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B OTTOM - UP C AUSATION See also C OMPLEXITY ; C HAOS T HEORY Faye, Jan, and Folse, Henry J., eds. Niels Bohr and Contemporary Philosophy. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Kluwer Academic, 1994. WILLIAM A. DEMBSKI Folse, Henry J. The Philosophy of Niels Bohr: The Framework of Complementarity. Amsterdam: North Holland Physics, 1985. B UDDHISM Honner, John. The Description of Nature: Niels Bohr and the Philosophy of Quantum Physics. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1987. Hooker, C. A. “The Nature of Quantum Mechanical Reality: Einstein vs Bohr.” In The Pittsburgh Studies in the Philosophy of Science, Vol. 5, ed. R. G. Colodny. Pittsburgh, Pa.: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1972. Murdoch, Dugald. Niels Bohr’s Philosophy of Physics. Cambridge,UK: Cambridge University Press, 1987. Pais, Abraham. Niels Bohr’s Times: in Physics, Philosophy, and Polity. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1991. Petruccioli, Sandro. Atoms, Metaphors, and Paradoxes: Niels Bohr and the Construction of a New Physics. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1992. HENRY J. FOLSE, JR. B OTTOM - UP C AUSATION See U PWARD C AUSATION B OUNDARY C ONDITIONS Physical laws are characterized by their mathematical form, the values of universal constants, and the contingencies to which the laws apply—known as boundary conditions. For instance, Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation is an inverse square law (its mathematical form), employs the gravitational constant (a universal constant), and applies to certain boundary conditions (like the positions and momentums of the planets at a given time). Boundary conditions, because of their inherent contingency, hamper the physicist’s search for a theory of everything. In addition, when the mathematical form of physical laws is nonlinear, as in chaotic systems, slight changes in boundary conditions can lead to enormous changes downstream. Originating with the life of the historical Buddha, Siddhartha Gautama, born in present-day Nepal in the sixth century B.C.E., varieties of Buddhism have developed and spread across the globe for the past 2,500 years. Though Buddhism by no means presents a uniform face in all cultures and time periods, Buddhist traditions do reveal certain common experiential contours, doctrinal themes, and ritual practices. Speaking experientially, Buddhism emphasizes disciplined introspection through a combination of meditative, recitative, and gestural sequences. Doctrinally, Buddhist teachings call attention to four primary themes: suffering, liberation, emptiness, and interdependence. And in terms of ritual practice, Buddhists engage in a combination of devotional offerings, initiatory rites, and other ceremonies to mark important spiritual and life-cycle transitions. Buddhist history reflects three primary “vehicles” of Buddhist thought and practice: Nik1ya (Individual Tradition, of which Therav1da Buddhism represents one strand); Mah1y1na (Great Vehicle); and Vajray1na (Diamond Vehicle, also known as Tantric Buddhism). However, from a contemporary perspective, it remains difficult to know the extent to which these traditions operated autonomously from one another. It seems likely that a great degree of overlap existed between Buddhist traditions, as, for example, when a practitioner espousing Mah1y1na precepts also may have engaged in Tantric practices. Adherents of all three traditions exist throughout the world, though one traditionally associates Nik1ya (primarily Therav1da) Buddhism with Southeast Asia; Mah1y1na Buddhism with historical India, China, and parts of Southeast Asia; and Vajray1na Buddhism with historical India, Tibet, Japan, and, since the late nineteenth century, the West. Buddhism concerns itself with science in, for example, its Tantric Vehicle. Tantric Buddhist texts occupy themselves with questions of cosmology, astronomy, embryology, and physiology, and they —74— B UDDHISM , C ONTEMPORARY I SSUES IN S CIENCE AND R ELIGION concisely weave religion and science together into a seamless fabric. An eleventh-century Sanskrit Buddhist Tantric text, the 6r3laghu K1lacakratantra (or 6r3 K1lacakra [Auspicious short K1lacakra Tantra] ), constitutes a primary example of a religious text oriented toward meditative practice that also serves as the repository for highly developed scientific observations of the time. Divided into five chapters, the 6r3 K1lacakra and its corresponding twelve-thousand-verse Vimalaprabh1t3k1 commentary contain five chapters in both Sanskrit and Tibetan redactions: (1) cosmology, the realm-space section; (2) physiology, the inner-self section; (3) initiation, the empowerment section; (4) generation stage, the practice section; and (5) completion stage, the gnosis section. More specifically, the first chapter of the 6r3 K1lacakra, sometimes referred to as Outer K1lacakra, presents a cosmological alternative to traditional Buddhist cosmology as articulated in the fourth century in Vasubandhu’s Abhidharmako7a (Treasury of manifest knowledge) and its Autocommentary, the Abhidharmako7abh1sya. The second chapter, sometimes referred to as Inner K1lacakra, outlines the physiology of the “subtle body” (Sanskrit, 7uksmadeha), including its structure and function. This chapter also addresses the time cycle of breaths taken by a person during a day. According to this system, the vital-wind processes, which Tantric practitioners seek to control, situate the temporal divisions of the universe in the body. The third to fifth chapters of the 6r3 K1lacakra, sometimes referred to as Alternative K1lacakra, include an explanation of the qualifications necessary for both guru and disciple and also describe the activities that precede empowerment, which include examining the initiation site, accumulating ritual materials, taking control of the site, creating a protective circle, and constructing the K1lacakra mandala. This third chapter also describes disciples’ progress through the mandala, the guru’s conferral of empowerment, and the concluding rituals that follow the empowerment ceremony. The fourth and fifth chapters of the 6r3 K1lacakra focus on the practice of K1lacakra’s six-limbed yoga. These practices include both generation stage and completion stage yogas. See also B UDDHISM , C ONTEMPORARY I SSUES IN S CIENCE AND AND R ELIGION ; B UDDHISM , H ISTORY OF S CIENCE R ELIGION Bibliography Dwivedi, Vrajavallabh, and Bahulkar, S. S., eds. Vimalaprabh1t31 of Kalki 6r3 Pundar3ka on 6r3 Laghuk1lacakratantrar1ja by 6r3 Mañju7r3ya7as, Vol. 2. Sarnath, Varanasi, India: Central Institute of Higher Tibetan Studies, 1994. Sopa, Geshe Lhundub. “The Kalachakra Tantra Initiation.” In The Wheel of Time: The Kalachakra in Context, by Geshe Lhundub Sopa, Roger Jackson, and John Newman. Madison, Wis.: Deer Park Books, 1985. Zahler, Leah. “Meditation and Cosmology: The Physical Basis of the Concentrations and Formless Absorptions According to dGe-lugs Tibetan Presentations.” Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies 13, no.1 (1990): 53–78. JENSINE ANDRESEN B UDDHISM , C ONTEMPORARY I SSUES IN S CIENCE AND R ELIGION Buddhist reflections on science are based on insights, doctrines, and practices that have evolved from the teachings and life of Siddhartha Gautama (c. 563–486 B.C.E.), the founder of Buddhism. The assumption that reality is in constant flux, together with the principle of prat3tyasamutp1da (dependent co-arising or interdependence), the primacy of mind, and a holistic appreciation of health and the world, are a few of the ideas from which Buddhists have understood and critiqued science, its methods, and its conclusions. Prat3tyasamutp1da articulates the Buddha’s Weltanschauung and is the basis for his teachings. The subsequent development of Buddhist thought and practice explores different facets of this insight. Prat3tyasamutp1da and science A compound of pratitya (meaning “based on” or “dependent on”) and samutpada (meaning “to spring up together”), prat3tyasamutp1da affirms the temporal efficacy between a cause and its result. This efficacy underlies the belief in karmic retribution and reward. The principle also recognizes the importance of conditions or indirect causes in —75—