in regard to the Murti in the temple, which he would evince if the Bhagwan would appear before him in person and speak to him in articulate sound. Even today, the brilliant eyes of Shri Bankey Bihari will make one unconscious if seen for too long a stretch. That is the reason that the kapat is closed and Bihari Ji’s darshan is stopped after every few minutes. During Janmaashtmi , it is done every single minute. Shree Krishn, Bihari Ji also respond to the Bhakti bhav of those Bhakts who are deeply in love with Shree Krishn, he follows them to their 246 homes. Many occasions, Bihari Ji’s idol was not seen in temple and after some time, he was again seen giving darshan to Bhakts. VEDANTA AND IDOL WORSHIP A pseudo-Vedantin feels himself ashamed to bow or prostrate before an idol in the temple. He feels that his Advaita will evaporate if he prostrates. Study the lives of the reputed Tamil saints, Appar, Sundarar, Sambandhar, etc. They had the highest Advaitic realisation. They saw Bhagwan Siva everywhere and yet they visited all temples of Siva, prostrated before the idol and sang hymns, which are on record now. The sixty-three Nayanar saints practised Chariyai and Kriyai only and attained God-realisation thereby. They swept the floor of the temple, collected flowers, made garlands for the Bhagwan and put on lights in the temple. They were illiterate, but attained the highest realisation. They were practical Yogis and their hearts were saturated with pure devotion. They were an embodiment of Karma Yoga. All practised the Yoga of Synthesis. The idol in the temple was all Chaitanya or consciousness for them. It was not a mere block of stone. Madhusudana Swami, who had Advaita realisation, who beheld oneness of the Self, who had Advaitic Bhava, was intensely attached to the form of Bhagwan Krishna with flute in His hands. Tulasidas realised the all-pervading essence. He had cosmic consciousness. He communed with the all-pervading, formless Bhagwan. And yet his passion for Bhagwan Rama with bow in His hand did not vanish. When he had been to Brindavan and saw the Murti of Bhagwan Krishna with flute in His hands, he said, “I will not bow my head to this form.” At once Bhagwan Krishna’s form assumed the form of Bhagwan Rama. Then only he bowed his head. Tukaram also had the same cosmic experience as that of Tulasidas. He sings in his Abhanga, “I see my Bhagwan all-pervading, just as sweetness pervades the sugar-cane” and yet he always speaks of his Bhagwan Vittala of Pandharpur with His hands on the hips. Mira also realised her identity with the all-pervading Krishna and yet she was not tired of repeating again and again, “Mere Girdhar Nagar”. From the above facts, we can clearly infer that one can realise God through worship of Murti or idol, that the worship of the Bhagwan in Saguna form is a great aid for Vedantic realisation also and for the realisation of the Bhagwan in His all-pervading, formless aspect and that the worship of the Murti is very essential for the purpose of concentration and meditation in the beginning and that such a worship is not in any way a hindrance to the attainment of God-consciousness and those who vehemently attack Murti Puja are groping in extreme darkness and ignorance and they have no real knowledge of Puja and worship and that they enter into unnecessary, vain debates and discussions against Murti Puja to show that they are learned persons and that they have not done any real Sadhana 247 at all. They are persons who have made idle talking and tall talk as their habit and profession. They have ruined themselves. They have unsettled the minds of countless persons and ruined them also. The whole world worships symbols and Murtis only in some form or the other. The mind is disciplined in the beginning by fixing it on a concrete object or symbol. When it is rendered steady and subtle, it can be fixed later on on an abstract idea such as “Aham Brahma Asmi”. When one advances in meditation, the form melts in the formless and he becomes one with the formless essence. Image worship is not contrary to the view of Vedanta. It is rather a help. FROM RITUALISTIC BHAKTI TO PARA BHAKTI Bhakti is of two kinds, viz., higher Bhakti or Para Bhakti and lower Bhakti or ritualistic Bhakti. Ritualistic worship is Vaidhi or Gauni Bhakti. It is formal Bhakti. Vaidhi Bhakti is the lower type of devotion depending on external aids. It is lower Bhakti. The mind becomes purer and purer. The aspirant gradually develops love for God through ritualistic worship. He who does ritualistic worship rings bells, adores a Pratika (symbol) or Pratima (image), does Puja, Arati, etc., with flowers, sandal paste, burns incense and waves light before the image, offers Naivedya or food for God, etc. Mukhya Bhakti or Para Bhakti is advanced type of devotion. It is higher Bhakti. It transcends all convention. A devotee of this type knows no rule. He does not perform any external worship. He beholds his Bhagwan everywhere, in every object. His heart is saturated with love for God. The whole world is Brindavan for him. His state is ineffable. He attains the acme of bliss. He radiates love, purity and joy wherever he goes and inspires all who come in contact with him. The aspirant who worships the idol in the beginning beholds the Bhagwan everywhere and develops Para Bhakti. From Vaidhi Bhakti, he passes on to Ragatmika Bhakti or Prema Bhakti. He beholds the whole world as the Bhagwan. The ideas of good and bad, right and wrong, rogue, etc., vanish. He sees the Bhagwan in a rogue, dacoit, cobra, scorpion, ant, dog, tree, log of wood, block of stone, sun, moon, stars, fire, water, earth, etc. His vision or experience baffles description. Glory to such exalted Bhaktas who are veritable Gods on earth, who live to lift others from the quagmire of Samsara and save them from the clutches of death! Hinduism leads the aspirants gradually from material images to mental images and from the diverse mental images to the one Personal God and from the Personal God to the Impersonal Absolute or transcendental Nirguna Brahman. THE GLORY OF GREATEST HINDU PHILOSOPHY 248 How sublime is Hindu philosophy and Hindu mode of worship! It does not stop or end with the worship of the idol. The Sadhaka is taken step by step to higher stages of devotion and Samadhi or communion through the worship of the idol. Though he worships the idol, he has to keep before his mental eye the all-pervading Bhagwan. He has to feel His Presence in his heart and all objects also. Even in worshipping a small idol, he has to repeat the Purusha Sukta and to think of the Virat Purusha with countless heads, countless eyes, countless hands, who extends beyond the universe and of the Bhagwan or Atman who dwells in the hearts of all beings. The same man who burns incense, scented sticks and camphor before the idol says, “The sun does not shine there nor the moon nor the stars nor the lightning. How then could the little fire shine there? All shine after Him. His effulgence alone illumines the whole world.” The ways and rules of worship—Puja Vidhi—and the secrets of worship that are described in the Hindu scriptures are scientifically accurate and highly rational. It is only ignorant people who have not studied the scriptures, who have not associated with the devotees and great souls, who vilify worship of idols or Murtis. Every other religion lays certain fixed dogmas and attempts to force people to follow them. It has only one kind of drug to treat several diseases. It gives only one kind of food for all and for all conditions. It places before the followers only one coat. It must fit Albert, Atkinson, Ahluwallia, Antony, Abdul Rahman. The Hindus know that the images, crosses and crescents are simply so many symbols to fix the mind in the beginning for developing concentration, so many concrete pegs to hang their spiritual ideas and convictions on. The symbol is not necessary for everyone. It is not compulsory in Hinduism. It is not needed for an advanced Yogi or sage. A symbol is like the slate which is useful for a boy of the first standard. Those who are not in need of it have no right to say that it is wrong. If they say that it is wrong, they only betray their ignorance. CONCLUSION TO GREAT SCIENCE OF HINDU IDOL WORSHIP There is nothing wrong in worshipping an idol in the beginning. You must superimpose God and His attributes on the idol. You must think of the Antar-Atma that is hidden in the idol. The aspirant gradually begins to feel that the Bhagwan he worships is in the idol, in the hearts of all creatures and in all the names and forms of this universe. He begins to feel His presence everywhere. Idolatry is only the beginning of Dharma. Certainly it is not its end. The same Hindu scriptures which prescribe idol-worship for beginners speak of meditation on the Infinite or the Absolute, contemplation on the significance of the “Tat Tvam Asi” Mahavakya, for advanced aspirants. 249 There are different grades of worship. The first is the worship of idols (the easiest of all). The next is recitation of Mantras and offering of prayers. Mental worship is superior to worship with flowers. Meditation on the Absolute or the attributeless Nirguna Brahman is the best of all. The supreme state is Self-realisation or Brahma-sakshatkara. The second in rank is meditation. The Yogi practises Sadhana or unceasing meditation on the Supreme Self. The third is the worship of symbols. The fourth is the performance of rituals and pilgrimages to holy places. The Sastras and Gurus are like kind mothers. They take hold of the hands of the aspirants, take them step by step, stage by stage, till they are established in Nirvikalpa Samadhi or super-conscious state. They prescribe gross forms of Sadhana or spiritual practices for the neophytes or beginners, with gross mind, and give lessons on abstract meditation for the advanced aspirants who are endowed with pure, subtle and sharp intellect. Each marks a stage of progress. The human soul makes different kinds of attempts to grasp and realise the Infinite or the Absolute according to his strength, degree of evolution. He soars higher and higher, gathers more and more strength and eventually merges himself in the Supreme and attains oneness or identity. Glory to the Hindu Rishis (and the Hindu scriptures) who take the aspirants from the lower to the higher form of worship, stage by stage, step by step and ultimately help them to rest in the attributeless, all-pervading, formless, timeless, spaceless Brahman or the infinite and the unconditional Brahman of the Upanishads. Beloved children of the Bhagwan! Shed your ignorant disbelief this moment. Enshrine supreme, unshakable, living faith in your heart this very moment. Recall to your mind the glorious examples of Sri Mira, Sri Ramakrishna Paramahamsa and the South Indian Alwars and Nayanars. They believed; they reaped the rich spiritual harvests. You, too, can enjoy great peace, happiness and prosperity here and attain Him here and now if you have this faith in idol-worshipping. Though you may perform external worship at regular intervals, let the internal worship of the Bhagwan in your heart be constant, unbroken. Here worship attains completeness. Life is a divine worship. May you realise the significance of the universal worship of the Virat in daily life and performing it, attain the summum bonum of life. May the Bhagwan bless you all! VISITING A HINDU MANDIR, A DIVINE PLACE OF CONCENTRATION In the Kali Yuga and in the material world of busy day-to-day life, the temple of the Bhagwan affords great opportunities for the evolution of man through concentration and devotion. The precincts of the temple are so sacred and give a peace which no other atmosphere can give. There is a divine vibration 250 in the entire area. By the constant and regular Puja during the three sessions of the day, the recitation of the Holy Vedas and chanting of specific Mantras throughout the year, the auspiciousness of the temple increases everyday and the entire atmosphere elevates the soul of man to a very great degree. The shrine in which the Murti of the Supreme Bhagwan is installed is a hallowed place which exerts a powerful spiritual influence that can transform the minds of persons into a state of higher purity. The daily worships through prayers, invocations and Abhisheka and Archana, performed at the temple, endow the whole environment with a holiness and splendour that infuses into all a feeling of reverence, piety and devotion, whenever they enter its premises. But the sanctity of the temple should be carefully maintained by observing the prescribed rules usually connected with the maintenance of places of divine worship. External and internal Saucha are both necessary in the worship of the Devata in a temple. The temple dedicated to the Archavatara of the Bhagwan is a visible representation of the body of the Virat-Purusha and the rituals of worship in the temple are objective acts expressing the whole process of spiritual Sadhana. The temple is the microcosmic embodiment of the universe indwelt by the Antaryamin, Isvara, whose worship we conduct at the sacred temple. The Bhagwan is invoked by means of the powerful Mantras of the Srutis, Smritis and Tantras and the Murti in the temple becomes a living manifestation of the force of the Divine, ready to fulfil the noble aspirations of the devout Archaka. Archana is the easiest and the safest means of cultivating the love of the Almighty, for it becomes the link between His transcendent being and the world in which the devotee is placed. The one special feature of Archana-Bhakti is that it seeks to evoke the finer forms of the religious consciousness in man through offering to God articles of devotion by means of the physical forms which are the immediate aspects of the manifestations of God-Being, revealed to the senses here. Hence Archana is the foundation on which is constructed the grand edifice of spiritual effort and realisation. It is one among the nine gems of the way in which man aspires to reach God. Worship the Bhagwan with intense faith and aspiration. The Bhagwan will surely bestow His grace upon you all. All are blessed—one who causes the temple to be built, who actually builds it, who assists in it, who is happy about it, who performs worship in it, who prostrates oneself before it with faith and adorns the Bhagwan always in one’s heart, with sincerity and love. The Bhagwan is 251 everywhere and He allows Himself to be adored at particular places on account of the supreme compassion that He has for all beings. GLORY OF PRASAD Prasad is that which gives Peace. During Kirtan, worship, Puja, Havan and Arati, Badam, Kismis, milk, sweets, fruits are offered to the Bhagwan. After offering them to the Bhagwan, they are shared between the members of the house or the Bhaktas in a temple. Puja is done by Bael leaves, flowers, Tulasi, Vibhuti and these are given as Prasad from the Bhagwan. Vibhuti is the Prasad of Bhagwan Siva. It is to be applied on the forehead. A small portion can be taken in. Kumkum is the Prasad of Sri Devi or Sakti. It is to be applied at the space between the eyebrows (Ajna or Bhrumadhya). Tulasi is the Prasad of Bhagwan Vishnu, Rama or Krishna. It is to be taken in. They are charged with mysterious powers by the chanting of the Mantras during Puja and Havan. The mental Bhava of the devotee offering Bhog to the Bhagwan has a very great effect. If an ardent devotee of the Bhagwan offers anything to the Bhagwan, that Prasad, if taken, would bring very great change even in the minds of atheists. The Grace of the Bhagwan descends through Prasad. Go through the life of Narada. You will realise the greatness of the sacred leavings of the Bhagwan as well as those of advanced Sadhakas and saints. Namdev offered rice, etc., to Panduranga Vittala and He ate the food and shared with Namdev as well. If the food is offered with a yearning heart, sometimes, the Bhagwan takes that food assuming a physical form. In other cases, the Bhagwan enjoys the subtle essence of the food offered and the food remains as it is in the shape of Prasad. While feeding Mahatmas and the poor people, that which is left behind is taken as Prasad. When a sacrifice is performed, the participants share the Prasad which bestows the blessings of the gods. When Dasaratha performed Putrakameshti (wishing for son) sacrifice, he got a vessel full of sweetened rice which he gave to his queens, by taking which they became pregnant. Prasad is the most sacred object for a devotee. One should consider himself lucky to take the Prasad and there is no restriction of any kind in taking Prasad. Time and place and the condition in which one is placed—all these do not affect him in any way. Prasad is all-purifying. The benefits of Prasad and Charanamrit are beyond description. They have the power to change entirely the outlook of a man’s life. Prasad and Charanamrit have the power to cure diseases and even bring back to life dead persons. There have been ever so many instances in the past in this holy land of ours which bear witness to the potency and efficacy of Prasad. Prasad destroys all pains and sins. It 252 is an antidote for misery, pain and anxiety. Faith is the important factor in testing the accuracy of this statement. For faithless persons it brings very little effect. Those who are brought up in modern education and culture have forgotten all about the glory of Prasad. Many English-educated persons do not attach any importance to Prasad when they get it from the Mahatma. This is a serious mistake. Prasad is a great purifier. As they are brought up in the Western style of living, they have imbibed the spirit of Westerners and forgotten the spirit of the true children of Indian Rishis of yore. Live for a week in Brindavan or Ayodhya or Benares or Pandharpur. You will realise the glory and the miraculous effects of Prasad. Many incurable diseases are cured. Many sincere devotional aspirants get wonderful spiritual experiences from mere Prasad alone. Prasad is a panacea. Prasad is a spiritual elixir. Prasad is the Grace of the Bhagwan. Prasad is a cure-all and an ideal ‘pick-me-up.’ Prasad is an embodiment of Sakti. Prasad is Divinity in manifestation. Prasad energises, vivifies, invigorates and infuses devotion. It should be taken with great faith. Prasad bestows good health, long life, peace and prosperity on all. Glory to Prasad, the bestower of Peace and Bliss! Glory to the Bhagwan of the Prasad, the giver of immortality and undying happiness! Philosophy of Sacred Hindu Symbols Bells are rung in temples and while doing Puja to shut out the external sounds and to make the mind inward and concentrated. Lights are waved before the Deity. This denotes that the Bhagwan is Jyoti Svarupa. He is all-light. The devotee says, “O Bhagwan! Thou art the self-effulgent Light of the universe. Thou art the light in the sun, moon and fire. Remove the darkness in me by bestowing your divine Light. May my intellect be illumined.” This is the significance of waving lights. Dhoop or scented sticks are burnt before the Deity. The smoke spreads in the whole room. It acts as a disinfectant. Burning of Dhoop denotes that the Bhagwan is all-pervading, that He fills the whole universe by His living presence. It is to remind this fact that Dhoop is burnt. The devotee prays, “O Bhagwan! Let the Vasanas and Samskaras dormant in me vanish like the smoke of this Dhoop and become ashes. Let me become stainless.” Burning of camphor denotes that the individual ego melts like the camphor and the Jivatman becomes one with the supreme Light of lights. 253 The pasting of sandal reminds the devotee that he should, in his difficulties, be as patient as the sandal. Sandal emanates sweet odour when it is pasted. So also the devotee should not murmur when difficulties arise, but on the other hand, remain cheerful and happy and emanates sweetness and gentleness like the sandal. He should not hate even his enemy. This is another precept we learn from this. Though the sandalwood is crushed and pasted, it silently wears out emanating only very sweet odour. One should not wish evil even to his enemy. SHIV LING – THE DIVINE SYMBOL OF SHIV The popular belief is that the Siva Lingam represents the phallus or the virile organ, the emblem of the generative power or principle in nature. This is not only a serious mistake, but a grave blunder. In the post-Vedic period, the Linga became symbolical of the generative power of Bhagwan Siva. Linga is the differentiating mark. It is certainly not the s*x mark. You will find in the Linga Purana: Pradhanam Prakriti Yadahurlingamuttamam Gandhavarnarasaiheenam Sabda-sparsadi-varjitam The foremost Lingam which is primary and is devoid of smell, colour, taste, hearing, touch, etc., is spoken of as Prakriti (Nature). Linga means “Mark” in Sanskrit. It is a symbol which points to an inference. When you see a big flood in a river, you infer that there have been heavy rains the previous day. When you see smoke, you infer that there is fire. This vast world of countless forms is a Linga of the Omnipotent Bhagwan. The Siva Linga is a symbol of Bhagwan Siva. When you look at the Linga, your mind is at once elevated and you begin to think of the Bhagwan. Bhagwan Siva is really formless. He has no form of His own and yet all forms are His forms. All forms are pervaded by Bhagwan Siva. Every form is the form or Linga of Bhagwan Siva. There is a mysterious power or indescribable Sakti in the Linga to induce concentration of the mind. Just as the mind is focussed easily in crystal gazing, so also it attains one-pointedness when it looks at the Lingam. That is the reason why the ancient Rishis of India and the seers have prescribed the Lingam for being installed in the temples of Bhagwan Siva. Siva Linga speaks to you in the unmistakable language of silence: “I am one without a second, I am formless.” Pure, pious souls only can understand this language. A curious, passionate, impure foreigner of little understanding or intelligence says sarcastically, “Oh! The Hindus worship the phallus or s*x organ. They are ignorant people. They have no philosophy.” When a foreigner tries to learn Tamil or Hindustani language, he first tries to pick up some vulgar words. This is his curiosity 254 nature. Even so, the curious foreigner tries to find out some defects in the worship of symbol. Linga is only the outward symbol of the formless being Bhagwan Siva who is the indivisible, all-pervading, eternal, auspicious, ever-pure, immortal essence of this vast universe, who is the undying soul seated in the chambers of your heart, who is your Indweller, innermost Self or Atman, and who is identical with the Supreme Brahman. Sphatikalinga is also a symbol of Bhagwan Siva. This is prescribed for Aradhana or worship of Bhagwan Siva. It is made up of quartz. It has no colour of its own but takes on the colour of the substances which come in contact with it. It represents the Nirguna Brahman or the attributeless Supreme Self or formless and attributeless Siva. For a sincere devotee, the Linga is not a block of stone. It is all radiant Tejas or Chaitanya. The Linga talks to him, makes him shed profuse tears, produces horripilation and melting of heart, raises him above body-consciousness and helps to commune with the Bhagwan and attain Nirvikalpa Samadhi. Bhagwan Rama worshipped the Siva Linga at Rameshwar. Ravana, the learned scholar, worshipped the golden Linga. What a lot of mystic Sakti there should be in the Linga! May you all attain the formless Siva through the worship of the Linga, the symbol of Bhagwan Siva which helps concentration of mind and which serves as a prop for the mind to lean upon in the beginning for the neophytes! FAITH AND IDOL WORSHIP Puran Chand’s Guru had initiated him into the Narayana Mantra and given him a small Murti (idol) of Bhagwan Narayana for worship. Puran was regular in his worship and did not omit repetition of the sacred Mantra, but there was no sign of the idol blessing him; so he went to his Guru and asked him the reason. The Guru smiled at Puran and said, “Well son, take this idol of Bhagwan Siva. I shall initiate you into the Siva Mantra. Worship Bhagwan Siva with faith and devotion. He is considered as Bhole Nath and is easily propitiable; He will bless you soon.” The next six months saw Puran Chand immersed in Japa and worship of Bhagwan Siva. The idol of Bhagwan Narayana was placed on a dusty shelf in the puja room. After many months, Puran Chand once more went to his Guru and complained that his worship of Siva had brought him no result. He begged him to give him the Murti and Mantra of a Devata that would bless him. The Guru smiled again; the time for enlightenment had come, yet he felt the disciple would learn from experience. So he said, “Good son, in this Yuga, Mother Kali is Pratyaksha Devata. Worship 255 this image of Her and repeat the Navarna Mantra and you will obtain Her Grace.” This time, Puran Chand had no misgivings whatsoever; he had full faith. Kali worship commenced; Siva joined company with Narayana on the shelf. With devotion, Puran was waving incense before the image of Mother Kali when the fumes rose up and reached the shelf where the other two idols were kept. Puran was enraged. What right had Siva to inhale the incense intended for Mother Kali? He had refused to be propitiated when he had tirelessly worshipped Him; it was Mother Kali whom he now worshipped. In great anger he took down the image of Siva in his hands and began to insert cotton wool in His nose to stop Him from inhaling the incense. Before he could accomplish his task, however, the idol disappeared and before him stood the Bhagwan, smiling in all His mercy and compassion. Speechless with wonder and amazement, Puran prostrated himself before the Bhagwan who told him to ask for any boon as He was immensely pleased with his devotion. Puran answered, “My Bhagwan, I am much perplexed. You did not deign to bless me when I devoutly worshipped You and repeated the Panchakshara Mantra for six months. But You suddenly chose to reveal yourself to me when I had discarded Your image and given up Your worship. What is this mystery, O Bhagwan?” The Bhagwan answered, “My child, there is no mystery to be explained; how could I reveal Myself when you treated Me as a mere image, as a mere piece of metal worshipped or thrown away according to your whim? Today you treated My image as a living presence when you wanted to plug the nostrils with cotton wool; thus you revealed that you recognised My living presence in the idol and I could no longer withhold Myself from you.” Speechless and enlightened, Puran bowed once more and was immersed in His Love. He could ask for no greater boon, for in His love he found fulfilment. Idol worship is the greatest asset a common person can have, because it helps in praying Bhagwan in simplest form. The establishment of conversation between Bhagwan and Bhakt is done through Idol worship. Mantras, scared chants and communication shortens the distance of connectivity with Bhagwan with the medium of Idol worship. Temples have amazing science behind their structure and conception  The purpose of visiting a temple is to take all the positive energy that gets transferred from the Earth’s surface to the human body through various mediums  The copper plate placed beneath the idol absorbs the magnetic waves and radiates it to the surroundings 256 Temples, Shrines, Holy places – places of worship have been known by many names but they all tender to one feeling- Faith. Since time immemorial, men have been arguing about whether the devotion towards the heaven above is futile or whether it holds some meaning. It’s a never-ending debate between belief and logic. This debate is best fought in India, a country known for budding science enthusiasts and age-old priests/sages, all thriving on the same piece of land. A country with many faiths each with its own unique face in the form of a shrine. A country with endless structures of age-old stone art stretched over the landscape, wherever your eyes can see. Having said that, India is also a country that gave birth to many self-proclaimed atheists in the field of science and technology (Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar, an astrophysicist) and in the field of films (John Abraham, a movie star). But what if we told you that temples, structures that symbolize faith or religion, have amazing science behind their structure and conception. Here are 6 reasons proving how faith and science can go hand in hand in the Hindu temples. Structure Temples in Andhra Pradesh (Representational Image). Image source: Wikimedia Commons Take into consideration the distribution of magnetic energy from the north and south poles and you’ll realize that temples are strategically built at the core of this positive energy from these poles. ‘Garbhagriha’-A name given to the center of a temple is an area where the idol is placed. It is also the place where earth natural magnetic waves are found to be at their peak. Account these small nuances when it comes to the structure of the temple and many questions can be answered. Strategic placement of the idol Ever wondered why your body feels a whole wave of positive energy when you stand near the idol? It’s the copper plate placed beneath the idol that absorbs the magnetic waves and radiates it to the surroundings. An idol is a representation of the God above. It’s a physical image that helps you visualize the divine and hence concentrate. Worshipping the idol helps the devotee move on to the next step and that’s mental prayers. All together this process helps a person concentrate and hence strengthen his mind. Parikrama Nandi. Image source: shilpavenkat.wordpress.com The priest tells you to take three rounds of the idol after your mental prayers. This act is known as parikrama. An idol that’s charged with positive energy radiates its energy to anything in its vicinity. 257 Therefore your three rounds rejuvenate our mind body and soul as it charges you up with positive energies. Temple bells A temple bell is not made of some ordinary metal; it’s an amalgamation of cadmium, zinc, lead, copper, nickel, chromium and manganese. The ratio in which they are combined leads it to produce a distinct sound for about seven seconds this unites the left and ride side of your brain such that the echo of the sound touches your bodies seven healing chakras. It sends your brain in a stage of the trace for microseconds and it becomes extremely receptive and aware. Ad In Hinduism blowing the Conch is associated with the sacred syllable and sound ‘Om’. This, in turn, is believed to be the sound that which brings in a new hope. With the positive energy already radiating in the temples, the sound has a more powerful impact. The purpose of visiting a temple isn’t to offer valuables to the deity; it’s to take all the positive energy that gets transferred from the Earths surface to the human body through various mediums. This rejuvenates your senses and hence compels you to spend some tine after offering prayers to make your visit rewarding. The idols represent various deities being worshiped and considered personification of the same. They help people to concentrate upon and assist in prayers and other religious activities. Whether people may agree or not, idolatry exists in every religion. For Christians it is Cross with or without Jesus, portrait of Mother Mary, etc; and for Muslims the Holy Mecca and the central enclosure containing the Holy Stone. Hinduism believe in Polytheism where they prey to every element that enable the existence of this Universe. There are 33 Principal Deities (not 33 crore as commonly believed), each representing one such element including fire, water Hinduism is a wrong word & Hinduism do not qualify for “ism” as there is neither any imposers nor any single authority who dictate the religion or activity, like Marxism Leninism etc. Hindu is a term coined by British in 1868 for adminstrative convinience to call people who are not Christians Parsis Muslims. Hindu is not a religion but a way of life and state of mind - Supreme Court of India in 1995. 258 Secondly, whatever Murti or Vigraha you see in the World being worshipped by Sanatana Dharmic faiths or in Vedantic traditions are not translatable from Sanskrit “Vigraha” to Idol. As Idol may mean p You can concentrate the rays on paper or any object.. Then the point where the rays converge gets heated and burn. Similarly you need an object to concentrate your mind. We know that God is everywhere but an idol will make it easy for us to concentrate. Hinduism is not at all strict in its teachings. Nowhere it is told that you need an idol. It is left to the devotee…He can do it in whatever way he likes. Not all but quite a good percentage of Hindus offer obeisance to idols. It is not believing in idols per se, it is believing in the concept of the Isht (personal god) that manifests through the idols. Also except the priestly class, this offering of obeisance is for a limited time duration (say morning or evening) or when someone visits a temple. Without going to the complicate details let us understand this: the latent aim of someone believing in the Sanatan Dharma is to move from the mundane to the highest purpose of life across lifetimes. In “50 Great Myths about Religions” by John Morreal and Tamara Sonn. The authors have done an excellent job in busting various myths about religions and have put all religions in a positive light. Here is what the book says about idol worship in Hinduism and I totally agree. 259 Puja is worship. The Sanskrit term puja is used in Hinduism to refer to the worship of a deity through observance of rituals including daily prayer offerings after a bath or as varied as the following:  Sandhyopasana: The meditation on God as the light of knowledge and wisdom at dawn and dusk  Aarti: Ritual of worship in which light or lamps are offered to the deities amid devotional songs and prayer chants.  Homa: The offering of oblations to the deity in a duly consecrated fire  Jagarana: Keeping vigil at night amidst much devotional singing as a part of spiritual discipline.  Upavasa: Ceremonial fasting. All these rituals for puja are a means to achieve purity of mind and focusing on the divine, which Hindus believe, can be a fitting stepping stone to knowing the Supreme Being or Brahman. Why You Need an Image or Idol for a Puja For the puja, it is important for a devotee to set an idol or icon or a picture or even symbolic holy object, such as the shivalingam, salagrama, or yantra before them to help them contemplate and revere god through the image. For most, it is difficult to concentrate and the mind keeps wavering, so the image can be considered as an actualized form of the ideal and this makes it easy to focus. According to the concept of ‘Archavatara,’ if the puja is performed with utmost devotion, during puja god descends and it is the image that houses Almighty. The Steps of Puja in the Vedic Tradition 1. Dipajvalana: Lighting the lamp and praying to it as the symbol of the deity and requesting it to burn steadily till the puja is over. 2. Guruvandana: Obeisance to one’s own guru or spiritual teacher. 3. Ganesha Vandana: Prayer to Lord Ganesha or Ganapati for the removal of obstacles to the puja. 4. Ghantanada: Ringing the bell with appropriate mantras to drive away the evil forces and welcome the gods. Ringing the bell is also necessary during ceremonial bath of the deity and offering incense etc. 5. Vedic Recitation: Reciting two Vedic mantras from Rig Veda 10.63.3 and 4.50.6 to steady the mind. 6. Mantapadhyana: Meditation on the miniature shrine structure, generally made of wood. 7. Asanamantra: Mantra for purification and steadiness of the seat of the deity. 260 8. Pranayama & Sankalpa: A short breathing exercise to purify your breath, settle and focus your mind. 9. Purification of Puja Water: Ceremonial purification of the water in the kalasa or water vessel, to make it fit for use in puja. 10. Purification of Puja Items: Filling up the sankha, conch, with that water and inviting its presiding deities such as Surya, Varuna, and Chandra, to reside in it in a subtle form and then sprinkling that water over all the articles of puja to consecrate them. 11. Sanctifying the Body: Nyasa with the Purusasukta (Rigveda 10.7.90) to invoke the presence of the deity into the image or idol and offering the upacharas. 12. Offering the Upacharas: There are a number of items to be offered and tasks to be performed before the Lord as an outpouring of love and devotion for god. These include a seat for the deity, water, flower, honey, cloth, incense, fruits, betel leaf, camphor, etc. Simple Steps of a Traditional Hindu Worship: In the Panchayatana Puja, i.e., puja to the five deities – Shiva, Devi, Vishnu, Ganesha, and Surya, one’s own family deity should be kept in the center and the other four around it in the prescribed order. 1. Bathing: Pouring water for bathing the idol, is to be done with gosrnga or the horn of a cow, for the Shiva lingam; and with sankha or conch, for Vishnu or salagrama shila. 2. Clothing & Flower Decoration: While offering cloth in puja, different types of cloth are offered to different deities as is stated in scriptural injunctions. In the daily puja, flowers can be offered instead of cloth. 3. Incense & Lamp: Dhupa or incense is offered to the feet and deepa or light is held before the face of the deity. During arati, the deepa is waved in small arcs before the deity’s face and then before the whole image. 4. Circumbulation: Pradakshina is done three times, slowly in the clockwise direction, with hands in namaskara posture. 5. Prostration: Then is the shastangapranama or prostration. The devotee lies down straight with his face facing the floor and hands stretched in namaskara above his head in the direction of the deity. 6. Distribution of Prasada: Last step is the Tirtha and Prasada, partaking of the consecrated water and food offering of the puja by all who have been a part of the puja or witnessed it. 261 The Hindu scriptures consider these rituals as the kindergarten of faith. When understood properly and performed meticulously, they lead to inner purity and concentration. When this concentration deepens, these external rituals drop off by themselves and the devotee can perform internal worship or manasapuja. Until then these rituals help a devotee on his path of worship. Let us take the instance of the Taj Mahal (Agra). While the Taj Mahal represents love and romance and the aesthetic taste of the culture, it also represents the desperate exploitation of labour, the appropriation of resources and the inequity prevalent in that culture. Architecture here simultaneously describes love and tyranny. We could perhaps think of a number of cases of such contradictory representations: the Babri Masjid of Ayodhya could be read as an account of Indian Heritage or a symbol of Hindu hatred, the Capital Complex in Chandigarh, as a sign of democratic modernism or an indication of western hegemony. Similarly the National Crafts Museum of New Delhi could be seen as a representation or assertion of Indian identity or the detachment or objectification of the Indian Folk Arts through the formal museum format; a chawl in Mumbai could represent a productive energy centre of the city or the abusive living condition of the labour (not housing but warehousing people), a slum as a celebration of entrepreneurship or urban decay. All these examples seem to suggest that each symbol can simultaneously denote not only different but contradicting meanings. On the other hand we could also identify how various contradictory symbols suggest similar meanings: the Hiranandani Complex (Mumbai) malls with Greek columns and pediments and the high-tech glass and steel shopping centre of Gurgaon near Delhi, both suggest the existence and growth of the same consumer middle class. The new Jain temples in Mumbai that employ traditional materials and processes, the Bahai Temple in Delhi designed as a high-tech shell structure and the Radha Parthasarathi Temple in New Delhi, experimenting with reinforced concrete, all suggest a kind of religious fundamentalism that supports cutting edge and expensive building processes. Similarly, the legislative assembly of Bangalore with its traditional and classical symbols, the assembly of Mumbai with an imposing modern form and the assembly of Bhopal that borrows symbols from ancient history, all represent the same seat of power, that of the state authority. To complicate things further, it is extremely difficult to find any relations between formal abstractions and identity. For example a monumental scale does not necessarily indicate and impose power. The Red Fort (Delhi) in all its might today is one of the most accessible places; the pristine 262 arcades of the Fort area in Mumbai today harbour a large informal industry. These places no longer represent an Empire. They no longer exert power (like Bataille’s monuments) or are symbols of colonization – their symbolism has been inverted, converted and internalized. From these examples we could possibly conclude that the relationship between a symbol and identity is a construction of the architectural theorist and hence it is misleading to discuss the issue of identity solely through the discourse of the symbol. 1.2. The Idea of the Local in architecture Our literature review shows that the term ‘Local’ is the second most important idea through which the issue of identity is discussed. Here all concerns seem to hinge around and oscillate between the need to assert the local and a desire to embrace the extra-local (international, global, western etc.). “The search for roots” and “looking ahead in time” are the two respective positions that get articulated through this concern. Often buildings are conveniently bracketed into themes like “nationalist”, “regionalist” etc. to very clearly distinguish from the other “internationalist” or “global” ones. Beyond both these positions, is another position that aims at “looking at real problems, rather then self-consciously trying to find identity as an end in itself” (Correa, 1983). This position attempts to locate the local in specific issues such as climate, behaviour etc. rather than leaning on oversimplifications of history and progress. In discussions that focus on the binary understanding of nationalist/internationalist or regional/global, this new category viz. “Critical regionalism” (Frampton,1985) seeks “contextual inspiration” while simultaneously celebrating the “progressive modern”. Fredrick Jameson’s (1994) criticism of Frampton’s “Critical Regionalism” begins to articulate the perceived difference in the various positions on the local, where he suggests that the search for the local (whether in history, progress or climate) itself may be a product of the global multinational capitalism. Jameson tries to suggest that all these positions are actually the functions of the market and in that sense not too different at all. Let us now examine the power of architecture to produce a sense of local, if any. Here the cases dealing with “constructing the nation” through architectural explorations, become particularly important. The three capital cities of New Delhi, Chandigarh and Bangalore are invariably cited as instances of the state’s attempts at manufacturing a sense of authority (Lang, Desai and Desai, 1997), a sense of modernity (Lang, Desai and Desai, 1997; Bhat and Scriver, 1990 Curtis, 1985; Kalia, 263 1987) and a sense of tradition (Lang, 2002, Bahga, Bahga and Bahga, 1993) respectively amongst its subjects. Revisiting these sites, one fails to observe any traces of ‘authority’, ‘modernity’ and ‘tradition’ in the public realm. On the contrary exactly opposite accounts are available. While New Delhi is known for the misbehaviour and non-performance of the public service sector, Chandigarh still remains a feudal city (Correa, 1987) of Babus[1] without public transportation and Bangalore on the other hand looks like the most progressive city experimenting with Public Private Partnerships and being recognised as India’s Silicon Valley. Architecture here seems too meagre a phenomenon to influence the manner in which nationalism is imagined, experienced and executed. On the other hand, Eric Hobsbawm (1990) theoretically articulates how state impositions cannot be considered as identity at all: “First, official ideologies of states and movements are not guides to what is in the minds of even the most loyal citizens or supporters. Second, and more specifically, we cannot assume that for most people national identification – when it exists – excludes or is always or ever superior to, the remainder of the set of identifications, which constitute the social being. In fact, it is always combined with identifications of another kind, even when it is felt to be superior to them. Thirdly, national identification and what it is believed to imply, can change and shift in time, even in the course of quite short periods. In my judgment this is the area of national studies in which, thinking and research are most urgently needed today”. (Hobsbawm, 1990) Several post-colonial theories on the sub-national (including people from various diverse regions within the same nation), the subaltern (including people who are generally classified as the minority groups determined through race, religion, caste, class etc) and the trans-national (including people belonging to a certain nationality, but living in other countries) identities challenge the grand unifying concept whereby a nation defines the identity of its people. But more importantly these theories situate the identity issue in the political realm rather than in the aesthetics. Let us further consider the attempts to claim an overtly local identity through the examples of some institutions. We could consider three cases: the National Crafts Museum in New Delhi, the Jodhpur University Complex and the Centre for Development Studies in Tiruanathapuram. All three institutions utilise local processes and materials to develop their architecture. Moreover, they also attempt to recreate physical scales, symbols and spaces that one would experience in the Indian village or a pre-colonial town. But the question that still remains is whether this process of engaging images to represent the past of the locale makes these institutions more local than the others. The first 264 contention, as we understand, is that there has been never a museum, a university and an international institute in an Indian village. The contexts of the village never produced such a programme. Such programmes seem to be a product of an extremely centralised state aspiring to develop institutions to represent its concerns. Delving deeper into the production of these buildings, we find that these were all state projects that were initiated during the years of political emergency[2] Nehru’s Modern[3] project was being challenged and a quest for regional identities was developing (Chatterjee, 1997). This was also the time when a number of regional parties in India developed after the intense centralisation imposed by Indira Gandhi (Chatterjee, 1997) – all asserting regional identities and in the process building and reinforcing localized constituencies. In such a political environment, then it is obvious that the state would support projects that asserted a high degree of regionalism. In the above examples, architecture uses extreme symbolism to execute such visions of the state. However, inspite of their claims of a search for a regional identity, the National Crafts Museum remains as much a museum objectifying the village cultures, the Jodhpur University also reflects its education mandate and purpose like any other university in India and the Centre for Development Studies undertakes the best political and cultural studies on par with any International Institute. The question then is for whom is the regional identity created? Or what effects are expected (both within and outside the profession of architects) after such attempts are made? We could identify several writings that suggest attempts to create a nationalist or a regionalist identity (Lang, Desai and Desai, 1997; Bhat and Scriver, 1990; Curtis, 1985; Lang, 2002). But to find writings that undertake the task of examining whether the respective buildings actually manifest any notion of identity is extremely rare! While the discourse of the local against global has been a favourite amongst architectural theorists, the paper argues that these theoretical explorations remain far from being adequate in representing the constituencies central to these theoretical writings. The exact relation between architecture and identity remains undiscovered. The power of architecture to represent the ‘local’ requires a thorough re-examining. 2. LOCATING THE NOTION OF IDENTITY The arguments in the earlier section question the relationship between architecture and identity. Perhaps a more thorough investigation of the concept of “identity” is crucial in order, to establish such a link. The complexity and ambiguity of the term “identity” can be clarified through the question: “what is one’s/your/my/our/its/their identity? Often burdened adjectives like Brahmin, rich, Indian, Punjabi, male, NRI[4], urban, global etc. are used to answer this. Sometimes even more 265 opaque adjectives like traditional, folk, contemporary, progressive, orthodox, classical etc summarise the answer. The problems with these adjectives are that they themselves are summations for a complex cultural subjectivity, which might have several layers of contradicting description. For example, the term Brahmin could be described as the priest community, the Indian upper caste, the knowledge bearing community, the enlightened community, the power holders, the exploitative feudal lords etc. The rendering of the particular description depends upon the intentions of the describer. Hence the adjective itself does not have a clear definition. The problem of deciphering identity becomes more acute when more than one such adjective is used to describe identity. In fact, asking such questions or answering the question in such adjectives suggests a very essentialist understanding of the concept which does not grasp the complexity and the process crucial to the production of identities (Hall, 1996). In order to understand the issue of identity in its complexity one would also have to make a few theoretical clarifications on the question of identity. The first one deals with the issue of it being an imagined concept. Benedict Anderson (1985) suggests: “Communities are to be distinguished, not by their falsity/genuineness, but by the style in which they are imagined”. The imagination of identity becomes the backbone for the making of the community itself. “Perhaps instead of thinking of identity as an already accomplished fact, which the new cultural practices then represent, we should think, instead, of identity as a “production” which is never complete, always in process, and always constituted within, not outside, representation” (Hall, 1998). Here we embark on the second theoretical clarification of identity being an evolving process rather than a fixed entity. Thus, it is evident that identities are not static or predefined but “infinitely malleable” (Woodward, 1997). Echoing this notion, and enlarging it further is Appudarai’s (1996) thesis of the ‘production of locality’: “I want to unsettle the idea of the local as somehow given, and draw attention to the fact that any form of local social life requires agency, purpose, vision, design. The local is as much a process and a project as anything else”. Lastly one needs to ask why we are asking this question at all. A. G. K. Menon (1989) suspects that the need to assert a local identity is related to the recent political history in India characterised by “the rise of cultural fundamentalism and communalism” (Menon 1989). So also in the context of this research project and questions raised in its brief[5] (where five post-colonial contexts are under study, four of which representing the third-world), the issue of the local versus the global become a central 266 theme. The most important question seems to be: How do countries from the other (non-west) contexts represent their identities? And all of this is to be discussed in a platform created in the west. We aim at foregrounding the whole issue of identity being an entity for global consumption just as it could be a vehicle for fundamentalist construction of nationhood. Homi Bhabha (1994) summarises the complexity of the concept: “Each time the encounter with identity occurs at the point which something exceeds the frame of the image, it eludes the eye, evacuates the self as a site of identity and autonomy and – most importantleaves a resistant trace, a stain of the subject, a sign of resistance. We are no longer confronted with an ontological problem of being but with a discursive strategy of the moment of interrogation, a moment in which the demand for identification becomes, primarily, a response to other questions of signification and desire, culture and politics.” (Bhabha, 1994) The above theoretical articulations allow us to relocate the notion of identity beyond the discourses of ‘symbol’ and the ‘local’ into a larger cultural space. Henry Lefebvre’s (1991) views on the “production” of space are of utmost relevance here to describe the cultural space. He sees different forms of cultural construction as central to the production of space – principally in terms of class, but also gender, ethnicity, sexuality, family relations and age. He suggests: “space as a historical production, at once the medium and outcome of social being. It is not a theatre or a setting but a social production, a concrete abstraction, simultaneously mental and material, work and product – such that social relations have no real existence except in and through space” (Lefebvre, 1991). The paper argues that – it is in such a cultural space that identity is imagined, nurtured as a process, and values are associated to it. Identity is further used to manipulate such a space. Identity, being produced by a culture space, becomes an agent to reproduce it. 3. THE IDEA OF CULTURAL LANDSCAPE The earlier section locates the notion of identity in a larger realm of the cultural space. In this section we would explore the idea of the cultural space to articulate a framework for analysis of architecture to deal with the identity issue. One of the first deconstructions required for such an analysis is regarding the position of “urban professionals such as planners and architects who believe themselves to be democratic negotiators, community advocates, neutral social scientists, exponents of the beautiful and masterful shapers of space” (Borden, Rendell, Kerr and Pivaro, 2002). However they seem to act only as part of a much broader cultural space, which is governed by “deeper systems of power, economics and signification” 267 (Borden, Rendell, Kerr and Pivaro, 2002). And in such larger and deeper systems, architecture and architects remain too feeble to create or manipulate identity. To construct an understanding of identity, perhaps there is a need to broaden the perspective from looking at architects and architectural form to a larger cultural landscape. To develop the idea of the cultural landscape, Edward Soja’s formulations are significant. He articulates a critique of the architectural discipline’s vision of the city as a “collection of separate cells with built environment compacted together to form an urban mass” (Soja, 2002). His critique exhorts the architectural community to understand “a radically different large scale spatial or regional vision of the city as an expansive urban system of movement and flows of goods being produced and people living not just in built environments but in constructed geographies characterized by different patterns of income, unemployment, education levels, ethnic and racial cultures, housing and job densities etc.” (Soja, 2002) Soja advises architects to “think and work at the regional scale because it provides a very important entry point into the heart of what has been reshaping our cities” (Soja, 2002). This, in Soja’s words, will stir the architect away from “wild gropings into vague new concepts that may sound flashy and appealing but don’t necessarily lead us anywhere” (Soja 2002). It is the notion of the “regional” in Soja’s writing that we adapt here towards formulating the idea of the cultural landscape which allows us not only a much broader investigations into the various contexts of architectural intervention, but also elopes from the restrictions and connotations of the terms – space, region and the city. The first formulation towards constructing the new framework using the idea of cultural landscape is to shift the analysis of architecture from a focus on buildings to a reading of landscapes. To illustrate this shift in the analysis of architecture, let us consider the case of housing development in Mumbai during early twentieth century. We find a number of accounts (Alff, 1991, Dalvi, 2000, Iyer, 2000) describing these developments as Art Deco explorations and a birth of Modern Bombay. These accounts elaborately document certain buildings that embody these Art Deco characteristics. It is through such an identification of the Art Deco, the idea the “Modern” identity is constructed (Alff, 1991, Dalvi, 2000). The reading of the larger landscape however would lead to the construction of a completely different scenario. The development of housing in the 1920’s was undertaken by the city administration, which brought two new concepts to India: the apartment type and the garden township. An investigation into history indicates that during the 1920’s the status of the city was shifting from being a market place and an industrial centre towards becoming an administrative and financial capital for the region where the English educated Indian bureaucrats (Babus) were 268 demanding a European lifestyle. It was for this group, that the apartment type and garden townships were built. If we were to further describe the landscape of these townships, we find a number of slum quarters developing on the edges of these settlements to serve the new apartments. The continuing feudalism is evident when we find at least one maidservant in each of the houses. Thus through this reading, the landscape is not modern as the building centric view seems to suggest – rather it is unequally modern! The case of early twentieth century housing in Mumbai effectively shows how when we shift the framework from buildings to landscape, the notion of describing identity through the adjective of “Modern” collapses and it is displaced by a new construction of Bombay during the 1920’s – that which harboured and supported indigenous feudal and thus not “Modern” as we would conventionally understand the term. The second formulation in developing the new framework is a shift from focusing on forms to understanding of types. Aldo Rossi (1984) employed the notion of type to understand landscapes (Rossi was referring specifically to urban landscapes). The conception of type is useful not only as a “repetitive typical” (Rossi, 1984) that constructs and (hence) represents the landscape, but also as a “typology” that informs substantially the behavioural pattern that gets imposed by the type. This subsequently elaborates the contexts of the architectural production and the issue of identity. The useful examples here would be the development of large institutions in India during British colonisation like the Victoria and Albert Museum (Calcutta), the Municipal Corporation Building (Bombay), the Muir College (Allahabad), the High Court Building (Bombay) etc. These buildings are often described through elaborate documentation and analysis of their elements and forms (Tillotson, 1989). Further, genealogies of these forms are traced and terms like Indo-Saracenic, Gothic Revival and Vernacular Architecture are manufactured to facilitate their descriptions and origins. This then becomes the basis to describe the newly forming unique “Indian” identity that attempts to localise traditional Indian or European forms to create its own distinct architecture. But if we shift the framework from looking at forms to looking at types, a very different picture of these institutions emerges. The type of institutions during the colonial period speaks specifically of a fundamentally different kind of organisation in education, governance, justice etc. The elaborate arcades of the courts and the educational institutions, the large gathering space within the museum, the clearly demarcated bureaucratic capsules in the administration buildings indicate a distinct shift in the form of the government that wanted a change in the power distribution. The idea of the Public Space was getting formed through these building types. One clearly notes the immense pressure the 269 colonial government would have been under from groups demanding political freedom. These were types, perhaps introduced to legitimise the colonial rule. The case of institutions that were created after independence like the Gandhi Smarakh Ashram (Ahmedabad), Indian Institute of Technology (Kanpur), Jodhpur University (Jodhpur) etc would also be illustrative to describe the shift from form to type. Accounts of these institutions largely speak about the negotiation of the “Indian outdoor space” and “modern form” for creation of a “Modern Indian” identity (Bhat and Scriver, 1990, Bahga, Bahga and Bahga, 1993, Lang, Desai and Desai, 1997). The shift in the analysis from form to type would however focus on the campus type built for a completely new set of programmes and sponsored by the state. Here again a new type is developed for a context of a new nation with very clear state intentions towards developing generous campus environments dedicated for education and research. Nothing specifically is Indian (as there was never any context for such institutions in India earlier) except for the symbolism. The state obviously is at the centre of power here aiming to manipulate its citizens for the projection and representation of a stronger nation. We can also see how the state is forced to share this power and form a different opinion regarding itself. The type-based analysis allows to distinctively move away from reductionist notions of identity that are explained through adjectives of “Colonial” or “Indian”. It is now able to specifically focus on the changes in behavioural pattern that the type enforces, like the public access to government in the case of colonial institutions and the generous education environment in the institutions built after independence. And through the understanding of this shift in the behavioural pattern we could throw some light on the complex identity issue. The third formulation in the development of the framework takes off from our earlier section: “Myth of the Local” where the geographic region becomes the most important basis to establish the local. The notions of Rajasthani architecture or Gujarati architecture or even Indian architecture are formed on the ideas of the locale that get generated along geographic regions. In the assertion of identity, architecture seldom is able to represent a geographic region, but rather more accurately represents a cultural community, which might get identified due to a sharing of common social, political or economical backgrounds. Leo van den Berg’s (1987) conceptualisation of the urban landscapes as a function of spatial behaviour of its actors becomes central to this argument. Many theorists have significantly contributed to this conceptualisation of landscapes as a function of its actors (Latour, 1999 and Law, 1999 Bunschoten, 2001). The earlier example of Bombay’s housing type in early twentieth century clearly indicates that the development of this type had nothing to do with the geography of Mumbai, but actually was the 270 function of the new economic community of Babus. Similarly the cases of institutions in colonial and independent India inform us on the changing role of the state and the power redistribution amongst the citizens rather than the specific geographic locations where the institutions are built. The analytical shift of associating an architectural product from a geographic region to cultural actors could be best demonstrated with comparing the two works of the same architect: National Crafts Museum (New Delhi) and Bharat Bhavan (Bhopal). Both of these were state projects and were designed around the same time with a similar programme for a museum. The two projects however have a distinctly different expression: while National Crafts Museum has an overt display of the Indian Folk objects quoted for their “Indian identity” (Khan, 1984), Bharat Bhavan is an example of the campus type well carved in the contours of the landscape without any distinct elements of traditional Indian architecture, but with ample spaces for discussions, experimental arts and research. When we investigate the specific actors involved in the project, we find that the two projects were influenced by two different actors: Jyotindra Jain and Jagdish Swaminathan respectively. Very clearly, the intentions of the two actors are seen in these projects where, Jain advocates the display of traditional Indian Art as museum objects and Swaminathan remains preoccupied with providing spaces for all kinds of artists in a museum space. The actor analysis aims at understanding the architectural production as a function of the interests of the various actors involved. The issue of identity could be filtered through such an understanding. While Jain’s National Arts and Crafts Museum clearly aims at forcing an Indian Identity on its people through high objectification of the Indian folk, Swaminathan’s Bharat Bhavan seeks to provide spaces for legitimising Indian Art Practices as contemporary art. REFERENCES ARCHITECTURE & CONTEMPORARY INDIAN IDENTITY-Rupali Gupte, Rahul Mehrotra and Prasad Shetty, December 2004https://bardstudio.in/architecture-and-contemporary-indian-identity/ 271 CHAPTER XI Lighting in ancient Temples “More and more, so it seems to me, light is the beautifier of the building.” -Frank Lloyd Wright The ancient scriptures and the religious beliefs have dictated the architecture of the Hindu temples which were built not only as monuments providing shelter to the religious symbols and the worshippers, but as the cosmos itself( See Chapter in this book). Evolving from a cave, onto a hut or a modest abode of timber, the temple gradually developed into a substantial structure embellished with decorative moldings and ornaments and meaningful sculptures. The use of the giant grid or square as the basic unit in Indian temple architecture was chiefly a matter of religious significance it was the ground plan of all well planned temples. Each of the squares was thought to be the abode of a deity, and the location of the square within the ground plan accorded with the importance attached to the deity. East west facing temple According to the Vastupurushamandala,( see chapter before) which is the diagram of the Hindu Temple’s program, as well as its metaphysical plan, the Vastu (signifies residence) was a place of adjustments of the solar and lunar cycles for placement of the deities.The 32 divinities (padadevatas) in the square borders include the regents of the cardinal points and the 28 stars 272 (nakshtras).The black square in the center, the garbhagriha (the womb chamber), is the location of the central shrine, the place for the main deity, the seat of Brahman (one of the chief Indian Gods, known as the creator of all living beings) In the center of the temple is the womb where the diety resides and nothing should distract devotees senses, including vision, so it was felt.Therefore, this innermost sanctum of the temple is shrouded in total darkness and the progression into the temple is a ritual movement where the devotee goes through the dynamic experience of the darkening spaces before reaching the darkest sacred chamber. This journey is both spiritual and physiological. The treatment of light ensures that by the time the pilgrim reaches the innermost chamber (garbhagriha) his/her eyes slowly become accustomed to the darkness and his/her state of mind befitting worship and is no longer plagued by worldly thoughts. During this procession, one passes through many doorways, colonnaded halls and corridors, which are decorated with sacred carvings.These sacred symbols have a profound impact on the mind of the devotee; they simulate the mystery that envelops the universe and the divine spirit that illumines the universe . Reaching the holy sanctum, the worshipper enters a place for individual selfrealization and personal relation with the divine.Thus, along the two previously mentioned premises the design of the Hindu Temple accommodated the faith, creating a procession toward the “holy darkness” that enhanced the spiritual experience. 1 & 2 Oil Lamps too: There is a deeper significance to the diya. The oil in the diya symbolises the dirt in the human mind — such as greed, jealousy, hatred, lust etc — which human beings tend to nurture. The cotton in the diya is symbolic of the atma or the self or the soul. The diya presents light when the oil is burnt by the wick. Hence, lighting of the diyas signifies that one needs to get rid of the selfish and materialistic thoughts. This frees one from all forms of sadness, guiding the path to enlightenment and to connect with the Supreme Being On Diwali people light millions of diyas. These beautiful diyas hold a deep significance and are symbolic of our journey to enlightenment. In India, almost every household has a custom of lighting a deepam or diya( Open Oil lamp with wick) twice a day — in the morning and evening. This is a part of prayer. All ceremonies, daily worship rituals, auspicious functions, religious 273 occasions as well as new ventures start with lightning of the lamp. Diya is essential in Hinduism because it signifies purity, goodness, good luck and power. The presence of light means the non- existence of darkness and evil forces. According to the Hindu faith, the rising sun is worshipped before beginning the rituals for the residing deity of the temple. ... These finding support the notion of a procession from the lit entrance toward darkness as dictated by the faith. Light is an integral part of the religious ethos of Hinduism- and not necessarily electric light because a few years ago there was’nt any in India and also before tht anywhere else. I remember spending my childhood studying under an oil lamp preparing for my exams; until the Nagpur Light and Power Co. Pvt Ltd was started by Mr. DPR Cassad in 1954 to provide electricity to the city( not the entire one). Since, Diwali is celebrated on the new moon day when there is supreme darkness everywhere; people light millions of lamps to get rid of the darkness. It is believed that evil spirits and forces gain power and become active when there is no light. So diyas are lit in every corner of the house to weaken those evil forces. Significance of diyas The oil in the diya symbolises negatives in the human mind. The wick is symbolic of the atma. Lighting of diyas signifies getting rid of selfish thoughts. In India, almost every household has a custom of lighting a deepam or diya twice a day — in the morning an evening. This is a part of prayer. All ceremonies, daily worship rituals, auspicious functions, religious occasions as well as new ventures start with lightning of the lamp. Diya is essential in Hinduism because it signifies purity, goodness, good luck and power. The presence of light means the non-existence of darkness and evil forces. Since, Diwali is celebrated on the new moon day when there is supreme darkness everywhere; people light millions of lamps to get rid of the darkness. It is believed that evil spirits and forces gain power and become active when there is no light. So diyas are lit in every corner of the house to weaken those evil forces. During the foundation stone laying ceremony of the most important temple in the world for hindus0 the Ram Janmabhoomi Temple at Ayodhya, Ayodhya the city in Uttar Pradesh had its every street illuminated with earthen lamps ahead of the foundation stone laying ceremony. 274 Diyas were also lit on the banks of Saryu river as part of the 'deepotsava' celebrations in the temple town which will see Prime Minister Narendra Modi and other dignitaries arrive today for the 'bhoomi pujan' ceremony of the Ram Temple.The entire Ayodhya has been decked up and massive preparations have been made for this occasion with a festive air.Earlier chief minister Yogi Adityanath had said that 11,000 diyas will be lit at Ram Ki Paidi on the banks of the Saryu river and that all houses and temples in Ayodhya will be celebrating with a 'deepotsava' (festival of lights) on the nights of August 4 and 5.Adityanath burst firecrackers and lit earthen lamps at his official residence on in Lucknow as part of 'deepotsava'. The construction work of Ram temple will begin after the foundation stone laying ceremony, in which dignitaries from various political and religious fields have been invited to participate.Apart from Ayodhya other cities in like Kanpur were also illuminated to celebrate the grand event. Vishva Hindu Parishad (VHP) workers light earthen lamps in the city, as part of 'deepotsava'.Chief Minister's residence in Uttarakhand will be decorated with 5100 diyas filled with Ghee on Wednesday evening to celebrate the occasion of the 'bhoomi pujan' of the Ram Temple in Ayodhya today by Prime Minister Narendra Modi. Uttrakhand Chief Minister Trivendra Singh Rawat has said that Lord Ram Temple being built in Ayodhya is associated with "our belief". He also appealed to people in the state to light diyas at their homes on the occasion. Earthen lamps were lit at Ujjain's Mahakaleshwar Temple in Madhya Pradesh and in Punjab too people lit lamps as part of 'deepotsava'. Prime Minister Narendra Modi will perform 'pooja' at Hanumangarhi and Shree Ramlala Virajman before performing 'bhoomi pujan' of the Ram Temple in Ayodhya on Wednesday, informed Prime Minister's Office (PMO) on Tuesday. Hindu Temples Are Not All Alike Ideally, temples (often called mandirs) are built in accordance with the ancient scriptures, planned out by skilled Indian architects to resemble the traditional styles found in India. This ideal temple has certain features: 1) a central sanctum enshrines the main Deity; 2) other Deities in the pantheon are represented by murtis in secondary sanctums or shrines; 3) the structure has no basement; 4) cultural and social activities are provided for in separate facilities, not in the main area dedicated for worship; 5) trained, ordained priests perform a daily regimen of pujas (others do not enter the shrines); 6) the temple openly represents a particular denomination of Hinduism and a specific lineage of teaching and liturgy. While these principles are well known among the thousands of communities of Hindus around the world, the reality is that each temple comes up in it own way, organically, with the above ideals flexing with the exigencies of the day, the resources and often mixed geographical background of the constituents. Hence, we now have a vast variety of temples, particularly outside India, each serving the needs of its 275 community as a center of worship, culture, community service and spiritual fellowship. Every temple is unique. Agamic temples provide elaborate pujas several times per day. The main Deities are in distinct, prominent sanctums. Individuals come and go at any time and worship privately or as a family. Other temples may be structured as a simple hall with a stage in front, and Deities on pedestals usually around the perimeter of the room. The style of worship here is often congregational, with temple members gathering at a set time for a structured service conducted by a priest or elder. In some mandirs devotees may do a simple puja themselves. Services may include some form of teaching, such as a lecture by a swami or lay leader, and devotional singing or dramatic readings from the epics, Ramayana and Mahabharata. Light is the soul of architecture design. Light allows us to see, to know where we are and what around us. Beyond exposing things to view and feel, light models those objects to enhance visual and to help us define the physical world. Nothing would be visible without light, light also makes it possible to express and show to the mind’s eye things that eludes the physical one. Light helps us redefine the relationships of people with the environment and with themselves. It is divided into natural light and artificial light. Natural light is a gift of nature. Civilized man learns to use artificial light sources which free him from total dependence on daylight, we also learn to appreciate the value of daylight and become aware of its special advantages. Ancient Architects of temples knew that light controls people’s behavior and emotions. It can make people even happier. When people design light for space they need to put in position of people working in that space. Even lighting seems very functional “Space and light and order. Those are the things that men need just as much as they need bread or a place to sleep” -Le Corbusier, August27, 1965 276 They explored daylight as an element of form making in architecture. Temples have used the natural light effect in buildings to create a specific atmosphere. Light and different shadows casted give a sense of motion. Shadows create drama and emphasize light and moving forms that depend on a source of light for their stability. As the sun makes its daily transit from east to west, shadows convey sense of time. Daylight is inextricably linked with windows.Most of the temple designs use different elements to work with light in the space to create different atmospheres.Natural light provides us with the means to show spaces and volumes and interact with our environment to make people enjoy the space. Throughout time sacred monuments have provided spaces to facilitate a dialogue between man and God. The simplicity and the functional character of the monuments as well as the deliberate arrangement of architectural elements helped to create a holy atmosphere through the manipulation of light. Techniques such as light reflected front the walls creating mysterious shadows, subdued light filtering through the openings, light used as a focal point, etc. were some of the ways that natural light was used to represent itself as a fundamental connection to god. Thus, natural light was used as an important part of religious symbolism. Though light has been such an important element in the design of sacred monuments, not much has been written on the subject. 1The findingsofthis thesis supported the ritualprocession towardthe “holy darkness”, or how light/darkness could dramatize the spiritual experience in the sacred spaces of the temple.The temple interiors were designed to be dark so the human eye is not distracted by the material world to let the mind enter the spiritual world of God. As seen in the Brihadeshvara Temple, natural light is introduced in a progressive light quality from brightness to darkness accommodating the ritual movement of the worshiper, and adjusting his/her eyes. Historic design of this spiritual experience complies with the current IES four major principles of lighting design in houses of worship.The Temple’s light/darkness combine task lighting (functional), accent lighting (spiritual), architectural lighting (functional and spiritual), and celebration light (spiritual). Spiritualstateand affects the mood of the user in the sacred space. Faith dictates the treatmentoflight/darkness in thesacredsettingas means to enhancethe spiritual experience.The simulated values whencompared to the Illuminating Engineering Society(IES) standards demonstratedthat digitizedsimulationscan illustratethesignificanceof light/darkness in sacred settings as a spiritual experience. Even if there are differences in the building size and techniques in each of the three 277 Hindu temples, on the whole the quality of light inside the structure did not undergo much change. Also though there was significant progress in the technology of lighting design from the 8th century to the 11th century, due to the changes in the political scenario, there as no further progress in this aspect of south Indian temple design from the 12th century AD onwards. Hindu religious requirement was for light. The sculptor and the architect were often one and the same person very often in India and it would be highly misleading to treat sculpture and architecture separately. As a matter of fact, sculpture was introduced as a decorative element over the facade on outer walls of a temple. The author of the above research found in the Sanchi temple of about the 5th century that very simple the structure with bare and undecorated the walls areare made more legant by providing a variety of perforated screen windows and thus some variation are introduced by about the middle of the 5th century and about a 100 years later in the Durga temple at Aihole, sculpture were added at the base of the pillar round theverandah and gradually in the Vaitala Deul, datable to about the beginning of the 7th century, the sculptor has made rich use of the niches in the ribbon like projections to embellish and decorate the temple. Natural light is a powerful architectural tool. As the importance of sustainable design grows, passive strategies like daylighting have become critical in reducing the impact of the built environment. Additionally, research in the last decade has shown daylighting to have significant health and wellness benefits for users. Today, we have more tools than ever to harness daylight. From innovative reflective materials to advanced computer modeling, architects are using modern technology to light buildings more efficiently. When you embrace these systems, you’ll create a brighter future What is Passive Daylighting? Passive daylighting strategies promote the quantity and even distribution of daylight throughout a building by collecting natural light and reflecting itt into darker areas of the building. What makes this a “passive” strategy is that the design elements do not require any special mechanical equipment or energy sources. As soon as the sun rises, the passive daylighting strategies collect and reflect light throughout the building. Architects use windows, skylights, clear doors, light tubes, mirrors, light shelves and other reflective surfaces to collect and direct light to key areas in the room. For example, if a waiting area is located in a dark corner with no nearby windows, architects can redirect light from other well-lit parts of the room using passive reflecting elements. 278 Meenakshi Amman Temple Madurai This type of system is incredibly beneficial both for building owners and for visitors. You’ll use less energy to keep the building lit during the day. This, in turn, could save you money and help you reach sustainability and renewability goals.This is what natural lighting does: It improves  Mood Employee and visitor satisfaction Student performance and learning Healing (especially in hospital environments) Productivity Cognitive function Circadian rhythms 279 Passive Daylighting Strategies Every temple building is different, which is why architects customizd passive daylighting strategies based on the building’s location and its intended use. The goal of daylighting was to collect enough daylight in the summer and also keep the visibility and heat of the structure up during rains and winter. Today we can think of a few design elements that architects use to bring in as much natural daylight as possible: Building orientation. Light direction is important. Light that comes from the south is usually best for daylighting as sunlight is consistent throughout the day and year. This orientation can also be used for solar heat gain. Light that comes from the north is the next best, as the sunlight is as consistent as the south, just in a lower quantity. Light that comes from the east and west should be avoided if possible. Sunlight at these orientations is harsh, it only occurs during half the day, and the height of the sun changes throughout the year, making sunlight harder to control. Temples were designed we assume to enable the most daylight (like front entrances) face north or south, while rooms that require less daylight (like storage rooms) face east or west. Windows. To bring as much light into the building as possible, architects use windows with tall head heights. They can also use uniform windows across a façade to light the space evenly angle. Skylights. Skylights allow daylight to enter from above, which is useful in spaces at the center of the building where light from windows can’t reach. As with windows, 280 uniform skylight spacing results in uniform lighting. Architects can also place skylights high above the floor, allowing the light to diffuse before it reaches the ground. Windows that are high above eye level, or clerestories, can light up an entire room. Architects usually combine clerestories with a reflective roof material or paint. The light enters through the clerestories and reflects off the roof, spreading very diffuse light around the room below. External Shading Systems. At certain times of the day at each orientation, the light will be too bright and may produce a strong glare inside the building. To prevent this, architects design custom external shading systems to protect windows and other transparent openings. These systems usually include a combination of horizontal and vertical elements, but vary depending on the geographical location, climate, and building orientation. Light shelves. A reflective horizontal shelf placed above windows reduces glare and directs light deeper into the space. Solar tubes. These channel sunlight from the roof through a narrow opening. During the day, they loo like ordinary ceiling lamps, but they are powered by the sun rather than electricity. These work well when placed directly above desks, where people need plenty of light. Light wall colors. Light, reflective paint helps light to bounce around the room and makes the space feel brighter. Parametric modeling, daylight simulation, and artificial intelligence (AI). Modern architecture firms use parametric software to generate optimized daylighting strategies for buildings. Daylight simulation software analyzes the building geometry and calculates the anticipated daylighting levels throughout 281 the building at any given time of year. AI is the latest development, and its potential yet to be seen, but it is capable of synthesizing massive data sets in seconds to automatically generate a solution, then learn from the solution to create a more efficient solution. Architects often use a combination of these strategies to maximize natural light in a space 1. The building features a central atrium that connects the interior and exterior spaces. 2. Maximize exterior windows on the north and south orientation. 3. Create custom external shading system to prevents glare and unwanted Passive daylighting systems will continue to play a key role in architecture well into the future. When a temple design embraces natural light, it will foster better environmental stewardship and encourage t he visitors to lead a enhanced spiritual and healthy experience. 282 Details of Shikhara Stone masonary of a modern Hindu temple 283 Six Secrets About Temple Worship that depend on natural or artificial light 1. One God, Many Gods In the Hindu pantheon there are said to be 330 million Gods. Even so, all Hindus believe in one Supreme Being who pervades the entire universe. The many Gods are perceived as divine creations of that one Being. These Gods, or Mahadevas, are real beings, capable of thought and feeling beyond the limited thought and feeling of embodied man. So, Hinduism has one God, but it has many Gods. There are only a few of these Gods for whom temples are built and pujas conducted. Ganesha, Siva, Subramaniam, Vishnu and Shakti are the most prominent Deities in contemporary Hinduism. Of course, there are many others for whom certain rites or mantras are done in daily ceremony, often in the home shrine. These include Brahma, Surya, Sarasvati, Lakshmi, Agni, Chandra, Ayyappan, Hanuman, Mariyamman and others. The Hindu traditionally adopts an Ishta Devata. This is a personal Deity chosen from the many Hindu Gods, often according to the devotee's family background or the feeling of closeness to one form of divine manifestation. It is the unique and all-encompassing nature of Hinduism that one devotee may be worshiping Ganesha while his friend worships Subramaniam or Vishnu, and yet both honor the other's choice and feel no sense of conflict. The profound understanding and universal acceptance that are unique in Hinduism are reflected in this faculty for accommodating different approaches to the Divine, allowing for different names and forms of God to be worshiped side by side within the temple walls. It may even happen that one may adopt a different personal Deity through the years according to one's spiritual unfoldment and inner needs. 2.Temples Are Transformative! Visiting a Hindu temple, receiving darshan from the majestic Gods of our religion, can altogether change the life of a worshiper. It alters the flow of the pranas, or life currents, within his body. It draws his awareness into the deeper chakras. It adjusts his beliefs and the attitudes that are the natural consequence of those beliefs. But the change is slow. He lives with the experience for months and months after his visit to the temple. He comes to know and love the Deity. The Deity comes to know and love him, helping and guiding his entire evolutionary pattern. 284 Darshan coming from the great temples of our Gods can change the patterns of karma dating back many past lives, clearing and clarifying conditions that were created hundreds of years ago and are but seeds now, waiting to manifest in the future. Through the grace of the Gods, those seeds can be removed if the manifestation in the future would not enhance the evolution of the soul. 3.Three Worlds Communing Hinduism views existence as composed of three worlds. The First World is the physical universe, the Second World is the subtle astral or mental plane of existence in which the devas, or angels, and spirits live, and the Third World is the spiritual sphere of the Mahadevas, the Deities, the Gods. Hinduism is the harmonious working together of these three worlds. Religion blossoms for the Hindu as he awakens to the existence of the Second and Third Worlds. These inner worlds naturally inspire in man responses of love and devotion and even awe. They are that wonderful. It is in the Hindu temple that the three worlds meet and devotees invoke the Gods of our religion. The temple is built as a palace in which the Gods reside. It is the visible home of the Gods, a sacred place unlike every other place on the Earth. The Hindu must associate himself with these Gods in a very sensitive way when he approaches the temple. These intelligent beings have evolved through eons of time and are able to help mankind without themselves having to live in a physical body. These great Mahadevas, with their multitudes of angelic devas, live and work constantly and tirelessly for the people of our religion, protecting and guiding them, opening new doors and closing unused ones. The reality of the Mahadevas and their darshan can be experienced by the devotee through his awakened ajna vision, or more often as the physical sight of the image in the sanctum coupled with the inner knowing that He is there within the microcosm. This darshan can be felt by all devotees, becoming stronger and more defined as devotion is perfected. Through this darshan, messages can be channeled along the vibratory emanations that radiate out from the Mahadevas, as well as from their representatives, the Second World devas who carry out their work for them in shrines and altars. 4.Where Problems Can Be Dissolved Hindus always want to live near a temple so they can frequent it regularly. When we go to the temple, we leave with our mind filled with the shakti of the Deity. We are filled and thrilled with the shakti of the temple in every nerve current of our body. When we return to our home, we light an oil lamp, and that brings the power of the temple into the home. This simple act brings the devas in the Second World right into your home, where they can bless the rest of the family who perhaps did not go to the temple. The devotee stands before the sanctum and telepathically tells the Gods a problem, and with hopeful faith leaves and waits. Days or weeks later, after he had forgotten about his prayer, he suddenly realizes the 285 problem has disappeared. He attempts to trace the source of its solution and finds that a simple, favorable play of circumstance and events brought it about. Had the Gods answered his prayer, or would it have happened anyway? He brings another prayer to the Gods, and again in time an answer appears in the natural course of his life. It appears to him that the Gods are hearing and responding to his needs. Trust and love have taken root. He goes on, year after year, bringing the Gods into his secular affairs, while just as carefully the Gods are bringing him into their celestial spheres, enlivening his soul with energy, joy and intelligence. The Hindu looks to the Gods for very practical assistance. He devoutly believes that the Gods from their dwelling in the Third World are capable of consciously working with the forces of evolution in the universe and they could then certainly manage a few simpler problems. He devoutly believes that the Gods are given to care for man on the planet and see him through his tenure on Earth, and that their decisions are vast in their implications. 5.Puja Is Communion The physical representation of the God, be it a stone or metal image, a yantra or other sacred form, simply marks the place that the God will manifest in or hover above in His etheric body. It can be conceived as an antenna to receive the divine rays of the God or as the material body in or through which the God manifests in this First World. Man takes one body and then another in hisprogression through the cycles of birth and death and rebirth. Similarly, the Gods in their subtle bodies inhabit, for brief or protracted spans of time, these temple images. When we perform puja, a religious ritual, we are attracting the attention of the devas and Mahadevas in the inner worlds. That is the purpose of a puja; it is a form of communication. To enhance this communication, we establish an altar in the temple and in the home. This becomes charged or magnetized through our devotional thoughts and feelings, which radiate out and affect the surrounding environment. Chanting and satsanga and ceremonial rituals all contribute to this sanctifying process, creating an atmosphere to which the Gods are drawn and in which they can manifest. By the word manifest, I mean they actually come and dwell there and can stay for periods of time, providing the vibration is kept pure and undisturbed. The altar takes on a certain power. In our religion there are altars in temples all over the world inhabited by the devas and the great Gods. When you enter these holy places, you can sense their sanctity. You can feel the presence of these divine beings, and this radiation from them is known as darshan. 286 6.Dealing with Disbelief In the beginning stages of worship, a Hindu soul may have to wrestle with disbelief in the Gods. He may wonder whether they really exist, especially if his own intuition is obscured by assimilation of Western, existentialist beliefs and attitudes. Yet, he senses their existence, and this sensing brings him back to the temple. He is looking for proof, immersed in the process of coming to know the Gods for himself. He is heartened and assured by hundreds of saints and rishis who have fathomed and found close and enduring relationships with the Gods, and who then extolled their greatness in pages of scripture and chronicle. The Gods of Hinduism create, preserve and protect mankind. Their overview spans time itself, and yet their detailed focus upon the complicated fabric of human affairs is just as awesome. It is through their sanction that all things continue, and through their will that they cease. It is through their grace that all good things happen, and all things that happen are for the good. Now, you may wonder why one would put himself under this divine authority so willingly, thus losing his semblance of freedom. But does one not willingly put himself in total harmony with those whom he loves? Of course he does. And loving these great souls comes so naturally. Their timeless wisdom, their vast intelligence, their thoroughly benign natures, their ceaseless concern for the problems and well-being of devotees, and their power and sheer godly brilliance--all these inspire our love. 7.Rites of Passage A central part of every Hindu's life, samskaras are sacred rites of passage, such as coming of age and marriage, and childhood rites, including name-giving, first feeding, ear-piercing and head- shaving. They are held in temples, homes or halls. You may observe samskaras in progress during your visit. Consult with the temple priest for more information. These rites usually include a puja and a homa, or fire ceremony. If you request a samskara, the priest will set an auspicious time, explain how to prepare, what to bring, and what to do during the ceremony. 8.Fire Rites Major pujas in temples are often preceded by a homa, or "fire-offering," among the most ancient forms of Hindu worship. Fire is the object of worship, and oblations are offered into a sanctified fire pit, which is usually made of earthen bricks. One or more priests sit near and tend the fire, offering wood, ghee, grains and dried herbs while chanting mantras from the Vedas and Agamas. The rites invoke the temple's main Deity as well as other Gods, such as Ganesha, Agni and Varuna. 9.Multiplicity of proceedings In a Hindu temple there is often a multiplicity of simultaneous proceedings and ceremonies. In one corner, an extended family, or clan, with its hundreds of tightly knit members, may be joyously 287 celebrating a wedding. At another shrine a lady might be crying in front of the Deity, saddened by some misfortune and in need of solace. Elsewhere in the crowded precincts, a baby is being blessed, and several groups of temple musicians are filling the chamber with the shrill sounds of the nagasvaram and drum. After the puja reaches its zenith, brahmin priests move in and out of the sanctum, passing camphor and sacred ash and holy water to hundreds of worshipers crowding eagerly to get a glimpse of the Deity. All of this is happening at once, unplanned and yet totally organized. It is a wonderful experience, and such a diverse array of devotional ceremonies and such an intensity of worship can only be seen in a Hindu temple. There is no place on Earth quite like a Hindu temple." Natural light better than artificial light Using as much natural light in interior spaces as much as possible has many advantage over using artificial light. Artificial light is unable to replace some effect of natural light, for example, in the morning when you wake up, natural light go through the window come to interior space. It will make people feel warm, comfortable, and festive. Natural produces positive effects, both physiological and psychological. Making good use of natural light cuts the need of artificial lighting and helps provide a feeling of well being to our everyday life. We need to maximize use of natural light. In order to begin considering the inclusion of daylight in atemple, designers must have one or more compelling reasons for doing so. Most often daylight is used as either a primary or a secondary interior illuminant; but even if it is used only to provide a particular design effect, the designer must consider the impact of the light on all aspects of the building and its occupants. Many reasons can justify considering daylight as a light source both residential and commercial buildings, although some of the reasons may apply more to one building category than the other. Among the reasons is quality of the light, importance of daylight as a design element, energy conservation from the use of daylight as a primary illuminant. Natural light is a design element that some designers use as the central design determinant in their work. These designers use the need for varying quantity of natural light in different space of the building to establish the general form, spatial arrangement, and massing for the building. Quality of natural light The quality of daylight as an illuminant is an important reason to use natural light in a building. Natural light combination of sunlight and skylight is the one light source that most closely matches human visual response. Natural light is a full-spectrum light. Quality of daylight is good for vision. It is provide a good visual environment. A good visual environment also affects people ability to see objects and feeling of space. Natural light adds a sense of spaciousness to a room; because natural light can make the room seems 288 larger. Spaciousness is thought to give a feeling of openness produced primarily through visual perception of a space, is a phenomenon that has been studied by a number of building environment researchers. Natural light and architecture 1. Natural light keeps changing through times. Most of architects can be accurately determined and can determine the size of the space to determine the spatial orientation of light to selected materials and processing methods, artificial lighting designed space. 2. However, architects cannot control natural light, which from morning to night, day after day changes. Its existence gives life of space, modeling the spatial sensibility. Natural light for the space, like the air of life, these two have symbiotic relationship. Architects respond to natural light and space collision exhibited by the rich content to be thinking, attention to natural light in the space of visual forms of expression and the spirit of the great potential of creating situations, not just considered as a means to eliminate the dark. Bring natural light into interior design that many positive effects, including the considerable financial savings in energy and overall effects natural light has on well-being, as well as the challenges natural light presents. Natural light is considered a beneficial design for many reasons: human health, comfort and satisfaction, energy conservation, view. 3. Lack of natural light in a space, what will happen? Some of the modern architectures do not have windows, they use artificial lighting and ventilation by air condition, when people work in this kind of space they feel unhealthy. If there is a lack of natural light in a space, people are not able to see out to have a view cut. They will feel cooped-up, isolated and claustrophobic. It also makes people feel depressed and tensed. 4. Natural light promotes human health Lack of natural light also impacts on the health of building occupants. It becomes ever more important as light itself is nourishment. Too much artificial lighting and too little natural light affect the human health. Human’s psychological needs may include spirit, mood, atmosphere, and perception. Light creates spirit of space change atmosphere to control human emotion. 5. Natural light creates spirit of space which changes atmosphere to control human emotion. Natural light was employed to arouse feelings of mysticism and to give the blessedness of a place. Commonly identified with spiritual forces and beings due to its awing powers over life on earth, light could manifest a divine presence for believers. 289 The best example to using natural light create spirit should be a temple. Most of temple design have a dark corridor, when people enter it, light from outside go through the roof enter the space attract your eyes to look up, you will feel that light is holy and warm; they believe that god is watching over them. It is the use of visual effects that has played the role of psychological change. 6. Natural light is the only light; because it has mood and it provides a common agreement for man and it is the only light that makes architecture. Architects had started to question whether light exists in its own right, visible in itself and not only for making other things visible. Some people believe that spiritual and mystical light, apart from having a materialistic aspect due to its non-physical characteristics, is considered a kind of bond between God and man in a spiritual. 7. Vitalizing light provides mystical atmosphere. It played an active role; it lent the various, consciously selected materials every conceivable facet, modulation, and nuance of color and there by produced the atmospheric moods of light 8. Light influence mood The psychological factors should not be overlooked. People need to change perspective in order to relax the eyes and mood. 9. Light create atmosphere Light creates atmosphere. Many factors affect the building atmosphere. Natural light is one of the most important factors. In the film, a sad, mysterious and gloomy atmosphere is difficult to use bright light illumination. In space, it is the same. Architecture needs to use light to create a different order and rhythm change the spatial effect gives different atmosphere. 10. Light change human perception Light gives space luminance and energy. It is a most vivid and elements in architecture. The church of the light shows the sense of natural element of light. Space is completely surrounded by concrete walls. Inside is darkness, in that darkness floats a cross of light itself. Outdoor light that has been rendered abstract by the opening in the wall impacts tension to the space and makes it sacred. Conclusion: Natural daylight is irreplaceable and is a major natural element in our life. More and more architectures design to bring natural light in to interior space to change the close space becomes 290 natural and exciting open space. Whether a temple is modern or ancient,t they enhance use of natural light to make space look bigger and brightness. They also use light to controls people’s behavior and their emotions. It can make them happier and less stressful by lightening their mood. REFERENCES 1 Mukherji, Anuradha (2001). The holy light: a study of natural light in Hindu temples in the southern region of Tamilnadu, India (7th century AD to 17th century AD). Master's thesis, Texas A&M University. Available electronically from http : / /hdl .handle .net /1969 .1 /ETD -TAMU 2001 -THESIS -M83. 2. A Study of Light/Darkness in Sacred Settings: Digital SimulationsAnat Geva and Anuradha Mukherji,Int’l Jour.Architectural Computing,Issue 3 Vol 5,2007 Studying light/darkness and sacred architecture reveals thatthe“holy” lightdramatizesthe 291 PART IV BOOK IV LOCAL DESIGN ELEMENTS OF DIVINITY 292 CHAPTER X GANESH STATHPANA Idol Worship at Home in Maharashtra during Ganesh Chaturthi in August With original photos on the religious process Dr Uday Dokras/Deepa Dokras Karan Dokras/Srishti Dokras By Dr Uday Dokras & family I followed with the greatest curiosity crowds who carried in procession an infinite number of idols of the god Ganesh. Each little quarter of the town, each family with its adherents, each little street corner I may almost say, organises a procession of its own, and the poorest may be seen carrying on a simple plank their little idol or of papier mâché... A crowd, more or less numerous, accompanies the idol, clapping hands and raises cries of joy, while a little orchestra generally precedes the idol. – Angelo de Gubernatis, Bombay Gazette (1886) 293 Ganesh Festival is a 11-day festival in India, celebrated by devout Hindus throughout the world also, in honor of Lord Ganesha, the Elephant God! The Suzerain of Sweets. To all Hindus celebrating these holy days – श्री वक्रतु ण्ड मह क य सू यि कोटी समप्रभ र्िर्वि घ्नं कुरु मे दे व सवि - क ये शु सवि द ॥! As noted on britannica.com: Ganesh Chaturthi, in Hinduism, 10-day festival marking the birth of the elephant-headed deity Ganesha, the god of prosperity and wisdom.It begins on the fourth day (chaturthi) of the month of Bhadrapada (August–September), the sixth month of the Hindu calendar.At the start of the festival, idols of Ganesha are placed on raised platforms in homes or in elaborately decorated outdoor tents. The worship begins with the pranapratishtha, a ritual to invoke life in the idols, followed by shhodashopachara, or the 16 ways of paying tribute. Amid the chanting of Vedic hymns from religious texts like the Ganesh Upanishad, the idols are anointed with red sandalwood paste and yellow and red flowers. Ganesha is also offered coconut, jaggery, and 21 modaks (sweet dumplings), considered to be Ganesha’s favourite food.At the conclusion of the festival, the idols are carried to local rivers in huge processions accompanied by drumbeats, devotional singing, and dancing. There they are immersed, a ritual symbolizing Ganesha’s homeward journey to Mount Kailas—the abode of his parents, Shiva and Parvati. 294 Ganesh Chaturthi assumed the nature of a gala public celebration when the Maratha ruler Shivaji (c. 1630–80) used it to encourage nationalist sentiment among his subjects, who were fighting the Mughals.In 1893, when the British banned political assemblies, the festival was revived by the Indian nationalist leader Bal Gangadhar Tilak. Today the festival is celebrated in Hindu communities worldwide and is particularly popular in Maharashtra and parts of western India.As for modak themselves, all I can say is I understand why they are so popular! The sweet filling on the inside of a modak consists of freshly grated coconut and jaggery (Indian cane sugar) while the outer soft shell is made from rice flour. The steamed version (called ukdiche modak) is often eaten hot with ghee. These modaks at their most basic are made of coconut and Sugar/Jaggery. This variation is especially prepared during the time of Ganesh Festival. They are handmade and cooked in a steamer. They are perishable and need to be consumed immediately. For Ganesha, his love for modak have given him the moniker ‘modakapriya’ (one who likes modak) in Sanskrit. -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------God Ganesh: Though not alluding to the classical form of Ganapati,the earliest mention of Ganapati is found in the Rigveda. It appears twice in the Rigveda, once in hymn 2.23.1, as well as in hymn 10.112.9. Both of these hymns imply a role of Ganapati as "the seer among the seers, abounding beyond measure in food presiding among the elders and being the lord of invocation", while the hymn in mandala 10 states that without Ganapati "nothing nearby or afar is performed without thee", according to Michael. However, it is uncertain that the Vedic term Ganapati which literally means "guardian of the multitudes", referred specifically to later era Ganesh, nor do the Vedic texts mention Ganesh Chaturthi, appears in post-Vedic texts such as the Grhya Sutras, Vajasaneyi Samhita, the Yajnavalkya Smriti and Mahabharata .Ganesh appears in the medieval Puranas in the form of "god of success, obstacle remover". The Skanda Purana, Narada Purana and the Brahma Vaivarta Purana, in particular, profusely praise him.[24] Beyond textual interpretations, archaeological and epigraphical evidence suggest Ganesh had become popular, was revered before the 8th century CE and numerous images of him are traceable to the 7th century or earlier. 295 Festival This festival started by Indian freedom fighter Lokmanya Tilak, who championed it as a means to circumvent the colonial British government ban on Hindu gatherings through its anti-public assembly legislation in 1892. Ganesh Chaturthi also known as Vinayaka Chaturthi (Vināyaka Chaturthī), is a Hindu festival celebrating the arrival of Ganesh to earth from Kailash Parvat with his mother Goddess Parvati/Gauri. The festival is marked with the installation of Ganesh clay idols privately in homes, or publicly on elaborate pandals (temporary stages). Observations include chanting of Vedic hymns and Hindu texts such as, prayers and brata (fasting). Offerings and prasadam from the daily prayers, that are distributed from the pandal to the community, include sweets such as modaka as it is believed to be a favourite of Lord Ganesh. The festival ends on the tenth day after start, when the idol is carried in a public procession with music and group chanting, then immersed in a nearby body of water such as a river or sea. In Mumbai alone, around 150,000 statues are immersed annually. Thereafter the clay idol dissolves and Ganesh is believed to 296 Casting the idol of Ganesh to water Secens at Chowpatty,Mumbai-the Arabian Sea return to Mount Kailash to Parvati and Shiva. The festival celebrates Lord Ganesh as the God of New Beginnings and the Remover of Obstacles as well as the god of wisdom and intelligenc and is observed throughout India, especially in the states such as Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, Telangana, Odisha, West Bengal, Gujarat and Chhattisgarh, At public venues, along with the reading of texts and group feasting, athletic and martial arts competitions are also held. Idol worship; According to Hinduism, An idol is a representation of the God above. It’s a physical image that helps you visualize the divine and hence concentrate. Worshipping the idol helps the devotee move on to the next step and that’s mental prayers. All together this process helps a person concentrate and hence strengthen his mind. Parikrama The priest tells you to take three rounds of the idol after your mental prayers. This act is known as parikrama. An idol that’s charged with positive energy radiates its energy to anything in its 297 vicinity. Therefore your three rounds rejuvenate our mind body and soul as it charges you up with positive energies. Temple bells A temple bell is not made of some ordinary metal; it’s an amalgamation of cadmium, zinc, lead, copper, nickel, chromium and manganese. The ratio in which they are combined leads it to produce a distinct sound for about seven seconds this unites the left and ride side of your brain such that the echo of the sound touches your bodies seven healing chakras. It sends your brain in a stage of the trace for microseconds and it becomes extremely receptive and aware. In Hinduism blowing the Conch is associated with the sacred syllable and sound ‘Om’. This, in turn, is believed to be the sound that which brings in a new hope. With the positive energy already radiating in the temples, the sound has a more powerful impact. The purpose of visiting a temple isn’t to offer valuables to the deity; it’s to take all the positive energy that gets transferred from the Earths surface to the human body through various mediums. This rejuvenates your senses and hence compels you to spend some tine after offering prayers to make your visit rewarding. The idols represent various deities being worshiped and considered personification of the same. They help people to concentrate upon and assist in prayers and other religious activities. 298 Whether people may agree or not, idolatry exists in every religion. For Christians it is Cross with or without Jesus, portrait of Mother Mary, etc; and for Muslims the Holy Mecca and the central enclosure containing the Holy Stone. Hinduism believe in Polytheism where they prey to every element that enable the existence of this Universe. There are 33 Principal Deities (not 33 crore as commonly believed), each representing one such element including fire, water Similarly, idol will make it easy for us to concentrate. Hinduism is not at all strict in its teachings. Nowhere it is told that you need an idol. It is left to the devotee…He can do it in whatever way he likes. Not all but quite a good percentage of Hindus offer obeisance to idols. It is not believing in idols per se, it is believing in the concept of the Isht (personal god) that manifests through the idols. Also except the priestly class, this offering of obeisance is for a limited time duration (say morning or evening) or when someone visits a temple. Without going to the complicate details let us understand this: the latent aim of someone believing in the Sanatan Dharma is to move from the mundane to the highest purpose of life across lifetimes. In “50 Great Myths about Religions” by John Morreal and Tamara Sonn. The authors have done an excellent job in busting various myths about religions and have put all religions in a positive light. Here is what the book says about idol worship in Hinduism and I totally agree. All these rituals for puja are a means to achieve purity of mind and focusing on the divine, which Hindus believe, can be a fitting stepping stone to knowing the Supreme Being or Brahman. 299 Why You Need an Image or Idol for a Puja For the puja, it is important for a devotee to set an idol or icon or a picture or even symbolic holy object, such as the shivalingam, salagrama, or yantra before them to help them contemplate and revere god through the image. For most, it is difficult to concentrate and the mind keeps wavering, so the image can be considered as an actualized form of the ideal and this makes it easy to focus. According to the concept of ‘Archavatara,’ if the puja is performed with utmost devotion, during puja god descends and it is the image that houses Almighty. On the other hand we could also identify how various contradictory symbols suggest similar meanings: the Hiranandani Complex (Mumbai) malls with Greek columns and pediments and the high-tech glass and steel shopping centre of Gurgaon near Delhi, both suggest the existence and growth of the same consumer middle class. The new Jain temples in Mumbai that employ traditional materials and processes, the Bahai Temple in Delhi designed as a high-tech shell structure and the Radha Parthasarathi Temple in New Delhi, experimenting with reinforced concrete, all suggest a kind of religious fundamentalism that supports cutting edge and expensive building processes. Similarly, the legislative assembly of Bangalore with its traditional and classical symbols, the assembly of Mumbai with an imposing modern form and the assembly of Bhopal that borrows symbols from ancient history, all represent the same seat of power, that of the state authority. To complicate things further, it is extremely difficult to find any relations between formal abstractions and identity. For example a monumental scale does not necessarily indicate and impose power. The Red Fort (Delhi) in all its might today is one of the most accessible places; the pristine arcades of the Fort area in Mumbai today harbour a large informal industry. These places no longer represent an Empire. They no longer exert power (like Bataille’s monuments) or are symbols of colonization – their symbolism has been inverted, converted and internalized. From these examples we could possibly conclude that the relationship between a symbol and identity is a construction of the architectural theorist and hence it is misleading to discuss the issue of identity solely through the discourse of the symbol. 300 The Idea of the Local in architecture Our literature review shows that the term ‘Local’ is the second most important idea through which the issue of identity is discussed. Here all concerns seem to hinge around and oscillate between the need to assert the local and a desire to embrace the extra-local (international, global, western etc.). “The search for roots” and “looking ahead in time” are the two respective positions that get articulated through this concern. Often buildings are conveniently bracketed into themes like “nationalist”, “regionalist” etc. to very clearly distinguish from the other “internationalist” or “global” ones. Beyond both these positions, is another position that aims at “looking at real problems, rather then self-consciously trying to find identity as an end in itself” . This position attempts to locate the local in specific issues such as climate, behaviour etc. rather than leaning on oversimplifications of history and progress. In discussions that focus on the binary understanding of nationalist/internationalist or regional/global, this new category viz. “Critical regionalism” seeks “contextual inspiration” while simultaneously celebrating the “progressive modern”. The treatment of light ensures that by the time the pilgrim reaches the innermost chamber (garbhagriha) his/her eyes slowly become accustomed to the darkness and his/her state of mind befitting worship and is no longer plagued by worldly thoughts. During this procession, one passes through many doorways, colonnaded halls and corridors, which are decorated with sacred carvings.These sacred symbols have a profound impact on the mind of the devotee; they simulate the mystery that envelops the universe and the divine spirit that illumines the universe . Reaching the holy sanctum, the worshipper enters a place for individual selfrealization and personal relation with the divine.Thus, along the two previously mentioned premises the design of the Hindu Temple accommodated the faith, creating a procession toward the “holy darkness” that enhanced the spiritual experience. 1&2 Oil Lamps too: There is a deeper significance to the diya. The oil in the diya symbolises the dirt in the human mind — such as greed, jealousy, hatred, lust etc — which human beings tend to nurture. The cotton in the diya is symbolic of the atma or the self or the soul. The diya presents light when the oil is burnt by the wick. Hence, lighting of the diyas signifies that one needs to get rid of the selfish and materialistic thoughts. This frees one from all forms of sadness, guiding the path to enlightenment and to connect with the Supreme Being 301 In India, Ganesh Chaturthi is primarily celebrated at home and in public by local community groups in the central and western states of Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat and Goa and the southern states of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Tamil Nadu, Kerala and eastern states of West Bengal, Bihar and Odisha. At home Idol worship; According to Hinduism, An idol is a representation of the God above. It’s a physical image that helps you visualize the divine and hence concentrate. Worshipping the idol helps the devotee move on to the next step and that’s mental prayers. All together this process helps a person concentrate and hence strengthen his mind. Parikrama The priest tells you to take three rounds of the idol after your mental prayers. This act is known as parikrama. An idol that’s charged with positive energy radiates its energy to anything in its vicinity. Therefore your three rounds rejuvenate our mind body and soul as it charges you up with positive energies. A domestic celebration of Ganesh during Ganesh Chaturthi in a Maharashtrian home 302 In Maharashtra, Ganesh Chaturthi is known as Ganeshotsav. Families install small clay statues for worship during the festival. The Murti is worshiped in the morning and evening with offerings of flowers, durva(strands of young grass), karanji and modaks (jaggery and coconut flakes wrapped in rice flour dumplings). The worship ends with the singing of an aarti in honour of Ganesh, other Gods and Saints. In Maharashtra the Marathi aarti "Sukhakarta Dukhaharta", composed by the 17th century saint, Samarth Ramdas is sung. Family traditions differ about when to end the celebration. Domestic celebrations end after 1 1⁄2, 3, 5, 7 or 11 days. At that time the Murti is ceremoniously brought to a body of water (such as a lake, river or the sea) for immersion. In Maharashtra, Ganeshotsav also incorporates other festivals, namely Hartalika and the Gauri festival, the former is observed with a fast by women on the day before Ganesh Chaturthi whilst the latter by the installation of statues of Gauris. In some communities such as the Chitpavan, and the CKP, pebbles collected from river bank are installed as representations of Gauri. In Goa, Ganesh Chaturthi is known as Chavath in Konkani and Parab or Parva ("auspicious celebration"); it begins on the third day of the lunar month of Bhadrapada. On this day Parvati and Shiva are worshiped by women, who fast . Instruments such as ghumots, Crash cymbals ) and pakhavaj (two-headed drum) are played during the rituals. The harvest festival, Navyachi Pancham, is celebrated the next day; freshly harvested paddy is brought home from the fields (or temples) and a puja is conducted. Communities who ordinarily eat seafood refrain from doing so during the festival. In Karnataka the Gowri festival precedes Ganesh Chaturthi, and people across the state wish each other well. In Andhra Pradesh, Ganesh Murti'so of clay (Matti Vinayakudu) and turmeric (Siddhi Vinayakudu) are usually worshiped at home with plaster of Paris Murti's. Ganesh Visarjan in Mumbai’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’Ganpati idol in Pune 303 Public celebrations of the festival are popular, and are organised by local youth groups, neighbourhood associations or groups of tradespeople. Funds for the public festival are collected from members of the association arranging the celebration, local residents and businesses. The Ganesh idols and accompanying statues are installed in temporary shelters, known as mandaps or pandals. The festival features cultural activities such as singing, theatre and orchestral performances and community activities such as free medical checkups, blood-donation sites and donations to the poor. Ganesh Chaturthi, in addition to its religious aspects, is an important economic activity in Mumbai, Surat, Pune, Hyderabad, Bangalore, Chennai and Kurnool. Many artists, industries, and businesses earn a significant amount of their living from the festival, which is a stage for budding artists. Members of other religions also participate in the celebration. In Tamil Nadu, the festival, also known as Vinayaka Chaturthi or Pillayar Chaturthi, falls on the fourth day after the new moon in the month of Āvaṇi in the Tamil calendar. The idols are usually made of clay or papier-mâché, since Plaster of Paris idols have been banned by the state government, but violations of this rule are often reported idols are also made of coconuts and other organic products. They are worshiped for several days in pandals, and immersed in the Bay of Bengal the following Sunday. In Thiruvananthapuram a procession marches from the Pazhavangadi Ganapathi Temple to Shankumugham Beach, with tall statues of Ganesha made from organic items and milk immersed in the sea. Ganesh Chaturthi festival in Antwerp, Belgium Ganesh Chaturthi celebration by the Sri Lankan Tamil community in France 304 Ganesh Chaturthi is celebrated in the UK by the British Hindu population living there. The Hindu Culture and Heritage Society, a Southall-based organisation, celebrated Ganesh Chaturthi for the first time in London in 2005 at the Vishwa Hindu Temple; and the idol was immersed in the River Thames at Putney Pier Another celebration, organised by a Gujarati group, has been celebrated in Southend-on-Sea, and attracted an estimated 18,000 devotees. Annual celebrations are also held on the River Mersey in Liverpool. The Philadelphia Ganesh Festival is one of the most popular celebrations of Ganesh Chaturthi in North America, and it is also celebrated in Canada (particularly in the Toronto area), Mauritius, Malaysia and Singapore. The Mauritius festival dates back to 1896,[72] and the Mauritian government has made it a public holiday.[73] In Malaysia and Singapore, the festival is more commonly known as Vinayagar Chaturthi because of the large Tamil-speaking Hindu minority. In Metropolitan France, Ganesh Chaturthee remains the main Hindu religious festival. The first Hindu Temple dedicated to Ganesh on Continental France opened in 1985 and the first procession took place in 1995. Since then, every year, the La Chapelle Quarters of Paris are the sight of a major procession with thousands of pilgrims and visitors. The organisation is mainly conducted by the Tamil speaking Sri Lanka community and the pilgrims are mostly Tamil Hindus from Sri Lanka and, to a greater extent, Marathi-speaking Hindus from Mauritius. Modaka are sweet dumplings, the traditional offerings and prasada in Ganesh Chaturthi. Left: steamed with fillings, Right: Fried The primary sweet dish during the festival is Modak (modak in Marathi and Konkani, modakam or kudumu . Panchakajjaya is an offering made to Lord Ganesh during this festival in parts of Karnataka. It is a mixture of desiccated coconut, roasted Bengal gram powder, 305 sugar, ghee, and sesame. Different versions of panchakajjaya are made. Roasted Bengal gram, green gram, roasted chana dal (putani) or aval can be used. Environmental Issues: The Madras High Court ruled in 2004 that immersion of Ganesh idols is unlawful because it incorporates chemicals that pollute the sea water. In Goa the sale of plasterof-Paris Ganesha idols has been banned by the state government and celebrants are encouraged to buy traditional, artisan-made clay idols. Recent initiatives to produce traditional clay Ganesh idols in Hyderabad have been sponsored by the Andhra Pradesh Pollution Control Board. Due to environmental concerns, a number of families now avoid bodies of water and let the clay statue disintegrate in a barrel of water at home. After a few days, the clay is spread in the garden. In some cities a public, eco-friendly process is used for the immersion. Puja is worship. The Sanskrit term puja is used in Hinduism to refer to the worship of a deity through observance of rituals including daily prayer offerings after a bath or as varied as the following:  Sandhyopasana: The meditation on God as the light of knowledge and wisdom at dawn and dusk  Aarti: Ritual of worship in which light or lamps are offered to the deities amid devotional songs and prayer chants.  Homa: The offering of oblations to the deity in a duly consecrated fire  Jagarana: Keeping vigil at night amidst much devotional singing as a part of spiritual discipline.  Upavasa: Ceremonial fasting. The Steps of Puja in the Vedic Tradition 13. Dipajvalana: Lighting the lamp and praying to it as the symbol of the deity and requesting it to burn steadily till the puja is over. 14. Guruvandana: Obeisance to one’s own guru or spiritual teacher. 15. Ganesha Vandana: Prayer to Lord Ganesha or Ganapati for the removal of obstacles to the puja. 306 16. Ghantanada: Ringing the bell with appropriate mantras to drive away the evil forces and welcome the gods. Ringing the bell is also necessary during ceremonial bath of the deity and offering incense etc. 17. Vedic Recitation: Reciting two Vedic mantras from Rig Veda 10.63.3 and 4.50.6 to steady the mind. 18. Mantapadhyana: Meditation on the miniature shrine structure, generally made of wood. 19. Asanamantra: Mantra for purification and steadiness of the seat of the deity. 20. Pranayama & Sankalpa: A short breathing exercise to purify your breath, settle and focus your mind. 21. Purification of Puja Water: Ceremonial purification of the water in the kalasa or water vessel, to make it fit for use in puja. 22. Purification of Puja Items: Filling up the sankha, conch, with that water and inviting its presiding deities such as Surya, Varuna, and Chandra, to reside in it in a subtle form and then sprinkling that water over all the articles of puja to consecrate them. 23. Sanctifying the Body: Nyasa with the Purusasukta (Rigveda 10.7.90) to invoke the presence of the deity into the image or idol and offering the upacharas. 24. Offering the Upacharas: There are a number of items to be offered and tasks to be performed before the Lord as an outpouring of love and devotion for god. These include a seat for the deity, water, flower, honey, cloth, incense, fruits, betel leaf, camphor, etc. Simple Steps of a Traditional Hindu Worship: In the Panchayatana Puja, i.e., puja to the five deities – Shiva, Devi, Vishnu, Ganesha, and Surya, one’s own family deity should be kept in the center and the other four around it in the prescribed order. 7. Bathing: Pouring water for bathing the idol, is to be done with gosrnga or the horn of a cow, for the Shiva lingam; and with sankha or conch, for Vishnu or salagrama shila. 8. Clothing & Flower Decoration: While offering cloth in puja, different types of cloth are offered to different deities as is stated in scriptural injunctions. In the daily puja, flowers can be offered instead of cloth. 307 9. Incense & Lamp: Dhupa or incense is offered to the feet and deepa or light is held before the face of the deity. During arati, the deepa is waved in small arcs before the deity’s face and then before the whole image. 10. Circumbulation: Pradakshina is done three times, slowly in the clockwise direction, with hands in namaskara posture. 11. Prostration: Then is the shastangapranama or prostration. The devotee lies down straight with his face facing the floor and hands stretched in namaskara above his head in the direction of the deity. 12. Distribution of Prasada: Last step is the Tirtha and Prasada, partaking of the consecrated water and food offering of the puja by all who have been a part of the puja or witnessed it. The Hindu scriptures consider these rituals as the kindergarten of faith. When understood properly and performed meticulously, they lead to inner purity and concentration. When this concentration deepens, these external rituals drop off by themselves and the devotee can perform internal worship or manasapuja. Until then these rituals help a devotee on his path of worship. Let us take the instance of the Taj Mahal (Agra). While the Taj Mahal represents love and romance and the aesthetic taste of the culture, it also represents the desperate exploitation of labour, the appropriation of resources and the inequity prevalent in that culture. Architecture here simultaneously describes love and tyranny. We could perhaps think of a number of cases of such contradictory representations: the Babri Masjid of Ayodhya could be read as an account of Indian Heritage or a symbol of Hindu hatred, the Capital Complex in Chandigarh, as a sign of democratic modernism or an indication of western hegemony. Similarly the National Crafts Museum of New Delhi could be seen as a representation or assertion of Indian identity or the detachment or objectification of the Indian Folk Arts through the formal museum format; a chawl in Mumbai could represent a productive energy centre of the city or the abusive living condition of the labour (not housing but warehousing people), a slum as a celebration of entrepreneurship or urban decay. All these examples seem to suggest that each symbol can simultaneously denote not only different but contradicting meanings. 308 PUJA NECESSITIES ( Actual Pics from thr residence of the authors) Dish to hold fruits which are offering to God Significance of Coconut: Spread the love In Hinduism, offering coconut to Hindu God and Goddess is a most common practice that you have seen in India. Needless to say, coconut holds a lot of importance whether there is any wedding, festival, occasion, ceremony or puja. It is a must-have item on the list along with sweets, incense sticks, flowers, and cloth for deities. People also break coconut whether they are going to start any venture, before construction of the house or buying any vehicle etc. Also known as Sriphala in Sanskrit, holy Coconut is referred as God's fruit. In Hindu religion, it is the only food that is used to symbolize God. Coconut is a satvik fruit as is sacred, healthgiving, pure, clean, and bestowed with several properties. ... That is why coconut is termed as auspicious in puja rituals. Mango-tree leaves are placed on the water pot (kalask) before rituals to complete a Hindu ceremony called Purnakumba. The leaves symbolise the limbs of the god, along with a 309 single coconut that represents the head. Mango leaves are also said to signify goddess Lakshmi, and known to keep out negative energy. Diya: Clay Diyas are often used temporarily as lighting for special occasions, while diyas made of brass are permanent fixtures in homes and temples. Especially in Puja or Diwali, diyas or candles are representing of enlightenment, knowledge or wisdom. The Purna-Kalasha is considered a symbol of abundance and "source of life" in the Vedas. ... It is referred to as "overflowing full vase" (purno-asya Kalasha) in the Vedas. The Kalasha is believed to contain amrita, the elixir of life, and thus is viewed as a symbol of abundance, wisdom, and immortality. 310 311 Fixing t he electric and floral deco. 312 313 Vermilion dot on all items The Ganesh Idol is kept iunder cover of a cloth and them\n unveiled during the atonement or staphana only In Hindu rituals, the durva grass plays an important role. Rings made of the grass are often worn before starting either the ritual of homa — offerings to fire — and puja. The grass is believed to have a purifying effect on participants. Grass is also used as an offering in Ganesha temples. Sacred Grass. Pic above bottom row on right In Hinduism, bells are generally hung at the temple dome in front of the Garbhagriha. ... It is said that by ringing the bell, the devotee informs the deity of his/her arrival. The sound of the bell is considered auspicious which welcomes divinity and dispels evil. 314 MOUSE: While Lord Ganesha's vahana is a mouse which symbolises crushing useless thoughts. ... The mention of the mouse as Ganesha's mount appears first in the Matsya Purana and later in the Brahmananda Purana and Ganesha Purana. According to Ganesha Purana, there was a celestial musician-god named Krauncha. Pic bottom row extreme left. Various containers hold vermillion and other sacred powers that are adorned on the forehead as a sign of a holy symbol and a connect to the infinity of multi verse( Multiple Universes created by the Gods of Hinduism- Read my paper on Multiverse in academia.edu or researchgate. 315 316 REFERENCES 1 Mukherji, Anuradha (2001). The holy light: a study of natural light in Hindu temples in the southern region of Tamilnadu, India (7th century AD to 17th century AD). Master's thesis, Texas A&M University. Available electronically from http : / /hdl .handle .net /1969 .1 /ETD -TAMU 2001 -THESIS -M83. 2. A Study of Light/Darkness in Sacred Settings: Digital SimulationsAnat Geva and Anuradha Mukherji,Int’l Jour.Architectural Computing,Issue 3 Vol 5,2007 Studying light/darkness and sacred architecture reveals that the“holy” light dramatizes the FINALLY READY FOR 11 DAY VISIT Our Ganesh Idol 317 CHAPTER XI Laxmi-Pujan the Ubiquitous Maharashtrian festival Dr Uday Dokras/Deepa Dokras Karan Dokras/Srishti Dokras Raja Ravi Varma's Gaja Lakshmi Gauri Puja The Gauri Pujan takes place during the Ganeshotsav festival in Maharashtra. Many devotees, who bring home an idol of Bappa, also perform the Gauri Puja by installing two identical statues of the Goddess. However, only families that have been traditionally doing this puja do it and not all those devotees, who worship Ganesha. This Puja takes place after the Gauri avahana on the previous day and concludes with the Visarjan on the next day. This year, the Jyeshtha Gauri Puja Muhurat begins at 6:01 AM and ends at 6:37 PM. Before we go to the Mahalxmi Puja of Maharashtrians let us study the divine thought behind it. In Hinduism, Lakshmi is the Goddess who leads to one's goal, or lakshya (hence her name), and was first mentioned in the Śrī Sūkta of the Rigveda. She is both the wife and divine energy 318 (shakti) of Vishnu, one of the principal deities of Hinduism and the Supreme Being in the Vaishnava tradition. She is often depicted with Saraswati and Parvati as forming the holy trinity (Tridevi). For mankind, 8 types of goals (lakshmi) are necessary according to Hinduism: spiritual enlightenment, food, knowledge, resources, progeny, abundance, patience, and success. Hence there are Ashta Lakshmis ('Eight Lakshmis'): Aadi ('primeval'), Dhaanya ('grain'), Vidya ('knowledge'), Dhana ('money'), Santaana ('progeny'), Gaja ('elephant'), Dhairya ('courage'), and Vijaya ('victorious') Lakshmi. Archaeological discoveries and ancient coins suggest the recognition and reverence for Lakshmi existing by the 1st millennium BCE. Lakshmi's iconography and statues have also been found in Hindu temples throughout Southeast Asia, estimated to be from the second half of the 1st millennium CE. The festivals of Diwali and Sharad Purnima (Kojagiri Purnima) are celebrated in her honor. Lakshmi in Sanskrit is derived from the root word lakṣ and lakṣa , meaning 'to perceive, observe, know, understand' and 'goal, aim, objective', respectively. These roots give Lakshmi the symbolism: know and understand your goal. A related term is lakṣaṇa, which means 'sign, target, aim, symbol, attribute, quality, lucky mark, auspicious opportunity'. Lakshmi Goddess of Good Fortune, Wealth, Fertility, Prosperity and Jo. Member of Tridevi Other names Sri, Nārāyini, Bhudevi, Nila Devi, Vaishnavi, Kamala, Hemamayi, Padmaja, Padmavathi, Ramā, Vedavati, Tulsi, Vishnupatni, Vārāhi, Krushnayi, Dharitri, Vaikuntha Vasini Devanagari-लक्ष्मी Affiliation-Devi, Tridevi, Ashta Lakshmi Abode-Vaikuntha or Vishnuloka Mantra-।।ॐ श्रीं र्श्रयें िमः ।। Symbols-Padma, gold, coins, elephants, etc. Mount-White owl and Elephant Festivals-Diwali (Lakshmi Puja), Sharad Purnima, Varalakshmi Vratam Personal information Siblings-Alakshmi Consort-Vishnu Children-Kamadeva (according to some texts) Narakasura and 18 others (as Bhūmi) 319 Lakshmi Pooja , is a Hindu religious festival that falls on Amavasya (new moon day) of Krishna Paksha (Dark fortnight) in the Vikram Samvat Hindu calendar month of Ashwin, on the third day of Deepawali and is considered as the main festive day of Deepawali. According to legend, Lakshmi, the goddess of wealth and lord Vishnu's wife, visits her devotees and bestows gifts and blessings upon each of them. To welcome the Goddess, devotees clean their houses, decorate them with finery and lights, and prepare sweet treats and delicacies as offerings. Devotees believe the happier Lakshmi is with the visit, the more she blesses the family with health and wealth. In Bengal Lokkhi Pujo or Laxmi puja is performed on Sharada Purnima day ,the full moon day following Vijaya Dashami. This puja is also known as Kojagori Lokkhi pujo. Women worship Maa Laxmi in the evening after cleaning their house and decorating the floor of their houses with alpona. Diwali Puja Vidhi: Step-by-step guide to perfectly perform Lakshmi puja at home However the Goddess is worshipped in August month amid ten-day Ganesh festival, three days of Mahalaxmi puja are the most looked forward to, at least in this part of the state. What adds grace to this ritual are the sentiments behind it. Though the scriptures have no mention of Mahalaxmi puja, these nakshatra-based celebrations are held with utmost care and piety. Anuradha nakshatra in the month of Bhadrapad marks the arrival of the goddess Laxmi, the puja and mahanaivaidya are held during the Jyeshtha nakshatra and visarjan in the Mul nakshatra on three consecutive days.The festival has a bigger social dimension than a religious one and thus it is not restricted to any particular caste. The scale of celebrations in Vidarbha is much larger than in Konkan or western parts of Maharashtra where it is celebrated as Khadya cha Mahalaxmi. This itself marks the difference in grandeur as in Konkan the practice is to collect stones from the river bed and bring them into the house where they are kept at the altar and worshipped for three days. The prasad too is a simple ghawan ghatala, a preparation made from rice flour, sugar and coconut.But in Vidarbha the celebrations boast of lineage, tradition and scale. 320 Households here welcome goddess Kanishta and Jyeshtha Gauri along with their children as one would welcome a daughter on a visit to her maiden home. "Religious celebrations are done with care but if you add this dimension of treating the goddess like your daughter then the levels of excitement rise," says Gauri Chandrayan, a state government employee in whose home four generations ofwomen, 80 years to two years of age, collectively prepare for the festivities. "There are no restrictions of caste in these celebrations. In fact, we worship and feed a Brahmin woman and one of other caste during these festivities," says Gauri.If festivals are all about feasting then this one is quintessential. The elaborate meal served to nearly 100 people and the fulora or snacks items prepared specially as an offering to the goddess are all done with care and effort. "Distribution of prasad has always been the social angle of a religious ritual. Family andfriendsbeing fed after a puja and women coming for haldi kumkum are social gatherings," saysNutanChandrayan, a young housewife who is part of the large scale celebrations that take place at her in-laws place. The ever-increasing scale is also getting irksome for many.Sunanda Deosarkar, a homemaker whose family observes an elaborate Mahalaxmi puja, says the focus has now shifted to social rather than religious. "We now see rank outsiders coming in and asking us if they could have darshan," she says with bewilderment. Mahalaxmi puja is usually restricted to family members when all members of the clan come together to prepare and partake the prasad. "But now the trend is to invite friends and neighbours too. That's the reason why caterers and pandits are engaged to prepare food and fulora," she adds.Having the last word on the changing times, woman priest Jayshree Khandekar says, "Mahalaxmi prasad is actually ambil made of jowari. This is so that the poorest of poor can also welcome the goddess. The festivities also involve only members of the clan. Today everybody wants to flaunt their prosperity. So the number of invitees and the scale of feast have grown." In India Lakshmi is believed to roam the earth on the night of Lakshmi[2] Pooja. On the evening of Lakshmi Pooja, people open their doors and windows to welcome Lakshmi, and place diya lights on their windowsills and balcony ledges to invite her in. 321 People wear new clothes or their best outfits as the evening approaches. Then diyas are lit, pujas are offered to Lakshmi, and to one or more additional deities depending on the region of India; typically Ganesha, Saraswati, and Kubera. Lakshmi symbolises wealth and prosperity, and her blessings are invoked for a good year ahead. On this day, the mothers, who work hard all year, are recognized by the family. Mothers are seen to embody a part of Lakshmi, the good fortune and prosperity of the household.[4] Small earthenware lamps filled with oil are lighted and placed in rows by some Hindus along the parapets of temples and houses. Some set diyas adrift on rivers and streams. Important relationships and friendships are also recognized during the day, by visiting relatives and friends, exchanging gifts and sweets. It is popularly believed that Lakshmi likes cleanliness and will visit the cleanest house first. Hence, the broom is worshiped with offerings of haldi (turmeric) and sindoor (vermilion) on this day. Lakshmi Puja consists of a combined puja of five deities: Ganesha is worshiped at the beginning of every auspicious act as Vighneshvara; goddess Lakshmi is worshiped in her three forms; Mahalakshmi the goddess of wealth and money, Mahasaraswati the goddess of books and learning, and Mahakali. Kubera the treasurer of the gods is also worshiped. The most auspicious time for the puja is decided when “amavasya tithi” prevails during “pradosh kaal” or the evening time. On this day, the sun enters its second course and passes the constellation Libra, which is represented by the balance or scale. Hence, the sign of Libra is believed to suggest the balancing and closing of account books. After the puja, people go outside and celebrate by lighting up fireworks. The children enjoy sparklers and variety of small fireworks, while adults enjoy playing with ground chakra, Vishnu chakra, flowerpots (anaar), sutli bomb, chocolate bomb, rockets and bigger fireworks. The fireworks signify celebration of Diwali as well a way to chase away evil spirits. After fireworks, people head back to a family feast, conversations and mithai (sweets, desserts). People also perform vaibhava Lakshmi vrat for only one day it is believed that doing vrat on Diwali gives the blessings of vrat doing it for 21 times. Vaibhavalakshmi Vrat (Pious Observance & Worship of Laxmi) is also celebrated in many parts of India in the month of Margashirsha (ninth month of Hindu Calendar) every Friday. Vaibhav means “Prosperity and Wealth” and hence 322 Goddess Vaibhavalakshmi is believed to protect the devotees from misfortunes and grant them grace, happiness, wealth and prosperity. Vaibhavalakshmi Poojan (Worship) is held at Juinagar, Maharashtra, India by Sadguru Shree Aniruddha Upasana Trust (Mumbai, India) every year with great enthusiasm. Thousands of devotees participate in this poojan and carry out the rituals with discipline and in harmony. Puja Procedure Before beginning the puja, Hindus consider it important to cleanse and purify the space where the Puja is being carried out. For this, “Guggal” or Loban (Benzoin) is lighted using either coal or dried pan cakes made of cowdung. Its incense armotic fumes are considered to purify the atmosphere. However instead, Readmade Dhoop Cones brought from market are also used. Once the place is smoked and cleansed, the puja begins by laying down a piece of new cloth on a raised platform. Handfuls of grains are sprayed in the center of the cloth and a kalasha made of gold, silver, or copper is placed on top. Three-quarters of the kalasha is filled with water and betel nut, a flower, a coin, and a few rice grains are added to it. Five kinds of leaves are arranged (if a specified species is not available, leaves from a mango tree are used) and a small dish filled with rice grains is placed on the kalasha. A lotus is drawn over the rice grains with turmeric powder and the idol of Goddess Lakshmi is placed over the top of the kalasha, and coins are placed around it. The idol of Lord Ganesha is placed in front of the kalasha, on the right hand side pointing towards the south-west. Ink and business account books of the worshippers are kept on the platform. Specially blended oils made for puja are used with its ingredients varying, depending on the deity it's being offered to. A “Panchmukhi Diya” (Five faced lamp) accommodating 5 wicks are lit for this purpose. A special lamp is then lit in front of Lord Ganesha. The puja begins by offering turmeric, kumkuma and flowers to the Goddess Lakshmi. Then haldi, kumkum, and flowers are offered to the water, later used for the puja. The river goddess Saraswati is invoked to become part of that water. Goddess Lakshmi is worshiped and invoked by reciting Vedic mantras, hymns and prayers addressed to her. Her idol is placed in a plate and is bathed with panchamrita (a mixture of milk, curd, ghee or clarified butter, honey, 323 and sugar) and then with water containing a gold ornament or a pearl. Her idol is cleaned and placed back on the kalasha. A special lamp is then lit in front of Goddess Lakshmi. Offerings of sandal paste, saffron paste, garland of cotton beads or flowers, ittar (perfume), turmeric, kumkum, abir, and gulal are then made to the Goddess Lakshmi. Flowers and garlands, such as Lotus, Marigold, Rose, Chrysanthemum and leaves of Bael (wood apple tree) are also offered. An incense stick is lit and dhoop is given to her. An offering of sweets, coconut, fruits, and tambul is made later. Puffed rice and batasha (varieties of Indian sweets) are placed near the idol. Puffed rice, batasha, coriander seeds, and cumin seeds are poured or offered to her idol. In villages, a pot made of bamboo-canes measuring the paddy known as Nana' is filled up to the brink with freshly harvest paddy. Rice and lentils are also kept with the paddy. The `Mana' is the symbol of Mahalakshmi. Adoration of the Goddess is done by offering fruits, coconut, banana, doob-grass, amla, curd, turmeric, flowers, incense etc. It is customary to read out the holy book, the Eulogy, “Lakshmi Puran” while performing the pooja. A Swastika symbol is also then drawn on the safe or vault in which the devotee keeps their valuables and it is worshiped as a symbol of Lord Kubera. Towards the end of the ritual, Aarti is performed which is dedicated to Goddess Lakshmi. The Aarti is accompanied by a small bell and is performed in a silent and sublime atmosphere. In Hindu religion, Lakshmi emerged from the churning of the primordial ocean (Samudra manthan), choosing Vishnu as her eternal consort.[4] As mentioned in Vishnu Purana, when Vishnu descended on the Earth as the avatars Rama and Krishna, Lakshmi descended as Sita, Rukmini, and Satyabama. Lakshmi is also known by the honorific Shri, as she is endowed with six auspicious qualities (guṇas). She represents the material world of the earthly realm as the mother goddess, referred to as Prithvi Mata; she is also known by her twin identities as Bhudevi and Sridevi, and in another form, as Nila Devi. In Bengali Hindu culture, Lakshmi is considered as the daughter of Durga. She is also an important deity in Jainism and found in Jain temples. Additionally, in Buddhism, she has been viewed as a Goddess of abundance and fortune, and is represented on the oldest surviving stupas and cave temples of Buddhism. In Buddhist sects of Tibet, Nepal, and Southeast 324 Asia, Lakshmi Goddess Vasudhara mirrors the characteristics and attributes of the Hindu Goddess, with minor iconographic differences. Lakshmi is depicted in Indian art as an elegantly dressed, prosperity-showering golden-coloured woman with an owl as her vehicle, signifying the importance of economic activity in maintenance of life, her ability to move, work and prevail in confusing darkness. She typically stands or sits like a yogin on a lotus pedestal, while holding a lotus in her hand, symbolizing fortune, self-knowledge, and spiritual liberation. Her iconography shows her with four hands, which represent the four aspects of human life important to Hindu culture: dharma, kāma, artha, and moksha. In Hindu text A painting of Lakshmi on the inner walls of the Tanjore Big temple. Lakshmi (Lakṣmī) is one of many Hindu deities whose meaning and significance evolved in ancient Sanskrit texts.[25] Lakshmi is mentioned once in Rigveda, in which the name is used to mean 'kindred mark, sign of auspicious fortune'. भद्रै ष ं लक्ष्मीर्ििर्हत र्ि व र्ि "an auspicious fortune is attached to their words" bhadraiṣāṁ lakṣmīrnihitādhi vāci —Rig Veda, x.71.2 In Atharva Veda, transcribed about 1000 BCE, Lakshmi evolves into a complex concept with plural manifestations. Book 7, Chapter 115 of Atharva Veda describes the plurality, asserting that a hundred Lakshmis are born with the body of a mortal at birth, some good, punya ('virtuous') and auspicious, while others bad, paapi ('evil') and unfortunate. The good are welcomed, while the bad urged to leave. The concept and spirit of Lakshmi and her association with fortune and the good is significant enough that Atharva Veda mentions it in 325 multiple books: for example, in Book 12, Chapter 5 as punya Lakshmi. In some chapters of Atharva Veda, Lakshmi connotes the good, an auspicious sign, good luck, good fortune, prosperity, success and happiness. Later, Lakshmi is referred to as the goddess of fortune, identified with Sri and regarded as wife of Viṣṇu (Nārāyaṇa. For example, in Shatapatha Brahmana, variously estimated to be composed between 800 BCE and 300 BCE, Sri (Lakshmi) is part of one of many theories, in ancient India, about the creation of universe. In Book 9 of Shatapatha Brahmana, Sri emerges from Prajapati, after his intense meditation on creation of life and nature of universe. Sri is described as a resplendent and trembling woman at her birth with immense energy and powers. The gods were bewitched, desire her and immediately become covetous of her. The gods approach Prajapati and request permission to kill her and then take her powers, talents and gifts. Prajapati refuses, tells the gods that males should not kill females and that they can seek her gifts without violence. The gods then approach Lakshmi, deity Agni gets food, Soma gets kingly authority, Varuna gets imperial authority, Mitra acquires martial energy, Indra gets force, Brihaspati gets priestly authority, Savitri acquires dominion, Pushan gets splendour, Saraswati takes nourishment and Tvashtri gets forms. The hymns of Shatapatha Brahmana thus describe Sri as a goddess born with and personifying a diverse range of talents and powers. According to another legend, she emerges during the creation of universe, floating over the water on the expanded petals of a lotus flower; she is also variously regarded as wife of Dharma, mother of Kāma, sister or mother of Dhātṛ and Vidhātṛ, wife of Dattatreya, one of the nine Shaktis of Viṣṇu, a manifestation of Prakṛti as identified with Dākshāyaṇī in Bharatasrama and as Sita, wife of Rama. In the Epics of Hinduism, such as in Mahabharata, Lakshmi personifies wealth, riches, happiness, loveliness, grace, charm and splendor. In another Hindu legend, about the creation of universe as described in Ramayana Lakshmi springs with other precious things from the foam of the ocean of milk when it is churned by the gods and demons for the recovery of Amṛta. She appeared with a lotus in her hand and so she is also called Padmā. 326 Bas relief of GajaLakshmi at the Buddhist Sanchi Stupa, Stupa I, North gateway, Satavahana dynasty sculpture, 1st century CE. Lakshmi is a member of the Tridevi, the triad of great Goddesses. She represents the Rajas guna, and the Iccha-shakti. The image, icons, and sculptures of Lakshmi are represented with symbolism. Her name is derived from Sanskrit root words for knowing the goal and understanding the objective. Her four arms are symbolic of the four goals of humanity that are considered good in Hinduism: dharma (pursuit of ethical, moral life), artha (pursuit of wealth, means of life), kama (pursuit of love, emotional fulfillment), and moksha (pursuit of self-knowledge, liberation). In Lakshmi's iconography, she is either sitting or standing on a lotus and typically carrying a lotus in one or two hands. The lotus carries symbolic meanings in Hinduism and other Indian traditions. It symbolises knowledge, self-realisation, and liberation in Vedic context, and represents reality, consciousness and karma ('work, deed') in the Tantra (Sahasrara) context. The lotus, a flower that blooms in clean or dirty water, also symbolises purity regardless of the good or bad circumstances in which it grows. It is a reminder that good and prosperity can bloom and not be affected by evil in one's surrounding. Below, behind, or on the sides, Lakshmi is very often shown with one or two elephants, known as Gajalakshmi, and occasionally with an owl. Elephants symbolise work, activity and strength, as well as water, rain and fertility for abundant prosperity. The owl signifies the patient striving to observe, see and discover knowledge particularly when surrounded by darkness. As a bird reputedly blinded by daylight, the owl also serves as a symbolic reminder to refrain from blindness and greed after knowledge and wealth has been acquired. 327 Manuscript painting of Gaja-Lakshmi, ca 1780 AD.// Gaja Lakshmi, Cambodia, ca. 944968 In some representations, wealth either symbolically pours out from one of her hands or she simply holds a jar of money. This symbolism has a dual meaning: wealth manifested through Lakshmi means both materials as well as spiritual wealth. Her face and open hands are in a mudra that signifies compassion, giving or dāna ('charity'). Lakshmi typically wears a red dress embroidered with golden threads, symbolizes fortune and wealth. She, goddess of wealth and prosperity, is often represented with her husband Vishnu, the god who maintains human life filled with justice and peace. This symbolism implies wealth and prosperity is coupled with maintenance of life, justice, and peace. In Japan, where Lakshmi is known as Kisshōten, she is commonly depicted with the Nyoihōju gem in her hand. Nomenclature: Lakshmi has numerous names and numerous ancient Stotram and Sutras of Hinduism recite her various names:  Padmā: She of the lotus (she who is mounted upon or dwelling in a lotus)  Kamalā or Kamalatmika: She of the lotus  Padmapriyā: Lotus-lover  Padmamālādhāra Devī: Goddess bearing a garland of lotuses  Padmamukhī: Lotus-faced (she whose face is as like as a lotus)  Padmākṣī: Lotus-eyed (she whose eyes are as beautiful as a lotus) 328  Padmahasta: Lotus-hand (she whose hand is holding [a] lotus[es])  Padmasundarī: She who is as beautiful as a lotus  Sri: Radiance, eminence, splendor, wealth  Śrījā: Jatika of Sri  Viṣṇupriyā: Lover of Vishnu (she who is the beloved of Vishnu)  Ulūkavāhinī: Owl-mounted (she who is riding an owl)  Nandika: The one who gives pleasure, vessel made up of clay and Vishnupriya (she who is the beloved of Vishnu) Her other names include:[37] Aishwarya, Akhila, Anagha, Anumati, Apara, Aruna, Atibha, Avashya, Bala, Bhargavi, Bhudevi, Chakrika, Chanchala, Devi, Haripriya, Indira, Jalaja, Jambhavati, Janamodini, Jyoti, Jyotsna, Kalyani, Kamalika, Ketki, Kriyalakshmi, Kuhu, Lalima, Madhavi, Madhu, Malti, Manushri, Nandika, Nandini, Nila Devi, Nimeshika, Parama, Prachi, Purnima, Ramaa, Rukmini, Samruddhi, Satyabhama, Shreeya, Sita, Smriti, Sridevi, Sujata, Swarna Kamala, Taruni, Tilottama, Tulasi, Vaishnavi, Vasuda, Vedavati, Vidya, and Viroopa. Upanishads Shakta Upanishads are dedicated to the Lakshmi, Saraswati and Parvati. Saubhagyalakshmi Trinity (Tridevi) Upanishad describes of goddesses— the qualities, characteristics and powers of Lakshmi. In the second part of the Upanishad, the emphasis shifts to the use of yoga and transcendence from material craving in order to achieve spiritual knowledge and self-realisation, the true wealth. Saubhagya-Lakshmi Upanishad synonymously uses Sri to describe Lakshmi. Stotram and sutras Numerous ancient Stotram and Sutras of Hinduism recite hymns dedicated to Lakshmi. She is a major goddess in Puranas and Itihasa of Hinduism. In ancient scriptures of India, all women are declared to be embodiments of Lakshmi. For example Every woman is an embodiment of you. You exist as little girls in their childhood, As young women in their youth And as elderly women in their old age. 329 — Sri Kamala Stotram Every woman is an emanation of you. — Sri Daivakrta Laksmi Stotram Hindu Goddess Lakshmi Ancient prayers dedicated to Lakshmi seek both material and spiritual wealth in prayers.[37] Through illusion, A person can become disconnected, From his higher self, Wandering about from place to place, Bereft of clear thought, Lost in destructive behaviour. It matters not how much truth, May shine forth in the world, Illuminating the entire creation, For one cannot acquire wisdom, 330 Unless it is experienced, Through the opening on the heart.... Puranas Lakshmi features prominently in Puranas of Hinduism. Vishnu Purana, in particular, dedicates many sections to her and also refers to her.Sri, loyal to Vishnu, is the mother of the world. Vishnu is the meaning, Sri is the speech. She is the conduct, he the behavior. Vishnu is knowledge, she the insight. He is dharma, she the virtuous action. She is the earth, he earth's upholder. She is contentment, he the satisfaction. She wishes, he is the desire. Sri is the sky, Vishnu the Self of everything. He is the moon, she the light of moon. He is the ocean, she is the shore. Subhasita, Genomic and Didactic Literature Lakshmi, along with Parvati and Saraswati, is a subject of extensive Subhashita, genomic and didactic literature of India.[43] Composed in the 1st millennium BC through the 16th century AD, they are short poems, proverbs, couplets, or aphorisms in Sanskrit written in a precise meter. They sometimes take the form of dialogue between Lakshmi and Vishnu or highlight the spiritual message in Vedas and ethical maxims from Hindu Epics through Lakshmi.[43] An example Subhashita is Puranartha Samgraha, compiled by Vekataraya in South India, where Lakshmi and Vishnu discuss niti ('right, moral conduct') and rajaniti ('statesmanship' or 'right governance')—covering in 30 chapters and ethical and moral questions about personal, social and political life. 331 Vishnu resting on the ocean accompanied by Lakshmi/ A manuscript depicting Samudra Manthan, with Lakshmi emerging with the lotus in her hands. Diwali celebrations include puja (prayers) to Lakshmi and Ganesha. Lakshmi is of the Vaishnavism tradition, while Ganesha of the Shaivism tradition of Hinduism. Devi Lakshmi is worshipped as:  Ambabai in the Kolhapur Shakti peetha,  Mookambika in Kollur (Karnataka),  Bhagavathi in Chottanikkara Temple (Kerala),  Sri Kanaka Maha Lakshmi in Vishakhapatnam. In eastern India, Lakshmi is seen as a Devi. Lakshmi, Saraswati, and Parvati are typically conceptualised as distinct in most of India, but in states such as West Bengal and Odisha, they are regionally believed to be forms of Durga. Lakshmi is seen in two forms, Bhudevi and Sridevi, both at the sides of Sri Venkateshwara or Vishnu. Bhudevi is the representation and totality of the material world or energy, called the Apara Prakriti, or Mother Earth; Sridevi is the spiritual world or energy called the Prakriti. Inside temples, Lakshmi is often shown together with Krishna. In certain parts of India, Lakshmi plays a special role as the mediator between her husband Vishnu and his worldly devotees. When asking Vishnu for grace or forgiveness, the devotees often approach Him through the 332 intermediary presence of Lakshmi. She is also the personification of spiritual fulfillment. Lakshmi embodies the spiritual world, also known as Vaikunta, the abode of Lakshmi-Narayana or what would be considered heaven in Vaishnavism. Lakshmi is the embodiment of the creative energy of Vishnu, and primordial Prakriti who creates the universe.[49] In South India, she is also worshipped as Andal, an incarnation of Lakshmi. Secondary manifestations Ashta Lakshmi is a group of eight secondary manifestations of Lakshmi. The Ashta Lakshmi preside over eight sources of wealth and thus represent the eight powers of Shri Lakshmi. Temples dedicated to Ashta Lakshmi are found in Tamil Nadu, such as Ashtalakshmi Kovil near Chennai and in many other states of India. Ashta Lakshmi Adi Lakshmi The First manifestation of Lakshmi Dhanya Lakshmi Granary Wealth Veera Lakshmi Wealth of Courage Gaja Lakshmi Elephants spraying water, wealth of fertility, rains and food.[52] Santana Lakshmi Wealth of Continuity, Progeny Vidya Lakshmi Wealth of Knowledge and Wisdom 333 Vijaya Lakshmi Wealth of Victory Dhana / Aishwarya Lakshmi Wealth of prosperity and fortune Other secondary representations of the goddess include Lakshmi manifesting in three forms: Sri Devi, Bhudevi and Nila Devi. This threefold goddess can be found, for example, in Sri Bhu Neela Sahita Temple near Dwaraka Tirumala, Andhra Pradesh, and in Adinath Swami Temple in Tamil Nadu. In Nepal, Mahalakshmi is shown with 18 hands, each holding a sacred emblem, expressing a sacred gesture, or forming a mudra (lotus, pot, mudra of blessing, book, rosary, bell, shield, bow, arrow, sword, trident, mudra of admonition, noose, skull cap and kettledrum.)[54] In this representation, Mahalakshmi manifests as a kind, compassionate, tranquil deity sitting not on a lotus, but on a lion. Jain tradition Gaja Lakshmi at Shravanabelagola Temple, Karnataka. Some Jain temples also depict Sri Lakshmi as a goddess of artha ('wealth') and kama ('pleasure'). For example, she is exhibited with Vishnu in Parshvanatha Jain Temple at the Khajuraho Monuments of Madhya Pradesh, where she is shown pressed against Vishnu's chest, while Vishnu cups a breast in his palm. The presence of Vishnu-Lakshmi iconography in a Jain temple built near the Hindu temples of Khajuraho, suggests the sharing and acceptance of Lakshmi across a spectrum of Indian religions.[55] This commonality is reflected in the praise of Lakshmi found in the Jain text Kalpa Sūtra. 334 Devas (gods) and asuras (demons) were both mortal at one time in Hinduism. Amrita, the divine nectar that grants immortality, could only be obtained by churning Kshirasagar ('Ocean of Milk'). The devas and asuras both sought immortality and decided to churn the Kshirasagar with Mount Mandhara. The samudra manthan commenced with the devas on one side and the asuras on the other. Vishnu incarnated as Kurma, the tortoise and a mountain was placed on the tortoise as a churning pole. Vasuki, the great venom-spewing serpent-god, was wrapped around the mountain and used to churn the ocean. A host of divine celestial objects came up during the churning. Along with them emerged the goddess Lakshmi. In some versions, she is said to be daughter of the sea god since she emerged from the sea. In Garuda Purana, Linga Purana and Padma Purana, Lakshmi is said to have been born as daughter of the divine sage Bhrigu and his wife Khyati and was named Bhargavi. According to Vishnu Purana, the universe was created when the devas and asuras churn the cosmic Kshirasagar. Lakshmi came out of the ocean bearing lotus, along cow Kamadhenu, Varuni, Parijat tree, Apsaras, Chandra (the with divine moon), and Dhanvantari with Amrita ('nectar of immortality'). When she appeared, she had a choice to go to Devas or Asuras. She chose Devas' side and among thirty deities, she chose to be with Vishnu. Thereafter, in all three worlds, the lotus-bearing goddess was celebrated. Gaja Lakshmi Puja is another autumn festival celebrated on Sharad Purnima in many parts of India on the full-moon day in the month of Ashvin (October).[21] Sharad Purnima, also called Kojaagari Purnima or Kuanr Purnima, is a harvest festival marking the end of monsoon season. There is a traditional celebration of the moon called the Kaumudi celebration, Kaumudi meaning moonlight.[65] On Sharad Purnima night, goddess Lakshmi is thanked and worshipped for the harvests. Vaibhav Lakshmi Vrata is observed on Friday for prosperity. Countless hymns, prayers, shlokas, stotra, songs, and legends dedicated to Mahalakshmi are recited during the ritual worship of Lakshmi. These include:  Sri Lalitha Sahasranamam,  Sri Mahalakshmi Ashtakam,  Sri Lakshmi Sahasaranama Stotra (by Sanath kumara), 335  Sri Stuti (by Sri Vedantha Desikar),  Sri Lakshmi Stuti (by Indra),  Sri Kanakadhāra Stotram (by Sri Adi Shankara),  Sri Chatussloki (by Sri Yamunacharya),  Narayani Stuti,  Devi Mahatmyam Middle episode,  Argala Stotra,  Sri Lakshmi Sloka (by Bhagavan Sri Hari Swamiji), and  Sri Sukta, which is contained in the Vedas and includes Lakshmi Gayatri Mantra ("Om Shree Mahalakshmyai ca vidmahe Vishnu patnyai ca dheemahi tanno Lakshmi prachodayat Om"). Archeology: Greek-influenced statue of Gaja Lakshmi, holding lotus and cornucopia, flanked by two elephants and two lions. From Kashmir, 6th century AD. A representation of the goddess as Gaja Lakshmi or Lakshmi flanked by two elephants spraying her with water, is one of the most frequently found in archaeological sites. An ancient sculpture of Gaja Lakshmi (from Sonkh site at Mathura) dates to the pre-Kushan Empire era.[17] Atranjikhera site in modern Uttar Pradesh has yielded terracotta plaque with images of Lakshmi dating to 2nd century BCE. Other archaeological sites with ancient Lakshmi 336 terracotta figurines from the 1st millennium BCE include Vaisali, Sravasti, Kausambi, Campa, and Candraketugadh. The goddess Lakshmi is frequently found in ancient coins of various Hindu kingdoms from Afghanistan to India. Gaja Lakshmi has been found on coins of Scytho-Parthian kings Azes II and Azilises; she also appears on Shunga Empire king Jyesthamitra era coins, both dating to 1st millennium BCE. Coins from 1st through 4th century CE found in various locations in India such as Ayodhya, Mathura, Ujjain, Sanchi, Bodh Gaya, Kanauj, all feature Lakshmi.[68] Similarly, ancient Greco-Indian gems and seals with images of Lakshmi have been found, estimated to be from 1st millennium BCE. A 1400-year-old rare granite sculpture of Lakshmi has been recovered at the Waghama village along Jehlum in Anantnag district of Jammu and Kashmir. The Pompeii Lakshmi, a statuette supposedly thought to be of Lakshmi found in Pompeii, Italy, dates to before the eruption of Vesuvius in 79 CE. China In China, Lakshmi's name is written as Lāhākxīmǐ 'competed-gain hope rice'). Japan The Japanese goddess of fortune and prosperity, Kishijoten Auspicious Heavens'), corresponds to Lakshmi.[72] Kishijoten is considered the sister of Bishamon , also known as Tamon or Bishamon-ten), who protects human life, fights evil, and brings good fortune. In ancient and medieval Japan, Kishijoten was the goddess worshiped for luck and prosperity, particularly on behalf of children. Kishijoten was also the guardian goddess of Geishas. While Bishamon and Kishijoten are found in ancient Chinese and Japanese Buddhist literature, their roots have been traced to deities in Hinduism.[72] Tibet and Nepal In Tibetan Buddhism, Lakshmi is an important deity, especially in the Gelug School. She has both peaceful and wrathful forms; the latter form is known as Palden Lhamo, Shri Devi Dudsol Dokam, or Kamadhatvishvari, and is the principal female protector of (Gelug) Tibetan Buddhism and of Lhasa, Tibet. 337 Goddess Vasudhara in Tibetan and Nepalese culture is closely analogous to goddess Lakshmi as well. Bali (Indonesia) Goddess Lakshmi is closely linked to Dewi Sri, who is worshipped in Bali as the goddess of fertility and agriculture. This day ‘Laxmi-panchayatan’ enters the Universe. Shri Vishnu, Shri Indra, Shri Kuber, Shri Gajendra and Shri Laxmi are elements of this ‘panchayatan’ (a group of five). The tasks of these elements are: Vishnu : Happiness (happiness and satisfaction) Indra : Opulence (satisfaction due to wealth) Kuber : Wealth (one who gives away wealth) Gajendra : Carries the wealth Lakshmi Divine Energy (Shakti) which provides energy to all the above activities. : Importance of Lakshmi Puja A. Destruction of negative energies: On this particular day, Goddess Lakshmi’s destroyer (marak) form is active, since it is the new moon day. The spiritual emotion of the person doing Lakshmi puja activates Goddess Lakshmi’s marak form and destroys the negative frequencies in the environment. B. Arrival of other Gods (Devtas): Lord Indra and other male deities also get drawn to the place of ritualistic worship and follow Goddess Lakshmi. Thus happiness, opulence, prosperity, stability and wealth is maintained in the premise (Vastu) by worshiping the 5 elements or Deities – A scholar [through the medium of Pujya (Mrs.) Anjali Gadgil (18/5/05, 10.40 am)] Many Hindus worship Lakshmi on Diwali, the festival of lights. It is celebrated in autumn, typically October or November every year. The festival spiritually signifies the victory of light over darkness, knowledge over ignorance, good over evil and hope over despair.[61] Before Diwali night, people clean, renovate and decorate their homes and offices.[62] On Diwali night, Hindus dress up in new clothes or their best outfits, light up diyas (lamps and candles) 338 inside and outside their home, and participate in family puja (prayers) typically to Lakshmi. After puja, fireworks follow, then a family feast including mithai (sweets), and an exchange of gifts between family members and close friends. Diwali also marks a major shopping period, since Lakshmi connotes auspiciousness, wealth and prosperity. This festival dedicated to Lakshmi is considered by Hindus to be one of the most important and joyous festivals of the year. On the day of Diwali, Lakshmi puja is performed at every Hindu household of the country. Lakshmi is the goddess of wealth. The Lakshmi puja is performed in the evening to invite Goddess Lakshmi at home. People pray and wish for peace, wealth and prosperity in their and their family members life. In case you want to perform Diwali puja / Lakshmi puja at home this year and don't know the steps, check the guide provided below. Diwali Puja Vidhi: Step-by-Step guide Diwali Puja Vidhi Step 1: Purify your home Diwali cleaning is very important. Clean every corner of your house. After cleaning, sprinkle Gangajal (holy water from river Ganga) to purify the surrounding. Diwali Puja Vidhi Step 2: Set up puja platform In your puja room/living room, spread a red cotton cloth on a table/stool and keep a handful of grains in the center. Diwali Puja Vidhi Step 3: Place a kalash Place the kalash (silver/bronze pot) in the middle of grains. Fill the kalash with 75% of water and put one supari (betel nut), one marigold flower, a coin and some rice grains. Place 5 mango leaves on the kalash in a circular design. Diwali Puja Vidhi Step 4: Place idol of Lakshmi and Ganesha for puja Place the idol of Goddess Lakshmi in the centre and idol of Lord Ganesha on the right side (South-West direction) of the kalash. Take a small thali and make a small flat mountain of rice grains, draw a lotus flower with haldi, put some coins and place it in front of the idol. 339 Diwali Puja Vidhi Step 5: Place accounts books/wealth related items Now place your business/accountancy book and other wealth/business related items in front of the idol. Diwali Puja Vidhi Step 6: Apply tilak and light diya Now apply tilak to Goddess Lakshmi and Lord Ganesh and light diyas. Apply tilak to kalash also. Diwali Puja Vidhi Step 7: Offer flowers Now offer flowers to Lord Ganesh and Lakshmi. Keep some flower in your palm for prayer. Diwali Puja Vidhi Step 8: Recite Puja Mantra Place flower in your palm and join your hands in prayer mode, close your eyes and recite Diwali puja mantra. After prayer, offer the flower kept in your palm to Ganesha and Lakshmi. Diwali Puja Vidhi Step 9: Offer water Take a Lakshmi idol and bathe it with water followed by panchamrita. Bathe it again with water, wipe with a clean cloth and place it back on the Kalash. Diwali Puja Vidhi Step 10: Offer mala (garland) Put haldi, kumkum and rice to the idol. Place the garland around the neck of the Goddess. Burn agarbatti and shoop in front of the idol. Diwali Puja Vidhi Step 11: Offer fruits and sweets Take coconut, supari, paan leaf and offer it to the goddess. Offer fruit and sweets to the goddess. Put some flowers and coins in front of the idol. Diwali Puja Vidhi Step 12: Perform Lakshmi Aarti Take a diya in a thali, puja bell and perform the Lakshmi aarti. How to do Lakshmi puja ? Jyeshtha Gauri Puja 2020: Date, time and significance of Gauri Ganpati, Mahalaxmi puja during Ganesh Chaturthi festival. New Delhi: The auspicious occasion of Ganesh Chaturthi was celebrated on August 22, 2020 - Saturday. In Maharashtra, it is one of the major festivals and continues for 10 long days 340 Worship of Goddess Lakshmi (Lakshmi puja) 1. At the break of dawn, one should have an auspicious bath, and then worship the Deities. 2. In the afternoon, a rite for the departed souls (parvanshraddha) and an offering of meals to Brahmaṇs (Brahmaṇbhojan) is done. 3. In the evening, in a decorated area, Goddess Lakshmi, Deity Vishnu, other Deities and Deity Kuber are worshipped. A legend says that on this day Deity Vishnu along with Goddess Lakshmi liberated all the Deities from Bali’s prison and thereafter they all slept in the ocean. To represent that, everyone should enjoy themselves at home and light lamps everywhere. 341 When ritualistically worshipping Goddess Lakshmi (Lakshmi puja), an idol of Lakshmi should be installed on a seat on which either an octapetalled lotus or a swastik is drawn with consecrated rice (akshata). Next to Her, an idol of Deity Kuber is placed on a pot (kalash). Then all these Deities including Lakshmi are offered a Naivedya (Holy food item), a mixture of coagulated cow’s milk (khava), sugar, cardamom and cloves. Then items like coriander, jaggery, corn obtained from parched, uncleaned rice, sugar candies (battase), etc. are offered to Goddess Lakshmi and then distributed to well-wishers and friends. Holding a bundle in the hand guidance is offered to ancestors. Brahmaṇs and the hungry are offered meals. One stays awake in the night. The Puraṇa narrates that on the new moon night of Ashwin the Goddess Lakshmi goes everywhere in search of an ideal home. Though undoubtedly cleanliness, beauty and excellence attract Her yet She loves to live in a home inhabited by men who are faithful, dutiful, merciful, righteous, have control over passions and are devotees of God, and women who are virtuous and chaste.’ Ritualistic worship of Deity Kuber Just as the Deities Lakshmi and Deity Indra are worshipped on the religious festival of Kojagari, Goddess Lakshmi and Deity Kuberare worshipped on this new moon day. Lakshmi is the Deity of wealth but Deity Kuber is the treasurer. Several people possess the art of earning money but do not know how to save it. However saving money and spending it appropriately is far more important than earning it. Since most people do not know how to spend money, their spending is unwarranted and ultimately, they become bankrupt. Kuber is the Deity who teaches the art of saving money as He Himself is the treasurer. Therefore, in this ritual the worship of Goddess Lakshmi and Deity Kuber has been recommended. Though all people celebrate this festival, the business community in particular does so with great enthusiasm and splendour. Coriander seeds and parched corn from parched, uncleaned rice are offered in this ritual of worship, the reason for this being that coriander seeds (dhane) denote wealth and parched corn represents prosperity. If a few grains of parched, uncleaned rice are roasted one gets a handful of parched corn. Since one aspires to acquire the prosperity of Deity Lakshmi, parched corn is offered symbolically. Driving off poverty (Alakshmi) Development of virtues gains importance only if in the process defects are overcome. Just as one makes efforts to acquire wealth (Lakshmi), poverty (alakshmi) should also be destroyed. To signify that, on this day a new broom is bought. It is called Lakshmi. At midnight one should sweep the house with that broom, accumulate the garbage in a dust pan and throw it out. This is called ‘driving off’ of alakshmi (garbage – poverty). Sweeping the house and throwing the 342 garbage out at night is forbidden on other days. When removing the garbage alakshmi is driven out even by sound created by striking a sifting pan and an earthen vessel covered with a hide. The act of driving out alakshmi on the day of Lakshmi pujan Goddess Lakshmī means wealth, prosperity while alakshmi means poverty, misfortune. Development of virtues gains importance only if one overcomes defects. Just as one makes efforts to acquire wealth (Lakshmi), poverty (alakshmi) should also be destroyed. On the third day of Diwāli, in the evening, Goddess Lakshmi is worshipped and this is called as Lakshmipujan. At midnight, the act of driving out alakshmi is done as given below – 1. A new broom is bought for this act and it is considered as ‘Lakshmi’. 2. It is ritualistically worshipped at midnight and then, the entire house is swept using the new broom. 3. The rubbish is collected in the dustpan and it is taken out of house. It is recommended to take it out through the backdoor; however, if there is only one door, then one can take it out from that door. 4. Throw away the rubbish as far as possible. One can throw it in the rubbish bins kept on the roads / footpath. If this is difficult, one can throw it in the rubbish bin outside house or apartment. 5. At the end, express gratitude to Goddess Lakshmi and from next day onwards, start using the new broom daily for sweeping the floor. a. On any other days, sweeping and throwing out the rubbish at night is not recommended. b. If one lives in a fully carpeted house, they can buy new broom and sweep over the carpet and follow as given in point 3 and 4 above. Spiritual effect of the act of driving out Alakshmi 1. Rubbish represents alakshmi. At midnight, the subtle components Raja and Tama are maximum. 2. The rubbish being Raja-Rama predominant, the Raja-Tama components in the atmosphere are drawn towards it. 343 3. When the rubbish is collected in dustpan and thrown out of the house, the RajaTama components too are thrown out of the house. Due to this, the subtle components Sattva are attracted in the house, and the house becomes sāttvik. 4. Earlier in the evening, due to performing the Lakshmipujan, the Chaitanya (Divine Consciousness) spreads in the house. 5. In Purāna, it is said that at midnight, Goddess Lakshmi searches for an ideal house. No doubt the cleanliness and beauty draws Her attention; however, She chooses to live in a house in which faithful, dutiful, merciful, righteous men live, who have control over passions and are devotees of God, and women who are virtuous and chaste. All clothes and jewellery of the two idols is gathered. A table is prepared to accommodate 2 idols Two structural bases made of tin are filled-one with rice grains and other with wheat 344 Clothing is put on followed by jewellery etc 345 Rice and Wheat symbolizing Agricultural affiliatios of the Goddess Play a role 346 347 Making a din to warn of the coming of the Kaxmi Goddess in the House 348 Fixing the idols 349 350 351 l 352 353 354 CHAPTER XII SECRETS behind HINDU TEMPLES and their DIVINITY..........??? Murali Vvmmr Introduction: The origin of the word temple can be traced to word the "templum" which were used by Roman soothsayers indicating a section of the sky and also a piece of the ground to gaze and mark divine signs for foretelling the future. Eventually, “temple” referred to a building constructed at the site. A Hindu temple refers to in Sanskrit language to “Devaalaya” consisting of two words namely Deva means “God” and Alaya means “House”. Purpose: In Vedic Hindu view, an individual's body is referred as a temple with the indweller as God. The Vedic seers (Rishis) having realized God within themselves gave designs and functions of temples in scriptures (agama shastras) of Vedic Hinduism (Sanatana Dharma). Its purpose is to enable a devotee to use a physical temple and the ritualistic worship as a reminder to the spiritual journey to be carried out within oneself. In addition, it also serves as a place for celebrations of Hindu religious festivals. Architecture: A Vedic Hindu temple's architecture is a divine and yogic representation of a human being as shown in the below figure. The feet represent the spire (rajagopura). The hands represent the walkway (prakaara) encompassing all around the temple. The main hall (mandapa) represents the abdomen. The dwaja sthamba (flag pole) represents the sexual organs. The entrance porch (antaraala) represents the heart. The sanctum sanctorum (garbha griha) represents the head. The deity is consecrated with religious rites in the sanctum sanctorum. 355 There is proportionality between the size of the deity in the sanctum sanctorum and the sizes of the temple construction details. The temple is used as a reminder that our inner spiritual journey is through internal yoga to realize the indweller God. This analogy is shown in below figure through the representation of various chakras namely Moolaadhara to Sahasraara in the body to various locations.ocations. FIG1.The simplified structure of temple design FIG2.secret behing temple structure. 356 FIG3.parts of temple. 357 represent male reproductive organ. FIG4.dwaja sthamba (flagpole) 358 FIG5.represent female reproductive organ. FIG6.human CHAKRA system. FIG7.The impact of CHAKRA system. 359 Worship Rituals: The ritualistic worship (pooja) of consecrated deities (vigrahas) is carried out by priests on behalf of devotees to remind them of the inward yogic process of approaching the indwelling God. The various steps in a pooja offered to the deity with prayers and mantras (in Sanskrit) include steps such as washing feet and giving sacred bath using milk and water. Then with screen closed the deity is decoratively dressed with special cloths, flowers and ornaments. After the decoration the screen is opened to devotees to signify removal of veil of illusions so that devotees can see the beautifully decorated God. Then fruits and food are offered and incense sticks and lamps are waved to the deity. During the waving of lamp by a priest, devotees need to see with eyes open the radiating face of the fully decorated deity so that its memory will provide the spiritual joy. Then the priests distribute the sacred water (teertha) and sacred food (prasada) that devotees drink and eat for spiritual blessings. Thus the entire ritualistic worship can also be seen as expressing love, devotion and respect to one's guest of honor. The joyful resonance between the external and internal worship provides the bliss. The elaborate worship of consecrated deity along with sacred rituals with Vedic mantras and the materials used in rituals such as water, milk, flower, incense, sandal paste, bells, conch-shell etc is to help devotees to focus their mind on the Supreme Being. The Vedic seers have recommended the temple and rituals so that devotees through sensory experiences can spiritually experience the bliss of God. It is inspiring to remember the words of my Sadguru Sriranga, a seer-yogi, "The worship of deities and rituals in a temple should be carried out with child-like loving mind by the devotees as little children play with joy using their toys as medium. Role in Vedic Hinduism: Vedic Hinduism or Santana Dharma is based on the Vedas and Vedic literature. Solutions and approaches to all levels of inquiry into the nature of soul, universe and God are provided in Vedic Hinduism. Rituals, Music, Dance, Yoga, Meditation, Vedanta etc express its many facets. The celebrations of Vedic Hindu festivals bring out the various aspects namely religious, cultural, educational and social. A devotee focusing on the meaning of the Vedic mantras and ritualistic procedures will gain the spiritual knowledge. One focusing on the prayers and feelings 360 in rituals will experience joy of devotion. One focusing on service in a temple will experience the joy of selfless service. A temple plays an important role in providing a sacred place and means for spiritual development of a seeker. Concluding Remarks: A Hindu temple (Devaalaya) has not only religious purpose but also spiritual, cultural, educational and social objectives. It provides a place for devotees to focus and develop their spiritual insight. A Hindu temple in essence can be recognized in three forms. The first is oneself with God within. The second one is a dedicated room (with altar and deities) in a home. The third one is the Hindu temple in which devotees participate collectively that reflects the pluralistic nature of Vedic Hinduism or Santana Dharma. Thus a devotee needs to integrate all the three forms of temples to develop the spiritual insight and enjoy the peace and bliss. DOUBTS AND CLARIFICATIONS : 1.God exists everywhere. So, a question may be asked why there should be any temples built for Him. We know that God exists everywhere, but still the idea does not get firmly established in our mind. It does not get reflected in our daily actions. If one remembers God all the time, how can one utter any falsehood or commit evil acts? If God is merely omnipresent, how can He help us? We all long for His grace somehow. So, we have to worship Him and get His grace. But the agama-shastras tell us how this should be done. The sun's rays contain a lot of heat energy. If we keep a piece of cloth in the sun, it does not catch fire by itself. But if we place a lens and focus the sun's heat rays on that piece of cloth, after some time, we find that the cloth catches fire. Similarly, electrical energy is everywhere, but in order to bring it to our daily use, we need to have generators to channel that energy and transmission systems to distribute it at the places where we need it. In the same way, in order to get the grace of the Omnipresent Lord, we have to build temples, where we can focus the power of the Lord in a consecrated idol for our benefit in an easy way. 361 2.God knows everything that we want to tell Him. Yet why is it that we go and narrate our sufferings before Him? It is just to get peace of mind by emptying our mind before Him. As Nilakanta Dikshita says: "What is it that you do not know? You know everything. And yet I feel like speaking out things before you, because my mind is restless; it is only when I empty the contents of my mind that I can secure peace. That is why I am narrating all this before you." 3.Some people have a doubt whether they should go to temples daily, or not.??? Of course, it is absolutely necessary to do so. In the olden days, people never used to have their food in their houses unless they heard the temple bell ringing at the time of the morning, noon, evening and night pujas to the Lord. It is up to us therefore to nurture the divinity in the temples by ensuring that the pujas are performed properly and that the temple rituals are observed with diligence. We should see that the temple premises are kept clean and the deepa is lit every day. We should also see that the cloth that we offer to Lord is washed daily. If only we could ensure these things, automatically we shall be able to derive as much benefit, if not more, than what we get by the establishment of hospitals and other social welfare institutions. Since a temple is a place of divinity, of course we have to observe certain rules while we are in the precincts of the temple. For instance, we should not use anything meant for God for ourselves. RULES AND REGULATIONS : >We should not go to the temple in a purposeless manner. >One should not pass urine or spit or excrete fecal matter within the temple premises and within the vicinity of the temples. >Nor should one blow his nose or sneeze or chew pan in the temple, or eat fruits or food, or sleep or sit with stretched legs, or comb the hair or tie the hair after combing, wear cloth over the head and over the shoulders, tread over nirmalya or tread over the shadows of the flag staff, idols etc, 362 >nor should one touch the idols or those who do puja to the idols. > No one should gossip, laugh loudly, or play games or go between the idol and the bali peetha. >As for pradakshina or going round the temple, one should not stop with just one or two rounds only but should go round at least thrice. >One should not have darshan of the Lord at odd hours or at the time of abhisheka or naivedyam. >One should not enter into the temple and worship when the deity is not in the straight position. >One should not enter a temple by any passage other than the main gate. >One should not go empty-handed to a temple merely for seeing the karpura-harati. >One should offer what one has brought to the priest, have darshan and return without showing his back to the Lord. >With folded hands, and reciting stotras , one should perform pradakshinas ranging between 3 and 21 times, preferably in odd numbers. >As for namaskarams, one should do it an odd number of times for Ishwara, ranging from 3 to 21, and for Devi four times. >After namaskara, one should do pradakshina and then return home. All these rules have been prescribed only for our welfare and to preserve the sanctity of the temples. It is up to us all to observe these rules, protect and nurture the sanctity of our temples, which have been the greatest heritage. 4.what is the difference between IDOL and (VIGRAHA)DIETY ??? Meaning of Vigraha is ‘Embodiment’, not idol!. Most Hindus find the word idol offensive as it has a negative connotation because of the way the Bible uses the word. "If there is no life, then it is idol worship, hedonism. Pran Pratishtha means infusing life into an idol.Without breath( prana) a human body is nothing. Similarly, an idol is a piece of metal, wood or stone until life is infused into it. This is done through a detailed ceremony by chanting mantras requesting God to reside in the idol. Once this is done the idol becomes deity. Thereafter, it must be bathed, clothed, given ornaments, food, incense sticks and articles of prayer, followed by arti in the morning and evening. 363 Prana pratishthha gives divine powers to an ordinary idol. Not only Ganesha but all idols are done pran prathishtha before worshipping The sacred images of God are called arca-vigraha. Arca means 'worship-able' and vigraha means "form" and so the full translation is the "form to be worshipped." Hindus believe that God agrees to appear in these forms in order to allow Himself to be worshipped. The worship of a physical deity can be hard to understand but is integral to developing a relationship with God in Hinduism. When engaging in the service of the deity all the senses are deemed to become purified, and this activity helps the mind, body and spirit focus on God. AGAMA SASTRA : “Agama Shastra”, which explains the science of temples, Vaastu is considered as the basis for any type of construction. Parts of Agama Shastras There are three main divisions in Agama shastra – * The Shaiva * The Shaktha * The Vaishnava The Shaiva branch of the Agama deals with the worship of the deity in the form of Shiva. This branch in turn has given rise to 'Shaiva Siddantha" of the South and the "Prathyabijnana" School of Kashmir "Shaivisim". The "Shaktha Agama" prescribes the rules and tantric rituals for worship of Shakthi, Devi the divine mother. The third one, "Vaishanava Agama" adores God as Vishnu the protector. This branch has two major divisions Vaikhanasa and Pancharatra. The latter in turn has a sub branch called Tantra Sara followed mainly by the Dvaita sect (Madhwas). Each Agama consists of four parts – 1. The philosophical and spiritual knowledge 364 2. The yoga and the mental discipline 3. The specifies rules for the construction of temples and for sculpting and carving the figures of deities for worship in the temples 4. The rules pertaining to the observances of religious rites, rituals, and festivals Agama Shastras – Methods and practices: The Agama shastras are based in the belief that the divinity can be approached in two ways. It can be viewed as nishkala, formless – absolute; or as sakala having specific aspects. The Agama methods are worship of images of God through rituals (Tantra), symbolic charts (Yantra) and verbal symbols (Mantra). Agama regards devotion and complete submission to the deity as fundamental to pursuit of its aim; and hopes that wisdom, enlightenment (jnana) would follow, eventually, by the grace of the worshipped deity. The Agama is basically dualistic, seeking grace, mercy and love of the Supreme God represented by the personal deity, for liberation from earthly attachments (moksha). The temple worship is guided by its related Agama texts which invariably borrow the mantras from the Vedic traditions and the ritualistic details from Tantric traditions. This has the advantage of claiming impressive validity from Nigama, the Vedas; and at the same time, carrying out popular methods of worship. Contradictions and contraventions: Today, most of the shastras have been changed as per the convenience. It is not practiced and followed precisely. People have bent the rules and hence, this sacred and precious knowledge and practice is confined to books. If Agama shastra was given importance, income to the temple would go down. The tradition set certain times for public prayer. Now, to get money worship is allowed at all the times and the Agama tradition got a back seat. Priests also took liberty with traditions and gave up their customs. Sincerity of priests dwindled. They did not feel the importance of learning the agama traditions. Priests today are unable to answer some basic questions about the worship Today, there is demand for various types of temples and agama tradition is compromised now and devotees’ desire takes precedence. Prana Pratishtha (Consecration): 365 The Agamas prescribe certain objects of worship symbolising in form the Deities or representing their dwelling places, as perceived by their seers. These are of three kinds: 1. Image, murti, which represents the Deity in human form with limbs and the like. 2. Emblems which stand for particular Deities. e.g., Saligram stone for Vishnu, Linga for Siva. 3. Diagrams - geometrical figures consisting of lines and curves, circles and squares and triangles all of which are symbolic, called Yantras or Mandalas. The Yantra literally means an instrument, the means by which worship is done. It is looked upon as the body of the Mantra which itself is ensouled by the Devata. The Yantra is drawn or engraved on metal or stone or on any surface. Mandala is a figure drawn on a surface and may represent any Devata whereas the Yantra stands for a particular Devata alone. These are the figures, pratima, symbols or representations of the Divinity which the worshipper places before him or her as pratik (symbol), for adoration and worship. "Prana-pratishtha(consecration)": The image or the diagram does not by itself become a fit object of worship. It remains but a material form until it is infused with a life principle. The worshipper contemplates in his or her inner being the form of the Deity as induced by the physical form before him or her, dwells upon it with an intense concentration and devotion; a spiritual force is generated as a result, and transmits this power, released in the consciousness of the person, to the object which then becomes alive with the spiritual energism. This is called the Prana-pratishtha, installation of life force. [to understand easily I am describing with present generation example: the HARDWARE parts of a computer are meaningless until the OPERATING SYSTEM(OS) is installed into it…..after it becomes COMPUTER.likewise here a normal idol is meaningless until PRANA-PRATISTA(CONSECRATION)is done. 366 however OPERATING SYSTEM is an interface between hardware and user to understand the user’s inputs to computer.likewise CONSECRATION is an interface between human beings and power of god to understand human languages and feelings.] ***Here I am giving example for PRANA PRATISTA of LORD GANESH IDOL FIG8.GANESH YANTRA...MANTRA Indirectly PRANA PRATISTA means giving the power of five elements 367 FIG9.The five elements In modern languages, we use the word prana as synonymous with life. In Sanskrit prANa is the outgoing breath and apAna is the incoming breath. hrAm -is the seed or bIjam. hrIm -is the s’akti or competence/strength. hrUm -is the kIlaka or that most important component of a machine that makes it work. These mantrAs are used for the successful invocation of Ganesha into the pratima. They are used for japa. These sounds are used to offer salutations to these body parts, during dhyAna(meditaion) or contemplation. hrAm – thumbs hrIm – forefingers hrOm - middle fingers hrAIm – ring fingers 368 hraum – little fingers hrAm – heart hrIm – head hrOm - s’ikhA.. back of the head hrAIm – kavaca.. arms crossed across the chest hraum – nEtratraya – three eyes.. third eye is the spot between the eye brows and slightly up. hrah – astraya phat (this is a vedic gesture) bhUh bhuvah svarah om – for the dig bandha. As a result of these now Divinity is first invoked into You. Then 2 mantras are chanted to please the dEvI prANa s’akti. Then we say(in SANSKRIT), “Om, hrAm, hrIm, krOm, ya ra la va s’a Sa sa ham Lam ksham” Meaning of above MANTRA: the prAna od varasiddhivinayAka is is my prANa and the jIva (atma/life) of varasiddhi vinAyaka is my jIva. May Vinayaka come out in the form of ucchvAsa nis’s'vAsa (breath) by speech, mind, eyes, ears, tongue and nostrils and enter this bimba (image) and stay here comfortably and for a long time. …. and then the mantrAs go on. To such a living form of a Deity is the worship offered, in which not only the mind and heart but the whole body of the worshipper participates. Traditionally this worship has sixteen stages:1. Asana (seating of the image 2. Svaagat (welcome of the Deity) 3. Paadya - water to cleanse the feet 4. Arghya -offerings 5. Aachman - water for sipping and cleaning the lips 6. Aachman offered again 7. Madhuparka - honey, ghee, milk and curds 8. Snaan - water to bathe the Deity 369 9. Vastra - garments 10. Aabharana ( ornaments) 11. Gandha - sandal paste or perfume 12. Pushpa - flowers 13. Dhupa - incense 14. Dipa - light 15. Naivedya - food for consecration 16. Vandana - prayerful homage ***WHAT ARE THE MANTRA , TANTRA & YANTRA........??? YANTRA : Yantra is a complex subject by a variety of ways and situations where it is used. Some say that yantra is composed of yam = hold, hold (as in yama = hold back) + tra = protect instrument I like to translate as Yantra is a machine that contains and protects the mind. Yantra-s are instruments, apparatus, machines, devices for meditation, worship, protection, magic, alchemy and technology. They can be drawings, symbols, diagrams, cosmogramme (devotion, representing a deity), devices, objects (alchemy, amulets), instruments (surgical), machinery (machine flying robot) and buildings (temples). So the pair mantra / yantra is part of many mystical rituals, religious and symbolic around the world. From the profane to the sacred sound and form, go together, interact, complement and destroy. Examples of YANTRA : 370 FIG10.The SNAKE(kaal sarpa) yantra.. FIG11.The SURYA Yantra./FIG12. The SREE Yantra. MANTRA : A mantra is a sound, syllable, word, or group of words that is considered capable of "creating transformation" (spiritual transformation).Its use and type varies according to the school and philosophy associated with the mantra. Mantras (Devanāgarī मन्त्र) originated in the Vedic tradition of India, later becoming an essential part of the Hindu tradition and a customary practice within Buddhism, Sikhism, and Jainism. The 371 use of mantras is now widespread throughout various spiritual movements which are based on, or off-shoots of, the practices in the earlier Eastern traditions and religions. For the authors of the Hindu scriptures of the Upanishads, the syllable Aum, itself constituting a mantra, represents Brahman, the godhead, as well as the whole of creation. The Sanskrit word mantra- (also n. mantram) consists of the root man-means "to think" (also in manas "mind") and the suffix -tra, means designating tools or instruments, hence a literal translation would be "instrument of thought. Mantras were originally conceived in the Vedas. Most mantras follow the written pattern of two line "shlokas" although they are often found in single line or even single word form. The most basic mantra is Aum, which in Hinduism is known as the "pranava mantra," the source of all mantras. Examples of MANTRA : FIG13.Most Basic Mantras. FIG14.GAYATRI Mantra. 372 FIG15.NavaGraha Mantras. TANTRA : Tantra (Sanskrit: तन्त्र , "loom, warp"; hence "principle, system, doctrine", from the two root words tanoti "stretch, extend, expand", and trayati "liberation"), anglicised tantricism or tantrism or tantram, is the name scholars give to an inter-religious spiritual movement that arose in medieval India, expressed in scriptures (called "Tantras"). An important characteristic of this movement was that it is a radically positive, world-embracing vision of the whole of reality as an expression of a joyous Divine Consciousness (for example, as the divine play of Shakti and Shiva.). Tantric spiritual practices and rituals aim to bring about an inner realization of this truth, bringing freedom from ignorance and rebirth in the process. Though not the case with most Tantric practices, in some schools of "left-handed" Tantra (Vamachara), ritual sexual practice is employed as a way of entering into the underlying processes and structure of the universe. According to Tantra, "being-consciousness-bliss" or Satchidananda has the power of both selfevolution and self-involution. Prakriti or "reality" evolves into a multiplicity of creatures and things, yet at the same time always remains pure consciousness, pure being, and pure bliss. In this process of evolution, Maya (illusion) veils Reality and separates it into opposites, such as conscious and unconscious, pleasant and unpleasant, and so forth. Examples of TANTRA : 373 374 Architecture & Divinity-CELESTIAL MYSTERIES Dr Uday Dokras Ph D Stockholm, SWEDEN Consulting Editor Ms. Srishti Dokras-ARCHITECT 375