COMING TO TERMS WITH ZHIYI&#39;S BUDDHĀNUSMṚTI: A CRITICAL READING OF ZHIYI&#39;S THEORY IN DYNAMIC MIND A Dissertation

Xiuyou Shi

Zhiyi is the founder of Tiantai School. Among his works, the abundant teachings and meditation systems are discussed; for example, Three Truths, Five Period of Time, Eight Teachings, Three Contemplations, etc. In this dissertation, I will focus on Zhiyi’s opinions about the mind. I utilize Ten Thusnesses 十如是 to structure my dissertation. The Ten Thusnesses does not appear in the Lotus Sūtra in Sanskrit edition, but in the translation of Kumārajīva’s Chinese edition. In an accurate way, the Ten Thusnesses come from Mahā-prajñāpāramitā-sūtra 大般若波羅蜜多經, and the Dazhidu Lun (Mahāprajñāpāramitā-śāstra); but not Lotus Sūtra. I discuss Zhiyi’s dynamic mind with in the intention of mind, the extension of mind, the causes of Zhiyi’s opinions about dynamic mind, the natures of Zhiyi’s opinions about dynamic mind, Zhiyi’s opinions about dynamic mind and Buddhānusmṛti ( mindfulness of Buddha), and at last Zhiyi’s opinion about Buddhānusmṛti and Amitābha Buddha’s Pure Land. The methodology of my dissertation is textual, philosophical, and historical analysis. My primary sources will include the Lotus Sūtra [Saddharmapuṇḍarīka-sūtra], the Dazhidu Lun [Mahāprajñāpāramitā-śāstra], Weimojing Xuan Shu 維摩經玄疏, Fahua Xuanyi 法華玄義, Fahua Wenju 法華文句, Mohe Zhiguan 摩訶止觀, Guanyin Xuanyi 觀音玄義, Weimojing Wenshu 維摩經文句, Weimojing Lueshu 維摩經略疏, Jinguangming vi Jing Wenju 金光明經文句, Jinguangming Xuanyi 金光明經玄義, Qing Guanyin Jing Shu 請觀音疏, Shi Chanboluomi Cidi Famen 釋禪波羅蜜次第法門, Fahua Sanmei Chanyi 法華三昧懺儀, etc. The contribution of this dissertation is to re-evaluate Zhiyi’s teaching and meditation systems and how Zhiyi utilizes the mind to lead to mindfulness of Buddha in an applied and salvational tone. In addition, believably it may perhaps be said that Zhiyi’s mindfulness of Buddha is one of the important teachings of his (Zhiyi’s), which modern scholars do not pay much attention to this.

COMING TO TERMS WITH ZHIYI’S BUDDHĀNUSMṚTI: A CRITICAL READING OF ZHIYI’S THEORY IN DYNAMIC MIND A Dissertation Presented to the Faculty of the Department of Religious Studies University of the West In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy by Mei-Yu Lin (Shuyu Shi or Xiuyou Shi) Spring 2016 APPROVAL PAGE FOR GRADUATE Approved and recommended for acceptance as a dissertation in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Religious Studies. Mei-Yu Lin Candidate 2/21/16 Coming to Terms with Zhiyi’s Buddhānusmṛti: A Critical Reading of Zhiyi’s Theory in Dynamic Mind APPROVED: Darui Long Chair 1/19/16 Lewis Lancaster Committee Member 1/21/16 Brook Ziporyn Committee Member 1/15/16 I hereby declare that this dissertation has not been submitted as an exercise for a degree at any other institution, and that it is entirely my own work. Signed _______________________ © 2016 Mei-Yu Lin ALL RIGHTS RESERVED ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS There are many I should thank who supported me in finishing this dissertation. First is my dissertation committee. It includes Professors Darui Long, Lewis R. Lancaster, and Brook A. Ziporyn. Professor Darui Long, the chair of my dissertation committee, took care of the business of completing my dissertation. He provided me with abundant Chinese sources, especially related to history and literature. He has a professional background in Chinese history and literature. Professor Lewis Lancaster has the most wide-ranging opinions about Buddhism. In his unique viewpoint, he helped me avoid having my dissertation be attacked by some sectarian. Meanwhile, he recommended that I defend my dissertation with a positive attitude. With this kind of relaxed attitude, I will not be afraid of defending my dissertation. Professor Brook Ziporyn is the expert of the Tiantai School. He is also very good at Eastern Philosophy and Western Philosophy. By learning from his training in philosophical analysis, I have gained confidence in myself. He also helped me guard the boundary in order to dodge mistakes. If I can go on to get a Ph.D., these three Professors are my most important inspirations. Professors Joshua Capitanio and Huaiyu Chen provided some preparation during my pre-dissertation period. I cannot thank them enough. In addition, I appreciated Professor Yingshan Chen giving some recommendations. Moreover, I got a scholarship from Chiang Ching-Kuo Foundation for International Scholarly Exchange. This scholarship provided me with a substantial financial maintenance. Without this scholarship, I could not have finished my dissertation. Furthermore, in the later period of writing, I returned to Taiwan. I thank Dharma Drum Institute of Liberal Arts for providing me the library. I thank the President Huimin Bhikshu’s compassion and DDM’s members. In addition, I ii am grateful to the staff of the University of the West which assisted me during my studying abroad, including Vanessa Karam, Jennifer Li, Jennifer Derry, Jeanette Anderson, Linda Tran and Judy Hsu. Additionally, I appreciated my department chair, Professor Jane Iwamura. Since the middle of my dissertation period, countless unexpected things occurred. She took care of me in a motherly way. Without her help, my dissertation would not exist. From the beginning of writing this dissertation, it has been a long time. Even for the topic I should thank Hao-Hui Pang: she inspired me to change my former topic “Monastic Robes” into Lotus Sūtra. I still remember it was Sep 11, 2009 in the late afternoon. Interestingly, September 11 also meant a great deal to me. In that one evening, I felt as if I had been through decades. I did not really believe that I was going to change my topic. As usual, I meditated before I slept. Usually, I felt sleepy, I lay down, and I fell asleep immediately. However, that evening that was not the case. I meditated and lay down; I could not fall asleep. It occurred twice. After the third time meditating, I saw two lines of verse about Buddhas and Bodhisattvas being all delight; and that divine and dragonish guardians will protect. This insured me that I could change the topic to Lotus Sūtra. I thank my parents, siblings, Dharma sisters, and Dharma brothers. They support me financially and spiritually. Especially I thank my siblings, who took good care of my parents, which allowed me to finish my dissertation without worry. I thank my parents for getting well. iii Last but most important, I appreciated Grand Master Venerable Hsing-yun and Venerable Sheng-yen. They are both my teachers and they supported my study. Without their education and aid, there is no me. I cannot thank them enough. iv ABSTRACT Coming to Terms with Zhiyi’s Buddhānusmṛti: A Critical Reading of Zhiyi’s Theory in Dynamic Mind By Mei-Yu Lin Zhiyi is the founder of Tiantai School. Among his works, the abundant teachings and meditation systems are discussed; for example, Three Truths, Five Period of Time, Eight Teachings, Three Contemplations, etc. In this dissertation, I will focus on Zhiyi’s opinions about the mind. I utilize Ten Thusnesses 十如是 to structure my dissertation. The Ten Thusnesses does not appear in the Lotus Sūtra in Sanskrit edition, but in the translation of Kumārajīva’s Chinese edition. In an accurate way, the Ten Thusnesses come from Mahā-prajñāpāramitā-sūtra 大般若波羅蜜多經, and the Dazhidu Lun (Mahāprajñāpāramitā-śāstra); but not Lotus Sūtra. I discuss Zhiyi’s dynamic mind with in the intention of mind, the extension of mind, the causes of Zhiyi’s opinions about dynamic mind, the natures of Zhiyi’s opinions about dynamic mind, Zhiyi’s opinions about dynamic mind and Buddhānusmṛti ( mindfulness of Buddha), and at last Zhiyi’s opinion about Buddhānusmṛti and Amitābha Buddha’s Pure Land. The methodology of my dissertation is textual, philosophical, and historical analysis. My primary sources will include the Lotus Sūtra [Saddharmapuṇḍarīka-sūtra], the Dazhidu Lun [Mahāprajñāpāramitā-śāstra], Weimojing Xuan Shu 維摩經玄疏, Fahua Xuanyi 法華玄義, Fahua Wenju 法華文句, Mohe Zhiguan 摩訶止觀, Guanyin Xuanyi 觀音玄義, Weimojing Wenshu 維摩經文句, Weimojing Lueshu 維摩經略疏, Jinguangming v Jing Wenju 金光明經文句, Jinguangming Xuanyi 金光明經玄義, Qing Guanyin Jing Shu 請觀音疏, Shi Chanboluomi Cidi Famen 釋禪波羅蜜次第法門, Fahua Sanmei Chanyi 法華三昧懺儀, etc. The contribution of this dissertation is to re-evaluate Zhiyi’s teaching and meditation systems and how Zhiyi utilizes the mind to lead to mindfulness of Buddha in an applied and salvational tone. In addition, believably it may perhaps be said that Zhiyi’s mindfulness of Buddha is one of the important teachings of his (Zhiyi’s), which modern scholars do not pay much attention to this. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS………………………………………………………………...ii ABSTRACT………………………………………………………………………….........v TABLE OF CONTENTS……………………………………………………………......vii INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………………………...1 CHAPTER ONE: Zhiyi’s Works and the Connection to Huisi’s…………………….….17 1.1. Introduction……………………………………………………………………..17 1.2. The Connection between Zhiyi and Huisi……………………………………...18 1.2.1. Introduction…………………………………………………………......18 1.2.2. The Connection between Zhiyi and Huisi……………………………...19 1.2.3. Conclusion……………………………………………………………...32 1.3. The Works of Zhiyi……………………………………………………………32 1.3.1. Introduction…………………………………………………………......32 1.3.2. The Works of Zhiyi……………………………………………………..33 1.3.3. Conclusion……………………………………………………………...45 1.4. Conclusion……………………………………………………………...............45 CHAPTER TWO: In Zhiyi’s Opinion, What is the Intention of Mind?............................48 2.1. Introduction…………………………………………………………………….48 2.2. Huisi’s Opinion about Mind, Thought, Consciousness, the Amalavijñāna, the Ādānavijñāna, and the Ālaya-vijñāna……………………………49 2.2.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………….....49 2.2.2. What is Huisi’s Opinion of Mind, Thought, and Consciousness?…………………………...……………………………...50 vii 2.2.2.1. Huisi’s Opinion of the Mind and Consciousness………………….50 2.2.2.2. The Mind is Pure or Deluded…...……………….............................52 2.2.3. What is Huisi’s Opinion of Vijñāna?........................................................54 2.2.4. Conclusion................................................................................................57 2.3. Zhiyi’s Opinion about Mind, Thought, Consciousness, the Amalavijñāna, the Ādānavijñāna, and the Ālaya-vijñāna……………………………...58 2.3.1. Introduction………………………………………………………………58 2.3.2. What is Zhiyi’s Opinion of Mind, Thought, and Consciousness?............59 2.3.2.1. Zhiyi’s Opinion of Mind, Thought, and Consciousness…………..59 2.3.2.2. The Mind is Pure or Deluded..……………………………………..65 2.3.3. What is Zhiyi’s Opinion of Amala- vijñāna, Ādāna-vijñāna (Mano-vuijñāna), and Ālaya-vijñāna?...........................................................69 2.4. Conclusion…………………………………...………………………………..72 CHAPTER THREE: What is the Extension of Mind in Zhiyi’s Opinions?......................74 3.1. Introduction……………………………………………………………………74 3.2. Zhiyi’s Opinion about Mind—the Idea about Realms, Space, Time, Dreams, Illness, Dependent Origination, etc..…………………………………..75 3.2.1. Introduction……………………………………………………………...75 3.2.2. Zhiyi’s Opinion about Mind—Ideas about Realms, Space, Time, Dreams, Illness, Dependent Origination, etc.……………………………………78 3.2.2.1. Realms, Space……………………………………………………78 3.2.2.2. Time…………………………...………………………………….85 3.2.2.3. Dreams………………………...………………………………….86 viii 3.2.2.4. Illness, Dependent Origination, etc.……………………………...89 3.3. Conclusion…………………………………...………………………………..93 CHAPTER FOUR: What are the Causes of Zhiyi’s Opinions about Dynamic Mind?....96 4.1. Introduction………………………………...………………………………….96 4.2. Intrinsic Inclusiveness is the Cause of Dynamic Mind………………………..96 4.2.1. Introduction……………………………...…………………………..96 4.2.2. How is Intrinsic Inclusiveness the Cause of Dynamic Mind?............99 4.2.3. Conclusion………………………………...……………………….111 4.3. Utilize the Ten Thusnesses to Discuss the Dynamic Mind………………….112 4.3.1. Introduction…………………………...………………………………...112 4.3.2. Utilize the Ten Thusnesses to Discuss the Dynamic Mind…………….116 4.3.3. Conclusion……………………………...………………………………130 4.4. Conclusion………………………………...…………………………………130 CHAPTER FIVE: What are the Natures of Zhiyi’s Opinions about Dynamic Mind?....134 5.1. Introduction…....…………………………...………………………………...134 5.2. Zhiyi’s Opinion about Threefold Buddha-Nature and Dynamic Mind……...134 5.2.1. Introduction………………………...…………………………………..134 5.2.2. Zhiyi’s Opinion about Threefold Buddha-Nature and Dynamic Mind..136 5.2.3. Conclusion.…………………………...………………………………..153 5.3. Zhiyi’s Opinion about the Mind is Good or Evil? The Icchantika can Become a Buddha or not?………………...……………………………………154 5.3.1. Introduction………………………...…………………………………..154 5.3.2. Zhiyi’s Opinion about the Mind is Good or Evil? The ix Icchantika can Become a Buddha or Not?………………………………..156 5.3.3. Conclusion………………………...…………………………………...172 5.4. Conclusion………………………………...…………………………………173 CHAPTER SIX: Zhiyi’s Opinions about Dynamic Mind and Buddhānusmṛti………..177 6.1. Introduction…....…………………………...………………………………...177 6.2. Philology about Zhiyi’s Pure Land Works...………………………………...180 6.2.1. Introduction………………………...…………………………………..180 6.2.2. Philology about Zhiyi’s Pure Land Works…………………………….181 6.3. Zhiyi’s Opinion about Three Bodies of Buddha and Pure Land…………….186 6.3.1. Introduction………………………...…………………………………..186 6.3.2. What is Zhiyi’s Opinion about the Three Bodies of Buddha?................187 6.3.3. What is Zhiyi’s Opinion of the Four Buddha-kṣetra?………………....189 6.3.4. Conclusion………………………...…………………………………...205 6.4. Conclusion………………………………...…………………………………206 CHAPTER SEVEN: Zhiyi’s Opinion about Buddhānusmṛti and Amitābha Buddha’s Pure Land..…………………………...…………………………………..209 7.1. Introduction…....…………………………...………………………………...209 7.2. Zhiyi’s Opinion about Buddhānusmṛti…...………………………………….210 7.2.1. Introduction………………………...…………………………………..210 7.2.2. What is Zhiyi’s Opinion about Constantly Sitting Samādhi?.................212 7.2.3. What is Zhiyi’s Opinion about Pratyutpannasamādhi?……………….213 7.2.4. Conclusion...…………………………...………………………………228 7.3. Zhiyi’s Opinion about Amitābha’ Pure Land and Buddhānusmṛti ………...229 x 7.3.1. Introduction.…………………………...………………………………229 7.3.2. What are Zhiyi’s Pragmatic and Soteriological Opinions about Fahua Sanmei Chanyi and Buddhānusmṛti?……………………….230 7.3.3. Conclusion...…………………………...………………………………239 7.4. Conclusion…………………………………...……………………………...240 CONCLUSION………………………………………………………………………....242 BIBLIOGRAPHY………………………………………………………………………248 APPENDIX: List of Characters………………………………………………………...258 INDEX………………………………………………………………………………….272 xi INTRODUCTION In China, the Daoist notion of ziran 自然1is a "single-cause"2 explanation, which would easily advocate a fatalistic naturalism.3 The Chinese leaned toward huran4 忽然5 because of the native tradition of natural genesis, ziran, in Daoism. The idea of huran nianqi 忽然念起 (suddenly a thought rose) used to explain the genesis of avidyā, ignorance, involving a classic intellectual impasse, the uncaused first cause6. The concepts of nian 念 and the hu 忽 (suddenness) are pre-Buddhist in China which transfer the mind from passivity to activity.7 The intrusion of the active nian into the passive mind, The Daoist notion of ziran 自然means “spontaneity.” According to the commentary of GuoXiang郭象 to Zhuangzi莊子 Being simply is. And how simply is? GuoXiang said “they suddenly are.” In Whalen Lai, “Hu-Jan Nien-Ch'ia (Suddenly a Thought Rose): Chinese Understanding of Mind and Consciousness,” The Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies 3, no. 2 (1980): 46. 1 2 In Daoist tzu-jan is a "single-cause" explanation that would easily recommend a fatalistic acceptance of the what-is. In Laozi’s 老子 Daode jing 道德經 says: “Dao The principle of Tao gives rise to the primal force [ether] which created Heaven and Earth which then created the myriad things [in the sequence of One, Two, Three and the 10,000 things).道生一，一生二，二生三，三生萬物。” (Translation with slight changes by Whalen Lai from Theodore de Bary et al ed., The Buddhist Tradition (New York: Random House, 1969), p 182.) In short, the “single-cause” is the Dao. In Zongmi’s宗密 Yuanren lun原人論, Chinese naturalism is described as, “In Confucianism and Daoism, it is explained that all species such as human beings, beasts, etc., are generated from and nourished by the Great Tao of Nothingness. The principle of Tao gives rise to the primal force [ether] which created Heaven and Earth which then created the myriad things [in the sequence of One, Two, Three and the 10,000 things)….” translated by Lai, “Hu-Jan Nien-Ch'ia (Suddenly a Thought Rose),” 45. 3 4 Huran忽然 is in the issue of the Awakening of Faith in Mahāyāna (Dasheng qixin lun大乘起信論) which is a unique explanation of the origin of ignorance (avidyā無明). Huran 忽然means “suddenly.” Fazang discusses the meaning of huran in connection with the origin of ignorance. 42 5 6 The New Encyclopedia Britannica, (Chicago, Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc., 1998) Vol. 4.793.2a. Lai, “Hu-Jan Nien-Ch'ia (Suddenly a Thought Rose),” 43. Suddenly the nien arose which transfers the mystique from passivity to activity. 7 1 and the reversal of it by wunian 無念 (no-thought) is the preferred solution8 to the Awakening of Faith in Mahāyāna (Dasheng qixin lun, henceforth abbreviated as AFM 大乘起信論).9 Chinese Buddhists had to come up with an idealism of the one mind that can simultaneously be the cause of delusion as well as the basis for enlightenment. They relied on the concept of tiyong 體用 (substance and function)10 to resolve the tension seen between the changeless mind and the continuity consciousness, which is Chinese Buddhist exegetical inspiration.11 Here Chinese culture connected with Chinese Buddhism and Indian Buddhism through nian (thought) and mind. In Confucianism, there are also theories about the mind. Among early Confucian thinkers, such as Mengzi 孟子 (372-289 B.C.E.) and Xunzi 荀子 (313-238 B.C.E.), they discussed the nature of human beings. For example, Mengzi argued that human beings were good by nature; however, Xunzi argued that human beings were bad by nature. Xu Fuguan 徐復觀 thinks that the most important contribution Mengzi did was advocating formally that human nature is good by nature. This theme from divine right to Confucius’s ‘doing good things is dependent on human being himself,’ took a long time in development. Mengzi’s good by nature meant the good mind. Everyone can do good things directly from the mind, but not dependent on any other things outside the mind. Lai, “Hu-Jan Nien-Ch'ia (Suddenly a Thought Rose),” 49. So wunian無念 (no-thought) is the preferred solution. 8 9 Wu-nien is the elimination of nien (thought, momentariness). It is the gate to enlightenment. The term wunien becomes pivotal in the AFM. Lai, “Hu-Jan Nien-Ch'ia (Suddenly a Thought Rose),” 49-51. Tiyong體用 means the problem of substance and function. Lai, “Hu-Jan Nien-Ch'ia (Suddenly a Thought Rose),” 55. 10 11 Lai, “Hu-Jan Nien-Ch'ia (Suddenly a Thought Rose),” 42-59. 2 This is the characteristic of Chinese culture: from divine right went to human beings, and from outer turned inner.12 Mengzi argued that the nature of human beings is good, which he meant was four parts in human beings’ mind (but not all characteristics of human beings’ mind): ren (benevolence) 仁, yi (righteousness) 義, li (courtesy) 禮, and zhi (wit) 智, which caused human beings to be different from animals.13 In Mengzi’s good-by-nature, this nature’s scope is narrower than ordinary nature, which meant the good mind. This good mind came from the experience of daily life. Moreover, Mengzi emphasized the circumstance, which influences human beings very strongly. Nevertheless, it did not mean that Mengzi agreed that human beings’ behaviors were totally determined by the material world.14 In addition, Benjamin I Schwartz deems that Mengzi has the crucial dialogue about the ‘unmoved heart15’ which meant one attained an attitude of inner peace, serene courage, and equanimity in the face.16 However, Steven F. Geisz argues that Mengzi’s argument about human nature is good is a strategic-pragmatic use of language. Even if humans are not really good by Fuguan Xu 徐復觀, Zhongguo Ren Xing Lun Shi. Xian Qin Pian 中國人性論史. 先秦篇 (Taizhong: Si li Dong Hai Da Xue, 1963), 161-164. 12 Jian Chen 陳堅, Fan Nao Ji Pu Ti: Tiantai "Xing E" Si Xiang Yan Jiu 煩惱即菩提: 天台「性惡」思想研究 (Beijing Shi: Zongjiao Wenhua Chuban She, 2007), 3-4. 13 14 Xu 徐復觀, Zhongguo Ren Xing Lun Shi. Xian Qin Pian 中國人性論史. 先秦篇, 165-177. 15 I thought this heart should be mind. 16 Benjamin I. Schwartz, The World of Thought in Ancient China (Cambridge, Mass: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1985), 269. 3 nature, in some situations it might be good to get humans to believe it and cultivate goodness in them.17 There is also Xunzi, who argued that the mind of human beings is evil by nature 性惡.18 Zhiyi 智顗 (C.E. 538-597)19 was influenced by Confucianism20 and developed a thought that Buddha does not abstain from evil by nature; because Buddha does not abstain from evil by nature, and can be free in evil.21 Even though Tiantai School22 says that mind is the core of all the myriad beings in the cosmos, actually, it means that mind is not a metaphysical claim but a pragmatic and soteriological one. Huisi 慧思 (C.E. 515-577)23 was the teacher of Zhiyi. In Huisi’s opinion, the true aspect of the Middle Way and innate enlightenment is named mind. The innate enlightenment is that the Buddha-nature (also called mind) is enlightenment. In Wang Chingwei’s 王晴薇 The Research of Huisi’s Fahua Changuan 慧思法華禪觀之研究, she argues that Huisi utilized the method of guanxin 觀心 (contemplation on the mind) Steven F. Geisz, “Mengzi, Strategic Language, and the Shaping of Behavior,” Philosophy East and West 58, no. 2 (April 2008): 190-222. 17 Chung-Hsing Hsu, “Analysis on HsunTze’s ‘Heart,” Taipei University Chinese Journal 臺北大學中文學報 2, no. 2 (Mar 2007): 2-21. 18 19 Zhiyi is the founder of Tiantai School, one school of Chinese Buddhism, which was found during the Medieval China period. Zhiyi was influenced by Xunzi, because in the teaching of Early Buddhism there is no “Buddha is evil by nature.” 20 21 T. no. 1726, 34:882c17-21. T means Taishō shinshū daizōkyō. The “no.” means the number of the sūtra in Taishō shinshū daizōkyō. 34 means the volume number in T. 822 means the page number. The “c” means the third column. The “17-21” means from line 17 to 21. This rule will be applies to the whole dissertation. William Edward Soothill and Lewis Hodous, A Dictionary of Chinese Buddhist Terms 漢英佛學大辭典 (London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co., LTD. 1982). In addition, in The Princenton Dictionary of Buddhism, there is detail about Tiantai School. Robert E. Jr. Buswell and Donald S. Jr. Lopez, The Princenton Dictionary of Buddhism (New Jersey: Princeton University, 2014), 912-913. 22 23 X. no.1176, 62:164b18-21. T no.2060 50:564a18-564b13. X means Xuzangjing 續藏經. 4 to reinterpret the mindfulness of body.24 In addition, he (Huisi) also utilized the si +nianchu 四念處 (Skt. smṛtyupasthāna; contemplation of the four bases of mindfulness) to achieve Fahua Sanmei 法華三昧.25 In Zhiyi’s opinion, reality can be called Emptiness, Middle Way, Buddha-nature, Dharma Body, Tathāgatagarbha, Mind, Non-existent26 or Non-existent, Absolute Truth, Middle Way-Buddha Nature, Extinction, etc. The endless names are alternatives to reality’s given name.27 According to Ng Yukwan’s 吳汝均 opinion, Zhiyi was influenced by Huisi and in his first stage of preaching the Dharma he focused on the Dazhidu Lun (Mahāprajñāpāramitā-śāstra 大智度論). In addition, during the second stage of preaching the Dharma sermonized the Lotus Sūtra (Saddhamapuṇḍarīka Sūtra 妙法蓮華經), Nirvāṇa Sūtras (The Mahā-parinirvāṇa Sūtras 大般涅槃經), and Vimalakīrti Sūtra (Vimalakīrti-nirdeśa Sūtra 維摩經).28 In Ng Yukwan’s T’ien-t’ai Buddhism and Early Mādhyamika, he argues that for Zhiyi the Buddhist Truth is Middle Way-Buddha Nature which is permanency (spiritual Dharma Body), dynamism (capable of functioning), and immanence (it by nature Chingwei Wang 王晴薇, The Research of Huisi’s Fahua Changuan—the Mutual Inclusion and Development of Fahua Sanmei and Mahayana Smṛtyupasthāna 慧思法華禪觀之研究— 法華三昧與大乘四念處的互攝與開展(Taipei: Xinwenfeng Inc. Press, 2011), 189-239. 24 25 Wang 王晴薇, The Research of Huisi’s Fahua Changuan 慧思法華禪觀之研究, 241-328. 26 Abhāva. Not real. 27 T. no.1716, 33: 782b29-782c04. Rujun Wu 吳汝均, “Master Chih-i’s Mind Philosophy as Reflected in the Three Main Treatises of the T’ien-t’ai 天台三大部所反映智者大師的心靈哲學” Chung-Hwa Buddhist Journal 中華佛學學報, no. 10 (1997): 311-340. 28 5 embraces all dharmas).29 In the four classifications of Doctrine, the Tripiṭaka Doctrine and the Common Doctrine are static and transcendent sense. In addition, the Gradual Doctrine and the Perfect Doctrine are dynamic, methodological, and immanent sense, which can speak of the Truth in terms of Buddha-nature. In Zhiyi’s opinion, the Middle Way or the Ultimate Truth should be dynamic at all times, embrace all dharmas and be permanent.30 Zhiyi identifies the Buddha-nature (which stands for the Truth) with Middle Way through the mind31, which is based on the opinion of the Perfect Doctrine in a concrete and salvational attitude. It is the mind that Zhiyi associates with ‘force,’ ‘function,’ ‘operation,’ ‘construction,’ and ‘action’32 which are expressive of a dynamic nature and (the mind) as the source of all actions. This Middle Way-Buddha Nature is mentioned in many of Zhiyi’s important works, particularly in his commentaries on the Vimalakīrtinirdeśa-sūtra (Weimo ching), i.e., the WMCLS and WMCWS. 33 Yukwan Ng, T’ien-t’ai Buddhism and Early Mādhyamika (Honolulu, Hawaii: University of Hawaii Press, 1993), 44. 29 30 Ng, T’ien-t’ai Buddhism and Early Mādhyamika, 3-61. 31 Zhiyi often raises the issue of the ever-abidingness of the Buddha Nature and the Dharma Body, which he identifies with the Middle Way. It seems that Zhiyi is in favor of the Middle Way as a body or substance, which is for him the Buddha Nature or the Middle Way-Buddha Nature; he therefore ascribes the everabiding nature to the Middle Way-Buddha Nature as an important characteristic. The ever-abidingness seems to refer to something Spiritual, something with a permanent nature. The point that the Dharma Body is spiritual and permanent is described in a most detailed manner in the WMCLS 維摩經略疏. Ng, T’ient’ai Buddhism and Early Mādhyamika, 64-65. “Force,” “function,” “operation,” “construction,” and “action” are all raised in the context of the Mind and are expressive of a dynamic nature. What Zhiyi wants to emphasize is the Mind as the source of all actions. In fact, the statement in question reveals that Zhiyi ascribes dynamism to the Mind exclusively. Because the Mind is identical to the Buddha Nature, which stands for the Truth, we therefore can speak of the functional and dynamic nature of the Truth. This, indeed, complements our discussion in the above section concerning the functional nature of the Middle Way-Buddha Nature. Ng, T’ien-t’ai Buddhism and Early Mādhyamika, 75. 32 33 Ng, T’ien-t’ai Buddhism and Early Mādhyamika, 74-83. 6 We look at G. P. Malalasekera’s research in “The Status of the Individual in Theravada Buddhism,” which mentions, “…the essence of all cognition is the individual. Every act of cognition is always something individual, personal, pertaining to me alone. Even were all men to cognize alike, the content of the cognition would still be the possession of each and every single person.”34 I utilize this to explain Zhiyi’s other angle of mind. Zhiyi studied mind and taught how to train the mind. In Zhiyi’s opinion, mind is the ultimate existence of all sentient beings. Every sentient being has his own ‘individual cognition,’ which can be created in his own life. Each sentient being has endless previous lives, which constructs his karma. Different sentient beings cultivate their own karma, which cause different ‘possession of each and every single person,’ which causes the dynamic mind. The dynamic mind of all sentient beings can create their own “dharmadhātu” (“personal dharmadhātu.”). Zhiyi knows the owner of mind. Zhiyi utilizes his teaching and meditation system to educate every sentient being’s mind. This dissertation discusses the analysis of Zhiyi’s unique way to educate the mind. This power of the mind can transfer sentient beings from the lower realms into the Buddha realm. The knowledge of this power in this dissertation analyzes the intention of mind, the extension of mind, the cause of dynamic mind, what are the natures of Zhiyi’s opinions about dynamic mind, and Zhiyi’s opinions about Three Bodies of Buddha and Pure Land. Zhiyi demonstrates his teaching and meditation in his life. The contribution of this dissertation is that Zhiyi’s works are re-evaluated: from Zhiyi’s works and life. Zhiyi is sort of a ‘Pure Land consideration’ Tiantai scholar monk. It seems that Zhiyi puts Pure G. P. Malalasekera, “The Status of the Individual in Theravada Buddhism,” Philosophy East and West 14, no. 2 (July 1964): 145-156. 34 7 Land in a sort of important position, which he demonstrates by his works and life. The modern scholars pay less attention to this point of view. There are some Western scholars such as Paul L. Swanson, David W. Chappell, Neal Donner, and Daniel B. Stevenson who have published books about Tiantai. In Foundations of T’ien-T’ai Philosophy, Swanson discusses the two truths theory in Chinese Buddhism since Liang Period to Sui (Zhiyi). He also discusses Zhiyi’s threefold truth which is based on the two truths. In The Great Calming and Contemplation, Donner and Stevenson discuss the text, status and problematic nature of the Mohe Zhiguan, a tradition of Tiantai tradition, and an annotated translation of the first chapter of the Mohe Zhiguan. There are some modern scholars who have discussed the concept of Mind in Tiantai Zhiyi’s main treatises, including Yingshan Chen 陳英善, Teruji Ishizu 石津照璽, Ng Yukwan (Wu Rujun) 吳汝鈞, Yanpei 演培, Brook Ziporyn, etc. (ordered by last name). In China’s Northern and Southern Dynasties period (C.E. 420-589), there were many arguments about citta 心, manas 意 and vijñāna 識. Chen 陳英善 uses textual analysis in her “A Study of the Theories of Citta, Manas and Vijñāna by Hui-shih and Chih-yih 慧思與智者心意識說之探討” to argue that Zhiyi (Chen uses the name as Chih-yih) was critical about the three opinions on amala 阿摩羅識,35 ādānavijñāna 阿陁那識,36 and ālaya-vijñāna 第八阿賴耶識.37 Chen also discusses that Zhiyi thinks citta, manas and vijñāna are ‘one in three and three in one.’ Chen demonstrates that according to Zhiyi’s 35 Amala-vijñāna means pure, uncontaminated knowledge regarded as the ninth consciousness. 36 Ādānavijñāna 阿陁那識 means mental perception. 37 Please check the footnote 35. 8 opinion, citta, manas and vijñāna are not contradictory, and that these three are not seriously discriminated from one another. Therefore, Zhiyi has some critical analysis from the contemporary scholars.38 Ishizu 石津照璽 thought that different schools have different ideas of doctrine. Tiantai emphasized the function of Mind, but did not consider mind as essence.39 Zhiyi did emphasize the function of mind as Middle Way-Buddha Nature, which possesses permanency (spiritual Dharma Body), dynamism (capable of functioning), and immanence (it by nature embraces all dharmas). Therefore, Ishizu 石津照璽 partly explained what Zhiyi had said. Yanpei demonstrates that Huiwen’s system is subject idealism; Huisi was a practitioner of idealism who utilizes the Prajñāpāramitā literature as guide, and he (Huisi) explains the universe as idealism. 40 Huiwen influenced Huisi, and then Huisi influenced Zhiyi. There is some evidence later in this dissertation that will demonstrate how Zhiyi adopted Huisi’s thoughts. Nevertheless, Zhiyi usually adopted the terms to express his own opinions. I utilize several Japanese Buddhist scholars’ works. There are difference between Japanese and Chinese Buddhism. For example, according to Mark Teeuwen, “…This system further strengthened the sectarian nature of Japanese Buddhism.”41 Japanese Yingshan Chen 陳英善, “A Study of the Theories of Citta, Manas and Vijn～ana by Hui-shih and Chihyih 慧思與智者心意識說之探討” Chung-Hwa Buddhist Journal, no. 11 (1998): 155-180. 38 Teruji Ishizu 石津照璽, Tendai Jissōron no Kenkyū: Sonzai no Kyokusō o Motomete 天台実相論の研究: 存在の極相を索めて (The Research of Tiantai Reality) (Tōkyō: Kōbundō Shobō, 1967), 34. 39 Yanpei 演培, “Tiantai Weixin Shuo de Tansuo 天台唯心說的探索 (The Explore of Tiantai Reality)” in Xian Dai Fo Jiao Xue Shu Cong Kan 現代佛教學術叢刊, ed. Mantao Zhang (Taipei: Da Sheng Wen Hua Chu Ban She, 1979), 57: 280. 40 Mark Teeuwen, “Buddhist Philosophy in Japan” in Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy, ed. Oliver Leaman (New York: Routledge, 2006), 88. 41 9 Buddhism has very strong sectarian identity. However, Chinese Buddhism is very organic.42 In this dissertation, even though I utilize Japanese Buddhist scholars’ works, I do not have the manners of sectarianism as Japanese Buddhist scholars do. Ng Yukwan is very good at philosophical and textual analysis, which makes him prominent among modern scholars. In his article “Master Chih-i's [Zhiyi’s] Mind Philosophy as Reflected in the Three Main Treatises of the T'ien-t'ai [Tiantai] Sect,” he discusses the idea of the mind, which is in the main treatises of the Tiantai Zhiyi. He argues that Zhiyi thinks that the ignorance and pureness originate from the same mind and possess all things simultaneously. Moreover, Zhiyi emphasizes the ignorant mind and its relationship with all things. Zhiyi said that, because of ignorance, the false mind performs all kinds of actions, which produces the six realms (i.e. beings of the hell, hungry ghosts, animals, asuras,43 human beings, divine beings).44 The ignorant mind makes the Three Thousand Worlds. In practice, Zhiyi initiated the skill of Three Insights in one thought 一心三觀, which contains the mind to be contemplated and to contemplate. In this article, Ng has argued the most important essence of mind in Zhiyi’s main treatises.45 Probably it is limited by the space or capacity of a conference printed page or publication (this article is for a conference) that the mind in Zhiyi’s main treatises is still something which can be developed. Francis Cook, “Causation in the Chinese Hua-Yen Tradition,” Journal of Chinese Philosophy 6 (1979): 367-385. 42 43 Asuras mean spirits, who are enemies of gods. 44 T. no. 1716, 33:698c10-24. Wu 吳汝均, “Master Chih-i’s Mind Philosophy as Reflected in the Three Main Treatises of the T’ien-t’ai 天台三大部所反映智者大師的心靈哲學,” 311-340. 45 10 In Ng Yukwan’s book, T’ien-t’ai Buddhism and Early Mādhyamika, he argues, Chih-i [i.e. Zhiyi] approaches the Buddha Nature, which he identifies with the Middle Way, in terms of the Mind (hsin 心)… We see Chih-i’s [Zhiyi’s] identification of the Buddha Nature with Mind in a practical and soteriological tone… Such an identification is also evidenced in the compound term ‘Buddha Nature-True Mind’ (foshing chenghsin [法性真心]), which Chih-i [Zhiyi] articulates in a discussion of the initiation of the Mind. It is the Mind that Chihi [Zhiyi] associates with function and action.46 In his argument, Zhiyi’s theory connects with Mādhyamika’s concepts. Nāgārjuna’s 龍樹 Middle Way is developed by Zhiyi into Middle Way-Buddha Nature, which is also termed as mind. From Ng’s book, T’ien-t’ai Buddhism and Early Mādhyamika, Zhiyi’s theory of mind can be understood in Middle Way-Buddha Nature, which is described as permanence, function and all-embracement of dharmas.47 This emphasizes other characteristics of mind. In What's So Good About Evil: Value and Anti-value in Tiantai Thought and its Antecedents, Brook Ziporyn uses a philosophical approach to analyze the topic. From Western philosophy to Chinese philosophy, he analyzes the value and holism, especially in Laozi, Zhuangzi, and Tiantai School (in Tiantai School he focuses on Zhiyi’s and Zhili’s48 works). Ziporyn assesses the value and anti-value. Then he demonstrates Zhiyi’s and Zhili’s49 theory about the vale and anti-value. In Ziporyn’s book, there are some 46 Ng, T’ien-t’ai Buddhism and Early Mādhyamika, 74-75. 47 Ng, T’ien-t’ai Buddhism and Early Mādhyamika, 44. Zhili was listed as Shan-chia’s lineage. Chi-wah Chan, Chih-li (960-1028) and the Formation of Orthodoxy in the Sung T’ien-t’ai Tradition of Buddhism (CA: University of California, Los Angeles, 1993), 399. 48 49 The view of Buddha-nature became a central issue in the Shan-chia/Shan-wai debates. This comes from Chiwah Chan, “Chih-li (960-1028) and the Crisis of T'ien-t'ai Buddhism in the Early Sung,” in Buddhism in the Sung (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1999): 409-441. 11 points that will be related to my dissertation, such as the argument about good and evil which is discussed by Zhiyi. This dissertation is suitable for certain audiences. First, the scholars of Buddhist Studies or comparative Religious Studies. A second audience would be the specialists in Tiantai Buddhism or those who are interested in Tiantai Buddhism. Third, would be the religious members of Buddhist communities who wish to understand the mind or Middle Way-Buddha Nature better. My primary sources will include the Lotus Sūtra [Saddharmapuṇḍarīka-sūtra], the Dazhidu Lun [Mahāprajñāpāramitā-śāstra], Weimojing Xuan Shu 維摩經玄疏, Fahua Xuanyi 法華玄義, Fahua Wenju 法華文句, Mohe Zhiguan 摩訶止觀, Guanyin Xuanyi 觀音玄義, Guan Wuliangshoufo Jing Shu 觀無量壽佛經疏, etc. So far, three Sanskrit editions50 and three Chinese editions of the Lotus Sūtra are available. The three remaining Lotus Sūtras are Dharmaraksa’s 竺法護 translation (正法華經, 10 volumes translated in C.E. 286), Kumārajīva’s 鳩摩羅什 translation (妙法蓮華經, seven volumes translated in C.E. 406), and Jñānagupta’s 闍那崛多 translation (添品妙法蓮華經, seven volumes translated in C.E. 601).51 In the last stage of Zhiyi’s life, he focused on mindfulness on Buddha (Amitābha), which he thought is the best way to train the dynamic mind through meditation. From mindfulness of Buddha (Skt.: Buddhānusmṛti), Zhiyi set up a path for Tiantai School to address the whole picture of the teaching of Buddhism. Zhiyi’s system is too broad to see 50 According to the place where the edition is found, the Sanskrit editions are Nepal, Central Asia, and Gilgit. There are also Burnouf’s French translation; Kern’s English translation; and Nanjō Bunʼyū and Izumi Hōei’s translation from Sanskrit. Gisen Shioda 塩田義遜, Hokke Kyōgakushi no Kenkyū 法華敎学史の研究 (Tōkyō: Chihō Shoin, 1960), 92-93. 51 12 it clearly. Meanwhile, every sentient being’s mind is filled with potential to become a Buddha’s mind by mindfulness of Buddha. Every sentient being’s mind is mutually contained 互具 in the Buddha’s mind, which means that a sentient being’s mind does not abstain from good by nature. The Buddha’s mind is also mutually contained in every sentient being’s mind because Buddha does not abstain from evil by nature. My dissertation will argue how Zhiyi utilizes the mind to lead to mindfulness of Buddha in an applied and salvational tone. Furthermore, I will show how crucial mindfulness of Buddha is in Zhiyi’s system, which is given less attention by modern scholars. I will demonstrate how this actually functions in the rest of this dissertation, one example being in my methodology. In my dissertation, my methodology is textual, philosophical, and historical analysis. According to the textual analysis, I will utilize the philology, which includes external evidence, internal evidence, and language. The external evidence will be comprised of citations from, references to, and commentaries on, etc. For example, Ten Essential Qualities or Characteristics of Things (Ten Thusnesses 十如是) comes from Mahāprajñāpāramitā-sūtra 大般若波羅蜜多經, and the Dazhidu Lun (Mahāprajñāpāramitāśāstra). The internal evidence will contain the quotation from, another source, etc. For example, Zhiyi learned from Huiwen and Huisi by which Zhiyi systemized the thoughts of Huiwen and Huisi. This is all in the Tiantai (internal). The language will embrace Chinese, Japanese, English, and Sanskrit. I will utilize Sanskrit when the context requires, such as when I discuss the 10 essential qualities or characteristics of things,52 which does Ten Thusnesses 十如是: these are the 10 essential qualities or characteristics of things: appearance (如是相); nature (如是性); entity (如是體); power (如是力); activity (如是作); cause (如是因); condition (如是 52 13 not exist in the Sanskrit edition,53 but exists in the Chinese edition (translated by Kumārajīva). In the structure of my dissertation, I will utilize the concept of Ten Essential Qualities or Characteristics of Things (Ten Thusnesses) to outline my main chapters, in which I construct the system of the mind in Zhiyi’s theory. For example, “thus and so activity (如是作)” to structure Chapter 3. “Thus and so appearance (如是相)” to structure Chpater 4. “Thus and so main cause (如是因),” “thus and so secondary conditions (如是緣),” “thus and so effect (如是果),” “thus and so retribution (如是報),” and “thus and so consistency from beginning to end (如是本末究竟等) to structure Chapter 5. “Thus and so nature (如是性)” and “thus and so entity (如是體) to structure Chapter 6. The philosophical54 analysis will include several steps. First, I will analyze the ideas and theories. Secondly, I will conclude the ideas and theories, and then compare with the research results of modern scholars. Furthermore, I will consider and digest the results of modern scholars. Finally, depending on the primary sources I will raise my own opinions. The historical analysis will be utilized in every chapter when it is required. Zhiyi only wrote four books, one of which is Fahua Sanmei Chanyi 法華三昧懺儀 (the Lotus Samādhi Repentance), which has inspired me to do research into Zhiyi’s Buddhānusmṛti. In the Weimojing Xuan Shu (his commentaries on the Vimalakīrtinirdeśa-sūtra 維摩詰經), Zhiyi presents his detailed explanation of the Pure Lands. He 緣); effect (如是果); retribution (如是報); and consistency from beginning to end (如是本末究竟等). Alternatively, another translation is Ten Suchnesses. Zhongxin Jiang 蔣忠新, Fan Wen "Miao Fa Lian Hua Jing" Xie Ben : Lading Zi Mu Zhuan Xie Ben : Min Zu Wen Hua Gong Tu Shu Guan Zang 梵文《妙法蓮華經》寫本（拉丁字母轉寫本）：民族文化宮圖書舘藏 (Sanskrit Manuscript of Saddharmapuṇḍarīka Kept in the Library of the Cultural Palace of the Nationalities, Beijing, Romanized Text)(Beijing: Zhongguo shehui kexue chubanshe, 1988). 53 I do not mean “philosophy” as the western scholars call the “western philosophy,” which comes from Greek. 54 14 did advocate calling on the compassionate power of Amitābha Buddha in certain meditations.55 He also recommended invoking the help of Amitābha Buddha.56 Zhiyi also supports the more beneficial practice of meditating on the name, etc. of a particular Buddha.57 Consequently, what is Zhiyi’s understanding of Buddhānusmṛti? In summary, the entire argument from my dissertation is about the mind and how Zhiyi utilizes Buddhānusmṛti to develop his soteriological education and practice. Zhiyi analyzes the mind from different perspective in order to reveal its different functions and characteristics. My dissertation will try to use the following angles to discuss Zhiyi’s understanding of mind. I utilize Ten Essential Qualities or Characteristics of Things (Ten Thusnesses) to structure my dissertation. First, in Zhiyi’s opinion, what is the intention of mind? This is the internal content of the mind. Is the internal content of the mind the six consciousnesses, seventh consciousness, eighth consciousness, and even ninth consciousness? How did Zhiyi deal with these consciousnesses? Even though Zhiyi used the names of eight consciousnesses, did he really mean that as the same as the Mind Only School? Or did he just use these names to describe his own idea? Second, what is the extension of mind? This chapter will analyze how the mind relates to the worldly universe, such as time, space, people, things, matters, substance, etc. Third, when one relates mind to the worldly universe, a question arises: what is the function of mind? Moreover, what is the cause of the dynamic aspect of mind? In the Tiantai doctrine, Intrinsic Inclusiveness means that the Buddha-nature contains both good and evil. 55 T. no. 1911, 46:12b19. 56 David W. Chappell, “Chinese Buddhist Interpretations of the Pure Lands,” in Buddhist and Daoist Studies (Honolulu: Asian Studies Program, University of Hawaii, University Press of Hawaii, 1987), 33-48. Daniel B. Stevenson, “The Four Kinds of Samādhi in Early T’ien-t’ai Buddhism,” in Traditions of Meditation in Chinese Buddhism, ed. Peter N. Gregory (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1986), 5586. 57 15 Intrinsic Inclusiveness is the unique thought of Tiantai theory. When Zhiyi discusses good by nature 性善 or evil by nature 性惡, he has his own unique thought. Furthermore, what is the result of the dynamic in mind? Lastly, I will narrow down the relationship between the dynamic mind and Buddhānusmṛti. I want to utilize the idea of Intrinsic Inclusiveness to analyze Zhiyi’s idea of Buddhānusmṛti. In Weimojing Xuan Shu, Zhiyi presented his detailed explanation of the four kinds of Pure Lands. In Zhiyi’s Guanjingshu 觀經疏,58 he argued that it is the mind to become a Buddha’s mind, in which Zhiyi utilized mind to lead to mindfulness of Buddha. However, can all Zhiyi’s works be utilized as research? Are there any philology issues in Zhiyi’s works? These kinds of questions will be discussed in Chapters two and seven. In Zhiyi’s composition, Fahua Sanmei Chanyi, he hoped to be mindful and attain rebirth in the Pure Land to meet Amitābha Buddha. This is the inspiration to make me start my dissertation. 58 T. no. 1750, 37:192b10-17. 16 CHAPTER ONE Zhiyi’s Works and the Connection to Huisi’s 1.1. Introduction Before the opinions about Zhiyi’s mind are discussed, there is some preliminary work that should be done, such as asking what is the source of Zhiyi’s thoughts, and the philology59 of Zhiyi’s works. These historical evidences should be examined before the topic can be deliberated. In the first section of this chapter, the connection between Zhiyi and Huisi will be discussed. Zhiyi was Huisi’s student. Some of Zhiyi’s opinions originate from Huisi. In this section, we will explore what kind of opinion emanates from Huisi. How Zhiyi’s opinion is generated will also be discussed. In the second section of this chapter, some issues of Zhiyi’s works will be presented, such as the philology and the historical position. According to the structure of this dissertation, the philology issues about Zhiyi’s Pure Land teaching will be discussed in Chapter 6, but not in this chapter. In Chapter 7, the philology of mindfulness of Buddha will be discussed. In this chapter, the general philological issues of Zhiyi’s works will be discussed. 59 Philology is the study of language in written historical sources; as such, it is a combination of literary studies, history and linguistics. This definition comes from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philology 17 1.2. The Connection between Zhiyi and Huisi 1.2.1. Introduction Both the Daśabhūmikā sect (Dilun School 地論宗)60 from Northern Wei 北魏 Bodhiruci 菩提流支 and the Shelun School 攝論宗61 from Southern Chen 南朝陳 Paramārtha 真諦 (C.E. 499-569)62 were in place during Zhiyi’s lifetime in Medieval China. Buddhist scholars debate on Mūlamadhyamakakārikā (Kārikā, i.e. CL, Zhonglun 中論), Mahāyāna-saṃgraha 攝大乘論, Dilun 地論, etc.63 How does Zhiyi evaluate those contemporary schools in Medieval China? Zhiyi was Huisi’s student. Zhiyi establishes the huge teaching and meditation system, Tiantai. Huisi puts the salvation of sentient beings as the purpose of meditation. This cannot be discarded by Zhiyi.64 Zhiyi bases the Lotus Sūtra metaphor of One Vehicle65 to create his Perfect Teaching.66 As to meditation, Huisi tries to unify the meditation of Theravada and Mahāyāna. His meditation system is based on the 60 Dilun School starts from C.E. 508. 61 Shelun School advocates the Mahāyānasaṃgraha Śāstra 攝大乘論. Shelun School starts from C.E. 546. This definition comes from A Dictionary of Chinese Buddhist Terms, p 333. Paramārtha 波羅末陀 (真諦三藏). 62 Seiichi Uno, Hajime Nakamura, and Kōshirō Tamaki, Kōza Tōyō Shisō 講座東洋思想 (Tōkyō: Tōkyō Daigaku Shuppankai, 1967), 122-123. 63 Yūshō Muranaka 村中祐生, Keynote of Tendai Meditation 天台観門の基調 (Tokyo: Sankibou Bushorin Press, 1986), 156. 64 It is predicted Śrāvakas’ and Pratyekabuddhas’ ultimate Buddhahood in the Lotus Sūtra. Keishō Tsukamoto 塚本啓祥, Source Elements of the Lotus Sutra: Buddhist Integration of Religion, Thought, and Culture (Tokyo: Kōsei Publishing, 2007), 283. 65 Nissen Inari 稲荷日宣, Study of Hokke Sūtra One Vehicle Thought 法華經一乘思想の研究 (Tokyo: Sankibou Bushorin Press, 1975), 106-107. 66 18 Mahāprajñāpāramitā-sūtra and the Dazhidu Lun.67 In this viewpoint is Zhiyi also influenced by Huisi? How many portions of the system are inherited from Huisi? Which parts of the system are created by Zhiyi? In this section the connection between Huisi and Zhiyi will be discussed. In addition, Huisi adopts some thoughts of the Mind Only School. How does Zhiyi treat these thoughts? Does Zhiyi adopt them or criticize them? 1.2.2. The Connection between Zhiyi and Huisi Zhiyi went to Dasushan 大蘇山, when he was 23 years old.68 He preached on behalf of Huisi. He (Zhiyi) had doubts about three kinds of wisdom (Three Cognitions) and Three Contemplations. Huisi utilized the Mahāprajñāpāramitā-sūtra’s 大品般若經 order to help explain the complete and immediate nature of the Lotus Sūtra to address Zhiyi’s doubts. In Huisi’s Zhufa Wuzheng Sanmei Famen 諸法無諍三昧法門, Three Insights (Emptiness, Provisional Positing, and Middle Way) can be found in one thought. This implied the Perfect Interpenetration of the Three Truths 圓融三諦. In addition, Huisi preached the Lotus Sūtra in Dasushan which is the rudimentary element of Fahua Wenju. Furthermore, Zhufa Wuzheng Sanmei Famen is the core of contemplation of the mind 觀心 about the Lotus Sūtra, which is the embryo of Mohe Zhiguan. Fahuajing Anlexing Yi is the origin of Fahua Xuanyi. Huisi was influenced by the Dazhidu Lun (Mahāprajñāpāramitā-śāstra). His preaching was filled with the opinions of the Lotus Hideto Ōno 大野栄人, Study of Tendai Meditation Established History 天台止観成立史の研究 (Kyōto: Hōzōkan, 1994), 61-62. 67 68 The second stage is the learning stage: from 18 to 31 years old (C.E. 555-568). 19 Sūtra and Mahā-prajñāpāramitā-sūtra. In Huisi’s system, he mingled the thoughts of the Mind Only School; meanwhile he placed the Lotus Sūtra in a supreme position.69 Zhiyi becomes heir to Huisi’s opinion about Nāgārjuna’s Emptiness of Prajñāpāramitā literature. Zhiyi creates the Perfect Interpenetration of the Three Truths.70 However, Huiyue argues in his “Tiantai Dashi de Sandi Sanguan Sixiang 天台大師的三諦三觀思想” about Zhiyi’s Three Truths, with sources from Yingluo Jing 瓔珞經, and Renwang Jing 仁王經.71 Yanpei argues that Huisi transcends the level of Prajñāpāramitā, and emphasizes the Lotus Sūtra.72 His Lotus Sūtra central teaching is also adopted by Zhiyi. Senshō Hibi 日比宣正 argues that in Xiaozhiguan, Zhiyi uses the reference of the Three Insights from Yingluo Jing and the Three Truths from the Kārikā. In addition, in Sandabu Zhiyi matures his thoughts as “be empty (or void, noumenal), be phenomenal, be medial.”73 This makes Zhiyi’s Tiantai teaching much more flexible. Sheng Yan argues that Zhiyi’s Three Thousand Worlds in an Instant of Thought 一念三千 comes from Huisi’s Three Insights (Emptiness, Provisional Positing, and Middle Toshio Andō 安藤俊雄, Tendaigaku: Konpon Shisō to sono Tenkai 天台学: 根本思想とその展開 (Kyōto-shi: Heirakuji Shoten, 1968), 11-33. 69 Huiyue Shi 釋慧嶽, “Tiantai Si Xiang de Yuan Yuan 天台思想的淵源,” in Xian Dai Fo Jiao Xue Shu Cong Kan 現代佛教學術叢刊, ed. Mantao Zhang (Taipei: Da Sheng Wen Hua Chu Ban She, 1979), 57: 1-2. 70 Huiyue Shi 釋慧嶽, “Tiantai Dashi de Sandi Sanguan Sixiang 天台大師的三諦三觀思想,” in Xian Dai Fo Jiao Xue Shu Cong Kan 現代佛教學術叢刊, ed. Mantao Zhang (Taipei: Da Sheng Wen Hua Chu Ban She, 1979), 57: 57-68. 71 Yanpei 演培, “Tiantai Xianqu Liezu de Shixiang Lun 天台先驅列祖的實相論,” in Xian Dai Fo Jiao Xue Shu Cong Kan 現代佛教學術叢刊, ed. Mantao Zhang (Taipei: Da Sheng Wen Hua Chu Ban She, 1979), 57: 150-153. 72 Hibi Senshō 日比宣正, Tang Tendai Study Research 唐代天台學研究 (Tokyo: Sankibou Bushorin Press, 1975), 149-150 and 152-154. 73 20 Way) are in one thought 一心三觀. Huisi’s Three Insights in one thought is dervied from Huiwen’s Three Kinds of Knowledge in one mind 一心三智. Huiwen’s Three Kinds of Knowledge in one mind sources from the Dazhidu Lun (Mahāprajñāpāramitā-śāstra) Vol. 27. This springs from Nāgārjuna. Zhiyi develops Three Thousand Worlds in an Instant of Thought in Mohe Zhiguan.74 Satō Taishun (佐藤泰舜サトウ, タイシュン) argues that Zhiyi stands on the Emptiness and transcends it. Zhiyi utilizes Nāgārjuna’s Mūlamadhyamakakārikā, which is the Kārikā (i.e. CL, Zhonglun 中論) “All things which arise through conditioned co-arising, I explain as emptiness. Again, it is a conventional designation. Again, it is the meaning of the Middle Path.”75 Furthermore, Zhiyi inherits Huiwen’s and Huisi’s opinion to develop Three Thousand Worlds in an Instant of Thought.76 Yanpei argues that Huisi’s teaching was influenced by the Dilun School 地論宗. However, Zhiyi criticizes the Dilun School and Shelun School 攝論宗.77 Yanpei also argues that Zhiyi’s totally Lotus Sūtra central teaching is different from Huisi’s especially, Intrinsic Inclusiveness and evil by nature should warrant attention. These two are the Shengyan Shi 釋聖嚴, “Tiantai Sixiang de Yinian Sanqian 天台思想的一念三千,” in Xian Dai Fo Jiao Xue Shu Cong Kan 現代佛教學術叢刊, ed. Mantao Zhang (Taipei: Da Sheng Wen Hua Chu Ban She, 1979), 57: 208-210, 216-217. 74 Paul L. Swanson, Foundations of T’ien-T’ai Philosophy: the Flowering of the Two Truths Theory in Chinese Buddhism (Berkeley Calif: Asian Humanities Press, 1989), 4-5. 75 Taishun Sato 佐藤泰舜, “Tiantai Jiao Xue 天台教學,” in Xian Dai Fo Jiao Xue Shu Cong Kan 現代佛教學術叢刊, ed. Mantao Zhang (Taipei: Da Sheng Wen Hua Chu Ban She, 1979), 55: 174-175. 76 Yanpei 演培, “Xingju Sixiang de Kaizhan yu Pipan 性具思想的開展與批判,” in Xian Dai Fo Jiao Xue Shu Cong Kan 現代佛教學術叢刊, ed. Mantao Zhang (Taipei: Da Sheng Wen Hua Chu Ban She, 1979), 57: 289. 77 21 unique characteristics of Tiantai teaching.78 Huisi’s and Zhiyi’s opinions about consciousness will be discussed in Chapter 2. Zhiyi followed Huisi’s opinion which is started from the Dazhidu Lun (Mahāprajñāpāramitā-śāstra) and positioned the Lotus Sūtra as superlative. Zhiyi positions the Lotus Sūtra as Perfect Teaching. However, he places the Mahāprajñāpāramitā-śāstra as Special Teaching. These changes are dramatically different from Huisi’s.79 Zhiyi does the research about Classification of Teachings (panjiao 判教)80 very early. He went to Dasushan and was under Huisi’s instruction, which inspired him (Zhiyi) in a melodramatic way. This causes Zhiyi in Waguan Temple to complete the system of his Classification of Teachings. In Guanding’s opinion, Zhiyi’s panjiao is in the influence of Huisi’s opinions about the Lotus Sūtra and the Dazhidu Lun (Mahāprajñāpāramitāśāstra). Zhiyi completes the ‘Lotus Sūtra supreme’ panjiao system.81 Yanpei 演培, “Tiantai yu Yuanqi Lun Zhuzong de Xianghu Juze 天台與緣起論諸宗的相互抉擇,” in Xian Dai Fo Jiao Xue Shu Cong Kan 現代佛教學術叢刊 ed. Mantao Zhang (Taipei: Da Sheng Wen Hua Chu Ban She, 1979), 57: 332. 78 79 Andō, Tendaigaku: Konpon Shisō to sono Tenkai, 33-34. The Tripiṭaka Teaching (zangjiao 藏教)—is usually associated with the Agamas, and more generally Hīnayāna Buddhism as a whole, or the Two Vehicles (Śrāvakas and Pratyeka-Buddhas). The Common Teaching (tongjiao 通教), so-called because it is common to all four teachings and is the basic tenet on which further doctrines are built in the last two types of teachings. It is associated with the teaching of Emptiness in the Prajñā-pāramitā sūtras and certain interpretations of the teaching of Nāgārjuna. The Separate Teaching (biejiao 別教), so called not only because it is a special vehicle for bodhisattvas but also because it conceives of the parts of various doctrines (e.g., the stages of practice, the Three Truths) as separate rather than integrated and interpenetrating. It is sometimes associated with certain versions of Buddha-nature, Consciousness-only, and Tathāgatagarbha thought. The Integrated Teaching (yuanjiao 圓教), is literally the Round or Perfect Teaching. The definition comes from: Brook Ziporyn, Evil and/or/as the Good: Omnicentrism, Intersubjectivity and Value Paradox in Tiantai Buddhist Thought (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2000), 114-115. 80 81 Andō, Tendaigaku: Konpon Shisō to sono Tenkai, 54-58. 22 Differing himself from Huisi, Zhiyi criticizes the Nirvāṇa sect 涅槃宗, Sanlun sect 三論宗, dhyāna, meditative or intuitional sect 禪宗 (Chan school), Daśabhūmikā sect 地論宗, and Satyasiddhi sect 成實宗, very harshly.82 In addition, Huisi embraces the thoughts about Mind Only School into his teaching. However, Zhiyi has the different thoughts about the theory of Mind Only School. Zhiyi criticizes it. Even though Zhiyi criticizes the Mind Only School theory, he employs eight consciousnesses in Weimojing Xuan Shu, and nine consciousnesses in Fahua Xuanyi and Jinguangming Jing Xuanyi. In addition, in some works he employs six consciousnesses. In Fahua Xuanyi Vol. 5, he develops the Tiantai theory of Reality based on some opinions of Mind Only School. Zhiyi bases this on Huisi’s Three Insights in one thought and Lotus Sūtra central theory to develop his (Zhiyi’s) Tiantai system. In Tiantai system, one should pay more attention to Intrinsic Inclusiveness and evil by nature.83 Zhiyi employs the terminology of Mind Only School to fit his own purpose. Huisi has the opinion of Fourfold Doctrines. However, he does not have further detail. Zhiyi in Sandabu 三大部 explains the details of the system of instruction in the Buddhist principles or Four Periods of Teaching 化法四教. These Four Periods of Teaching are exhibited in most systemized form in Sijiaoyi 四教義, which is a part of Weimojing Xuan Shu.84 In Tendai Kyōgaku 天台敎學, Kentoku Sasaki 佐々木憲德 82 Toshio Andō 安藤俊雄, Tendai Shōgu Shisōron 天台性具思想論 (Kyōto: Hōzōkan, 1973), 38-40. 83 Andō, Tendai Shōgu Shisōron, 92-103. 84 Andō, Tendaigaku: Konpon Shisō to sono Tenkai, 92-93. 23 discusses the same argument. He (Sasaki) utilizes Jingxi Zhanran’s 荊溪湛然 (C.E. 711782) Mohe Zhiguan Fuxing 摩訶止觀輔行 to support his argument.85 According to meditation in Mohe Zhiguan Vol. 1,86 Zhiyi utilizes Huisi’s opinions to systemize Mohe Zhiguan. In the preface of Mohe Zhiguan, Guanding points out that Gradual, Irregular, and ‘Immediate and Whole (or Sudden)’ meditations are the opinions of Huisi; even though there is no evidence of works to prove it. In Fahua Xuanyi Vol. 10, the characteristics of Gradual, Irregular, and ‘Immediate and Whole’ meditation and how to meditate on them are described. This Volume (10), it also can track back what Zhiyi inherits from Huisi.87 In Mohe Zhiguan Vol. 2, Zhiyi mentions that his neither walking nor sitting samādhi in Huisi’s term is “[the samādhi of] freely following one’s thought.”88 This is one of the evidences Zhiyi inherits from Huisi. These three kinds of meditation are completed by Zhiyi. He utilizes the ideas about meditation mentioned in Theravada in his works, such as Sinianchu 四念處 four volumes,89 Liumiaomen 六妙門 one volume,90 etc. As to Perfect and Sudden Cessation and Contemplation 圓頓止觀, it appears in Ten-Vehicle Meditation 十乘觀法 which transforms from Theravada meditation into Mahāyāna Perfect Teaching 圓教. During that period, This (Theravada meditation) is very popular. 85 Kentoku Sasaki 佐々木憲德, Tendai Kyōgaku 天台敎學 (Kyōto: Hyakkaen, 1951), 106-108. T. no. 1911, 46: 1c1-03 Mohe Zhiguan Vol. 1: “天台傳南岳三種止觀。一漸次。二不定。三圓頓。皆是大乘。俱緣實相同名止觀。” 86 Shindai Sekiguchi 關口真大, Tendai Shikan no Kenkyū 天台止觀の研究 (Tōkyō: Iwanami Shoten, 1969), 66-67. 87 88 T. no. 1911, 46: 14b26-29 Mohe Zhiguan Vol. 2. 89 T. no. 1918, 46: 555c10-580b04. 90 T. no. 1917, 46: 549a02-555c07. 24 For instance, Huisi in his Zhufa Wuzheng Sanmei Famen, mentions that bodhisattvas who meditate on contemplation of the four bases of mindfulness 四念處觀 can attain the Thirty-Seven Conditions Leading to Bodhi, or Buddhahood 三十七道品 to complete the Buddha-Dharma.91 Zhiyi follows Huisi’s teaching, and he keeps the terminology of the Theravada tradition. However, the contexts are completely different. For example, si nianchu 四念處, liumiaomen (Six Approaches to the Wondrous 六妙門) come from the Theravada tradition, however, Zhiyi puts them into Sudden Cessation and Contemplation 圓頓止觀 (in Ten-Vehicle Meditation 十乘觀法).92 In Tendai Shikan no Kenkyū 天台止觀の研究, Shindai Sekiguchi argues that Zhiyi inherits Huisi’s opinions about ‘Contemplation of the Four Bases of Mindfulness.’93 Sasaki Kentoku argues that Huisi practices the meditation on Gradual, Irregular, and Immediate and Whole (or Sudden), but no work has exactly mentioned these three kinds of meditations.94 Huisi in his Fahuajing Anlexing Yi 法華經安樂行義, Zhufa Wuzheng Sanmei Famen, and the lost Cidi chanyao 次第禪要 mentions the three kinds of meditation (Gradual, Irregular, and Immediate-and-Whole). In Fahuajing Anlexing Yi (T. no. 1926, 46: 698c14-15), Huisi argues that the śrāvakas, pratyekabuddhas, and some bodhisvattas follow the Gradual mediation. In the same work (T. no. 1926, 46: 698c09-11), Huisi argues that the Lotus Bodhisvatta practice and then complete the Immediate-and-Whole T. no. 1923, 46: 632b14-19《諸法無諍三昧法門》卷上: “復次菩薩禪定。修四念處。得三十七品。具足佛法。何以故。是身念處。觀色法故。一念具足四念處故。是身念處。用念覺分。觀五陰時。能斷一切煩惱。故觀色陰時。是身念處。不淨觀九想。具足舍摩他。能破一切煩惱。是名為定。” 91 92 Andō, Tendaigaku: Konpon Shisō to sono Tenkai, 178-179. 93 Sekiguchi 關口真大, Tendai Shikan no Kenkyū 天台止觀の研究, 138-139. 94 Sasaki 佐々木憲德, Tendai Kyōgaku 天台敎學, 215. 25 meditation. In Mohe Zhiguan (T. no. 1911, 46: 1c01-03), Zhiyi mentions a recorder by Guanding stating that Zhiyi learns from Huisi three kinds of meditation: Gradual, Irregular, and Immediate-and-Whole. Zhiyi in Jinling 金陵 preaches Shi Chanboluomi Cidi Famen 釋禪波羅蜜次第法門 to introduce the gradual meditation in a systemized manner. In Liumiaomen, he introduces the Irregular meditation in systemized style, which is important because it is the first in Chinese Chan history to be introduced as Irregular meditation. This means that Huisi does not systemize the Irregular meditation, however, Zhiyi does. In Mohe Zhiguan, Zhiyi preaches the Perfect and Sudden Cessation and Contemplation. Among Zhiyi’s contemporaries (for example, the masters of Dilun School and Shelun School), he (Zhiyi) is the first person to raise the Chinese systemized meditation method, which is based on the tremendous doctrine system and a variety of angles of meditation methods (Theravada-Mahāyāna, partial-complete, interdependence-absolute). Zhiyi categorizes Tiantai Perfect Teaching about the twenty-five expedients 二十五方便,95 Ten-Vehicle Meditation 十乘觀法, Ten Objects 十境, etc. According to these mentioned above, he becomes the outstanding organizer of the Chinese meditation system, which no one has before.96 Huisi’s and Zhiyi’s meditation opinions about Sudden and Gradual is related to Fahua Sanmei; meanwhile it is deeply interconnected to Mahāprajñāpāramitā-sūtra’s Yixin ju wanxing ping 一心具萬行品 and Cidixue ping 次第學品.97 The twenty-five expedients 二十五方便 are (1) preparing the five conditions 具五緣; (2) reprimanding the five desires 訶五欲; (3) rejecting the five obscurations 棄五蓋; (4) regulating five matters 調五事; (5) practicing five supplementary methods 行五法. 95 96 Andō, Tendaigaku: Konpon Shisō to sono Tenkai, 265-266. 97 Sekiguchi 關口真大, Tendai Shikan no Kenkyū 天台止觀の研究, 92-93. 26 In Zhiyi’s Mohe Zhiguan, he discusses twenty-five expedients which include (1) preparing the five conditions 具五緣; (2) reprimanding the five desires 訶五欲; (3) rejecting the five obscurations 棄五蓋; (4) regulating five matters 調五事; and (5) practicing five supplementary methods 行五法. In Huisi’s Zhufa Wuzheng Sanmei Famen, he mentions “reprimanding the five desires,” “rejecting the five obscurations,” and “practicing five supplementary methods.” In addition, in Huisi’s Zhufa Wuzheng Sanmei Famen two volumes, Suiziyi Sanmei one volume, and Fahuajing Anlexing Yi one volume, he does not utilize the titles of preparing the five conditions and regulating five matters. However, he mentions some contents of these two. Furthermore, these 25 expedients can be traced back to Dazhidu Lun (Mahāprajñāpāramitā-śāstra).98 From Zhiyi’s youth,99 he believes in Guanyin 觀音 (Skt. Avalokiteśvara). However, Huisi does not treat the faith in Guanyin as importantly as Zhiyi does. In Guoqing Bailu 國清百錄,100 it mentioned Qing Guanyin chanfa 請觀音懺法.101 In Mohe Zhiguan Zhiyi preaches Qing Guanyin Xingfa 請觀音行法, which is categorized in ‘four kinds of samādhi’ as ‘neither walking nor sitting samādhi’ in about C.E. 593.102 In Fahua Xuanyi, it mentions Guanyin’s compassion in the Ten Wonders 十妙 Supernatural Powers part. In 98 Sekiguchi 關口真大, Tendai Shikan no Kenkyū 天台止觀の研究, 100-101. 99 Zhiyi’s youth stage: from one to 18 year of age (C.E. 538-555). 100 Guoqing Bailu 國清百錄 is deleted in the Dragon Canon constructed in 1735-1738. 101 Andō, Tendaigaku: Konpon Shisō to sono Tenkai, 421-422. Dairui Shi 釋大睿, Tiantai Chan Fa zhi Yan Jiu 天台懺法之硏究 (Taipei City: Fa Gu Wen Hua Shi Ye Gu Fen You Xian Gong Si, 2000), 187. 102 27 addition, Zhiyi preaches Guanyin Xuanyi,103 Guanyin Yi Shu 觀音義疏,104 and Qing Guanyin Jing Shu,105 which proves that Zhiyi takes the faith in Guanyin seriously.106 In addition, the Six Identities to the Buddhahood (of Tiantai Teaching) (liu liuji 六即)107 is the creation of Zhiyi. He utilizes Nirvāṇa Sūtras to explain the Identity in Principle and Dazhidu Lun to explain the rest.108 As to samādhi, the three samādhi are empty, wishless and formless. 109 The text even explains the 48 samādhi is a portion of 6,000,000 samādhi. 110 This explains why there are so many samādhi in Zhiyi’s works. In Mohe Zhiguan, Zhiyi preaches Ten-Vehicle Meditation. In Mohe Zhiguan, the meditation methods are based on Huisi’s meditation opinions. Huisi devoted himself to meditation in his whole life. Zhiyi learned from Huisi 103 T. no. 1726, 34: 877a04-892a10. 104 T. no. 1728, 34: 921a24-936a02. 105 T. no. 1800, 39: 968a03-977a17. 106 Andō, Tendaigaku: Konpon Shisō to sono Tenkai, 422. (1) Identity in principle 理即: the objective fact that all things are Buddha; that whether they know it or not they are of the nature of enlightenment. Buddhahood at this level is still pure unrealized potentiality, inherent in all things. (2) Identity in name 名字即: certain beings hear the doctrine, "You are identical to Buddha," and if they believe it, they are identical in name; they have this cognitive knowledge of the principle that all are Buddhas. (3) Identity in contemplation and practice 觀行即: after accepting this doctrine, these beings become Buddhists and practice the Buddhist path and make progress toward manifesting this inherent potential Buddhahood. (4) Identity of semblance 相似即: further progress into the ranks and levels of Buddhist mythology. (5) Partial realization 分證即: the highest ranks of bodhisattva practice. (6) Ultimate identity 究竟即: becoming an actual Buddha in practice. These definitions come from: Ziporyn, Evil and/or/as the Good: Omnicentrism, Intersubjectivity and Value Paradox in Tiantai Buddhist Thought, 295-296. 107 108 Sekiguchi 關口真大, Tendai Shikan no Kenkyū 天台止觀の研究, 159. 109 T. no. 224, 8:473c. 110 T. no. 1509, 25:753b. 28 about Fangdeng sanmei 方等三昧, pratyutpannasamādhi 般舟三昧, Fahua sanmei, Jueyi sanmei 覺意三昧,111 Concentration of Mindfulness of the Buddha 念佛三昧, One Hundred and Eight Kinds of samādhi 百八三昧, etc. It is Huisi’s contribution to teach Zhiyi the contemplation of principle belonging to these samādhis. Lewis Lancaster thinks, “We must turn our attention to the function of samādhi, which raises the questions of the nature or structure of samādhi that serves a definite purpose and is intended to perform a certain action.”112 In Huisi’s Zhufa Wuzheng Sanmei Famen, he introduces sinianchu guanfa 四念處觀法, which is common in all kinds of meditations. It includes the Practice of Formless 無相行, and the Practice with Form 有相行. This influences Zhiyi. In the Tiantai system, Huisi is a very important character, who not only emphasizes Lotus Sūtra but also utilizes the Dazhidu Lun (Mahāprajñāpāramitā-śāstra). This means that the Tiantai meditation system sources from the Pañcaviṃśati-sāhsrikā-prajñā-pāramitā 大品般若經, which Huisi teaches Zhiyi.113 In Shi Chanboluomi Cidi Famen, Zhiyi introduces upāya (fangbian) 方便, the four dhyānas 四禪, the Four Immeasurables (or Infinite Buddha-States of mind 四無量心), In Study of Tendai Thought and East Asia Culture 天台思想と東アジア文化の研究, Kyosi Matsui 松居恭示 mentions that neither walking nor sitting samādhi 非行非坐三昧, samādhi of following one's own thoughts 隨自意三昧, and bodhy-avgavatī samādhi 覺意三昧 are the same. Kyosi Matsui 松居恭示 etc., Study of Tendai Thought and East Asia Culture 天台思想と東アジア文化の研究 (Tokyo: Sankibou Bushorin Press, 1991), 81. 111 Lewis Lancaster, “Samādhi Names: The Nature of Meditative Experience in Mahayana,” in the Malasekekera Commemorative Volume, ed. Professor O. Wijesekera (Colombo, 1976). Accessed Aug 24 2013. https://www.academia.edu/7752048/Samadhi_Names/. In addition, Lancaster also argues, “Having established this, can we then consider each of the names to see if they are adaptable to the end in view, be it enlightenment or some other spiritual attainment. In such a manner, the samādhi names can be reviewed with respect to the requirements for anyone making use of them or the state that they purport to name.” 112 113 Andō, Tendaigaku: Konpon Shisō to sono Tenkai, 424-427. 29 Four Formless Concentrations 四無色定, Six Approaches to the Wondrous (Nirvāṇa) 六妙門,114 Sixteen Superior Forms of Meditation 十六特勝, the meditation about Six Supernatural Powers and Three Kinds of Supernormal Awareness 通明觀, Nine Kinds of Meditation (on a corpse to quell desire) 九想, Eight Kinds of Mindfulness 八念, Ten Contemplations 十想, Eight Liberations 八背捨, Eight Bases of Overcoming 八勝處, Ten Universals 十一切處, Nine Graduated Concentrations 九次第定, Sijha-vijrmbhitasamādhi 獅子奮迅三昧, One Hundred Eight Kinds of samādhi 百八三昧, nine kinds of Mahāyāna meditation 九種大禪, the samādhi which sees into the three dogmas of Emptiness, Provisional Positing, and Middle Way are unreality 法華三昧 (Fahua sanmei), pratyutpannasamādhi 般舟三昧, Bodhy-avgavatī samādhi 覺意三昧, Ekākāra samādhi 一行三昧, etc. In Shi Chanboluomi Cidi Famen, he introduces Theravada and Mahāyāna meditation systematically. Huisi is very good at Theravada meditation, which provides Zhiyi very good background information. In addition, Zhiyi researches all kinds of methods of meditation, which can be proved in Shi Chanboluomi Cidi Famen and Mohe Zhiguan. In fact, these meditations appeared in Mahā-prajñāpāramitā-sūtra, Hiusi’s Suiziyi Sanmei, Fahuajing Anlexing Yi, and Zhufa Wuzheng Sanmei Famen.115 Huisi emphasizes Six Perfections or Ten Perfections. Zhiyi follows this emphasis and sources from Theravada canons and Mahāyāna sūtras. He (Zhiyi) creates a new The six mysterious gates or ways of practicing meditation 修禪六妙門, consisting mostly of breathing exercises. 114 115 Andō, Tendaigaku: Konpon Shisō to sono Tenkai, 429-436, 442. 30 system of meditation, which he describes in Mohe Zhiguan, Shi Chanboluomi Cidi Famen, etc.116 Huisi does not utilize the term “four kinds of samādhi.” However, in Huisi’s biography, Xu Gaoseng Zhuan 續高僧傳 Vol. 17, it mentions that Huisi practiced Fahua Sanmei, pratyutpannasamādhi, Nianfo Sanmei 念佛三昧, Fangdeng Sanmei 方等三昧, etc. Zhiyi inherits Huisi’s opinion about Four Kinds of Samādhi and systemizes them in Mohe Zhiguan.117 There is another specific teaching in Tiantai School, the Ten Essential Qualities or Characteristics of things (Ten Suchnesses, or Ten Thusnesses). Huisi emphasizes the Ten Thusnesses. In Fahua Xuanyi Vol. 2, Zhiyi explains these Ten Thusnesses in three levels: Emptiness, Provisional Positing, and Middle Way. One Emptiness is All Emptiness. One Provisional Positing is All Provisional Positing. One Middle Way is All Middle Way. These Ten Thusensses include all dharmas.118 This detail will be discussed in Chapter 4. Modern scholar Muranaka Yūshō argues that Huisi puts the salvation of sentient beings as the most important priority. This salvation method is meditation. Zhiyi follows this thought to develop his Tiantai teaching.119 In Zhiyi’s opinion, mindfulness of Buddha (Buddhānusmṛti) is a kind of meditation in his time. In this dissertation, the main argument is to prove that Zhiyi utilizes Buddhānusmṛti to achieve the goal of salvation in his teaching system. 116 Andō, Tendaigaku: Konpon Shisō to sono Tenkai, 451-454. 117 Sekiguchi 關口真大, Tendai Shikan no Kenkyū 天台止觀の研究, 150-154. 118 T. no. 1716, 33: 693b06-24. 119 Muranaka 村中祐生, Keynote of Tendai Outlook Gate 天台観門の基調, 154-156. 31 1.2.3. Conclusion Zhiyi inherits several opinions from Huisi. First, he learns from Huisi about Three Insights in one thought, and he progresses into Three Thousand Worlds in an Instant of Thought. Furthermore, he follows Huisi’s emphasis on the Dazhidu Lun (Mahāprajñāpāramitā-śāstra) and Lotus Sūtra. He completes the panjiao system, of which the Lotus Sūtra is the supreme. In addition, he utilizes and criticizes the opinions of Mind Only School; however, Huisi embraces their opinions. Moreover, he develops Huisi’s Fourfold Doctrines into Four Periods of Teaching and Four Modes of Teaching. Likewise, he utilizes Huisi’s meditation opinions to systemize his meditation works, such as Mohe Zhiguan, etc. Conversely, he believes in Guanyin. Huisi does not. 1.3. The Works of Zhiyi 1.3.1. Introduction The names of Zhiyi’s works listed in Guanding’s (C.E. 561-632) 灌頂 Sui Tiantai Zhizhe Dashi Biezhuan 隋天台智者大師別傳, Daoxuan’s (C.E. 596-667) 道宣 Datang Neidianlu 大唐內典錄,120 Saityou’s 最澄(サイチョウ C.E. 767-822) Dengyo Daishi Shorai Mokuroku 傳教大師將來台州錄 (デンギョウダイシショウライモクロク), Taishō Shinshu Daizōkyō 大正新修大藏經, and Zokuzōkyō 續藏經. Interestingly, the later list of the names of Zhiyi’s works is longer than the former one. In addition, the fact that Zhiyi’s works started to be edited into Tripiṭaka in C.E. 1024 or 1026 will be 120 Datang Neidianlu 大唐內典錄 is finished in C.E. 664. 32 discussed. This fact (being edited into Tripiṭaka) proved that the works of Zhiyi became important. For this reason, the outline of Zhiyi’s works will be discussed in this section. In Zhiyi’s works, there is a pattern. In the pattern, there are four kinds of explanations. First, there is the explanation of causes and conditions in each chapter of every work, which is the conncetion, context, or the answers to questions. Second, it is the doctrical explanation. Third, only in Fahuaxuanyi, there are two aspects of original and derivative. Fourth, it is meditative explanation.121 1.3.2. The Works of Zhiyi Zhiyi preached for more than 30 years. Zhiyi’s known named works are 248 volumes, which include 74 works. His existing works contain 188 volumes. These come from 46 works of Zhiyi. Satō Tetsuei thinks that very few are written by Zhiyi; for instance, Fajie Cidi Chumen 法界次第初門 three volumes, Fahua Sanmei Chanyi one volume, Fangdeng Chanfa 方等懺法 one volume, Jueyi Sanmei 覺意三昧 one volume, 122 and Jingming Xuanyi 淨名玄義 10 volumes. Most of them are preached by Zhiyi, and recorded by his disciples. Some of them use Zhiyi’s name, but do not belong to Zhiyi.123 Leon Hurvitz thinks that Zhiyi has 56 works; however, only 35 survive.124 Huiyue argues that Fajie Cidi Chumen 法界次第初門 three volumes, Fahua Sanmei Chanyi one volume, Shindai Sekiguchi 関口真大, Study of Tendai Teaching 天台教学の研究 (Tokyo: Daito publisher, 1978), 652. 121 Jingming Xuanyi 淨名玄義 is also called Jingming xuanshu 淨名玄疏 or Weimojing Xuan Shu 維摩經玄疏. 122 Tetsuei Satō 佐藤哲英, Tendai Daishi no Kenkyū: Chigi o no Chosaku ni Kansuru Kisoteki Kenkyū 天台大師の研究: 智顗の著作に關する基礎的硏究 (Kyōto: Hyakkaen., 1961), 73-74, 88-89, 660. 123 124 Leon Hurvitz, Chih-i (538-597): An Introduction to the Life and Ideas of a Chinese Buddhist Monk (Bruxelles: Institut Belge des hautes écoles Chinoises, 1980), 332. 33 Fangdeng Chanfa 方等懺法 one volume, Jueyi Sanmei 覺意三昧 one volume, Weimojing Xuan Shu 維摩經玄疏 six volumes, and Weimojing Wenshu 28 volumes are written by Zhiyi.125 According to Taishō Shinshu Daizōkyō and Zokuzōkyō 續藏經, these are written by Zhiyi: Fajie Cidi Chumen 法界次第初門 three volumes, Fahua Sanmei Chanyi one volume, Sijiaoyi 四教義 12 volumes, Sanguanyi 三觀義 three volumes, Weimojing Xuan Shu 維摩經玄疏 six volumes, and Weimojing Wenshu 28 volumes. There is some philology work that needs to be done. The philology work will be discussed chronologically. Guanding is Zhiyi’s disciple, who recorded a lot of Zhiyi’s preachings. In Guanding’s Sui Tiantai Zhizhe Dashi Biezhuan, Zhiyi’s (Zhiyi is C.E. 538-597) works are listed below:126 1. Jingming Jingshu 淨名經疏 28 volumes127 2. Jueyi Sanmei 覺意三昧 1 volume 3. Liumiaomen 六妙門 1 volume 4. Fajie Cidi Zhangmen 法界次第章門 3 volumes 5. Xiaozhiguan 小止觀 1 volume128 Huiyue Shi 釋慧嶽, Tiantai Jiao Xue Shi 天台教學史 (Taipei Xian Xindian Zhen: Zhonghua fo jiao wen xian bian zhuan she, 1979), 72. 125 126 T. no. 2050, 50: 197b13-22 Sui Tiantai Zhizhe Dashi Biezhuan. Satō 佐藤哲英, Tendai Daishi no Kenkyū: Chigi o no Chosaku ni Kansuru Kisoteki Kenkyū 天台大師の研究: 智顗の著作に關する基礎的硏究, 76. Satō wrote Jingming Jingshu 淨名經疏 34 volumes, which is different from Sui Tiantai Zhizhe Dashi Biezhuan. 127 Satō 佐藤哲英, Tendai Daishi no Kenkyū: Chigi o no Chosaku ni Kansuru Kisoteki Kenkyū 天台大師の研究: 智顗の著作に關する基礎的硏究, 76. Satō Tetsuei wrote Xiaozhiguan 小止觀 2 volumes, which are different from Sui Tiantai Zhizhe Dashi Biezhuan. 128 34 6. Fahua Sanmei Xingfa 法華三昧行法 1 volume 7. Cidi Chanmen 次第禪門 50 volumes129 8. Fahua Xuanyi 30 volumes130 9. Yuandun Zhiguan 圓頓止觀 30 volumes131 10. Dazhangyansi Fashen Siji Chanmen 大莊嚴寺法慎私記禪門 30 volumes132 11. Guanding Siji Fahua Xuan Chufen 灌頂私記法華玄初分 10 volumes 12. Zhiguan Chufen 止觀初分 10 volumes133 According to Daoxuan’s Datang Neidianlu Vol. 10, Zhiyi’s works are listed as follows:134 1. Yuandun Zhiguan 圓頓止觀 10 volumes 2. Chan Boluomimen 禪波羅蜜門 10 volumes 3. Weimojing Shu 維摩經疏 30 volumes 4. Fahua Xuan 法華玄 10 volumes 129 Satō does not mention this. 130 Satō does not mention this. Satō 佐藤哲英, Tendai Daishi no Kenkyū: Chigi o no Chosaku ni Kansuru Kisoteki Kenkyū 天台大師の研究: 智顗の著作に關する基礎的硏究, 76. Satō wrote Yuandun Zhiguan 圓頓止觀 10 volumes, which are different from Sui Tiantai Zhizhe Dashi Biezhuan. 131 Satō 佐藤哲英, Tendai Daishi no Kenkyū: Chigi o no Chosaku ni Kansuru Kisoteki Kenkyū 天台大師の研究: 智顗の著作に關する基礎的硏究, 76. Satō wrote about Dazhangyansi Fashen Siji Chanmen 10 volumes, which are different from Sui Tiantai Zhizhe Dashi Biezhuan. 132 133 134 Satō 佐藤哲英 does not mention this. T. no. 2149, 55: 332a16-23 Datang Neidianlu 大唐內典錄. 35 5. Fahua Shu 法華疏 10 volumes 6. Xiaozhiguan 小止觀 2 volumes 7. Liumiaomen 六妙門 8. Jueyi Sanmei 覺意三昧 9. Fahua Sanmei 法華三昧 10. Guanxinlu 觀心論 11. Sanguanyi 三觀義 12. Sijiaoyi 四教義 13. Sixitanyi 四悉檀義 14. Rulai Shouliang Yi 如來壽量義 15. Fajie Cidi Zhang 法界次第章(三卷) 16. Dafangdeng Xingfa 大方等行法 17. Banzhou Zhengxiang Xingfa 般舟證相行法 18. Qing Guanyin Xingfa 請觀音行法 19. Nanyue Sichanshi Zhuan 南岳思禪師傳 According to Japanese monk Saityou’s Dengyo Daishi Shorai Mokuroku, Saityou wrote this catalogue in C.E. 805, a year that fits both Chinese and Japanese calendars. 135 Zhiyi’s works are listed as follows:136 In Huiyue’s Tiantai jiaoxue shi, he wrote in 804 C.E. that Saityou brought the works of Zhiyi’s. However, in 805 C.E. Saityou wrote the catalogue. Huiyue does not mention the year Saityou wrote the catalogue. Shi 釋慧嶽, Tiantai Jiao Xue Shi 天台教學史, 76-78. 135 136 T. no. 2159, 55: 1055b07-1057c28 Dengyo Daishi Shorai Mokuroku 傳教大師將來台州錄. 36 1. Miaofa Lianhua Jing Xuanyi 10 volumes 妙法蓮華經玄義十卷(智者大師出)(二百七十二紙) 2. Miaofa Lianhua Jing Wenju Shu 10 volumes 妙法蓮華經文句疏十卷 (三百三十七紙) 3. Miaofa Lianhua Jing Guanyinping Yi 1 volume 妙法蓮華經觀音品義一卷 (四十紙) 4. Miaofa Lianhua Jing Guanyinping Yi Shu 2 volumes 妙法蓮華經觀音品義疏二卷 (三十八紙) 5. Miaofa Lianhua Jing Chanfa 1 volume 妙法蓮華經懺法一卷(或名三昧行法) (一十八紙) 6. Mohe Zhiguan 10 volumes 摩訶止觀十卷(三百七十紙) 7. Chanwen Xiuzheng 10 volumes 禪文修證十卷(一百七十九紙) 8. Chanmenzhang 1 volume 禪門章一卷(五十九紙) 9. Chanmen Yaolue 1 volume 禪門要略一卷(五紙) 10. Xiuchan Liumiaomen 1 volume 修禪六妙門一卷(一十三紙) 11. Koujue Chanfa 1 volume 口決禪法一卷(九紙) 12. Sinianchu 4 volumes 四念處四卷(章安和尚撰)(六十八紙) 13. Guanxinlu 1 volume 觀心論一卷(九紙) 14. Xiaozhiguan 1 volume 小止觀一卷(卷上智者大師出)(一十七紙) 15. Jueyi Sanmei 1 volume 覺意三昧一卷(一十九紙) 16. Zaxingguan 1 volume 雜觀行一卷(八紙) 37 17. Jinguangming Chanfa 1 volume 金光明懺法一卷(四紙) 18. Weimojing Xuan Shu 6 volumes 維摩經玄疏六卷(一百一十六紙) 19. Sijiaoyi 12 volumes 四教儀十二卷(九十七紙) 20. Wufangbian Yi 1 volume 五方便義一卷(一紙) 21. Fajie Cidi 3 volumes 法界次第三卷 (八十紙) 22. Jinguangming Jing Xuanyi 1 volume 金光明經玄義一卷 (二十六紙) 23. Jinguangming Jing Shu 3 volumes 金光明經疏三卷 (八十九紙) 24. Pusa Jiejing Yiji 2 volumes 菩薩戒經義記二卷 (四十四紙) 25. Qing Guanyin Jingshu 1 volume 請觀音經疏一卷 (一十四紙) 26. Guan Wuliangshou Jing Shu 1 volume 觀無量壽經疏一卷 (二十四紙) 27. Amituo Jiang Shu 1 volume 阿彌陀經疏一卷 (五紙) 28. Shi Shirushi Yi 1 volume 釋十如是義一卷 29. Shi Yiqiejing Xuanyi 1 volume 釋一切經玄義一卷 30. Qixueren Yi 1 volume 七學人義一卷 31. Qifangbian Yi 1 volume 七方便義一卷 According to Huiyue’s 釋慧嶽 (C.E. 1917 -now) Tiantai Jiao Xue Shi 天台教學史, Zhiyi’s existing works are recorded in Taishō Shinshu Daizōkyō 大正新修大藏經 and Zokuzōkyō 續藏經 as follows:137 1. Miaofa Lianhua Jing Xuanyi 138 137 According to Guiming Pan, some works listed were written by others. They just bear Zhiyi’s name. 138 T. no.1716, 33: 681a03-814a19. Miaofa lianhua jing xuanyi has 10 volumes. It is preached in C.E. 593. 38 2. Miaofa Lianhua Jing Wenju 妙法蓮華經文句139 3. Mohe Zhiguan 摩訶止觀140 4. Shi Chanboluomi Cidi Famen 釋禪波羅密次第法門141 5. Chanmen Yaolue 禪門要略142 6. Chanmenzhang 禪門章143 7. Chanfa Koujue 禪法口訣144 8. Xiuchan Liumiaomen 修禪六妙門145 9. Xiaozhiguan 小止觀146 10. Jueyi Sanmei 覺意三昧147 11. Guanxinlu 觀心論148 12. Sinianchu 四念處149 T. no. 1718, 34:1a02-149a29. Miaofa Lianhua Jing Wenju 妙法蓮華經文句 has 10 volumes. It is preached in C.E. 587. 139 140 T. no. 1911, 46:1a03-140c19. Mohe Zhiguan 摩訶止觀 has 10 volumes. It is preached in C.E. 594. T. no. 1916, 46: 547c04-11. Shi Chanboluomi Cidi Famen 釋禪波羅蜜次第法門 has 10 volumes. It is written in C.E. 571. 141 142 X. no. 908, 55: 666c03-668b09. 143 X. no. 907, 55: 642c03-666b05. It is argued that it is not Zhiyi’s work. 144 T. no. 1919, 46: 581a03-584b01. 145 T. no. 1917, 46: 549a03-555c07. 146 T. no. 1915, 46: 462a06-475a12. 147 T. no. 1922, 46: 621a05-627b24. 148 T. no. 1920, 46: 584b04-587b13. 149 T. no. 1918, 46: 555c11-580b04. Sinianchu has four volumes. 39 13. Weimojing Xuan Shu 維摩經玄疏150 14. Weimojing Wenshu 維摩經文疏151 15. Sijiaoyi 四教義152 16. Jinguangming Jing Xuanyi 金光明經玄義153 17. Jinguangming Jing Wenju 金光明經文句154 18. Guanyinping Xuanyi 觀音品玄義155 19. Guanyinping Yishu 觀音品義疏156 20. Guan Wuliangshou Jing Shu 觀無量壽經疏157 21. Amituo Jiang Yiji 阿彌陀經義記158 22. Amituo Shiyilun 阿彌陀十疑論159 23. Pusa Jiejing Yiji 菩薩戒經義記160 150 T. no. 1777, 38: 519a03-562b29. 151 X. no. 338, 18: 462a03-703c14. Weimojing Wenshu has 28 volumes. 152 T. no. 1929, 46: 721a03-769a05. Sijiaoyi has 12 volumes. 153 T. no. 1783, 39: 1a02-12a23. Jinguangming Jing Xuanyi 金光明經玄義 has two volumes. 154 T. no. 1785, 39: 46b23-83b01. Jinguangming Jing Wenju 金光明經文句 has six volumes. 155 T. no. 1726, 34: 877a03-892a10. Guanyinping Xuanyi 觀音品玄義 has two volumes. 156 T. no. 1728, 34: 921a23-936a02. Guanyinping Yishu 觀音品義疏 has two volumes. 157 T. no. 1750, 37: 186b23-194c25. Guan Wuliangshou Jing Shu 觀無量壽經疏 has one volume. 158 T. no. 1755, 37: 306a02-307b14. Amituo Jiang Yiji 阿彌陀經義記 has one volume. 159 T. no. 1961, 47: 77a02-81c18. Amituo Shiyilun 阿彌陀十疑論 (淨土十疑論) has one volume. T. no. 1811, 40: 77a02-580b01. Pusa Jiejing Yiji 菩薩戒經義記 (Pusa Jie Yishu 菩薩戒義疏) has two volumes. 160 40 24. Fajie Cidi 法界次第 25. Fahua Sanmei Chanyi 法華三昧懺儀 26. Jinggang Banre Shu 金剛般若疏 27. Renwang Jing Shu 仁王經疏 28. Qing Guanyin Jingshu 請觀音經疏 29. Sanguanyi 三觀義 30. Wufangbian Nianfo Men 五方便念佛門 31. Fangdeng Sanxingfa 方等三行法 32. Guanxin Shifa 觀心食法 33. Guanxin Songjing Fa 觀心誦經法 34. Tiantai Dashi Fayuanwen 天台大師發願文 35. Puxian Pusa Fayuanwen 普賢菩薩發願文 Zhiyi bases his preaching on the enlightenment he got in Dasushan 大蘇山. He preaches Cidi Chanmen, Fahua Sanmei Chanyi, Liumiaomen, Jueyi Sanmei, Fangdeng san[mei] xingfa, Fajie Cidi Chumen, Xiaozhiguan, Chanfa Koujue, Chanmen Yaolue, Chanmenzhang, Guanxin Shifa, Guanxin Songjing Fa, Guanxin shier bu jingyi 觀心十二部經義, etc. During Zhiyi’s former stage (Waguan stage and Tiantai retreat stage), his preaching focuses on Gradual-and-Successive Meditation 次第禪法 which is based on Nāgārjuna’s the Dazhidu Lun (Mahāprajñāpāramitā-śāstra). In addition he preaches the 41 Three Truths, Three Insights, Ten Vehicle Meditation, etc. In his sunset years, the system of Weimojing Shu has been established.161 In Zhiyi’s Sandabu preaching and sunset stages, he finished his huge meditation and teaching system. The thoughts of Complete and Immediate 圓頓思想 have been established. In addition, one of his unique teachings of Identity in Six Degrees 六即說 is completed.162 In C.E. 587 Zhiyi preaches Fahua Wenju, in C.E. 593 he preaches Fahua Xuanyi, and in C.E. 594 he preaches Mohe Zhiguan. These three works are the fundamentals of Tiantai teaching. In Fahua Wenju, Zhiyi explains the Lotus Sūtra literally. In Fahua Xuanyi, he uses five standards to explain the Lotus Sūtra. In Mohe Zhiguan, he releases the thoughts of Complete-and-Immediate, and ‘Perfect Interpenetration of the Three Truths’ which is hidden in the Lotus Sūtra.163 Tiantai Sandabu (Fahua Wenju, Fahua Xuanyi, and Mohe Zhiguan) are the fundamental theories of Tiantai teaching. Guanyin Xuanyi explains the profound meaning of the 25th section of the Lotus Sūtra, Guanshiyin pusa pumenping 觀世音菩薩普門品. Guanyin yishu clarifies Guanshiyin pusa pumenping literally. Shi Chanboluomi Cidi Famen elucidates the opinions about Gradual Dhyāna 漸次止觀. Xiuchan Liumiaomen Satō 佐藤哲英, Tendai Daishi no Kenkyū: Chigi o no Chosaku ni Kansuru Kisoteki Kenkyū 天台大師の研究: 智顗の著作に關する基礎的硏究, 660-661. 161 Satō 佐藤哲英, Tendai Daishi no Kenkyū: Chigi o no Chosaku ni Kansuru Kisoteki Kenkyū 天台大師の研究: 智顗の著作に關する基礎的硏究, 664-665. 162 Gyōei Fukuda 福田堯穎, Tian Tai Xue Gai Lun 天台學概論, trans. Yinhai (Rosemead, CA: Fa yin si wen jiao zhong xin, 2010), 395-396. 163 42 explicates the thought about Indeterminate Dhyāna 不定止觀.164 Mohe Zhiguan illuminates the teaching of ‘Perfect and Sudden Cessation and Contemplation 圓頓止觀.’ Weimojing Xuan Shu explains the insightful meanings of Vimalakīrti-nirdeśa-sūtra. Weimojing Wenshu expounds plainly on the Vimalakīrti-nirdeśa-sūtra. 165 This is the frame of Zhiyi’s works above. As to some Pure Land works of Zhiyi, there are further discussions in Chapter 6, philologically. In the view of teaching Buddhism, the Perfect Interpenetration of the Three Truths, Three Thousand Worlds in an Instant of Thought, Three Insights (Emptiness, Provisional Positing, and Middle Way) are in one thought, Intrinsic Inclusiveness, Ten Thusnesses, Threefold Buddha-nature, mind is good or evil, Three Bodies of Buddha, the opinions of Pure Land, etc. are developed into a complete, and perfect level. These teachings accentuate Zhiyi’s position in Chinese Buddhism. These are some evidences to prove the argument above. First, modern scholar Fang Guangchang 方廣錩 studies how the teaching of Tiantai had been edited into Tripiṭaka (Three Baskets or Dazangjing 大藏經). In his Zangwai Fojiao Wenxian 藏外佛教文獻 Vol. 5, he argues that in C.E. 1026 Zhiyi’s works have been edited into Tripiṭaka instead Feng'ao Zhu argues Liumiaomen 六妙門 is Indeterminate Dhyāna 不定止觀. Feng'ao Zhu 朱封鰲 and Yanfeng Wei 韦彦锋, Tiantai zong Tongshi 天台宗修持與台密探索 (Beijing Shi: Zongjiao Wenhua Chu Ban She, 2004), 39-40. 164 Guiming Pan and Zhongwei Wu 潘桂明, 吴忠伟, Zhongguo Tiantai Zong Tong Shi 中国天台宗通史. (Nanjing Shi: Jiangsu Gu Ji Chu Ban She, 2001), 102-103. 165 43 of in C.E. 1024. Fang follows Lu Yijian’s 呂夷簡 work, Jingyou xinxiu fabao lu 景祐新修法寶錄, as evidence to decide that the year is C.E. 1026, but not C.E. 1024.166 Second, in the teaching of Zhiyi’s Tiantai system, Zhiyi in his opinion of panjiao (Classification of Teachings) divides Buddhism into Fourfold Methods of Conversion 化儀四教, Fourfold Doctrines of Conversion 化法四教 (these two are also named Eight Teachings 八教), and Five Periods 五時. Zhiyi detailed the Five Periods with five sūtras, which are (1) Huayan (Avataṃsaka Sūtra) 華嚴, (2) Luyuan (Āgama) 鹿苑, (3) Fangdeng (Vaipulya) 方等, (4) Banre (Prajñāpāramitā) 般若, and (5) Fahua (Lotus; Saddhamapuṇḍarīka Sūtra) 法華 and Niepan (Mahā-parinirvāṇa Sūtras) 涅槃. These Five Periods influence the contents of Tripiṭaka. In addition, Sukhāvatyajrta-vyūha sūtra 佛說阿彌陀經 and Sukhāvatī-vyūha sūtra 無量壽經 are placed in “Fangdeng (Vaipulya) period.” Last, according to Zhisheng’s 智昇 Kaiyuan shijiao lu 開元釋教錄 (edited in C.E. 730), he divides and orders Mahāyāna sūtras into Prajñāpāramitā, Mahā-ratnakūta 寶積, Mahā-sajnipāta 大集, Avataṃsaka, and Nirvāṇa five parts. For example, Gaoli dazangjing 高麗大藏經167 (C.E. 1251),168 starts with Mahā-prajñāpāramitā-sūtra. However, in Zhixu’s 智旭 (C.E. 1599-1655) Yuezang zhijin 閱藏知津, he divides and orders Mahāyāna sūtras into Avataṃsaka, Vaipulya, Prajñāpāramitā, Lotus Guangchang Fang 方廣錩, Zangwai Fojiao Wenxian 藏外佛教文獻, vol. 5, Tiantai Jiaodian Ruzang Kao 天台教典入藏考 (Beijing Shi: Zongjiao Wenhua Chuban She, 1995), 401-402. 166 Gaoli dazangjing 高麗大藏經 is based on Kaibaozang 開寶藏, which is transmitted into Gaoli in C.E. 990. 167 168 Jifu Lan 藍吉富, Fojiao Shiliao Xue 佛教史料學 (Taipei City: Dongda Tushu Gongsi, 1997), 20. 44 (Saddhamapuṇḍarīka), and Nirvāṇa five parts. Zhixu edits the order of Mahāyāna sūtras which follow Tiantai Zhiyi’s panjiao system. In history, this is the first time to place Avataṃsaka Sūtra at first of Tripiṭaka.169 For example, Pinqiezang 頻伽藏 (C.E. 19091914) starts with Avataṃsaka Sūtra. This demonstrates the influence of Zhiyi’s system. These prove that Zhiyi’s works play an important role in Chinese Buddhism. There is another situation which needs to be informed. Dazhao’s 達照 Tiantai Sijiaoyi Jizhu Yishi《天台四教儀集注》譯釋, which is a commentary on Tiantai sijiaoyi jizhu. This book is important, because it is a detail commentary of Yuan dynasty master Mengrun 蒙潤 on Song dynasty master Diguan’s 諦觀 Tiantai sijiaoyi jizhu. There is a very interesting part in Dazhao’s Tiantai Sijiaoyi Jizhu Yishi. It (Dazhao’s Tiantai Sijiaoyi Jizhu Yishi) mentions that Tiantai sijiaoyi is edited into Ming dynasty Yongle beizeng 永樂北藏. However, it is not edited into Ming nanzang 明南藏, Ming beizang 明北藏, Dazhengzang 大正藏, and Xuzang 續藏.170 On the other hand, Yongle beizeng is Ming beizang. Obviously, this is a historical error. 1.3.3 Conclusion There are 188 volumes in existence, which come from 46 works of Zhiyi, whose works have been edited into Dazangjing in C.E. 1026 The length of the list of Zhiyi’s works increases with time. The fundamental theories of Tiantai teaching are in Fahua Wenju, Fahua Xuanyi, and Mohe Zhiguan. The profound meaning of the Guanshiyin Mingda Yao 姚名達, Zhongguo Mulu Xue Shi 中國目錄學史 (Taipei City: Taiwan Shangwu Yinshu Guan, 1973), 288-309. 169 Dazhao 達照, Tiantai Sijiaoyi Jizhu Yishi《天台四教儀集注》譯釋 (Shanghai: Shanghai Guji Chubanshe 上海古籍出版社, 2011). 170 45 pusa pumenping has been explained in Guanyin Xuanyi; Guanyin yishu clarifies Guanshiyin pusa pumenping literally. The opinion of Gradual Dhyāna is elucidated in Shi Chanboluomi Cidi Famen; meanwhile the thought of Indeterminate Dhyāna is explicated in Xiuchan Liumiaomen. Mohe Zhiguan illuminates the teaching of Perfect and Sudden Cessation and Contemplation. The insightful meanings of Vimalakīrti-nirdeśa-sūtra are explained by Weimojing Xuan Shu; in the meantime the Vimalakīrti-nirdeśa-sūtra is expounded upon clearly in Weimojing Wenshu. 1.4. Conclusion In Chapter 1, it can be found that the opinions of Zhiyi, such as the Perfect Interpenetration of Three Truths, the Lotus Sūtra central opinion, emphasizing the importance of Prajñāpāramitā, the Three Insights in one thought, and Three Kinds of Knowledge in one mind, come from Huisi. However, Zhiyi develops these into a higher level. For example, the Three Kinds of Knowledge in one mind is developed into the Three Thousand Worlds in an Instant of Thought. Zhiyi positions the Lotus Sūtra as the Perfect Teaching, and the Mahāprajñāpāramitā-śāstra as Special Teaching. These are different from Huisi’s. In addition, Zhiyi’s panjiao system is influenced by Huisi, which is Lotus Sūtra supreme. Zhiyi seriously criticizes the Nirvāṇa sect, the three śāstra sect, dhyāna, meditative or intuitionistic sect (Chan School), Daśabhūmikā sect, and Satyasiddhi sect, which Huisi does not. Huisi utilizes the opinions of Mind Only School. However Zhiyi criticizes them. Huisi has the name of Fourfold Doctrines, but has no detail. Zhiyi advances the details of Fourfold Doctrines into Four Periods of Teaching. 46 Zhiyi systemizes Mohe Zhiguan by employing Huisi’s opinion. Zhiyi utilizes the terminology of Theravada tradition, however the contexts are different. Zhiyi is the first person to systematize Chinese meditation method from the methods of Theravada, Mahāyāna and intermediate schools (between Theravada and Mahāyāna). Zhiyi had faith in Guanyin since his early years, however Huisi did not. Except for this Guanyin opinion, Huisi’s meditation practice opinions of formless and form inspired Zhiyi to organize a meditation system. In addition, Zhiyi is also influenced by Huisi in Ten Essential Qualities or Characteristics (Ten Thusnesses) of things. Zhiyi utilizes this kind of opinion in a sophisticated manner. Among Zhiyi’s 188 volumes or 46 works, he is a monk of influence not only in China, but also in Japan. From Saityou’s 最澄 Dengyo Daishi Shorai Mokuroku, one knows that all Zhiyi’s works are introduced into Japan. In C.E. 1026, Zhiyi’s works are edited into Dazangjing. Fahua Wenju, Fahua Xuanyi, and Mohe Zhiguan are the ultimate teaching of Tiantai School. It is presented in Guanyin Xuanyi about whether the mind is good or evil. Some of Zhiyi’s opinions of dhyāna are made known in Shi Chanboluomi Cidi Famen, Xiuchan Liumiaomen, and Mohe Zhiguan. Zhiyi’s Pure Land opinions become familiar in Weimojing Xuan Shu, Weimojing Wenshu, and Weimojing Lueshu. These works are utilized in this dissertation to come to terms with Zhiyi’s Buddhānusmṛti. 47 CHAPTER TWO In Zhiyi’s Opinion, What is the Intention of Mind? 2.1. Introduction In Zhiyi’s opinion, what is the intention of mind? Zhiyi is influenced by Huisi. Zhiyi’s opinion about the mind is also influenced by Huisi. In Chapter 2, I will discuss Huisi’s opinion about mind, thought, consciousness, the amala-vijñāna 阿 (菴) 摩羅識,171 the ādānavijñāna, and the ālaya-vijñāna. What is amala-vijñāna? It is the ninth, immovable consciousness. What is ādānavijñāna? It is the seventh discriminating consciousness. What is ālaya-vijñāna? It is the eighth consciousness. The first to sixth consciousnesses are eye consciousness, ear consciousness, nose consciousness, tongue consciousness, body consciousness, and mind consciousness (or consciousness). In addition, I will analyze Zhiyi’s opinion about mind, thought, consciousness, the amalavijñāna, the ādānavijñāna, and the ālaya-vijñāna. Furthermore, I will argue how Zhiyi relates the “one mind and three aspects of knowledge” to “Buddha-nature.” In this chapter, I demonstrate Zhiyi’s opinion about the intention of mind. Amala-vijñāna is an essentially undefiled consciousness. Richard King, “Vijnaptimatrata and the Abhidharma context of early Yogacara,” Asian Philosophy 8, no. 1 (Mar 1998): 5-18. 171 48 2.2. Huisi’s Opinion about Mind, Thought, Consciousness, the Amala-vijñāna, the Ādānavijñāna, and the Ālaya-vijñāna 2.2.1. Introduction Northern Qi Huiwen studied Nāgārjuna’s 龍樹 Mūlamadhyamakakārikā, 172 i.e. Zhonglun, and attained enlightenment of “three insights in one thought” simultaneously which he taught to Huisi. Huisi then gained enlightenment of the “samādhi which sees into the three dogmas of unreality, dependent reality and transcendence, or the noumenal 本體的,實在的, phenomenal, and the absolute which unites them.” He combined the doctrine and mediation which was taught to Zhiyi. Nāgārjuna was the founder of the Mādhyamika School. In the Kārikā he explains Self Nature through negating phenomena: From the perception of varying natures all entities are without self-nature. An entity without self-nature does not exist because all entities have the nature of śūnyatā.173 Huisi’s Zhufa Wuzheng Sanmei Famen states, Essence is Tathāgatagarbha, fundamental pure nature, and real mind. This mind is neither inner, nor outer, nor middle. It is neither interrupted nor constant. It is neither non-middle. It is neither name nor features.174 It can be observed that Nāgārjuna uses “the nature of śūnyatā” very similarly to Huisi’s “mind.” Huisi argues that when all the dharmas are examined, no dharmas are real—they 172 Mūlamadhyamakakārikā is Kārikā (i.e. CL, Zhonglun《中論》). Kenneth Inada, Nāgārjuna: Translation of Mūlamadhyamakakārikā (Tokyo: Hokuseidō, 1970), 92. Bhāvānāṃ niḥsvabḥāvatvamanyathābhāvadarśanāt, asvabhāvo bhāvo nāsti bhāvānāṃ śūnyatā yataḥ. (Kārikā-P, p. 240), cf. Kumārajīva’s rendition. (CL, 13:3, T 30.18a). Strictly speaking, according to Sanskrit grammar, the first half of the verse should read, “The entities’ nature of having no Self Nature is from the perception of varying characters.” 173 174 T. no. 1923, 46:628a21-24. Zhufa Wuzheng Sanmei Famen. 49 seem to both exist and not exist. All are impermanent in a process of arising and ceasing, which never stops. These dharmas do not really exist. Because of non-arising-and-nonceasing, the “non-arising-and-non-ceasing” cannot be found.175 Therefore, Huisi’s opinion about mind is very similar to Nāgārjuna’s “the nature of śūnyatā.” How is Zhiyi’s opinion about mind? This will be discussed in next section. Now, I will examine Huisi’s opinion concerning mind, consciousness, amala- vijñāna, ādāna-vijñāna (mano-vuijñāna), and ālaya-vijñāna. 2.2.2. What is Huisi’s Opinion of Mind, Thought, and Consciousness? 2.2.2.1. Huisi’s Opinion of the Mind and Consciousness In Huisi’s Suiziyi Sanmei, he reasons about what are the location and features of the mind? When one considers this, one knows that the mind is neither inside nor outside the individual. This is similar to Emptiness without features.176 There is a moment, when the bodhisattva wants to walk, before he does not raise his foot and wants to raise his foot; before he does not rise his thought wants to rise his thought; and before he meditates he does not rise the thought before he rises his thought.177 In Suiziyi Sanmei, Huisi details that because one’s eyes see forms, desire arises. Ignorance makes karma because of desire. This is called volition (dispositions, karmic formations). Focusing in one’s mind is called consciousness. Consciousness makes karma, 175 T. no. 1923, 46:628a24-26. T. no. 1923, 46:634c2-6. Zhufa Wuzheng Sanmei Famen. 176 X. no. 903, 55: 505b08-10. It is Huisi’s Suiziyi Sanmei. 177 X. no. 903, 55: 497a04-08. It is Huisi’s Suiziyi Sanmei. 50 which allows one to be reborn into the Ten Realms.178 Here we discuss Huisi’s opinion about the relationship of the mind, consciousness, karma, and volition. In Huisi’s Suiziyi Sanmei, he claims that the five senses 五根 do not know one another, but the sixth sense (consciousness) knows the five senses. If the sixth consciousness does not lead the five consciousnesses, the five consciousnesses cannot discriminate and evolve the objects of the five senses. If one is deaf, blind, or mute, the sixth consciousness will be useless. 179 Furthermore, if a practitioner hears a sermon, the first hearing is cognition. To recall and discriminate is enlightenment. The first hearing is ear consciousness, which cannot discriminate. The second enlightenment, which can conceive and discriminate, is consciousness (sixth consciousness).180 Above, it discusses how the six consciousnesses function together. In Huisi’s Zhufa Wuzheng Sanmei Famen, he argues that the six consciousnesses are the unimportant parts, and the mind is the foundation. Ignorance causes the six consciousnesses to occur. The six consciousnesses follow the good and bad karma. Therefore, one can be reborn to the six realms. If one can meditate on the six consciousnesses being empty without essence then one may become aware that all dharmas are absolutely empty 畢竟空. One can meditate on the deluded mind being without arising and ceasing 生滅. This ends primal ignorance 無始無明. The one who understands that the six consciousnesses are empty, attains liberation. There are no six consciousnesses that have been empty. There are no six consciousnesses that have been 178 X. no. 903, 55: 503b18-20. It is Huisi’s Suiziyi Sanmei. 179 X. no. 903, 55: 0502a17-20. It is Huisi’s Suiziyi Sanmei. 180 X. no. 903, 55: 502b02-07. It is Huisi’s Suiziyi Sanmei. 51 bound. There are no six consciousnesses that have been liberated. Why is it so? The six consciousnesses are neither existence nor emptiness, neither name nor features, and neither bound nor liberated. For the sake of discussion, for expediency means it is named liberation. The empty liberation mind is called the great adamantine wisdom 金剛智. Why is it so? The mind is neither inside nor outside the individual. The mind is also not in the middle. It is without arising and ceasing, without name and features, and without being bound or liberated. It is absolutely unhindered, free from affliction. Therefore, the mind is called the great adamantine wisdom. 181 In summary, Huisi points out from the six cousciousnesses how they (six consciousnesses) conncet to six realms. In addition, one meditates on the six consciousnesses; how one can get liberatioin. One can get liberation is because of the great adamantine wisdom. From sentient beings’ familiar situation (the six consciousnesses), they can get liberation (enlightenment). What is the meaning of “the great adamantine wisdom?” Is “the great adamantine wisdom” pure or deluded? As for Huisi’s Suiziyi Sanmei《隨自意三昧》, the meaning of “the great adamantine wisdom” is explained in what follows. 2.2.2.2. The Mind is Pure or Deluded All sentient beings use wisdom in different ways. However, ordinary sentient beings use six consciousnesses. The initial resolve or mind of the novice uses two kinds of consciousness. The first is knowledge that transforms the common understanding of this transmigration-world into Buddha-awareness. This is also called awareness and insight 覺慧 which enlightens all dharma. The second is called store consciousness 藏識, which 181 T. no. 1923, 46:640a8-19. Zhufa Wuzheng Sanmei Famen. 52 is clear and immutable. In Huisi’s conflation, in India it is called ālayavijñāna 阿梨耶識, 阿賴耶識. In China, it is called Buddha-nature 佛性, the fundamental pure store 自性清淨藏, and the Tathāgatagarbha 如來藏. According to phenomena, it is called wisdom. If one can enlighten all dharmas, one’s mind is called the fundamental pure nature 自性清淨心. The function of consciousness and mind are different. Ordinary people follow their karma to be reborn into the six realms. Bodhisattvas transfer the seventh consciousness, which can transfer all endless birth-and-death into nirvāṇa. This seventh consciousness is named the great adamantine wisdom, which can destroy all ignorance, affliction, and birth-and-death. There is a metaphor to explain this. The seventh consciousness is like a great general who conquers the enemy. The seventh consciousness can master all dharmas, which is like the great general. The store consciousness is called the eighth consciousness, which does not change in sentient beings or Buddhas. The eighth consciousness is like Emptiness; also it is without defilement and purity.182 Therefore, ordinary sentient beings use the six consciousnesses and follow their karma into the six realms. Bodhisattvas transfer their seventh consciousness (the great adamantine wisdom) into nirvāṇa ststus. The eighth consciousness is the store consciousness, which is also called ālayavijñāna, Buddha-nature, the fundamental pure store, and the Tathāgatagarbha. How can all these eight consciousnesses function well? It is because of mind. Even though Huisi also employs the terminology that the eighth consciousness (ālayavijñāna) is the mind, thought is the seventh consciousness (kliṣṭa-mano-vijñāna), and the sixth consciousness (so-called consciousness), the meaning of these are different. 182 X. no. 903, 55:503a14-b04. 53 Huisi conceives of the seventh consciousness as transferred wisdom—the great adamantine wisdom – and the eighth consciousness as store consciousness. The meaning of these consiousnesses is transferred probably because Huisi emphasizes meditation. It is because the great adamantine wisdom transfers ordinary beings’ seventh consciousness and enlightened consciousness is the store consciousness.183 2.2.3. What is Huisi’s Opinion of Vijñāna? Vijñāna is Sanskrit, which means consciousness. How vijñānas function? Are Huisi’s opinions about vijñānas the same as Yogācāra School? The members of Yogācāra School practice Yoga. Yogācāra School associated with Indian Buddhism in 4th century C.E. The Yogācāra School emphasizes consciousnesses. In Chinese, it is called Weishi zhong 唯識宗 (Mind Only School) In the following paragraphs, Huisi’s opinions of vijñānas will be discussed. Huisi employs the Yogācāra School’s idea in Zhufa Wuzheng Sanmei Famen. He disputes the idea that internal feeling is the six senses 六根. External feeling is the six guṇas 六塵, which is named the six fields of the senses. Internal feeling meets external feeling is called the six vijñānas 六識.184 The six vijñānas think through on an object with perception. Like this internal feeling meeting the external feeling, there are, in total, 30 kinds of the six senses, six guṇas 六塵, six vijñānas, six contacts 六觸, and six sensations 六受. One cannot enlighten all 30 kinds because of ignorance. One does good or bad karma and is then reborn into the six realms. If one can practice morality 戒, 183 184 以金剛智轉凡夫分別識及覺了分別識即藏識所致. Vijñāna (識): the form of perception, awareness or discernment. 54 meditation 定, and wisdom 慧, one can purify the three poisons 三毒. This is called the six pāramitās 六度波羅蜜. If one can purify the three poisons completely, one can become a Buddha.185 When Huisi uses these terms, it means that his opinion includes the Yogācāra School’s ideas about vijñāna. In another paragraph, Huisi also discusses the interaction among the six senses, the six guṇas, and mind, as follows: The six senses are the door. The mind is the king. When one makes the karma of birth-and-death, one attaches on the six guṇas never stop, even death. This power no one can control.186 Even though Huisi adopts the rhetoric from the Yogācāra School, does Huisi really signify the same meaning? How does Huisi place this in his system? Huisi in Zhufa Wuzheng Sanmei Famen Vol. 1 discusses the seeds as follows: …bhikṣu (monk) can meditate on the body and mind. His mind does not crave to be attached to form. He is humble and is not prideful. He does not have the desire to cultivate the karma. He does not create new “seeds” of consciousness.187 From this paragraph, Huisi uses the idea of “seeds” of consciousness, related to the eighth consciousness (the ālaya-vijñāna). This is based on Yogācāra School’s opinion about the eighth consciousness. In Huisi’s Suiziyi Sanmei, he deliberates that internal observation is meditating on the eye, ear, nose, tongue, body, and mind (ṣaḍāyatana, the six sense organs 六根, 六入, 六處). External observation is meditating on form, sound, smell, taste, touch, and idea (the six guṇas 六塵). When the internal observation meets external observation, this is 185 T. no. 1923, 46:633c28-634a06. Zhufa Wuzheng Sanmei Famen. 186 T. no. 1923, 46: 634a10-12. Zhufa Wuzheng Sanmei Famen. 187 T. no. 1923, 46:628c24-26. Zhufa Wuzheng Sanmei Famen. 55 meditating on the six consciousnesses. For example, when the eye consciousness comes into contact with an object, there is sensation. Even the ear, nose, tongue, body, and mind have their own sensations. Bodhisattvas internally meditate on the six sense organs and externally meditate on the nature of the six guṇas, all of which have the nature of Emptiness. In addition, bodhisattvas meditate on the Emptiness nature of the six consciousnesses. If bodhisattvas do not meditate, they cannot realize. Therefore, the Buddha says that nothing to be attained is cognition and wisdom. Dharmas are the eighteen realms, which include the internal six sense organs, the external six guṇas, and in between, the six consciousnesses. One meditates on these eighteen realms and then can attain wisdom.188 Above, it is proved that the eightneen realms are Emptiness. Based on Emptiness, in Huisi Fahuajing Anlexing Yi, he reasons about anlexing, which is related to the eighteen realms as follows: In bodhisattvas’ mind there is no arising and ceasing. They also teach the sentient beings there is no arising and ceasing. From the arising-and-ceasing to enlightenment, the original essence of all beings is unmoving. As for what is said or meant the nature of eye, ear, nose, tongue, body, and mind; even the nature of form, sound, smell, taste, touch, and idea. Because the ear consciousness raises the appropriation; ear, nose, tongue, body, and mind consciousness also raise the appropriation. There are no-selfand-no-others, absolutely empty. This is called unmoving.189 Consequently, Huisi employs some opinions of Yogācāra School. In addition, he thinks the eighteen realms are empty. Based on Emptiness, this provides Zhiyi to develop his “one consciousness in three consciousnesses” and “three consciousnesses in one consciousness.” 188 X. no. 903, 55: 500b11-24. 189 T. no. 1926, 46: 700c21-29. Fahuajing Anlexing Yi. 56 2.2.4. Conclusion Following the discussion above, we can understand that Huisi’s opinions about mind, thought, and consciousnesses are not very vibrant. There are some reasons that cause this result. First of all, he focuses on how the great adamantine wisdom can transfer consciousness. Subsequently, he ruminates that the consciousnesses and great adamantine wisdom are provisional. All is emptiness. Afterwards, if one can attain enlightenment, the sixth consciousness is store consciousness (ālayavijñāna, Buddha Nature, and Tathāgatagarbha). To follow this kind of intelligence, the sixth consciousness, great adamantine wisdom (the seventh consciousness), and store consciousness (ālayavijñāna, the eighth consciousness) are one.190 According to the research on the work of Huisi, he discusses the mind, thought, and consciousness much more in Suiziyi Sanmei than his other works. However, he does not explain the seventh consciousness. Huisi only treats the seventh consciousness as the great adamantine wisdom. This great adamantine wisdom can transfer the birth-and-death karma into the enlightened sixth consciousness, which is neither arising nor ceasing. Moreover, this great adamantine wisdom can expurgate all ignorance and affliction. As a result, it is titled the great adamantine wisdom. In Huisi’s opinion, he claims that the seventh consciousness is the wisdom that can transfer birth-and-death into nirvāṇa. This seventh consciousness is not the kliṣṭa-manovijñāna. In Zhufa Wuzheng Sanmei Famen and Fahuajing Anlexing Yi, Huisi comments much less on the mind, thought, and consciousness. He does not even mention the seventh and eighth consciousnesses. Nevertheless, he mentions the great adamantine Chen 陳英善, “A Study of the Theories of Citta, Manas and Vijn～ana by Hui-shih and Chih-yih 慧思與智者心意識說之探討,” 155-180. 190 57 wisdom in Suiziyi Sanmei, Zhufa Wuzheng Sanmei Famen, and Fahuajing Anlexing Yi. Consequently, Huisi emphasizes the great adamantine wisdom but not the mind, thought, and consciousness. Therefore, Huisi does not signify the same meaning as Yogācāra School’s ideas about vijñāna. 2.3. Zhiyi’s Opinion about Mind, Thought, Consciousness, the Amala-vijñāna, the Ādānavijñāna, and the Ālaya-vijñāna 2.3.1. Introduction Zhiyi emphasizes both teaching and meditation. In meditation, he places the mind in a very crucial position.191 In Zhiyi’s Fahua Xuanyi Vol. 2, he mentions that the dharma of sentient beings is too broad to understand, and the dharma of Buddha is too high to reach. Mind, Buddha, and sentient beings are no different. One can meditate on mind, which is a high level of meditation where one can understand both the dharma of sentient beings and Buddha. Therefore, one can get the dharma of the sentient beings. 192 In Zhiyi’s GuanXin Lun 觀心論, he emphasizes that if one did not ask how to meditate on the mind, one will not have (1) the knowledge of hearing and seizing the truth (i.e. the wisdom of hearing and apprehending the truth 聞慧) of the middle way associated with the ten stages, (or periods, in bodhisattva-wisdom 十住); (2) the wisdom of thought (思慧) with the ten essential activities in the fifty-two stages of a bodhisattva (十行); and (3) the wisdom of Xueming Yu 俞學明, “Zhiyi Guanxinlun Sixiang Shuping 智顗觀心論思想述評,” in Zhongguo Fojiao Xueshu Lundian 中國佛敎學術論典 (Gaoxiong: Fo Guang Shan Wenjiao Jijinhui, 2001), 14: 393. 191 192 T. no. 1716, 33:696a14-b6. 58 observance (修慧) with the ten dedications of merit (十廻向).193 That is to say, if the sentient beings want to develop the wisdom mentioned above, self-benefiting and otherbenefiting is the most practical method. What is the most practical method to selfbenefiting and other-benefiting is to meditate on the mind. The mind is the cause of affliction. Hence, the most efficient way to get rid of the affliction is to meditate on the mind. Zhiyi’s meditation on the mind is based on the Reality. The way of meditation on the mind is an expedient of dharma teaching. Therefore, I will discuss how Zhiyi understands the mind; what are the relationships among mind, thought, and consciousness. 2.3.2. What is Zhiyi’s Opinion of Mind, Thought, and Consciousness? 2.3.2.1. Zhiyi’s Opinion of Mind, Thought, and Consciousness Zhiyi, in his Mohe Zhiguan 摩訶止觀 Vol. 2, discusses the mind 心, thought (or intention) 意, and consciousness 識. I utilize Neal Donner and Daniel B. Stevenson’s translation to explain Zhiyi’s opinion of mind, thought, and consciousness as follows: “The sentient awareness of objects that distinguish us from trees and stones is called ‘mind’ (hsin; citta). Next, the power of mind to make discursive evaluations [with respect to these objects] is called ‘thought’ or ‘cognitive activity’ (i; manas). And full discriminative identification is called ‘consciousness’ (shih; vijñāna). Whoever [clings to] such distinctions as absolute falls into perverted mind, perverted thoughts, and perverted 193 T. no. 1920, 46:584c14-0585a04. 59 views. How this could be called ‘wakeful awareness’?”194 This is Zhiyi’s opinion about mind, thought, and consciousness. The following paragraph is Zhiyi’s opinion about the Enlightened One’s mind, thought, and consciousness. This opinion is transcend from the mundane meaning of mind, thought, and consciousness. The Enlightened One realizes that in the mind there is neither thought nor is there non-thought. In the mind, there is neither consciousness nor there is non-consciousness. In consciousness, there is neither mind nor is there non-mind. In consciousness, there is neither thought nor is there non-thought. In thought, there is neither mind nor is there non-mind. In thought, there is neither consciousness nor is there non-consciousness. The mind, thought, and consciousness are not one; therefore, there are three names. The mind, thought, and consciousness are not three; therefore, there is one nature.195 Chen 陳英善 uses textual analysis to argue that Zhiyi pays much attention to the mind, thought, and consciousness in her ‘A Study of the Theories of Citta, Manas and Vijñāna by Hui-shih and Chih-yih’. In addition, Zhiyi thinks that the mind, thought, and consciousness are not in opposing or confronting positions. He treats them such that they are not seriously discriminated from one another, and considers these three as ‘one in three and three in one.’196 194 Neal Arvid Donner, Daniel B. Stevenson, and Zhiyi, The Great Calming and Contemplation: A Study and Annotated Translation of the First Chapter of Chih-i's Mo-ho chih-kuan, (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1993), 272-273. T. no. 1911, 46: 14c5-8. 195 T. no. 1911, 46: 14c8-18. There is translation in a book. The information is as follows: Neal Arvid Donner, Daniel B. Stevenson, and Zhiyi, The Great Calming and Contemplation: A Study and Annotated Translation of the First Chapter of Chih-i's Mo-ho chih-kuan, 272-274. Chen 陳英善, “A Study of the Theories of Citta, Manas and Vijn～ana by Hui-shih and Chih-yih 慧思與智者心意識說之探討,” 155-180. 196 60 Some have said that Tiantai treats Buddha nature and the Tathāgatagarbha as mind, and treats mind as the universe’s highest essence. Zhiyi in his Shi Mohe boreboluomi jing Jueyi sanmei 釋摩訶般若波羅蜜經覺意三昧, says, All dharmas are boundless, but to explore their origin that is mind, thought, and consciousness. Someone said that if one faces the surrounding he can feel it. In this situation, which differs from wood and stone, this status is called mind. The mind that can distinguish and think is called thought or intention. The mind that can distinguish is called consciousness. These are the definition of mind, thought, and consciousness…Not one. Therefore it is established three names. Not three consequently it is said one… It is not one named three and not three named one. 197 In this passage, Zhiyi tries to express that there are mind, thought, and consciousness. He says we contemplate “intention,” that this also includes awareness and consciousness, focusing on the aspect of intention or thought. Hence, it is three consciousnesses in one consciousness, and one consciousness in three consciousnesses. 198 In Zhiyi’s opinion, the intention of mind is three consciousnesses in one consciousness, and one consciousness in three consciousnesses. Tiantai theory depends on mind to expand the entire doctrine and meditation system.199 197 T. no. 1922, 46:621c04-17. 198 T. no. 1922, 46:621c04-17. Shi Mohe boreboluomi jing jueyi sanmei. Zhiyi uses four kinds of approaches to the Buddhist Truth: the “four doors,” which mean “the door of being,” “the door of Emptiness,” “the door of both being and Emptiness,” and “the door of neither being nor Emptiness.” The “The door of being” expresses the Truth of Tripiṭaka Doctrine. “The door of Emptiness” advocates the Common Doctrine. “The door of both being and Emptiness” advocates the Gradual Doctrine. “The door of neither being nor Emptiness” expresses the Truth of the Perfect Doctrine. These four doors, for Zhiyi, are different devices for different talents. This “Four Alternatives” (the door of being, the door of Emptiness, the door of both being and Emptiness, and The door of neither being nor Emptiness) is a device for educational and soteriological purposes (The method of the Four Alternatives is, for both Chih-I [Zhiyi] and Nāgārjuna, to educate the sentient being to learn the different angles of the Truth), and in this lesson Zhiyi and Nāgārjuna can be brought together. There is one thing Zhiyi believed that differed from Nāgārjuna, which is that Nāgārjuna did not use the four alternatives to classify Buddhist doctrines, but Zhiyi did. Zhiyi discussed the Truth in terms of the Middle Way-Buddha Nature (also embraces the meaning of Emptiness). In the negative view of the Four Alternatives, Zhiyi inherited Nāgārjuna’s thought. The idea above is fully discussed in Ng, T’ien-t’ai Buddhism and Early Mādhyamika. 199 61 Zhiyi’s meditation on the mind is based on reality. One observes the serial of activities of mind in order to understand the true world, then to get enlightenment. In Zhiyi’s opinion, Reality can be called Emptiness, Middle Way, Buddha-nature, the dharma body, the Tathāgatagarbha, mind, non-existent200 nor non-existent, absolute truth, Middle Way-Buddha nature, extinction, etc.201 Zhiyi points out that all phenomena are caused by Dependent Origination. Therefore, there is no self, which is Emptiness 空. If one treats Emptiness as nihility then one has evil ideas about the doctrine of Emptiness, denying the doctrine of cause and consequence. In fact, phenomena exist in the universe, this is Provisional Positing 假. The universe is neither Emptiness nor Provisional Positing. It is called the Middle Way 中. These ideas of Emptiness, Provisional Positing, and Middle Way come from the Mūlamadhyamakakārikā, which is the Kārikā (i.e. CL, Zhonglun《中論》). Nāgārjuna 龍樹 is the founder of the Mādhyamika School. Mādhyamika School demonstrates the Prajñāpāramitā literature’s Emptiness in which there is the truth of impermanent substance depending on conditions. This is called “Dependent Origination is Emptiness” and can be observed in Mūlamadhyamakakārikā: I declare that whatever is of Dependent Origination is Emptiness (nothingness); it is also a Provisional Positing; it is also the meaning of the Middle Way.202 Even Zhiyi used the same terms as the Yogācāra School did, he did not intend the same meaning as Yogācāra School did. 200 Abhāva. Not real. 201 T. no.1716, 33: 782b29-782c04. T. no.1564, 30: 33b11-12. In Sanskrit as: “yaḥ pratītya-samutpādaḥ śūnyatāṃ tāṃ pracakṣmahe sā prajñāptir upādāya pratipat saiva madhyamā.” 154. 202 62 The verses above clarify no-self. Furthermore, the Mūlamadhyamakakārikā explains that the void of nature and the phenomenal exist simultaneously, that is to say, by virtue of the Middle Way.203 In the Mūlamadhyamakakārikā, the verses above mention the relationship among conditions, Emptiness, Provisional Positing, and Middle Way. Nāgārjuna utilizes the Middle Way to unify duality. He also argues that the Eight Negations (pa-pu 八不中道),204 (No-origination 不生, No-extinction 不滅, Nopermanence 不常, No-destruction 不斷, No-sameness 不一, No-difference 不異, Noapproaching 不來, No-separating 不出) are the central principles that defy all frivolous/unreal discourse or extreme views. In Zhiyi’s opinion, found in Fahua Xuanyi Vol.2, the theories of Emptiness, Provisional Positing, and Middle Way are not enough. He thinks that these exist in all phenomena. Emptiness, Provisional Positing, and Middle Way not only exist in all phenomena, but also are integrated into one another. That is to say, Provisional Positing and Middle Way are in Emptiness. Emptiness and Middle Way are in the Provisional Positing. Emptiness and Provisional Positing are in the Middle Way. Therefore, when one is Emptiness, then all are Emptiness. When one is Provisional Positing, then all are Provisional Positing. When one is Middle Way, then all are the Middle Way.205 Emptiness, Provisional Positing, and Middle Way cannot be divided. They are mutually 203 Meditation on the Medium. 204 八不. 龍樹之中論，卷首（大三○‧一中） 205 T. no. 1716, 33: 693b20-26. Fahua Xuanyi Vol. 2. 63 contained, completely interpenetrated, and without obstructions. This is called “the perfect interfusion of the Three Truths 三諦圓融.”206 This “perfect interfusion of the Three Truths” is one of two sides of the same thing. These two sides are Emptiness (true emptiness) and Provisional Positing. True Emptiness exists mysteriously, truly void, or immaterial, yet transcendentally. This is Reality. All phenomena embrace this true Reality, which mutually contains Emptiness, Provisional Positing, and Middle Way. Reality is phenomena. The phenomena are Reality, which exist as Emptiness, Provisional Positing, and Middle Way. In Zhiyi’s opinion, in all phenomena there is Reality. Hence, mind is one of the phenomena, which also embraces Reality. When one meditates on the mind, one meditates on Reality. That is to say, when one meditates on the mind, one meditates on Emptiness, Provisional Positing, and Middle Way. According to one of the meanings of mind that Zhiyi mentions, it is sentient beings’ present mind which is the object of meditation. From the point of mind containing Reality, all phenomena are contained in the mind. The deluded mind is the problem of ignorance. If one wants to get enlightenment and understand Reality, the most important work is to meditate on the mind. In Zhiyi’s Mohe Zhiguan 摩訶止觀 Vol. 5, he discusses further if one wants to meditate on the real world, one should meditate one the mind because the deluded mind is the problem of ignorance. If one wants to meditate on the mind, one should get to the root of the problem. It is similar to the treatment of acupuncture. The doctor should find the points on the body to cure patients. The five aggregates 五陰 are form 色, feeling 受, perception 想, impulse 行, and consciousness 識. 206 T. no. 1716, 33: 705a05-7. Fahua Xuanyi Vol. 2. 64 Sentient beings are composed of these five aggregates. If a sentient being wants to exterminate the problem of suffering, the best method is to meditate on consciousness, on the mind.207 Zhiyi argues that to meditate on the mind is to understand the reality of all phenomena. To meditate on the mind is to meditate on all minds and all dharmas. In Mohe Zhiguan Vol. 5, Zhiyi claims that if one meditates on the mind, one can realize the wondrous mind. This wondrous mind can understand the wondrous dharmas. To understand these wondrous dharmas can comprehend the wondrous non-mind and nondharmas. The mind, dharmas, and non-mind-non-dharmas are wondrous from the perspective of Reality. One mediates on the mind, which can apprehend all minds, all dharmas, and all non-mind-non-dharma. That is to say, one can understand Reality. Specifically, from one mind one can appreciate the universal essence, Reality. 208 When all's said and done, Zhiyi utilizes the opinion about all minds, all dharmas, non-mind, non-dharmas, and non-mind-non-dharmas to describe the Reality. Non-mind is an opinion to assist one in not going to the extreme of all minds. Non-dharmas is an opinion to assist one in not going to the extreme of all dharmas. Non-mind-non-dharmas is an opinion to assist one in not going to the extreme of all minds and all dharmas. 2.3.2.2. The Mind is Pure or Deluded In Zhiyi’s theory about mind, there is the problem about whether the mind is pure or deluded. In Zhiyi’s opinion, the mind can create hell and heaven. The mind can be an 207 T. no. 1911, 46: 52a26-b1. Mohe Zhiguan Vol. 5. 208 T. no. 1911, 46: 8c15-18. Mohe Zhiguan Vol. 1. 65 ordinary person or sage.209 It means one can be deluded or pure, depending on the mind. In Zhiyi’s Mohe Zhiguan Vol. 5, if the mind and conditions match, the three types of worlds 三種世間 and 3,000 characteristics and natures 相性 will all rise from the mind.210 Zhiyi, in his Fahua Xuanyi Vol. 7, claims that on the Theravada view if one has ideas in one’s mind but does not show them in deed or language, this is not karma. However, on the Mahāyāna view, if one has some bad ideas in one’s mind, this is bad karma which can cause one to go to Avīci Hell, where there is uninterrupted suffering. Even though it is simply an idea in the mind, the negative influence has already been made. If one can purify the mind then all karmas can be purified. To purify the mind means to meditate on the mind, which is Dependent Origination. Why this is Dependent Origination? It is because one can change by meditating on the mind. The more one meditates the more opportunities of purification are possible. The meditation provides the opportunity of cause and condition. Therefore, it is Dependent Origination. Dependent Origination is Emptiness, Provisional Positing, and Middle Way. Because the three insights are in one thought, one knows that mind is non-mind, but only possesses the name. One knows that the dharma is non-dharma. The dharmas have no self. The name is non-name.211 Since Zhiyi thinks the mind can act on causes and conditions to create different worlds. The mind also fits into the theory of Dependent Origination to prove itself to be 209 T. no. 1716, 33: 685c22-686a3. Fahua Xuanyi Vol. 1. 210 T. no. 1911, 46: 55a26-27. Mohe Zhiguan Vol. 5. 211 T. no. 1716, 33: 763b11-18. Fahua Xuanyi Vol. 7. 66 Emptiness, Provisional Positing, and Middle Way. From mind is non-mind, the possibilities of mind are limitless. Zhiyi’s opinion of mind is much more limitless and free than Huisi’s. In Buddhism, sentient beings are classified into Ten Realms that include six nonenlightened realms and four kinds of holy realms. Sentient beings have one thought in mind that becomes the cause of rebirth. When the six organs meet their objects (or conditions) then the perceptions occur.212 After that, a thought occurs in the mind. This thought has to belong to one of the Ten Realms. If it has to belong to one of the Ten Realms, it has to belong to one of the hundred realms and thousand dharmas. In this one thought, it embraces all. In one day and night this mind conjures and creates all kinds of sentient beings, five-aggregates, and of lands (Ten Realms, from the hells to the Buddha realms). The practitioner can choose the realm into which s/he wants to go.213 According to Zhiyi’s opinion, sentient beings are the master of themselves. This does not mean that sentient beings can do whatever they want. Sentient beings are limited by the causes and conditions. However, they are free to control their mind. Through the functions of mind, sentient beings can go to any realm they want to. The mind is the key. As for the Ten Realms, one can choose any realm into which s/he wants to go. Zhiyi, in Mohe Zhiguan Vol. 8, contends that one’s desire starts from insignificant desire. If one does not halt this insignificant desire, this insignificant desire will upsurge. For affliction, it will lead to a wrong path; it will even lead to the Avīci Hell. Desires lead one to lose a 212 六識 the six organs 六根, their objects or conditions 六境, and their perceptions 六識. 213 T. no. 1716, 33: 696a23- b06. Fahua Xuanyi Vol. 2. 67 sense of propriety, justice, honesty and honor.214 This causes one to enter the realm of animals. For desires and miserliness lead to the realm of hungry ghosts. Because one is jealous and wants to win against others, one is led to the realm of asuras. If one can keep the five commandments or rules, one can become born into the human realms. If one can practice the ten good characteristics or virtues, one can be reborn into the six heavens of the desire realm 六欲天, 欲界六天. If one can give up the desires and focus on meditation, one can be reborn into the form and formless realms 生色無色界.215 In the Mohe Zhiguan Vol. 9, Zhiyi maintains that if one can devote oneself to practicing the Four Noble Truths, one can become the śrāvakas 聲聞. If one can get enlightenment on the twelve limbs of Dependent Origination 十二因緣, 十二支, one can become the pratyekabuddhas 緣覺. 216 As a result, if one can seek illumination to instruct sentient beings, sacrifice oneself to protect them, and release egoism for devotion to helping others, then one can become a bodhisattva. If one can correspond to Reality, one is in the realm of Buddha. Only one single mind rises, which not only belongs to one realm but also naturally embraces all realms and all phenomena. The next will discuss Zhiyi’s opinion of amala- vijñāna, ādāna-vijñāna (mano-vuijñāna), and ālaya-vijñāna. 214 禮義廉恥. 215 T. no. 1911, 46: 103a20-b04. Mohe Zhiguan Vol. 8. 216 T. no. 1911, 46: 126b23- c05. Mohe Zhiguan Vol. 9. 68 2.3.3. What is Zhiyi’s Opinion of Amala- vijñāna, Ādānavijñāna (Mano-vuijñāna), and Ālaya-vijñāna? Zhiyi utilizes the six consciousnesses 六識 especially the sixth consciousness. Zhiyi treats the mind as present thought. This mind can be called “thought” or “consciousness.” There is another angle to check how Zhiyi thinks about the mind. Zhiyi also agrees there are eight consciousnesses in Fahua Xuanyi Vol. 5: Second, I want to analyze the three consciousnesses: amala-vijñāna is the true, absolute, and nature; ālaya-vijñāna is the meditation upon and understanding of it; and the ādānavijñāna is the extension of this understanding to all its workings.217 In addition, in the Weimojing Xuan Shu Vol. 5 維摩經玄疏卷第五, Zhiyi represents that the amala-vijñāna is the sixth consciousness, the ādāna-vijñāna is the seventh consciousness218, and the ālaya-vijñāna is the eighth consciousness. The true nature of liberation is related to the ālaya-vijñāna, the true wisdom of liberation is related to the seventh consciousness, and the expedient means is related to the sixth consciousness.219 Zhiyi also questions that if the ālaya-vijñāna is not pure by nature, then why does the Mahāyāna-saṃgraha 攝大乘論220 discuss it? The ālaya-vijñāna is just like the earth. When it (the earth) is deluded, it is like dust. When it (the earth) is pure, it is like gold. T. no. 1716, 33:744b18-20. It is different form Paramārtha’s theory of nine consciousnesses because Zhiyi treated the three consciousnesses in one consciousness and the three consciousnesses in one consciousness, which will be discussed in the following. 217 218 The seventh consciousness (the ādāna 阿陀那識) is also styled kliṣṭa-mano-vijñāna 末那識. 219 T. no. 1777, 38:553a20-23. Mahāyāna-saṃgraha-śāstra 攝大乘論 is Asaṅga’s 無著 commentary. It is one of the most important commentaries of Yogācāra School. 220 69 Consequently, the situation depends upon conditions. The masters of the Dilun 地論師221 and Shelun 攝論師222 go to extremes: one says that the ālaya-vijñāna is the true nature of liberation, like gold, and the other says that the ālaya-vijñāna is deluded, like dust. 223 However, in Zhiyi’s opinion, whether the ālaya-vijñāna is pure or deluded is dependent on conditions. The masters of the Shelun say that the seventh consciousness is deluded. How can the seventh consciousness turn into the true wisdom of liberation? Zhiyi argues that it can turn into the true wisdom of liberation because it turns the deluded mind into enlightened. Where there is no deluded mind; there is no true wisdom of liberation. Hence, the seventh consciousness is neither deluded nor liberated, but it is related to delusion and liberation. The liberated consciousness is the true wisdom of liberation.224 Zhiyi does not propose that the hypothesis of eighth consciousness is deluded or pure. He leaves the question to conditions. In his opinion, the eighth consciousness is neutral. Zhiyi’s thinking consents the possibilities of changeability. This kind of changeability allows Zhiyi’s teaching to be flexible. Zhiyi also discusses the sixth consciousness. The sixth consciousness has the function of inversion (which means false position), recall, and discrimination, which should be purged. How is the sixth consciousness related to the expedient means? The sixth consciousness is neither good nor evil. Nevertheless, the sixth consciousness follows Dependent Origination to become good or evil. If a bodhisattva can recognize 221 The masters of Dilun are those who advocate Dependent Origination from the Tathāgatagarbha. 222 The masters of Shelun are those who advocate Mahāyāna-saṃgraha. 223 T. no. 1777, 38:553a26-b1. 224 T. no. 1777, 38:553b1-5. 70 that the sixth consciousness is neither good nor evil, one can cultivate good or evil. One cooperates with others to lead into the truth without complicity. This is how the expedient means is related to the sixth consciousness. 225 Zhiyi treats these three types of consciousness differently compared to the masters of Dilun and Shelun. In his Fahua Xuanyi Vol.5, he advocates, Three consciousnesses also should be like this. If in ālaya-vijñāna there are the seeds of birth and death, after perfuming and augmenting it becomes discriminating perception. If in ālaya-vijñāna there are the seeds of wisdom, after perfuming and augmenting it becomes Buddha-nature which is called pure consciousness. It is according to ālaya-vijñāna to discuss the one consciousness in three consciousnesses and the three consciousnesses in one consciousness. 226 In Zhiyi’s opinion, he admits that there are amala-vijñāna, ādāna-vijñāna, and ālayavijñāna. He also deems that ālaya-vijñāna can be mistaken for ādāna-vijñāna, and can be understood as Buddha-nature (amala-vijñāna, pure knowledge 菴摩羅識 or 阿摩羅識). Nevertheless, Zhiyi put his emphasis on discussing the teaching of one consciousness in the three consciousnesses and the three consciousnesses in one consciousness. In short, this affirms that consciousness is three in one and one in three.227 Briefly, in Zhiyi’s opinion, the sixth consciousness, seventh consciousness, and eighth consciousness all fit the rules of Dependent Origination. These three consioucnesses are pure or deluded depending on causes and conditions. Zhiyi, on the one hand, adopts Huisi’s opinion. On the other hand, he breaks all the rules. This style makes Zhiyi’s teaching fluid. 225 T. no. 1777, 38:553b5-9. 226 T. no. 1716, 33:744b24-c2. Chen 陳英善, “A Study of the Theories of Citta, Manas and Vijn～ana by Hui-shih and Chih-yih 慧思與智者心意識說之探討,” 155-180. 227 71 2.4. Conclusion Nāgārjuna uses “the nature of śūnyatā” in a very similar way to “mind” in Huisi’s Zhufa Wuzheng Sanmei Famen. In Huisi’s opinion, the six consciousnesses are the unimportant parts. The six consciousnesses are neither existence nor emptiness, neither name nor features, and neither bound nor liberated. The absolutely unhindered, afflictionfree mind is called the great adamantine wisdom, which is neither inside nor outside, nor in the middle of the individual. This great adamantine wisdom (seventh consciousness) can destroy all ignorance, affliction, and birth-and-death. In addition, it can transfer ordinary beings’ seventh consciousness. This seventh consciousness (great adamantine wisdom) is not the kliṣṭa-mano-vijñāna. Huisi considers the eighth consciousness as store consciousness that can be enlightened. The meaning of these consiousnesses is transferred probably because Huisi emphasizes meditation. In Huisi’s works, he less frequently mentions the mind, thought, and consciousness. However, he puts emphasis on the great adamantine wisdom but not the mind, thought, and consciousness. As to Zhiyi’s opinion about the mind, thought, and consciousness, it seems that he places the mind in a crucial position, because the mind is the cause of affliction. In addition, the function of the mind means that one faces one’s circumstances or environment and will awaken to it. Furthermore, thought means that the function of mind becomes the beginning of words. Moreover, consciousness means that the mind can discern the circumstances or environment. Emptiness, Provisional Positing, and Middle Way not only exist in all phenomena, but also exist in the mind. In all phenomena there is Reality. Zhiyi argues that to 72 meditate on the mind is to understand the reality of all phenomena. To meditate on the mind is to meditate on all minds and all dharmas. When one meditates on the mind one can apprehend all minds, dharmas, and non-mind-non-dharma. The mind can exist as an ordinary person or sage. It means one can be deluded or pure, depending on the mind. In summary, Zhiyi represents that the expedient means is related to the amalavijñāna (sixth consciousness), the true wisdom of liberation is related to the ādānavijñāna (seventh consciousness), and the true nature of liberation is related to the ālayavijñāna (eighth consciousness). He also deems that ālaya-vijñāna can be mistaken for ādāna-vijñāna, and can be understood as Buddha-nature. It perhaps could be said that one of the important teachings of Zhiyi is discussing one consciousness in the three consciousnesses and the three consciousnesses in one consciousness. 73 CHAPTER THREE What is the Extension of Mind in Zhiyi’s Opinions? 3.1. Introduction Chapter three will discuss what the extension of mind is in Zhiyi’s opinion. This chapter will analyze how, in Zhiyi’s opinion, the mind relates to the worldly universe, such as time, realms, space, dreams, people, things, matters, substance, etc. In Guanyin Xuanyi, Zhiyi uses the world of the five aggregates 五蘊世間,五陰世間, sentient beings 眾生世間, and lands 國土世間 to develop the three worlds. The Ten Realms are structured into 10 kinds of “five aggregates,” “Provisional Positing,” and “being the dependent condition or environment.228” One realm has 10 dharmas. The Ten Realms have 100 dharmas. The mutual containment of the Ten Realms has 1,000 dharmas. These Ten Realms and 30 worlds are all made by one mind.229 In the mundane world, the function of the five aggregates, twelve sense fields 十二入, and eighteen realms is to connect sentient beings and the world. What is twelve sense fields? It means eye, ear, nose, tongue, body, mind, sight, sound, smell, taste, touch, and idea. What is eighteen realms? It means the twelve sense fields add six consciousnesses. In a dream, these seem to function as when one is awake. In fact, this is emptiness. Therefore, when one awakens, one realizes that the dream is empty. In Mohe Zhiguan Vol. 2: “Like someone …who was hungry and thirsty, and saw a delicious meal in his dream. When he awoke, he still felt hungry. Then he knew that all dharmas are like 228 E.g. country, family, possessions, etc. 229 T. no. 1726, 34:884a16-b04. Guanyin Xuanyi Vol. 1. 74 dream.”230 It means that all dharmas are empty, even though one feels that they are so real. In Fahua Xuanyi, when the six organs 六根, 六入, 六處 and the six qualities 六塵 interact, one thought arises. It must be in one of the Ten Realms. If it is in one of the Ten Realms, it (one thought) must be in one of the hundreds or thousands realms. The mind is like a magician, which becomes different realms of sentient beings, different five aggregates, and in different lands.231 In Zhiyi’s opinion, one can jump back and forth from one realm to hundreds or thousands of realms. Zhiyi demonstrates that one’s mind is free to every realm. In the following, the main discussion is about mind and the relationship of the mundane phenomena to explain how it functions using Zhiyi’s Mohe Zhiguan, Weimojing Xuan Shu, Weimojing Wenshu. 3.2. Zhiyi’s Opinion about Mind—the Idea about Realms, Space, Time, Dreams, Illness, Dependent Origination, etc. 3.2.1. Introduction In this section, the extension of mind indicates its range of applicability by naming the particular objects that it denotes, which will evaluate the relationship between mind and time, space, people, things, matters, substance, etc. In this chapter, the main discussion is about mind and its relationship to worldly phenomena. The Buddha told a bhikṣu (monk) that one dharma containing all dharmas is called mind. There are nāmarūpa, name and form, in the earthen world. However, when one 230 T. no. 1911, 46:12c12-13. 231 T. no. 1716, 33:696a23-26. 75 meditates on the name and form, the mind is the foundation of delusion. If one wants to meditate, one should get rid of delusion. To understand the five aggregates is to understand consciousness. 232 To meditate on the mind is to understand all phenomena. To meditate on one mind is to meditate on all minds, i.e. all dharmas.233 How does the mind function when it comes into contact with the world? How does the mind interact with the world? It utilizes the five aggregates 五陰,234 the twelve sense fields, and the eighteen dhātu, or realms 十八界.235 The five aggregates, the twelve sense fields, and the eighteen realms are the subjective, cognitive function of sentient beings. In addition, from the point of view of the objects in the world, which are recognized, there are subjective and objective points of view that structure the world.236 The function of mind is the result of the function of the subjective and objective structures. Zhiyi argues that when one mind arises there are “the three Provisional Positings 三假.”237 One should understand mind as arising from Mind; the six guṇas (six qualities, i.e. sight, sound, smell, taste, touch, and idea); the-organs-and-these-six-qualities; or non- 232 T. no. 1911, 46:54a13-18. Mohe Zhiguan Vol. 5. Xueming Yu 俞學明, “Zhiyi Guanxinlun Sixiang Shuping 智顗觀心論思想述評,” in Zhongguo Fojiao Xueshu Lundian 中國佛敎學術論典, 14: 400-401. 233 234 The five aggregates 五陰 mean form (rūpa 色), feeling 受, perception 想, impulse 行, and consciousness 識. The eighteen dhātu, or realms of sense, i.e. the six organs 六根, their objects 六境 or conditions, and their perceptions 六識. The perceptions are seeing-consciousness 眼識, hearing-consciousness 耳識, smelling-consciousness 鼻識, tasting-consciousness 舌識, tactile/kinetic consciousness 身識, and empiricconsciousness 意識. 235 Masaaki Nitta 新田雅章, Tendai Jissōron no Kenkyū 天台実相論の研究 (Kyōto: Heirakuji Shoten, 1981), 396. 236 237 T. no. 1911, 46:63a07-15. Mohe Zhiguan Vol. 5. 76 organs-and-non-six-qualities. If it arises from Mind, the first thought is organ and the latter thought is consciousness. Does thought arise from the organs of sense or from consciousness? If consciousness can arise from the organs of sense, the organs of sense contain consciousness. Therefore consciousness can arise from the organs. If the organ does contain consciousness, the organ and consciousness exist together. Nonconsciousness cannot arise from consciousness. If an organ does not contain consciousness, how can consciousness arise from that organ? If the organ does not contain consciousness and contains the nature of consciousness, this consciousness is empty. Because the organ does not contain the nature of consciousness, the organ cannot contain consciousness. In addition, are the nature of consciousness and consciousness itself one or different? If it is one, then the nature is consciousness. If it is different, it is produced from other things, but is not produced by itself. Through deduction, we can know that the mind is not produced by itself 不自生. If the organs of sense and the qualities join together, then the mind arises. If each of the organs of sense and the qualities has mind, then they join together and have two minds. When this happens, the situation becomes self-other-nature. If the organs of sense and the qualities separate, there is no mind. This “there is no mind” situation is just as one looking into a mirror. The mind exists not because the organs of sense and the qualities join together.238 Through the six organs, their objects, and six consciousnesses, one can explore this world. For that reason, the following is to discuss how Zhiyi utilizes the six organs, their objects, and six consciousnesses to explore the idea about realms, time, dream, etc. 238 T. no. 1911, 46:63c20-64a23. Mohe Zhiguan Vol. 5. 77 3.2.2. Zhiyi’s Opinion about Mind—Ideas about Realms, Space, Time, Dreams, Illness, Dependent Origination, etc. 3.2.2.1. Realms, Space Zhiyi in Mohe Zhiguan Vol. 1, Vol. 5, Weimojing Xuan Shu Vol. 2, Weimojing Wenshu Vol. 11, and Weimojing Wenshu Vol. 22 discusses the idea of realms. How do realms and space associate with mind? How can realms and space enrich mind? How can realms and space galvanize the mind? Zhiyi explains that “the world of countries on which people depend for existence” includes 10 kinds of dharmas. What is called the evil world has “thus and so appearance (如是相),” “thus and so nature (如是性),” “thus and so entity (如是體),” “thus and so power (如是力),” “thus and so activity (如是作),” “thus and so main cause (如是因),” “thus and so secondary conditions (如是緣),” “thus and so effect (如是果),” “thus and so retribution (如是報),” and “thus and so consistency from beginning to end (如是本末究竟等).” The good world also has appearance, nature, entity, power, activity, cause, condition, effect, retribution, and consistency from beginning to end. In addition, Buddha’s Pure Land has the 10 essential qualities or characteristics of things (10 elements of suchness), as well. One mind embraces Ten Realms. One realm embraces Ten Realms, even hundreds of realms. One realm involves 30 worlds (i.e. Ten Thusnesses multiply three kinds of worlds are 30 worlds). Therefore, 100 realms (i.e. in one realm, there are 10 realms. In 10 realms, there are 100 realms) involve Three Thousand Worlds. These Three Thousand Worlds are in one mind. There is neither one mind in the former or all dharmas in the latter; there is nor are there all dharmas in the 78 former or one mind in the latter. Mind is all dharmas. Meanwhile, all dhamras are mind. This is called the inconceivable realm.239 There is no former and latter issue between mind and all dharmas. That is to say, in mind and all dharmas there is no space issue. In a few words, one realm has Ten Thusness. Ten Thusness, thirty worlds, hundred realms, and three thousand worlds are embraced in one mind. Zhiyi analyzes the mundane world in this specific ways. Zhiyi utilizes very rational ways to express the mundane world. This world, or maybe three thousand worlds, is investigated by mind. Zhiyi maintains that Vairocana 毘盧遮那 is omnipresent. All dharmas are Buddhadharma. This is because of Tathāgata-dharmadhātu 如來法界. If this is the case, then how is it that “a mind free to wander in the realm of all things; that realm as the realm of the liberated mind 遊心法界” is just as space 如虛空? In addition, one who can become enlightened about ignorance is absolutely empty 畢竟空. Emptiness is non-emptiness. Non-emptiness is not non-emptiness. In a particle of dust 一微塵 there is a great chiliocosm 大千 scripture fascicle 經卷. The mind embraces all Buddha-dharma which is like the earth-seed 地種 and incense balls 丸香, 香丸. Presence is non-presence. Nonpresence is not non-presence. Neither one form nor one smell is the Middle Way. This Middle Way is non-extremes and not non-extremes. The organs of sense and the qualities rise from one mind. The organs of sense are the 84,000 dharmas. Subsequently there are the qualities of the 84,000 dharmas. The realms of Buddha-dharma according to dharmadhātu are not non-Buddha-dharma.240 239 T. no. 1911, 46:54a03-18. Mohe Zhiguan Vol. 5. 240 T. no. 1911, 46:9a12-24. Mohe Zhiguan Vol. 1. 79 From the sentence of “in a particle of dust, there is a great chiliocosm scripture fascicle,” one can realize the smallness magnifying. In space, smallness expands in an unbelievable way. This demonstrates that smallness is Emptiness and bigness is also Emptiness. Smallness and bigness transform into each other through Emptiness. This will be discussed further. Once more, Zhiyi sets up some rules and then breaks them up. No matter if it is dharma, existence, or Emptiness, he does not stay in the extremes. He frees the mind by breaking rules. By breaking rules, his opinions about mind are dynamic, but not static. The inner power of mind stimulates and all kinds of vibration occur. Zhiyi reasons that meditation on mind is inconceivable. This inconceivable situation is very difficult to describe. If one wants to understand this inconceivable situation, one should understand the conceivable one first. The conceivable way is the Theravada. Theravada speaks of the mind giving rise to all dharmas, that is, the six realms of causeand-conditions and the three realms (trailokya 三界) of cyclical existence. The inconceivable principle is that all worlds are made by mind. The Ten Realms have their own different causes and conditions. These Ten Realms are all called aggregates, fields, and realms 陰入界. In fact, there are differences among them. The three lower paths241 of the six destinations are contaminated-evil aggregates-realms-and-fields. The three good or upward directions or states of existence 三善道 are contaminated-good aggregatesrealms-and-fields. Śrāvakas and pratyeka-buddhas are uncontaminated aggregatesrealms-and-fields. Bodhisattvas are both contaminated and uncontaminated aggregatesrealms-and-fields. Buddhas are neither contaminated nor uncontaminated aggregates- 241 They are beings in hell, hungry ghosts, and animals. 80 realms-and-fields. Ten kinds of aggregates and realms are different. Therefore, it is called the world of the five aggregates. There are ten kinds of aggregates and realms. Hence, it is called world of the five aggregates. The Ten Realms of sentient beings are different. Therefore, it is called the world of sentient beings. The 10 types of abodes are different, and are thus called the world of lands. The sentient beings in hell dwell on hot iron. Animals dwell on or in the ground, in water and in space. Asuras dwell beside the sea and on the bottom of the sea. The human beings dwell on the ground. The heavenly beings dwell in palaces. Bodhisattvas of the Six Perfections 六度菩薩 like human beings, dwell on the ground. Bodhisattvas of the Shared Teaching 通教菩薩 who still have afflictions dwell as human beings and heavenly beings. Bodhisattvas of the Shared Teaching who have no afflictions dwell in land of expedient transformation 方便土. Bodhisattvas of the Distinct Teaching 別教菩薩 and Perfect Teaching 圓教菩薩 who still have afflictions dwell as human beings and heavenly beings in the land of expedient transformation. Bodhisattvas of the Distinct Teaching and Complete Teaching who have no afflictions dwell in land of Buddha-reward 實報土. Buddhas dwell in realm of constant quiescence 常寂光土. All realms are different, therefore it is called the world of lands. These 30 worlds are made by mind. In addition, each of the 10 kinds of five-aggregates has 10 dharmas, which are appearance, nature, entity, power, activity, cause, condition, effect, retribution, and consistency from beginning to end.242 In brief, in different realm there is a relative land for specific sentient beings to dwell. Every sentient beings goes to his/her own realm which is dependent on his/her 242 T. no. 1911, 46:52b18-53a12. Mohe Zhiguan Vol. 5. 81 causes and conditions. This is not fatalism. There is plenty of space to allow the potency. However, it has to follow the rules, causes and conditions. This demonstrates the value of Zhiyi’s system about realms. Everything in this part is in order and conceivable. After this, there is another angle of Zhiyi’s system. In that angle, everything is inconceivable. The following will discuss one of Zhiyi’s inconceivable opinions. Zhiyi reasons that the wisdom of “three insights in one thought” does not obstruct afflictions. Meanwhile, afflictions do not barricade the wisdom of “three insights in one thought.” Wisdom does not hinder delusion. This coheres with the principle stating that one who does not eliminate affliction also can enter into nirvāṇa. Even when one does not eliminate delusion and affection, simultaneously one can attain enlightenment. Bodhisattvas are in that kind of enlightenment, and they can put Mt. Sumeru (means huge) 須彌山 into a mustard seed (means small) 芥子. Why it is inconceivable one does not eliminate affliction and yet can also enter into nirvāṇa? This is because one can put Mt. Sumeru into a mustard seed. Small does not impede huge. In addition, huge does not hamper small. Therefore, it is called inconceivable. One who has affliction and delusion does not encumber one who has wisdom and enters into nirvāṇa. Wisdom and nirvāṇa do not thwart affliction and delusion. Hence, it is called inconceivable. 243 This paragraph utilizes phicial opinion, such a mountain and a mustard seed to symbolize the menaings of non-obstructing. It seems impossible in phicial world, therefore, it is called inconceivable. To utilize this phicial inconceivable to assist in understanding the theoretical inconceivable. 243 T. no. 1777, 38:531c09-c19. Weimojing Xuan Shu Vol. 2. 82 Zhiyi claims that if bodhisattvas approach Buddha wisdom and do not eliminate affliction, they also can enter nirvāṇa. This is just as how one who has supernatural powers can go through a wall but not be hindered by the wall. Using affliction to get enlightenment does not eliminate affliction, but also offers the opportunity for entering nirvāṇa. It is because affliction is empty. Because it is empty, it does not need to be eliminated. It is the same situation when entering Mt. Sumeru into a mustard seed. There is no mustard seed to enter into. If one states that the mustard seed is empty, entering Mt. Sumeru into a mustard seed is entering Mt. Sumeru into emptiness. If one observes affliction, the affliction is non-broken and non-moving; meanwhile one can enter nirvāṇa even though affliction is not eliminated. The nature of a mustard seed is neither big nor small. Small cannot obstruct big, even something as big as Mt. Sumeru. The nature of Mt. Sumeru is neither big nor small. Big cannot obstruct small, even as small as a mustard seed. If one stays in one’s place without moving, it is inconceivable to state that one can enter a mustard seed. This is the same meaning as one who does not eliminate affliction also can enter nirvāṇa.244 Zhiyi utilizes Emptiness to come back and forth among conceivable and inconceivable area. One could image to put Mt. Sumeru into a mustard seed through Emptiness. Through Zhiyi’s unique way of thinking, one can wide open one’s vision and will have an agile mind. Zhiyi reasons that smallness has non-small features and bigness has non-big features. Therefore, the small and the big can embrace each other. The ignorant mind of sentient beings is the Buddha’s mind. If one can understand this, one can realize that to put Mt. Sumeru into mustard seed is possible. The inconceivable situations cannot be finished. 244 X. no. 338, 18:545b21-c08. Weimojing Wenshu Vol. 11. 83 That is to say, the Buddha attaining enlightenment comes from the mind of sentient beings. If one meditates on sentient beings’ minds then one can get Buddha’s enlightenment, which brings many kinds of inconceivable circumstances. Śrāvaka and pratyeka-buddha’s liberation principle is conceivable liberation, which is like ball of rock crystal (sphaṭika) that cannot rain treasures. Mahāyāna Perfect Teaching states that Middle Way liberation is inconceivable, which is like a wish-granting jewel245 that can rain treasures. The nature of sentient being’s mind is the same as that of Mt. Sumeru and the mustard seed. As the smallness of a mustard seed can embrace the largeness of Mt. Sumeru. In addition, Mt. Sumeru does not hinder the mustard seed.246 In the point of view of Nāgārjuna’s Mādhyamika, no matter if it is the five aggregates, the twelvesense fields, or the eighteenrealms, all is empty. Zhiyi is affected by Nāgārjuna. In Zhiyi’s opinion, the five aggregates, the twelvesense fields, and the eighteenrealms are empty, which is demonstrated in his works. These ideas have an effect on the worldly phenomena, which are also empty. In the Mind-Only School, it is demonstrated that every sentient being has a mindbasis-of-all function. This function serves as the connection of karmic cause and effect. A mind-basis-of-all observes objects. In addition, it does not notice its objects. Moreover, it cannot draw another consciousness into noticing them. The mind-basis-of-all is neutral. It is only the movement of the mind to its object.247 It seems that Zhiyi does not utilize this princlple. Zhiyi’s opinion is much more close to Nāgārjuna’s. 245 Cintāmaṇi (the wish-granting jewel) 如意珠. 246 X. no. 338, 18:642a06-20. Weimojing Wenshu Vol. 22. 247 Jeffrey Hopkins, Reflections on Reality: the Three Natures and Non-natures in the Mind-only School (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002), 49-51. 84 In Zhiyi’s Mohe Zhiguan Vol. 1, In the worldly phenomena, when the deluded mind rises, it is not produced of itself, of another (of a cause without itself), of both, or of no-cause. When the deluded mind leaves, it is not produced of east, west, south, or north. This mind is not internal, external, and intermediate. It does not exist by produced of itself. However, it is named mind.248 This paragraph means that according to the rise of the mind there are no causes of the four-phrase classification. Zhiyi utilizes the idea of Emptiness to observe the subjective and objective points of view of structuring the world. On one hand, the five aggregates, the twelve sense fields, and the eighteen realms can be viewed as the structure of observing the worldly phenomena. On the other hand, they are empty. Not only about realms and space Zhiyi has the inconceivable opinion, but also about time. The inconceivable opinion of time will be discussed as follows. 3.2.2.2. Time One might observe that the past is already passed, the future has not arrived, and the present is not abiding. Therefore, if there is no past, present, and future there can be no mind. Thus, how can one meditate on mind? Zhiyi argues that this kind of question is meaningless. Zhiyi continues to assert that the past has passed and is unknown, the future has not arrived and is unknown, and the present is not abiding and is unknown. Even the ghosts know the past, present, and future. The sages can know, too. The past, present, and future mind is uncertain, but can be known. Therefore, Buddha says that even though it is empty it is not eliminated, and even though it is continuing it is not permanent. If this is nihilism, it is just as asking the blind to see.249 248 T. no. 1911, 46:8a28-b2. 249 T. no. 1911, 46:15c06-14. Mohe Zhiguan Vol. 2. 85 Zhiyi utilizes Weimojing Wenshu to explain that even if sentient beings like to dwell in the world a long time, bodhisattvas can manifest for seven days but it feels like an eon. Even if sentient beings like to dwell in the world a short time, bodhisattvas can manifest for an eon although it feels like seven days. Bodhisattvas who stay in the true nature of enlightenment can prolong and shorten time. Just as in a dream, one can realize the past, present, and future. If one claims one can see the past, present, and future, it is only one dream.250 In ordinary people’s opinion, space and time are objective. However, Zhiyi’s arguments demonstrate they are subjective. Meanwhile, they are Emptiness. Huge can become tiny. Eon can become seven days.251 The key point is that the mind realizes Emptiness, Provisional Positing, and Middle Way. 3.2.2.3. Dreams Zhiyi utilizes Mohe Zhiguan Vol. 2 to explain that a person should attain Buddhahood through the mind and the body. However, Buddhahood cannot be attained through mind and body. It is not through the mind that one receives the form of Buddha. It is not through form that one receives Buddha-mind. Why is this so? Buddha has no mind. In addition, Buddha has no form. Therefore, one cannot attain supreme correct enlightenment through form and mind. It is impossible to attain Buddhahood through body, language, and wisdom. Why is this so? Wisdom cannot be approached. All dharmas are fundamentally lacking in substantial being. This situation is just as one 250 X. no. 338, 18:642b12-18. Weimojing Wenshu Vol. 22. This opinion appears in the Buddhāvataṃsaka-mahāvaipulya-sūtra. (or the Avataṃsaka sūtra 華嚴經). T. no. 279, 10:38a18-23. 251 86 seeing seven jewels and experiencing the happiness of one’s entire family in a dream. When one awakens, there is nothing left.252 How can dream function with Mind? Is there any possibility that dream is real?253 This argument tries to explain that sentient beings live in a huge dream. Because everything is impermanent and empty, the change is possible. Through breaking daily boundaries in life, modification is imaginable. This is how Zhiyi works. He deliberates every simple phase to dedicate how to enlighten sentient beings. Zhiyi uses Nāgārjuna’s statement that “at nowhere and at no time can entities ever exist by originating out of themselves, from others, from both (self-other), or from the lack of causes.” Here Zhiyi utilizes examples to explain this idea. There are four kinds of situations in mind, sleep, and dream. First, if one has a dream because of mind, one who does not fall asleep should still have a dream. Second, if one has dream because of sleep, the deceased, who are like being asleep, should dream. Third, if one has a dream because of mind and sleep, the sleeping people should dream all the time. Fourth, if mind and sleep separately have a dream, it is impossible to dream when mind and sleep exist simultaneously. If mind and sleep separately have no dream, when mind and sleep exist simultaneously, one should not have a dream. If without mind and sleep there is a dream, Emptiness is without mind and sleep. Emptiness should permanently dream. Here mind is a metaphor functioning like dharma nature, and dreams are like ālayavijñāna. 254 252 T. no. 1911, 46:12b29-c9. Mohe Zhiguan Vol. 2. 253 The description of dreams by ancient Indian philosopher Gauḍapāda is interesting. Gregory Darling, An Evaluation of the Vedānic Critique of Buddhism (Delhi: Motilal Banasidass, 1987), 100-101. Karl Potter, Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies (Dellhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1981), Vol. III, 106. 254 T. no. 1911, 46:54b07-17. Mohe Zhiguan Vol. 5. 87 The key point is there is no-self, no matter it is dream, mind, sleep, dharma nature, or ālayavijñāna. If any of them has self, it should be permanently in some kind of situation. Only by breaking the self of everything, there is the possibility of closing the Truth. Weimojing Xuan Shu Vol. 2, Zhiyi argues that the inconceivable meditation realm 觀境 is the realm of Ten Realms which is caused by one ignorant mind. One asks to embrace Ten Realms, which brings the experience of innumerable eons in order. Why is it that in one ignorant mind there is no obstruction? Zhiyi answers that this Vimalakīrtinirdeśa Sūtra explains that there is no obstruction to turn Mt. Sumeru into a mustard seed. Even the non-sentient objects have this kind of nature. Mind is so marvelous. There is no doubt that one mind can embrace all past, present, and future dharmas. This is just as one who in a dream perceives all mind and phenomena. In a dream one can experience innumerable eons. This is like what Saddhamapuṇḍarīka Sūtra mentioned; one dreams about everything from the point of the first awakening of the intent to achieve illumination to become Buddha. When one gets enlightenment, one recognizes that the whole process is a dream. The mind is of a fundamentally pure nature. When one has a dream, it is like one is ignorant. The countless dreams are like the amount of ignorance covering the abundance of Buddhist dharmas. Dreams are not true. Good, evil, sadness and happiness are like delusive, illusory or misleading views that cover Emptiness.255 255 T. no. 1777, 38:528c24-529a07. Weimojing Xuan Shu Vol. 2. 88 Zhiyi disputes that before one gets enlightened is in the dreams. All sentient beings’er experiences are dreams. In the dreams, everything seems real, but illusory. Only when one attains enlightenment, one can wake up from the dreams.256 Dream is very good example to understand the mind. The situation (dream) is so similar to when one awakes. However, does this kind of “awaking” real awake? Compare to one who has really enlightened, the unenlightened sentient beings are in the “dream,” even though they are awaking. 3.2.2.4. Illness, Dependent Origination, etc. How do illness and Dependent Origination motivate the Mind? What role do illness and Dependent Origination play to enhance the mind? And what kind of effect do they demonstrate? In Mohe Zhiguan Vol. 8, Zhiyi argues that the one who has strong power to protect the castle is mighty. If one dreads, one will be busy. The mind is the chief of the body. If the mind is strong, then the body will be strong. The body will be robust. If one meditates, all illness will be gone. For the sake of illness, there are Ten Realms. If, because of illness, one gives up meditation and slanders the Three Treasures, one will invite disaster because of the previous crimes. If one gets into the cycle of birth-anddeath, there is no ending. Suffering and the arising of suffering follow one for many lifetimes and being afflicted. One should try to seek calmness and extinction, which is nirvāṇa. Because of illness, there is the realm of śrāvakas. This illness is the illness of mind which causes one to age and die. Death is caused by birth. Birth is caused by existing of the previous lives. Existing comes from grasping. Grasping originates from craving. Craving derives from feeling. Feeling arises from contact. Contact emanates Fenglei Zhang 張風雷, “Zhiyi Fojiao Zhexue Shu Ping 智顗佛敎哲學述評,” in Zhongguo Fojiao Xueshu Lundian 中國佛敎學術論典 (Gaoxiong: Fo Guang Shan Wen Jiao Ji Jin Hui, 2001), 5: 156. 256 89 from the six sense organs. The six sense organs come from name and form. Form is four elements257 and five faculties.258 Name is four thoughts. The four thoughts are held. Consciousness holds the earth, perception holds the wind, feeling holds the fire, and impulse holds the water. These four thoughts are self-produced since nothing is produced by itself. The impulse originates from feeling. Feeling derives from perception. Perception arises from consciousness. Consciousness comes from the previous impulse. The previous impulse comes from ignorance. Ignorance comes from delusion. Delusion comes from delusion.259 In the paragraph above, Zhiyi debates how the twelve limbs of Dependent Origination associate with delusion. From this argument, it is clear how sentient beings get into the cycle of rebirth. It is obvious what are the causes and conditions of rebirth. When the causes and conditions are apparent, there is a way to get rid of them. That is the reason why Zhiyi advocates the teaching of Tiantai Buddhism to show the way to evade from the chain of birth-and-death. Zhiyi continues to argue that delusion comes from delusion, which causes the twelve links in the sequence of presence of the transmigrations. Even though the six organs meet form, sound, smell, taste, touch, and idea, there is nothing that can be attained. Neither is there union of causes and conditions. If one can meditate, one can get enlightenment. One can attain the correct wisdom of causes and conditions. One realizes that form and mind from the beginning until now are essentially quiescence. It is neither arising nor ceasing. Delusion 妄想 and contrary or false positions 顛倒 are arising and ceasing 生滅. If one 257 The four elements are earth, water, fire, air (or wind). 258 Five faculties are eyes, ears, nose, tongue, and skin. 259 T. no. 1911, 46:110a11-b18. Mohe Zhiguan Vol. 8. 90 does not follow delusion, then ignorance in old-age-and-death will be terminated. One terminates the old karma and does not create new karma. This is similar to when one does not light a fire, there is no smoke. If one is without ignorance through old-age-and-death, who will have illness? This is called the pratyekabuddhas realm 緣覺法界. If one meditates on illness, one will realize that the illness is caused from desire with one’s body and wealth, which causes all kinds of afflictions. In addition, illness and a short life is also caused by not keeping the commandments or rules. Furthermore, the will is weak and cannot be patient. The spirit of the body is not protected, effort is feeble, there is no goodness to get rid of illness, there is no power of meditation, the mind has no wisdom, and one does not realize that impermanence, suffering, Emptiness, and no-self are the causes of illness. To cultivate compassion, to swear and achieve the discipline contains, to be patient, and to enlighten impermanence are, because of illness, the realm of Six Perfections Bodhisattvas 六度菩薩界. When one meditates on illness, it comes from the delusion and affliction of previous lives. This kind of delusion is devoid of truth. Both self and nirvāṇa are empty. Because of illness, there is the realm of Shared Bodhisattvas 通教菩薩界. In addition, although illness is absolutely empty and imperceptible, one still feels all feelings. Not embracing Buddhist Dharma, one gets realization through the extinction of sensation. Because of illness, there is the realm of Distinct Bodhisattvas 別教菩薩界. These dharmas are in sequence because of illness. This is called the conceivable realm. The inconceivable realm is one where mental illness is neither true nor existing. This is the dharma-realm of dharma-nature 法性法界. There is only dharmarealm without the differences of the Nine Realms. This is like the wish-granting jewel, 91 neither empty nor existing, and neither former nor latter. Illness is also the same. Because illness is beyond language, free from characteristics, extinct, and pure, it is called inconceivable.260 To cut a long story short, from the realm of ordinary sentient beings, pratyekabuddhas realm, the realm of Six Perfections Bodhisattvas, the realm of Shared Bodhisattvas, the realm of Distinct Bodhisattvas, are called the conceivable realms. The dharma-realm of dharma-nature is inconceivable realm. This illness means the delusion and affliction of mind. Before one gets enlightenment to become a Buddha, every sentient being is in illness. This is what Zhiyi calls illness. Zhiyi argues that in Buddhāvataṃsaka-mahāvaipulya- Sūtra 大方廣佛華嚴經 it says that twelve limbs of Dependent Origination are in one mind. In Mahā-sajnipātasūtra 大集經, even one person with one mind can embrace Ten Realms, Ten Thusnesses, and the twelve limbs of Dependent Origination, it is called the Mahāyāna inconceivable twelve limbs of Dependent Origination. In Dvādaśamukha-śāstra 十二門論, dharmas are not non-arising. One may ask: do dharmas arise in one mind or many minds? The Buddhāvataṃsaka-mahāvaipulya-Sūtra points out that one is in the innumerable, and the innumerable is in one. The Pañcaviṃśati-sāhsrikā-prajñā-pāramitā 大品般若經 argues that if one claims that one mind embraces the twelve limbs of Dependent Origination, will there be any problems? Also, this one mind is different from ordinary people. This is neither the same nor different as “one mind.” It is like in one mind—one dreams of innumerable worldly phenomena.261 260 T. no. 1911, 46:110b18- c23. Mohe Zhiguan Vol. 8. 261 T. no. 1911, 46:127a20-b03. Mohe Zhiguan Vol. 9. 92 In Weimojing Wenshu, Zhiyi argues that bodhisattvas of inconceivable liberation demonstrate all gloriously adorned Buddha lands in one land. Bodhisattvas also put all sentient beings of all Buddha lands in their right palms and fly to the 10 directions to demonstrate, while not moving the original location. This other land appears in this land, and this land appears in the other. If bodhisattvas dwell in the land of dependent condition or environment and the true nature of liberation, this situation can occur. Bodhisattvas can see whatever the sentient beings of the 10 directions offer to Buddhas in one single pore. Bodhisattvas also can see the sun, moon, and stars of the 10 directions in one pore.262 In the last two paragraphs, there are two important opinions Zhiyi expresses. First is that one is in the innumerable and the innumerable are in one. Second, a huge one can be put into a tiny one. These two opinions express that the space can shrink and expand. This is also inconceivable. 3.3. Conclusion Zhiyi identifies that the wisdom of “three insights in one thought” does not obstruct affliction, and vice versa. One can get enlightenment and this does not eradicate delusion. Bodhisattvas in a kind of enlightenment can put Mt. Sumeru into a mustard seed. The nature of Mt. Sumeru is neither big nor small. Bigness cannot obstruct smallness, even as small as mustard seed. The nature of sentient beings’ minds is the same as the nature of Mt. Sumeru and a mustard seed. Even something as small as a mustard seed can embrace something as huge as Mt. Sumeru, and vice versa. 262 X. no. 338, 18:642b19-c02. Weimojing Wenshu Vol. 22. 93 The five aggregates, the twelve sense fields, and the eighteen realms not only can be viewed as the structure of observing the worldly phenomena, but also they are empty. Concerning time, if sentient beings like to dwell in the world a long time, bodhisattvas can lengthen seven days into an eon. If sentient beings like to dwell in the world a short time, bodhisattvas can shorten an eon into seven days. There are four kinds of situations in mind, sleep, and dreams. The mind metaphorically functions like dharma nature, and dreams are like the ālayavijñāna. Inside a dream, there is nothing that can be attained, which is called the emptiness of internal phenomena. Outside dreams, there is nothing that can be attained, which is called the emptiness of non-Buddhist doctrines. In summary, dreams are empty. There is no doubt that all past, present, and future dharmas are in one mind. In dreams one can experience innumerable eons. When one has countless dreams, these are like the great ignorance covering the abundance of Buddhist dharmas. Dreams are not true, i.e. they are empty. Good, evil, sadness and happiness are like delusive opinions and viewpoints covering Emptiness. The realm of śrāvakas, pratyekabuddhas, Six Perfections Bodhisattvas, Shared Bodhisattvas, and Distinct Bodhisattvas are conceivable realms. The inconceivable realm is the dharma-realm of dharma-nature, which is neither true nor existing. It is beyond language, free from characteristics, extinct, and pure. It is called inconceivable. If one person with one mind can embrace the Ten Realms, Ten Thusnesses, and twelve limbs of Dependent Origination, this is called the Mahāyāna inconceivable twelve limbs of Dependent Origination. This one mind is different from that of ordinary people, meaning the same-or-different with fixity of one mind. This is neither the same nor 94 different “one mind.” Whoever has this “one mind” can see whatever the sentient beings of the 10 directions offer to Buddhas and also can see the sun, moon, and stars of 10 directions lands in one pore. All worlds have appearance, nature, entity, power, activity, cause, condition, effect, retribution, and consistency from beginning to end. One realm involves thirty worlds. Therefore, a hundred realms involve Three Thousand Worlds. These Three Thousand Worlds are in one mind. All dhamras are mind. This is called the inconceivable realm. The Ten Realms are all called aggregates, fields, and realms. Different sentient beings dwell in different lands. Śrāvakas and pratyeka-buddhas are uncontaminated aggregatesrealms-and-fields. Bodhisattvas of the Six Perfections dwell on the ground. Bodhisattvas of the Shared Teaching with afflictions dwell as human beings and heavenly beings. Bodhisattvas of the Shared Teaching with no afflictions dwell in land of expedient transformation. Bodhisattvas of the Distinct Teaching and of the Perfect Teaching dwell with afflictions as human beings and heavenly beings in the land of expedient transformation. Bodhisattvas of the Distinct Teaching and of the Perfect Teaching dwell without afflictions in the land of Buddha-reward. Buddhas dwell in realm of constant quiescence. Different lands demonstrate different levels of mind. 95 CHAPTER FOUR What are the Causes of Zhiyi’s Opinions about Dynamic Mind? 4.1. Introduction In Chapter four, I discuss Zhiyi’s view of the mind. What are the causes of the dynamic mind? In this chapter, I utilize two sections to demonstrate Zhiyi’s profound concept of the dynamic mind. The first section concerns Intrinsic Inclusiveness as the cause of the dynamic mind. From ‘Three Aspects of Knowledge are attained in one mind’ to Intrinsic Inclusiveness, Zhiyi names Emptiness, Provisional Positing, Middle Way, and be-Empty-be-Phenomenal-be-Medial as the medium of the dynamic mind. The second section utilizes the Ten Thusnesses to discuss the dynamic Mind. In Zhiyi’s opinion, he thinks that Ten Realms are mutually inclusive. It means that there are a Hundred Realms and a Thousand Thusnesses. Each of them is expedient and absolute. The Ten Thusnesses contain all dharmas. 4.2. Intrinsic Inclusiveness is the Cause of Dynamic Mind 4.2.1. Introduction The Tiantai School’s principle ‘one thought to Embrace Three Thousand Worlds’ comes from Huisi’s Three Insights in one thought. Huisi’s Three Insights in one thought originates from Northern Qi Huiwen’s 北齊慧文 one mind and Three Aspects of Knowledge. Huiwen’s one mind embrace Three Aspects of Knowledge derive from the Dazhidu Lun (Mahāprajñāpāramitā-śāstra) Vol. 27 ‘Three Aspects of Knowledge are 96 attained in one mind 三智實一心中得.’ The theory of Tiantai has developed out of the thought of Nāgārjuna.263 In addition, Tiantai School’s teaching and meditation are related to the thought of Pañcaviṃśati-sāhsrikā-prajñā-pāramitā 大品般若經 ‘prajñā embraces all dharmas.’ Zhiyi asserts that the sentient beings embrace all dharmas in one mind, which builds the inconceivable realm in one thought to embrace the Three Thousand Worlds. This principle ‘one thought Embraces the Three Thousand Worlds’ holds that mind mutually contain the Three Thousand Worlds. According to dharma, it is Intrinsic Inclusiveness 性具. That is to say, Ten Realms and Three Thousand dharmas do not separate from Dharma-nature.264 Intrinsic Inclusiveness is also called ‘Originally Possessed 本具’ and ‘Noumenal Fully Present 理具、體具.’ What is the meaning of Intrinsic Inclusive, Originally Possessed, and Noumenal Fully Present? Is it Original Essence of All Being, Real-nature, and Buddha-nature? How can Intrinsic Inclusiveness make Mind dynamic? The term ‘nature’ means original nature of the Reality-realm, Dharma-nature (dharmatā), and Reality. Or, one can see this as principal, principle, and substance.265 Intrinsic Inclusiveness means that Buddha-nature is possessed fully by all. The Shi 釋聖嚴, “Tiantai Sixiang de Yinian Sanqian 天台思想的一念三千,” in Xian Dai Fo Jiao Xue Shu Cong Kan 現代佛教學術叢刊, 57: 208-209. 263 Huizhen You 尤惠貞, “Tiantai Zong Xingju Yuanjiao zhi Yanjiu 天臺宗性具圓敎之硏究,” in Zhongguo Fojiao Xueshu Lundian 中國佛敎學術論典 (Gaoxiong: Fo Guang Shan Wen Jiao Ji Jin Hui, 2004), 91: 27-211. 264 Juehua Shi 釋覺華, “Xingju yu Xingqi Sixiang zhi Bijiao Yanjiu 性具與性起思想之比較硏究,” in Zhongguo Fojiao Xueshu Lundian 中國佛敎學術論典 (Gaoxiong: Fo Guang Shan Wen Jiao Ji Jin Hui, 2004), 97: 337. 265 97 establishment of this theory is not easy and simple. The theory of “Intrinsic Inclusiveness” finds its sources as follows. First source is in the Lotus Sūtra’s (Saddhamapuṇḍarīka Sūtra) notion of the one Buddha-yāna (the One Vehicle).266 Second source is in Kumārajīva’s267 theory of reality 實相論. Third source is in Shanhui Bodhisattva Fuyi’s 善慧大士傅翕268 thought. In addition, the fourth source is in the Liang Dynasty 梁代 Chengshi School’s 成實宗 theory of Two-Truths-and-Three-Truths 二諦、三諦思想.269 Intrinsic Inclusiveness of both good and evil means that Buddha nature embraces both good dharma and evil dharma, which is the core element of the Tiantai School. Original Buddhism, for example, Aṅgulimālika Sūtra 央掘魔羅經,270 treats Buddha-nature as pure good, without evil. The thought of Intrinsic Inclusiveness comes from the Pañcaviṃśati-sāhsrikāprajñā-pāramitā 大品般若經, the Suvarna prabhāsottama-sūtra 金光明經 (which is concerned with all the dharmas embracing all dharmas), and the Vimalakīrti-nirdeśa Sūtra 維摩經 (which is about the Mt. Sumeru merging into a mustard seed). Zhiyi develops these ideas into a teaching of mutual containment of Ten Realms and Thousand Qualities of the Hundred Realms. In Zhiyi’s theory of Intrinsic Inclusiveness, one dharma embracing all dharmas is the potential, which is in the progress of development.271 The One Vehicle means to avoid Śrāvaka’s, Pratyekabuddha’s, and Bodhisattva’s teachings, but go to Buddha-yāna directly. 開，開除；會，會入。開除三乘，而歸入真實之一乘教法，稱為開會。 266 267 One said Kumārajīva was alive during 344-413 C.E., or one said during C.E. 350-409. 268 C.E. 497-569. 269 Andō, Tendai Shōgu Shisōron, 266. 270 T. no. 120, 2:526b21-23. 271 Andō, Tendaigaku: Konpon Shisō to sono Tenkai, 137. 98 Therefore, the question of how Intrinsic Inclusiveness make mind dynamic will be discussed as follows. 4.2.2. How is Intrinsic Inclusiveness the Cause of Dynamic Mind? Zhiyi contends that if the nature of desire, anger, and ignorance mutually contain all Buddha-dharma, affliction should not be cut. That is to say, even if one does not cut delusion and affliction, one still can get enlightenment. If śrāvakas and pratyeka-buddha destroy delusion and enter into nirvāṇa, they can get rid of the fear of birth-and-death and they cannot utilize the affliction to do good things. However, bodhisattvas who approach Buddha wisdom and do not eliminate affliction, also can enter into nirvāṇa. This is just like when one who has supernatural power can go through the wall, but not be hindered by the wall. Using affliction to get enlightenment is called not eliminating affliction, and one can also enter into nirvāṇa.272 This is the premise Zhiyi prepares for the argument of Intrinsic Inclusiveness. This is the first step Zhiyi formulates for the Intrinsic Inclusiveness. In many of Zhiyi’s opinions, he suggests affliction and enlightenment embrace together. Zhiyi claims that when one meditates on the Ten Realms’ sentient beings, each realm has 10 kinds of appearances, nature, entity, power, activity, cause, condition, effect, retribution, and consistency from beginning to end. The Ten Realms have a Hundred Realms and a thousand kinds of appearances, natures, etc., which lurk in the mind but do not appear. Ordinary people do not realize this. All kinds of appearance, nature, etc. are 272 X. no. 338, 18:545b18-23. Weimojing Wenshu Vol. 11. 99 embraced in one mind. Most ordinary sentient beings have contrary or false positions. The sages can realize that these thousands of appearances, natures, etc. are causes and conditions producing phenomena.273 If there are evil causes and conditions producing phenomena, then there is the appearance, nature, etc. of suffering. If one has not attained enlightenment, one can meditate on this suffering to raise great compassion. If there are good causes and conditions producing phenomena, then there are delightful appearances, natures, etc. If one has not attained enlightenment, one can meditate on this delight to raise great comapssion. 274 These evil causes and conditions can raise the lower realms. In addition, good causes and conditions can raise the sage realms. The lower realms include the hells, hungry ghosts, animals, asuras, human beings, and divine beings. The sage realms include the śrāvakas, pratyekabuddhas, Bodhisattvas, and Buddhas. For example, the name of hells represent the nature of hells. The mind has hell. Then the nature of the realm represents it. This mind is similar to essence. One treats the mind as essence. The mind feels suffering or delight, which is treated as an essence. This is like the fact that a hairpin, gong, ring, and bracelet are different, yet they are all made by silver. The six realms are different because of mind. Therefore, the mind is essence.275 273 T. no. 1726, 34:888c09-15. Guanyin Xuanyi Vol. 2. 274 T. no. 1726, 34:888c15-20. Guanyin Xuanyi Vol. 2. 275 T. no. 1726, 34:888c24-26. Guanyin Xuanyi Vol. 2. 100 When the mind functions, there is moving and managing. When there is moving and managing, there is karma. What can drive mind to function? Love can drive mind to function. In the next paragraph, it will explain in detail. Moving and managing is called power. There is moving, there is doing. Karma is the cause. Karma is produced from love, which is called causes and conditions. For example, the hell beings in previous lives were loose. In hell, they saw situations with sexual desire, and then they approached. This is called the continuousness of cause and consequence. The misconduct of sexual desire, leads to the retribution of falling into the hells to suffer burning. ‘Beginning’ is the virtue possessed by nature 性德, and ‘end’ is the dharma attained by practice 修得法. Consistency from beginning to end means that the dharma attained by practice is equal to the virtues possessed by nature. The Ten Thusnesses are like this. The other nine realms are the same.276 One asked that if one realm has Ten Thusnesses, then how can it be that the nine realms also mutually contain Ten Thusnesses? How can it be that the hell realm mutually contains the Ten Thusnesses of the Buddha realm? Zhiyi argues that one who has mind can attain supreme correct enlightenment. Even though sentient beings are in the hells, they still have Buddha-nature.277 Therefore, even in hells there is Buddha-nature. Buddha-nature is the appearance of virtues possessed naturally by sentient beings. It is like in the Snow Mountains, the Himālayas, there are Bhaiṣajya-rāja 藥王 and poisonous weeds. In a good realm, good things and bad things exist simultaneously. In addition, in the hells there are the Ten 276 T. no. 1726, 34:888c27-889a07. Guanyin Xuanyi Vol. 2. 277 T. no. 1726, 34:889a07-12. Guanyin Xuanyi Vol. 2. 101 Thusnesses of the Buddha realm. The hells mutually contain nine realms. The rest of the realms mutually contain one another. Bodhisattvas meditated profoundly on the sentient beings of Ten Realms embracing thousands of essential natures and characteristics in one mind.278 Zhiyi argues how Ten Realms have their own Ten Thusnesses. Meanwhile, Ten Realms mutually contain one another. This is Intrinsic Inclusiveness. He gives a metaphor as Himālayas’s 喜馬拉雅山 poisonous weeds. This means in a pure place there is an evil thing. This is like Buddha has evil by nature, which will be discussed in Chapter 5 in detail. One can embrace thousands of essential natures and characteristics in one mind, and mutually contain the other realms that are the motive for the dynamic mind. Intrinsic Inclusiveness is the cause of the dynamic mind, which one possesses mind even in the hells he can become a Buddha one day. Ten Realms, Ten Thusnesses, and Three Thousand Worlds are inevitable categories in Reality. One mind is the essence of in one thought to embrace Three Thousand Worlds. Three Thousand Worlds are the function of the one mind. This is not idealism. This one mind is the content of consciousness that is demonstrating Three Thousand Worlds. Ten Realms, mutually contained, is the fundamental hypothesis of Three Thousand Worlds. ‘In one thought to embrace the Three Thousand Worlds’ is not to limit one of the content of consciousness to the Ten Realms, Ten Thusnesses, and Three Thousand Worlds. Many kinds of consciousness completely and absolutely interpenetrate one another, which is the purpose of ‘in one thought to embrace the Three Thousand Worlds.’ It does not mean that 278 T. no. 1726, 34:889a12-24. Guanyin Xuanyi Vol. 2. 102 ‘in one thought to embrace the Three Thousand Worlds.’ The essence of Three Thousand Worlds is one mind. If one explains this as idealism, it is inappropriate.279 Zhiyi argues that if the relative belongs to sentient beings, then the absolute must also belong to sentient beings. If the absolute belong to the sages, would the relative not also belong to the sages? The northern masters280 think that the former five are relative, and the latter five are absolute. Now, to clarify the relative and absolute is to utilize the Ten Thusnesses as the Ten Realms. The six realms and the Four Sage Realms are Dharma-realms. There are three kinds of meanings. First, there are realms of ten. Second, there are 10 kinds of dharma to distinguish the ordinary beings and sages. Third, these ten are the realms that contain all dharma. All dharma approach the hell realms. This ‘approach’ means that all things are principle in essence. Therefore, there is no basis in what is called the Dharma-realm. That which depends on the basis is called the emptiness realm. That the Ten Realms are separate is called the Provisional Realm. The Ten Realms are all considered the Dharma-realm, which is called the realm of the Middle Way. The Middle Way is Emptiness and Provisional Positing.281 On the one hand, Zhiyi states that there is no difference between the relative and absolute. On the other hand, Zhiyi asserts the Perfect Interpenetration of the Three Truths282 to explain that the Ten Realms possess 279 Andō, Tendai Shōgu Shisōron, 75-76. Such as the followers of Bodhiruci 菩提流支, the four sects followers of Fotuo Guangtong 佛馱光統, etc. 280 281 T. no. 1716, 33: 693c02-16. Fahua Xuanyi Vol. 2. As to Dharma-realm (dharmadhatu) Paul L. Swanson has explanation in his Foundation of T’ien-T’ai Philosophy, 182 as follows, “All of reality is included in hell and does not transcend this destiny. Verily essence is identical to the principle [of reality], and since it does not depend on anything it is called the dharmadhatu.” 282 “Perfect Interpenetration of the Three Truths” is mentioned in Chapter 4. 103 both Relative and Absolute Reality. These Three Truths are neither one, two, nor three. There is no obstruction as they are united together.283 Tang Junyi’s 唐君毅 Zhongguo Zhexue Yuanlun. Yuanxing Pian: Zhongguo Zhexue zhong Renxing Sixiang zhi Fazhan 中國哲學原論. 原性篇: 中國哲學中人性思想之發展 (The Yuan lun. Yuan xing pian, of Chinese Philosophy: the Development of Human Thoughts in Chinese Philosophy) provides an explanation that can help to understand Zhiyi’s Intrinsic Inclusiveness: The sentient beings embrace the nature of Buddha’ mind, therefore, in the lower six realms there are the four sage realms. The realm of sentient beings contains the realm of Buddha…According to the Lotus Sūtra, it focuses on the tracks and displays the fundamental to save the ordinary people. Buddhas show in this world to save the ordinary people, it means that the Buddha realm can enter the sentient beings’ realm. This “enter” not only the demonstrates the Buddha’s countless merits, but also demonstrates the Buddha realm does not enter the sentient beings’ realms. The Buddha realm is not the Buddha realm. The Buddha is not the Buddha.284 Tang Junyi’s explains the mutual containment of the Buddha realm and sentient beings’ realm. The Buddha does not have to be deluded to save sentient beings, which helps to understand Zhiyi’s opinion of the mutual containment of the Ten Realms. In summary, Zhiyi combines the doctrine of relative-and-absolute and ‘Perfect Interpenetration of the Three Truths’ to solve the problem of Ten Realms being mutually contained. In addition, Zhiyi utilizes the Lotus Sūtra’s (Saddhamapuṇḍarīka Sūtra) notion of the one Buddhayāna (the One Vehicle) to elucidate that Emptiness is the Provisional Positing, which is the Middle Way. The Provisional Positing is Emptiness, which is the Middle Way. The Shi 釋覺華, “Xingju yu Xingqi Sixiang zhi Bijiao Yanjiu 性具與性起思想之比較硏究,” in Zhongguo Fojiao Xueshu Lundian 中國佛敎學術論典, 97: 345-346. 283 Junyi Tang 唐君毅, Zhongguo Zhexue Yuanlun. Yuanxing Pian: Zhongguo Zhexue zhong Renxing Sixiang zhi Fazhan 中國哲學原論. 原性篇 : 中國哲學中人性思想之發展 (Hong Kong: Xinya Shuyuan Yanjiusuo, 1968), 266-267. 284 104 Middle Way is Emptiness, which is the Provisional Positing. On the one hand, the three are different, and, on the other hand, they are the same. The Three Truths are all essences. The Three Truths are all functions. In the viewpoint of ‘Perfect Interfusion of the Three Truths,’ the Three Truths are both essence and function. Because the Three Truths are both essence and function, when one realm appears then the other nine realms also appear simultaneously. But, this does not say that when one realm appears, then the other nine realms are hidden. If the other nine realms were hidden, it will lose the true meaning of what Zhiyi explains, which is that the form and mind are equal and the Ten Realms are mutually contained.285 In Zhiyi’s opinion, one realm mutually contained the other nine realms. For example, the sentient beings in the hell realm has the Ten Thusnesses of Buddha realm. If the sentient beings in the hell do not have the Ten Thusnesses of Buddha realm, the icchantika 一闡提 has no opportunity to become a Buddha. The details of whether the icchantika can become a Buddha or not will be discussed in Chapter 5. If the icchantika has no opportunity to become Buddha, there is no opportunity for the sentient beings of the nine realms to become Buddha. This will violate the Emptiness, no self. If it was so, it will have errors in logic. This is not about the other nine realms hidden. It is about the Ten Realms being mutually contained. The point is Intrinsic Inclusiveness. “Starting with the traces to disclose the source 開迹顯本” is one of the Lotus Sūtra’s important teachings, which is based on Intrinsic Inclusiveness. Shi 釋覺華, “Xingju yu Xingqi Sixiang zhi Bijiao Yanjiu 性具與性起思想之比較硏究,” in Zhongguo Fojiao Xueshu Lundian 中國佛敎學術論典, 97: 346-347. 285 105 From the point of view of contemplation practice, if one wants to understand ‘all things are empty (or void, noumenal), are phenomenal, are medial 即空即假即中,’ one can start from Three Insights in one thought. For example, in Mohe Zhiguan Vol. 5, Zhiyi explains the insight that one mind is all minds, and all minds are one mind. One aggregate is all aggregates. All aggregates are one aggregate. One entrance is all entrances. All entrances are one entrance. One realm is all realms. All realms are one realm. One sentient being is all sentient beings. All sentient beings are one sentient being. One land is all lands. All lands are one land. One feature is all features. All features are one feature. One perfection is all perfections. All perfections are one perfection. All of these are inconceivable realms.286 If Dharma-nature is covered by ignorance, all dharmas, aggregates, realms, and fields are within the sphere of Conventional Truth 世俗諦. All realms enter one Dharmarealm, which is Absolute Truth. The principle of neither one nor all is the cardinal truth of the Middle Way. All these Three Truths are inconceivable. As it is with one dharma it also is with all dharmas, which is Dependent Origination. This Dependent Origination is Provisional Positing in name, contemplation of the Provisional Positing. If all dharmas are one dharma, then whatever is Emptiness is also contemplation of the Emptiness. This is contemplation of the Middle Way.287 One Emptiness is all Emptinesses. There is no Provisional Positing and Middle Way, and neither Emptiness nor non-Emptiness. This is omni-contemplation of the Emptiness. One Provisional Positing is all Provisional Positing. There is no Emptiness and Middle 286 T. no. 1911, 46:55a29- 55b09. Mohe Zhiguan Vol. 5. 287 T. no. 1911, 46:55b09-b15. Mohe Zhiguan Vol. 5. 106 Way, and neither Provisional Positing nor non-Provisional Positing. This is omnicontemplation of the Provisional Positing. One Middle Way is all Middle Ways. There is no Emptiness and Provisional Positing, and neither Middle Way nor not Middle Way. This is omni-contemplation of the Middle Way. This is the inconceivable Three Insights in one thought found within the Mūlamadhyamakakārikā. 288 Zhiyi utilizes one is all and all are one very often. This is the typical Zhiyi viewpoint. The omni-contemplation of Emptiness, Provisional Positing, and Middle Way cooperate with the viewpoint of “one-is-all,” which create a unique teaching. This ‘one mind is all minds, i.e., all minds are one mind’ is the element of dynamic mind for Intrinsic Inclusiveness. Intrinsic Inclusiveness can be the cause of dynamic mind because of ‘one mind is all mind.’ The dynamic mind and Intrinsic Inclusiveness are connected. Intrinsic Inclusiveness activates the mind. The Inconceivable Realms represent the principle of ‘one, all, and neither one nor all,’ which is Emptiness, Provisional Positing, and Middle Way. Regardless, they are Conventional Truth, Absolute Truth, or Cardinal Truth of the Middle Way. They are the Inconceivable Three Truths. From the point of view of contemplation practice, they are ‘contemplation of the Provisional Positing, contemplation of the Emptiness, and contemplation of the Middle Way.’ These three kinds of contemplation do not exist separately. Even these three kinds of contemplation are empty. That is to say, from the point of view of contemplation of Emptiness, not only contemplation of the Emptiness is empty, but also contemplation of the Provisional Positing and contemplation of the Middle Way are empty. All dharmas have no nature; meanwhile, the Provisional Positing and the Middle Way have no nature, are empty. 288 T. no. 1911, 46:55b16-b19. Mohe Zhiguan Vol. 5. 107 Chen 陳英善 has her viewpoints about Zhiyi’s opinions as follows. In the viewpoint of the Provisional Positing, every dharma is Provisional Positing and dependently originated. Additionally, Emptiness and the Middle Way are Provisional Positing; and dependently originated. In the viewpoint of Middle Way, every dharma is the Middle Way; Emptiness and Provisional Positing are Middle Way. Furthermore, ‘contemplation of Emptiness, contemplation of Provisional Positing, and contemplation of Middle Way’ are empty, phenomenal, and medial, which soundly represents that each dharma is empty, phenomenal, and medial. Even Three Insights are no exception. Moreover, ‘be Empty be Phenomenal be Medial’ itself is also empty, phenomenal, and medial. This is called Three Insights in one thought. The representation of Three Insights in one thought is empty, phenomenal, and medial. This makes sentient beings not the only entities that have Emptiness, Provisional Positing, and Middle Way. Even Emptiness, Provisional Positing, and Middle Way themselves are without a self. Emptiness, Provisional Positing, and Middle Way are Dependent Origination, which are conceptual designations. Therefore, Emptiness, Provisional Positing, and Middle Way cannot be self-nature and substantiation. If one can understand all dharmas like this implication, one can realize the true meaning of ‘be Empty be Phenomenal be Medial.’ This is the true meaning of Reality. This ‘be Empty be Phenomenal be Medial’ not only represents that dharma cannot be biased, but also displays the interaction of Emptiness, Provisional Positing, and Middle Way.289 Chen catches Zhiyi’s core. This is also why Intrinsic Inclusiveness can function through Dependent Origination. Yingshan Chen 陳英善, Tiantai Yuanqi Zhongdao Shixiang Lun 天台緣起中道實相論 (Taipei: Fagu Wenhua, 1995), 42-43. 289 108 Intrinsic Inclusiveness has very close relationship with ‘be Empty be Phenomenal be Medial,’ which is the cause of the dynamic mind. The inner interaction among Emptiness, Middle Way, and be Empty be Phenomenal be Medial is demonstrated in the above paragraph. Emptiness, Middle Way, and be Empty be Phenomenal be Medial have three characteristics in common. The first characteristic is that they have a role in refuting false tenets. The second one is that these ideas display no-nature. The third one is that they represent the idea of production by causal conditions. These three characteristics represent one idea, which is Dependent Origination. Therefore, Emptiness, Middle Way, and be Empty be Phenomenal be Medial exhibit the principle that all dharmas are causes and conditions producing phenomena, which are no-self. In addition, Emptiness plays a formative role in Buddhism, which characterizes the basis of no nature. All non-Buddhist philosophical theories are based on a concept of self. Buddhism is based on no-self. The role of the Middle Way emphasizes the phenomena of causes and conditions. The Middle Way has the role of being ‘neither Emptiness nor Provisional Positing’ (this is the role of refuting) and ‘both Emptiness and Provisional Positing’ (this is the role of establishing). There is no other Middle Way that is neither Emptiness nor Provisional Positing. If one can eliminate the biases of the self-nature of Emptiness and Provisional Positing, at that moment Emptiness and Provisional Positing is Dependent-OriginationMiddle-Way-Reality 緣起中道實相. Zhiyi utilizes the Middle Way to distinguish the compassion of bodhisattvas from śrāvakas and pratyeka-buddhas’ bias toward Emptiness. He utilizes the Middle Way to express the profound meaning of Emptiness and ‘not merely empty 不但空.’ Śrāvakas and pratyeka-buddhas have a bias about Emptiness, 109 seeing Emptiness as consummate, and do not realize that one cannot attach on and attain Emptiness. Zhiyi utilizes the teaching of ‘not merely empty’ to cure the bias of Emptiness. This ‘not merely empty’ principle is the Middle Way. In order to distinguish from śrāvakas and pratyeka-buddhas’ Emptiness, this Middle Way represents the meaning of Dependent Origination. Therefore, Zhiyi’s Middle Way emphasizes ‘not merely empty’ to explain that Emptiness cannot be attained, which punctuates the spirit of bodhisattvas’ compassion to define all dharmas. This means that all dharmas are basically dependent on causes and conditions. Therefore, this Middle Way has the characteristic of Dependent Origination.290 Henceforward, it is clear that Zhiyi emplorys Dependent Origination as one of the characteristics of Emptiness. When Dependent Origination is the characteristics of Emptiness, it (Dependent Origination) also becomes the characteristics of Provisional Positing and Middle Way. It can perchance be said that this characteristics makes Zhiyi’s theory outstanding. It is the unique way of Tiantai to express the idea of reality that the reality is empty, phenomenal and medial. This ‘be Empty be Phenomenal be Medial’ not only has the function of refuting false tenets, but also has the function of revealing all dharmas. This ‘be Empty be Phenomenal be Medial’ plays another role, which is to fuse all dharmas. Emptiness, Phenomenal Positing, and ‘be Empty be Phenomenal be Medial’ express the idea of Dependent Origination. Emptiness deals with the issue of causes and conditions. In addition, Zhiyi also utilizes Emptiness to disrupt the bias of the nature of Dependent Origination. When the idea of Emptiness arises, there are two ideas: Emptiness and Dependent Origination. These also can be called Emptiness and Provisional Positing. In 290 Chen 陳英善, Tiantai Yuanqi Zhongdao Shixiang Lun 天台緣起中道實相論, 49-50. 110 order to avoid opposing position, Zhiyi explicates the Middle Way to modify the biases between Emptiness and Provisional Positing. When the idea of Middle Way arises, there are three problems with Emptiness, Provisional Positing, and Middle Way. In order to avoid the bias toward Emptiness, which treats Emptiness as nature, Zhiyi develops the conception of ‘be Empty be Phenomenal be Medial’ to deal with this issue. To connect Emptiness, Provisional Positing, and Middle Way, he employs ‘be Empty be Phenomenal be Medial’ to elude the biases of Emptiness, Provisional Positing, and Middle Way.291 Here mentioned Emptiness, Provisional Positing, Middle Way, and ‘be Empty be Phenomenal be Medial’ should be put into the context of the mind. Mind also contains the five aggregates, twelve sense fields, eighteen realms, Three Thousand Worlds, etc. Mind holds Intrinsic Inclusiveness of Three Thousand Worlds companioned with Emptiness, Provisional Positing, Middle Way, and ‘be Empty be Phenomenal be Medial,’ which causes the dynamic mind. 4.2.3. Conclusion From ‘Three Aspects of Knowledge are attained in one mind’ to Intrinsic Inclusiveness, Zhiyi operates Emptiness, Provisional Positing, Middle Way, and ‘be Empty be Phenomenal be Medial’ as the medium for the dynamic mind. This dynamic mind faces Three Thousand Worlds in every instant. At every moment, the dynamic mind is full with varied causes and conditions. Those varied causes and conditions modify one’s path in every instant. The sentient beings having the dynamic mind develop organic lives, which follow causes and conditions. The key point of the dynamic mind is Intrinsic Inclusiveness. 291 Chen 陳英善, Tiantai Yuanqi Zhongdao Shixiang Lun 天台緣起中道實相論, 51-52. 111 Zhiyi uses one mind to describe the mind possessing the quality of ignorance and Dharma-nature. He treats ignorance and Dharma-nature as equal. These two represent both ordinary sentient beings and sages. In Intrinsic Inclusiveness, to distinguish is not necessary. The object is neither the structure of the subject, nor the picture of the outside realm. The object is intrinsic. Intrinsic Inclusiveness does not mean that there are the static, unchanged, Three Thousand Worlds out there. It does not mean that sentient beings can perform magic tricks to obtain all phenomena. However, sentient beings can assess the worlds with the view of Intrinsic Inclusiveness, making it possible to enter the Ten Realms. This Intrinsic Inclusiveness equalizes the Ten Realms, which makes it possible for sentient beings to become Buddha. 4.3. Utilize the Ten Thusnesses to Discuss the Dynamic Mind 4.3.1. Introduction The Lotus Sūtra (Saddhamapuṇḍarīka Sūtra) is one of the texts popularly studied in modern research. In Sanskrit, H. Kern and Bunyiu Nanjio edited Saddhamapuṇḍarīkasūtra292 in 1912. U. Wogihara and C. Tsuchida edited Saddhamapuṇḍarīkasūtram293 in Romanized and revised text during 1934 to 1935. From Central Asia, with N. D. Mironov’s readings, Nalinaksha Dutt revised Saddhamapuṇḍarīkasūtram. 294 In Chinese, there are six translations. However, three of them are missing. Three of them remain: one is translated by Dharmaraksa 竺法護 in C.E. 292 H. Kern, and Bunyiu Nanjio 南条文雄, Saddharmapuṇḍarīka (Osnabrück: Biblio Verlag, 1970). 293 U. Wogihara and C. Tsuchida ed., Saddhamapuṇḍarīkasūtram (Tokyo: Bibliotheca Buddhica Publication, 1934-1935). 294 Revised by Nalinaksha Dutt, Saddhamapuṇḍarīkasūtram, Bibliotheca Indica, no. 276. (Calcutta, 19521953). 112 286, totaling 10 volumes; the one is translated by Kumārajīva295 in C.E. 406, totaling seven volumes; and the one is translated by Jñānagupta 闍那崛多296and Dharmagupta 達摩笈多297 in C.E. 601 totaling seven volumes.298 In C.E. 1852, Eugène Burnouf produced a French translation.299 In C.E. 1909, H. Kern translated it into English.300 Saddhamapuṇḍarīka Sūtra was also translated into English by H. Kern,301 Senchu Murano,302 Bunno Kato, Yoshiro Tamura 田村芳朗, and Kojiro Miyasaka (with revisions by W. E. Soothill, Wilhelm Schiffer, and Pier P. Del Campana), 303 Leon Hurvitz,304 W.E. Soothill,305 Burton Watson,306 Tsugunari Kubo and Akira Yuyama,307 R.M. Capozzi,308 Gene Reeves, 309 etc. 295 Kumārajīva lived from C.E. 344 to 413, or 350 to 409. 296 Jñānagupta lived from C.E. 523 to 600. 297 Dharmagupta lived from C.E. ? to 619. 298 Shioda 塩田義遜, Hokke Kyōgakushi no Kenkyū 法華敎学史の研究, 92-93. Eugène Burnouf, Le Lotus de la Bonne Loi. Traduit du sanscrit, accompagné ďun commentaire et de vingt et un mémoires relatifs au Buddhisme. Paris, 1852. Nouv. ed., Paris, 1925. 2V. Bibliothèque orientale, Tom. 9,10. 299 300 H. Kern, trans., The Saddhamapuṇḍarīkasūtra (Oxford: University of Oxford, 1909). 301 H. Kern, trans., Saddharma-Puṇḍarika or the Lotus of the True Law (London: Clarendon Press, 1884; New York: Dover Publications, 1963). 302 Murano Senchu trans., The Sutra of the Lotus Flower of the Wonderful Law (Tokyo: Nichiren Shu Headquarters, 1974). 303 Bunno Kato, Yoshiro Tamura, and Kojiro Miyasaka trans., The Threefold Lotus Sutra (New York: Weatherhill, 1975). 304 Leon Hurvitz, trans., Scripture of the Lotus Blossom of the Fine Dharma (New York: Columbia University Press, 1976). 305 W.E. Soothill, trans., The Lotus of the Wonderful Law, or, The Lotus Gospel = Saddharma Pundarika Sutra = Miao-fa Lienhua Ching (London: Curzon Press; Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press International, 1987). 306 Burton Watson, trans., The Lotus Sutra (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993). 113 There is very serious philological inquiry into the Lotus Sūtra. In Sanskrit, there is no Ten Thusnesses in Saddhamapuṇḍarīka Sūtra. The original text is as follows: bhavatu paramāścaryaprāptāḥ śāriputra tathāgatā arhantaḥ samyaksaṃbuddhāḥ, tathāgata eva śāriputra tathāgatasya dharmaṃ deśayed yān dharmāṃs tathāgato jānāti, sarvadharmān api śāriputra tathāgata eva deśayati, sarvadharmān api tathāgata eva jānāti, ye ca te dharmā yathā ca te dharmā yādṛśāś ca te dharmā yal lakṣaṇāś ca te dharmā yat svabhāvāś ca te dharmāḥ, ye ca yathā ca yādṛśāś ca yal lakṣaṇāś ca yat svabhāvāś ca te dharmā iti, teṣu dharmeṣu tathāgata eva pratyakṣo’parokṣaḥ This textual excerpt emphasizes Buddha’s wisdom. Buddhas can realize the Reality of all dharma. As to the Reality, there is no specification; only lakṣaṇa (characteristic) and svabhāva (Dharma Body) are mentioned. These two words (lakṣaṇa and svabhāva) cannot prove anything.310 However, Kumārajīva’s translation of Saddhamapuṇḍarīka Sūtra has the Ten Thusnesses. Zhiyi adopts his translation to advocate the Tiantai theory. The Ten Thusnesses are thus and so appearance 如是相, thus and so nature 如是性, thus and so entity 如是體, thus and so power 如是力, thus and so activity 如是作, thus and so main cause 如是因, thus and so secondary conditions 如是緣, thus and so effect 如是果, thus and so retribution 如是報, and thus and so consistency from beginning to end 如是 307 Tsugunari Kubo and Akira Yuyama, trans., The Lotus Sutra: The White Lotus of the Marvelous Law (Tokyo and Berkeley: Bukkyō Dendō Kyōkai and Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research, 1993). 308 R.M. Capozzi trans., The Buddha within Ourselves: Blossoms of the Lotus Sutra (Lanham: University Press of America, 2002). 309 Gene Reeves trans., The Lotus Sutra: a Contemporary Translation of a Buddhist Classic (Boston: Wisdom Publications, 2008). Rujun Wu 吳汝鈞, Fahua Xuanyi de Zhexue yu Gangling 法華玄義的哲學與綱領 (The Philosophy and Creeds of Fahua Xuanyi) (Taipei: Wen Jin Chu Ban She, 2002), 240. 310 114 本末究竟.311 In the Dazhidu Lun (Mahāprajñāpāramitā-śāstra 大智度論) Vol. 32, every dharma has nine characteristics: first is entity, second is dharma, third is power, fourth is cause, fifth is condition, sixth is effect, seventh is nature, eighth is boundary, and ninth is to disclose and understand expediency.312 Comparing these two, similarity can be found. The ‘dharma’ in the Dazhidu Lun is similar to ‘Thus and so activity’ in Saddhamapuṇḍarīka Sūtra. The ‘boundary’ in the Dazhidu Lun is similar to ‘Thus and so appearance’ in Saddhamapuṇḍarīka Sūtra. The ‘effect’ in the Dazhidu Lun is similar to ‘Thus and so effect, and Thus and so retribution’ in Saddhamapuṇḍarīka Sūtra. The ‘to disclose and understand expediency’ in the Dazhidu Lun is similar to ‘Thus and so consistency from beginning to end’ in Saddhamapuṇḍarīka Sūtra.313 The Dazhidu Lun (Mahāprajñāpāramitā-śāstra) is the commentary of Mahāprajñāpāramitā-sūtra. In Mahā-prajñāpāramitā-sūtra, appearance, nature, entity, power, activity, main cause, conditions, effect, retribution, and consistency from beginning to end are discussed. This can be treated as evidence that Zhiyi utilizes the Lotus Sūtra as his framework, the Dazhidu Lun as a guide, Nirvāṇa Sūtras (The Mahā-parinirvāṇa Sūtras 大般涅槃經) as assistance, and Mahā-prajñāpāramitā-sūtra as the way of meditation.314 In this section, the relation between the dynamic mind and the Ten Thusnesses will be discussed. 311 Ziporyn, Evil and/or/as the good: Omnicentrism, Intersubjectivity and Value Paradox in Tiantai Buddhist Thought, 137. 312 T. no. 1509, 25:298c7-14. Dazhidu Lun (Mahāprajñāpāramitā-śāstra 大智度論) Vol. 32. Sasaki 佐々木憲德, Tendai Kyōgaku 天台敎學, 174. This comes from T. no. 1718, 34: 42c12-22. Fahua Wenju Vol. 2. 313 Shigeo Kamata 鎌田茂雄, Tiantai Sixiang Rumen 天台思想入門, trans. Zhuanyu 轉瑜, (Gaoxriong Xian: Fo Guang Zhu Ban She, 1999), 31. 314 115 4.3.2. Utilize the Ten Thusnesses to Discuss the Dynamic Mind Zhiyi contends that ‘marvelous dharmas’ means that the dharmas are inconceivable. These dharmas refer to the Ten Realms and Ten Thusnesses, which are expedient and the true dharmas.315 Therefore, the dharmas of the Ten Realms and Ten Thusnesses are inconceivable. Furthermore, these dharmas are without duality or distinction 無二無別. The dharmas are like the lotus flower: the original is the traces, and the traces are the original. It is neither the original nor traces.316 These expedient-true and original-traces issues are quite important in Zhiyi’s Tiantai system. In Zhiyi’s system, there are principles. Beside the principles, there are somehow situations breaking the principles. These are the methods of Zhiyi to avoid the duality. In one hand, Zhiyi set up rules, and then he broke it. In the other hand, he builds the paths to let theories mutually contained. In this section, Ten Thusnesses will be discussed in three levels. Moreover, they relate to the Ten Realms. Furthermore, they coordinate with Emptiness, Provisional Positing, and Middle Way. In addition, they are systemized by Dependent Origination. Additionally, it will discuss the relationship between Ten Thusnesses and Four Noble Truths. In these complicated situations, it demonstrates how Ten Thusnesses enrich the mind into dynamic. One asks if the other siddhāntas are the same as the highest siddhānta. Zhiyi deems that there is no hindrance among the highest siddhānta and the other three siddhāntas. The other three siddhāntas are no hindrance to the highest siddhānta. The highest 315 T. no. 1716, 33: 681a26-27. Fahua Xuanyi Vol. 1. 316 T. no. 1716, 33: 681c16-19. Fahua Xuanyi Vol. 1. 116 siddhānta does not obstruct the other three siddhāntas. The other three siddhāntas do not obstruct the highest siddhānta. Worldly Truth 世界悉檀 is marvelous, which is the essential nature and characteristic of nine realms and Ten Thusnesses. These nine realms and Ten Thusnesses are the same essential nature and characteristic of the Buddha realm, which adopts all names. This is why in the Lotus Sūtra according to the nature to say father-and-son. Furthermore, “to name you are my son. In addition, I am really your father, and you are really my son.” If one says the highest siddhānta is marvelous, it is because the meaning of the Lotus Sūtra is marvelous, which means that the meaning of the Lotus Sūtra reveals the penetrating influence of the Buddha’s knowledge 開佛知見 and Absolute Truth.317 In Fahua Xuanyi Vol. 2, Zhiyi estimates that all dharmas in all worlds are only made by one mind. Otherwise, if there are two dharmas to contain all dharmas, it is called name and form. Thus, even if one increases this to three dharmas, four dharmas… 100 dharmas…1,000 dharmas…etc. it is all explained as dharma. In the Lotus Sūtra, this is demonstrated by referring to the 10 dharmas as explanation of all dharmas. That is thus and so appearance 如是相, thus and so nature 如是性, thus and so entity 如是體, thus and so power 如是力, thus and so activity 如是作, thus and so main cause 如是因, thus and so secondary conditions 如是緣, thus and so effect 如是果, and thus and so retribution 如是報. Huisi (the Nanyue master 南岳師) read this context and called it Ten Thusnesses. Tiantai master ruminates that there are three levels of meaning. The first level is ‘this appearance is thus 是相如, this nature is thus 是性如, this entity is thus 是體 317 T. no. 1716, 33: 690b24- c04. Fahua Xuanyi Vol. 1. 117 如, this power is thus 是力如, this activity is thus 是作如, this main cause is thus 是因如, this secondary conditions is thus 是緣如, this effect is thus 是果如, and this retribution is thus 是報如.’ The second level is ‘thus and so appearance 如是相, thus and so nature 如是性, thus and so entity 如是體, thus and so power 如是力, thus and so activity 如是作, thus and so main cause 如是因, thus and so secondary conditions 如是緣, thus and so effect 如是果, and thus and so retribution 如是報.’ The third level is ‘appearance and thusness are it 相如是, nature and thusness are it 性如是, entity and thusness are it 體如是, power and thusness are it 力如是, activity and thusness are it 作如是, main cause and thusness are it 因如是, secondary conditions and thusness are it 緣如是, effect and thusness are it 果如是, and retribution and thusness are it 報如是.’318 The first level is Emptiness. The second level is Provisional Positing. The third level is Middle Way. When Emptiness, Provisional Positing, and Middle Way are mentioned it means Emptiness is Provisional Positing and Middle Way. One Emptiness is All Emptiness. One Provisional Positing is All Provisional Positing. One Middle Way is All Middle Way. This refers to the idea that non-one is one, non-two is two, and non-three is three. This Reality is only Buddha and Buddha can understand which utilizes the Ten Thusnesses to contain all dharmas.319 Kōshirō Tamaki 玉城康四郎 argues that Zhiyi utilized Ten Thusnesses, Emptiness, Provisional Positing, and Middle Way to dispute the Dharma subjectively. Ten Thusnesses cooperate with Emptiness, Provisional Positing, and Middle Way to 318 T. no. 1716, 33: 693b06-24. Fahua Xuanyi Vol. 2. 319 T. no. 1716, 33: 693b06-24. Fahua Xuanyi Vol. 2. 118 demonstrate the objective of Reality. Mind is subjective. Dharma is objective. However, Zhiyi unites Mind and Dharma in Reality, which is through ‘mutual containment of the Ten Realms 十界互具,’ ‘the Three Thousand World in an instant of thought 一念三千,’ and ‘Perfect Interpenetration of the Three Truths 三諦圓融.’320 In the opinion of modern scholar Ishizu’s 石津照璽, these three levels of Ten Thusnesses demonstrate Reality, which contains the meaning of Perfect Interpenetration of the Three Truths 圓融三諦. In addition, where there are causes, conditions, and Intrinsic Inclusiveness, there is Reality. Reality is related to the subject. When the subject faces causes and conditions, there is the situation of Ten Thusnesses, which exist in the whole Dharma-realm (Dharmadhātu). Ishizu 石津照璽 argues that the Ten Thusnesses are in the objective existence of whole universe, which means in the dharmadhātu but not mind.321 However, Zhiyi is on another page,322 which has already been discussed in Chapter 3, Chapter 4 and Chapter 5 section one. In addition, some opinions of Zhiyi will be discussed in Chapter 5 and Chapter 6. Chen’s 陳英善 Tiantai Yuanqi Zhongdao Shixiang Lun 天台緣起中道實相論 claims that modern scholars, such as Tamaki 玉城康四郎, Ishizu 石津照璽, Tamura 田 Kōshirō Tamaki 玉城康四郎, Around the Tendai Reality Theory –Deployment of Mind Grasp 心把握の展開–天台実相論を中心として (Tokyo: Yamaki tassel, 1989), 187; 369-371. 320 Ishizu 石津照璽, Tendai Jissōron no Kenkyū: Sonzai no Kyokusō o Motomete 天台実相論の研究: 存在の極相を索めて, 180-182. 321 322 Zhiyi has different opinions. 119 村芳朗, etc., utilize subjectivity to understand Tiantai thought. But they (Tamaki etc.) approach subjectivity through the philosophy of Existentialism. 323 Zhiyi asserts that the Ten Thusnesses are related to the Ten Realms. These Ten Thusnesses operate in coordination with Emptiness, Provisional Positing, and Middle Way. In Guangzhai Fayun’s 光宅法雲 (C.E. 467-529) opinion, he thinks that the first five Thusnesses are Expedient Wisdom 權智 and the following four Thusnesses are Absolute Wisdom 實智. The tenth Thusness is the coordination of Expedient Wisdom and Absolute Wisdom. However, in Zhiyi’s opinion, the Ten Realms are mutually included in one another. Among them, each of them has Ten Thusnesses. It means that there are a Hundred Realms and a Thousand Thusnesses. Each of them is expedient and absolute.324 This is totally different from the thought of Guangzhai Fayun. In Fahua Xuanyi Vol. two, Zhiyi explains that the dharma of sentient beings is inconceivable. It is expedient and true. Its truth does not obstruct the expediency. The expediency does not obstruct the truth. If one’s wisdom is like Buddha’s, one can evaluate sentient beings. Why? It is because the dharma of the sentient beings is very inconceivable. The Ten Thusnesses are the Dharma. First of all, it will be explained in general. Then, it will be explained in detail.325 First of all, appearance is shown on the outside, which can be distinguished. Nature is in the inside, which cannot be changed. The main substance is entity. The function is 323 Chen 陳英善, Tiantai Yuanqi Zhongdao Shixiang Lun 天台緣起中道實相論, 498-499. Enichi Ōchō 横超慧日 et al., Fahua Sixiang zhi Yanjiu 法華思想之研究, trans. Yinhai Shi 釋印海 (Rosemead, CA: Fayin Si Wenjiao Zhongxin, 2010), 70-86. 324 325 T. no. 1716, 33: 694a06-10. Fahua Xuanyi Vol. 2. 120 power. The structure is activity. Habit 習因 is the main cause. The one helping the cause is called secondary condition. The influence that are straight stated from their causes 習果 are effects. The fruits of retribution 報果 are retribution. The first feature is the beginning. The subsequent retribution is the end. The conclusion is the consistency.326 This is the definition of Ten Thusnesses given by Zhiyi. In Mohe Zhiguan 摩訶止觀 Vol. 5327, Zhiyi provides a very similar discussion. Zhiyi explains the dynamic mind throuogh Ten Thusnesses in a very clear way. The inner, outer, causal and continuous meanings of mind. Zhiyi treats the Ten Thusnesses as the basis of mind. If one can realize the basis, which is very similar to the root of a tree; oen can realize the mind securely. Zhiyi continues to explain Ten Thusnesses by the Ten Realms as follows. The first four realms are beings in hell, hungry ghosts, animals, and asuras. The second two realms are deva (or heaven) beings and human beings. The third two realms are śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas. The highest two realms are bodhisattvas and Buddhas. ‘Thus and so appearance’ is in the inferior class, which means one falls into the realms that are not as one wishes. For example, when one has been lucky, there is some hint that (luck) exists. The fortuneteller can distinguish the differences. If the sign of the inferior realm is revealed, it means that hell is waiting for that person. Ordinary sentient beings cannot understand this, but śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas can identify some degree of this. Though bodhisattvas may discern this, they still cannot distinguish as much as Buddhas. Like the fortuneteller distinguishing from the beginning to the end, it is called ‘thus and 326 T. no. 1716, 33: 694a10-18. Fahua Xuanyi Vol. 2. 327 T. no. 1911, 46: 53b04-c16. 121 so appearance.’ ‘Thus and so nature’ is evil. This evil that has already been made is called zifen 自分.328 It is very difficult to change since the evil has been practiced. It is like when wood meets fire. The wood must be ignited, which is an instance of the main cause meeting the conditions, bringing about the result.329 Zhiyi mentions that in Nirvāṇa Sūtras (The Mahā-parinirvāṇa Sūtras 大般涅槃經330) the contaminated phenomena have the nature of birth, which can give birth. The four inferior realms encounter the conditions which achieve the four inferior realms. For example, the mud or wooden statue has features, but is without the nature of birth. Therefore, it cannot give birth. Evil nature is not like a mud or wooden statue, so it is called ‘thus and so nature.’331 Zhiyi identifies the Ten Realms as four levels. In addition, he utilizes fortuneteller as example to explain that these four levels are different. Besides, he explain what is zifen. Into the bargain, he operates a mud or wooden statue to clarify what is ‘thus and so nature.’ Zhiyi continues to explain the rest of the Ten Thusnesses in the four inferior realms as follows. As to ‘thus and so entity,’ one goes this way if one wants to destroy the rough and evil mind-and-body. One should in this lifetime destroy the rough and evil mind. Then in the following lifetime one should destroy the rough and evil body. In addition, in this lifetime, the flower recompense332 should destroy the mind-and-body. The future 328 成就因者為自分，趣入果者為勝進分。 329 T. no. 1716, 33: 694a19-26. Fahua Xuanyi Vol. 2. 330 T. no. 374, 12: 490c11-14. Nirvāṇa Sūtras (The Mahā-parinirvāṇa Sūtras 大般涅槃經 Vol. 21.) 331 T. no. 1716, 33: 694a26-b01. Fahua Xuanyi Vol. 2. 332 Flower recompense 華報. 122 retribution should also destroy the mind-and-body, where the destruction of mind-andbody is the entity. ‘Thus and so power’ is an evil function. In Nirvāṇa Sūtras (The Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtras), if one wants to build a house one will utilize the wood and abandon filament. If one wants to make a cloth, one will utilize filament and abandon wood. There is the hill of swords333 and knives.334 The hungry ghost has the function of swallowing copper and eating iron. Animals have the function of the strong bullying the weak. Moreover, fish bite one another. Horses, mules, donkeys, etc. have to carry goods. All these are the evil functions. In Nirvāṇa Sūtras, evil persons practice evil in the world, and can only be called ‘half persons.’ Evil practices have hell functions. ‘Thus and so main cause’ arouses evil and defiles karma. The causes produce each other. Habits are unceasing. If an evil habit has been cultivated, one wants to do something evil easily. Therefore, it is called ‘thus and so main cause.’ ‘Thus and so secondary conditions’ are the conditions that can help habit karma 習業, which is like water contributing to the growth of seeds. The cause of retribution 報因335 becomes the condition. ‘Thus and so effect’ is an effect that is directly conditioned by their causes 習果. This is like a heavy desire within a sentient being who will finally go to hell. In hell, if the sentient being sees the means of suffering, he/she will think those are desired objects. This is called ‘influence that are straight stated from their causes.’ ‘Thus and so retribution’ is fruits of retribution 報果. This is like a heavy desire within a sentient being in hell that approaches the desired objects and then grieves in the suffering from copper pillars and an iron bed. 333 Asipattra. 劍樹地獄. 334 The hill of knives 刀山 in one of the hells. 335 The rewarding cause, or fruit-ripening cause 報因 or 果熟因. 123 Therefore, it is called ‘thus and so retribution.’ As to ‘thus and so consistency from beginning to end,’ there are three comparisons. The beginning is empty; also the end is empty. This is the first comparison. If there is the beginning and without the end, it is provisional. If there is the end without the beginning, it is provisional. This is the second comparison. The Middle Way, Reality, Noumenon, and Mind are not different from Buddha-fruition. Even a simple color or smell does not be dearth the Middle Way. Therefore, ‘thus and so consistency from beginning to end’ contains Emptiness, Provisional Positing, and the Middle Way.336 Zhiyi argues how Ten Thusnesses function above. From all dharmas to mind, the Ten Thusnesses play a significant role. Furthermore, Ten Thusnesses and Three Truths (Emptiness, Provisional Positing, and Middle Way) play the role of a meridian and parallel line, which structures the dynamic mind. In Andō Toshio’s 安藤俊雄 Tendaigaku: Konpon Shisō to sono Tenkai 天台学: 根本思想とその展開, he argues that in Zhiyi’s theory there are thousands of Thusnesses in the mind, and that Zhiyi’s theory is not a form of idealism. Zhiyi’s Intrinsic Inclusiveness theory competes with the doctrinal ancestry of the School of the Treatise on the Bhūmis’s 地論學派 idealism, and the doctrinal lineage of the School of the Mahāyāna-saṃgraha’s 攝論學派 Consciousness-Only. The masters of the Ten Stages School 地論師 advocate idealism or dharmata (法性心). The masters of the Mahāyāna-saṃgraha 攝大乘論 advocate that ālayavijñāna is the origin of all dharmas.337 336 T. no. 1716, 33: 694b01-27. Fahua Xuanyi Vol. 2. 337 Andō, Tendaigaku: Konpon Shisō to sono Tenkai, 137-138. 124 Andō gives his general opinion about the theories of Tiantai Zhiyi, the masters of the Dilun and Shelun. He points out the important contribution for each of them. In the following, Zhiyi demonstrates the deeper and more complicated meaning of Ten Thusnesses. In Fahua Xuanyi Vol. 3, Zhiyi systematizes the twelve limbs of Dependent Origination and the Ten Thusnesses as follows. Avidyā (ignorance, or unenlightenment) 無明 cooperates ‘thus and so nature.’ Saṃskāra (action, activity, conception 行) cooperates ‘thus and so appearance.’ Consciousness, Name-and-Form, the Six Sense Organs, Contact, and Feeling cooperates with ‘thus and so entity.’ Craving cooperates with ‘thus and so secondary conditions.’ Grasping cooperates with ‘thus and so power’ and ‘thus and so activity.’ Existing cooperates with ‘thus and so main cause.’ Birth, old age, and death cooperates with ‘thus and so effect’ and ‘thus and so retribution.’338 Zhiyi proficiently utilizes the doctrines of Dependent Origination and Ten Thusnesses, which activates Ten Thusnesses. He also activates the mind indirectly. He analyses Ten Thusnesses reasonably which allows the mind to have been better understood. Zhiyi demonstrates that the six (inferior) realms can transfer into the sagely (upper) four realms. In Fahua Xuanyi Vol. 3, Zhiyi claims that there are two ways of conceiving of the twelve limbs of Dependent Origination, which matches the six realms’ Ten Thusnesses. The inconceivable twelve limbs of Dependent Origination can match the four sages’ Ten Thusnesses. Ignorance transfers into enlightenment. Enlightenment is awareness-cause 了因, which is the sage’s ‘thus and so nature.’ The unwholesome 338 T. no. 1716, 33: 705b25-29. Fahua Xuanyi Vol. 3. 125 activities transfer into wholesome behavior. The wholesome behavior is a contributory cause 緣因, which is the sage’s ‘thus and so appearance.’ Consciousness, name and form, etc., on the path of suffering transfer into dharmakāya 法身, which becomes the sage’s ‘thus and so entity.’ Desire and Grasping transfer into the sage’s mind of enlightenment. This mind of enlightenment is the sage’s ‘thus and so power.’ Existing transfers into bodhisattvas’ practices of the six pāramitās, which is the sage’s ‘thus and so activity’ and ‘thus and so main cause.’ Old age and death transfers into the sage’s ‘thus and so secondary conditions,’ which is the eternally abiding Dharma-nature. This eternally abiding Dharma-nature is the sage’s ‘thus and so effect’ and ‘thus and so retribution.’ 339 Zhiyi provides a very clear path from the lower realms to go to higher realms. Compare this paragraph to the paragraph about the twelve limbs of Dependent Origination and the Ten Thusnesses (In Fahua Xuanyi Vol. 3) above, it is much clearer about how the lower and higher realms function. Zhiyi discusses the relationship between the Four Noble Truths and the Ten Thusnesses. Truth of the arising of suffering340 is ‘thus and so appearance, thus and so nature, thus and so power, thus and so activity, thus and so main cause, and thus and so secondary conditions,’ which goes beyond the three realms. The truth of suffering341 is ‘thus and so entity, thus and so effect, and thus and so retribution,’ which goes beyond the three realms. Innumerable and intentionlessness are two kinds of truths about extinguishing suffering and re-embodiment and the method to such extermination, which 339 T. no. 1716, 33: 705c07-17. Fahua Xuanyi Vol. 3. 340 samudaya 集諦. 341 duḥkaha-ārya-satyam 苦諦 (苦聖諦). 126 is the Ten Thusnesses of the doctrine of the Way bringing about the extermination of the passion342 of śrāvakas’, pratyekabuddhas’, bodhisattvas’, and Buddhas’ nirvāṇa that goes beyond the three realms. The doctrine of the Way bringing about the extermination of fervor is nirvāṇa ‘thus and so appearance, thus and so nature, thus and so power, thus and so activity, thus and so main cause, and thus and so secondary conditions.’ Therefore, this is the wisdom of liberation. The Noble Truth of the termination of pain is nirvāṇa, ‘thus and so entity, thus and so effect, and thus and so retribution,’ which constructs eternality of the dharmakāya. Therefore, Zhiyi utilizes the Ten Thusnesses and Four Noble Truths to spawn the dynamic situation of the mind. From the hell status to Buddha status, the dynamic analysis energetically fills all kinds of possibilities. Kato Tsutomu argues that in Fajie Cidi Chumen, Zhiyi discusses two kinds of Four Noble Truths. In Sandabu (Fahua Xuanyi, Fahua Wenju, Mohe Zhiguan), Zhiyi discusses four kinds of Four Noble Truths. Four kinds of Four Noble Truths and four kinds of the twelve limbs of Dependent Origination are the same. These four kinds of Four Noble Truths are the key points of Four Teaching, which is related to panjiao.343 Zhiyi disputes that the four kinds of Four Noble Truths and four kinds of the twelve limbs of Dependent Origination constitute two kinds of conceivable twelve limbs of Dependent Origination and two kinds of inconceivable twelve limbs of Dependent Origination.344 The 342 Mārga 道諦. Tsutomu Kato 加藤勉 et al., Study of Tendai Teaching 天台教学の研究 (Tada Koryu Teacher Celebration of Longevity Memorial 多田厚隆先生頌壽記念) (Tokyo: Yamaki Bohotoke Shorin, 1991), 206-209. 343 344 T. no. 1716, 33: 706a07-12. Fahua Xuanyi Vol. 3. 127 conceivable twelve limbs of Dependent Origination suits the six realms’ Ten Thusnesses. The inconceivable twelve limbs of Dependent Origination suits the four sages’ (śrāvakas, pratyekabuddhas, bodhisattvas, and Buddhas) Ten Thusnesses.345 Zhiyi continues to discern the relationship among the Ten Thusnesses and six realms, śrāvakas, pratyekabuddhas, bodhisattvas, and Buddhas. He argues that mundane wisdom illuminates the six realms’ Ten Thusnesses. From Five Objects of Meditation 五停心 to the ‘Universality of Substance and the Unreality of Dharmas or Phenomena 體法,’ there are Seven Wisdoms to illuminate śrāvakas’ and pratyekabuddhas’ Ten Thusnesses. Bodhisattvas of Six Pāramitās the Shared Teaching, seek bodhisattvas’ Ten Thusnesses above, and save below by six realms Ten Thusnesses. Forty levels of mind also seek what is above and save those that are below. They seek bodhisattvas’ Ten Thusnesses above and saving from below by the six realms of the Ten Thusnesses. Ten stages of wisdom seek what is above and save those that are below. In sequential order, it is the bodhisattvas’ Ten Thusnesses. Out of order, it is Buddhas’ Ten Thusnesses. From the five classes to the four forms of knowledge of a Buddha, the Ten Thusnesses of Buddha realm should be followed. Twenty kinds of wisdom include the four kinds of the twelve limbs of Dependent Origination.346 Consequently, Zhiyi dissects the relationship between mind and the Ten Thusnesses, and he finds that the Ten Thusnesses are one of the causes of dynamic mind, which enriches the dimensions of mind from the surface into the interior. 345 346 Ōchō et al., Fahua Sixiang zhi Yanjiu, 89. T. no. 1716, 33: 709b03-11. Fahua Xuanyi Vol. 3. 128 Zhiyi continues to scrutinize the Ten Thusnesses in Fahua Xuanyi Vol. 7. He surmises that in Kuśala-mūla-samragraha Sūtra 華首 (手) 經 mentions that all merits are in the early mind. This meaning is like the lotus roots in the mud, and the flowers blooming in the air. This is like the Bodhi-mMind arising from ignorance in sentient beings, and using the bodhisattvas’ practice to attain enlightenment, far away from the cycles of birth-and-death. This is like the lotus in which there is simultaneously a flower and the seeds of the lotus. Therefore, in the sūtra Buddhists practice Buddhism which guarantees that Buddhists become future Buddhas. The lotus is filled with lotus seeds. This is called the lotus seeds’ ‘thus and so retribution.’ Bodhisattvas get the great fruitretribution of perfect completion. The consequences that are straight conditioned from their causes follow the fruits of retribution. The lotus roots are in the mud under the water, the lotus flower in the air, and the lotus seeds are in the lotus flower, which is called the lotus seeds’ ‘thus and so consistency from beginning to end.’ Sentient beings are the same. They have the nature of the four nirvāṇa virtues and are called the Tathāgatagarbha. When sentient beings have performed the four nirvāṇa virtues completely, they are then called dharmakāya. The virtues possessed by nature are permanence (or eternity), joy, personality, and purity. This is called the ‘thus and so consistency from beginning to end’ of the Buddha-realm. This uses the lotus as a metaphor for the Ten Thusnesses.347 Hence, the paragraph above explain why Buddhists like to utilize the lotus flowers as a metaphor. Meanwhile, this metaphor has the symbolic meaning about Ten Thusnesses explaining above. In the paragraph above, perchance it could be said as 347 T. no. 1716, 33: 773c06-774a05. Fahua Xuanyi Vol. 7. 129 significant that the opinion of the causes and results exist simultaneously, which influences Zhiyi’s teaching. The thought above will be developed and completed in Chapters 6, 7, and 8. This is the serial thought of Zhiyi about practice within Buddhism, which guarantees that Buddhists become future Buddhas. This leads to how Zhiyi thinks about Buddhānusmṛti (mindfulness of Buddha), giving the whole picture of Zhiyi’s Buddhānusmṛti. 4.3.3. Conclusion In this section, Ten Thusnesses are discussed in three levels; related to the Ten Realms; coordinated with Emptiness, Provisional Positing, and Middle Way; systemized by Dependent Origination; and in the relationship between Four Noble Truths. Not only the above, but also Zhiyi considers that the former nine of the Ten Thusnesses are particular and the tenth is general. The particular contains the general. The general covers the particular. The general is the particular. The Ten Thusnesses mutually include one another. These complex situations of Ten Thusnesses accomplish dynamic mind. 4.4. Conclusion This chapter has discussed Intrinsic Inclusiveness and the Ten Thusnesses as the cause of the dynamic Mind. Zhiyi develops the idea of mutual containment of the Ten Realms, Hundred Realms, and Thousand Realms, which progresses further into one thought embracing the Three Thousand Worlds. This is that mind mutually contains the Three Thousand Worlds, which is called Intrinsic Inclusiveness. Therefore, one dharma can possibly embrace all dharmas. Zhiyi claims that one can meditate on Ten Realms’ sentient beings. Each realm has 10 kinds of appearances, nature, entity, power, activity, 130 cause, condition, effect, retribution, and consistency from beginning to end. Then all kinds of appearances, nature, etc. can be embraced in one mind, which is the motive of the dynamic mind. Even if sentient beings are in hells, they still have Buddha-nature. Zhiyi explains that if one can understand that one mind is all minds, all minds are one mind, one aggregate is all aggregates, all aggregates are one aggregate; and then one can understand ‘be Empty be Phenomenal be Medial’ itself is also empty, phenomenal, and medial. This is the so called ‘Three Insights in One Thought.’ The representation of ‘Three Insights in One Thought’ is empty, phenomenal, and medial, which themselves are not-self. From Intrinsic Inclusiveness, it has been to deduce to ‘be Empty be Phenomenal be Medial,’ which is the cause of dynamic mind. It will be demonstrated through inner interaction among Emptiness, Middle Way, and ‘be Empty be Phenomenal be Medial.’ The role of Middle Way plays the role of Neither Emptiness, Provisional Positing nor ‘both Emptiness and Provisional Positing.’ It is Tiantai’s very unique way to express the idea of Reality through the idea, ‘Be Empty, Be Phenomenal, and Be Medial.’ This idea functions to reveal all dharmas. Zhiyi operates Middle Way to modify the biases between Emptiness and Provisional Positing. In order to avoid the bias of Middle Way, which treats the Middle Way as nature, Zhiyi develops the idea of ‘Be Empty, Be Phenomenal, Be Medial.’ This mind runs in the situation of Three Thousand Worlds Intrinsically Inclusiveness companioned with Emptiness, Provisional Positing, Middle Way, and ‘Be Empty, Be Phenomenal, Be Medial,’ which cause the dynamic mind. Thus, this Intrinsic Inclusiveness equalizes the Ten Realms, which allow sentient beings to become Buddha. 131 In the second section, Zhiyi confers that Ten Thusnesses to contain all dharma. The nine realms and Ten Thusnesses have the same essential nature and characteristic as the Buddha-realm, which adopts all names. Ten Thusnesses contain all dharma. In Zhiyi’s opinion, the Ten Realms, Ten Thusnesses, Hundred Realms, and Thousand Thusnesses are mutually inclusive. Each of them has their expedient and absolute. This is totally different from Guangzhai Fayun’s opinion. In Chen’s 陳英善 Tiantai Yuanqi Zhongdao Shixiang Lun 天台緣起中道實相論, she claims that modern scholars such as Tamaki 玉城康四郎, Ishizu 石津照璽, Tamura 田村芳朗, etc. utilize subjectivity to understand Tiantai thought. Modern scholars (Tamaki 玉城康四郎 etc.) tend to approach it through the subject of existentialism. Ten Thusnesses is the dharma. First of all, appearance is shown outside, which can be distinguished. Nature is the unchangeable inside. According to the mind, the Ten Thusnesses play a significant role. Furthermore, Ten Thusnesses and Three Truths work together to play the role like a meridian line and parallel line which structure the dynamic mind. Zhiyi utilizes Ten Thusnesses, Four Noble Truths, two kinds of conceivable twelve limbs of Dependent Origination, and two kinds of inconceivable twelve limbs of Dependent Origination to spawn the dynamic situation of the mind; which enrich the dimensions of mind from the surface to the interior. From hell status to Buddha status, the dynamic analysis energetically fills all kinds of possibilities. Zhiyi considers that the first nine of the Ten Thusnesses are particular and the 10th is general. The particular contains the general. The general covers the particular. The general is totally the particular. Ten Thusness mutually include each other, no matter in 132 Emptiness, Provisional Positing, or Middle Way. Ten Thusnesses mutually include Ten Realms, Hundred Realms, and Thousand Realms. In summary, Intrinsic Inclusiveness and Ten Thusnesses enrich the mind dynamically. From different angles to deliberate that the complicated circumstances can be, Intrinsic Inclusiveness and Ten Thusnesses motivate the dynamic mind. The dynamic mind develops sentient beings’ possibilities. In these possibilities, it can enhance sentient beings most as to Buddha. In the next chapter, Zhiyi’s opinions about Buddha-nature and the mind is good or evil will be discussed. His opinions will be explored in a deeper level to open to the core of his thoughts of mind. 133 CHAPTER FIVE What are the Natures of Zhiyi’s Opinions about Dynamic Mind? 5.1. Introduction In Chapter five I discuss Zhiyi’s view of the mind. What are the natures of the dynamic mind? In this chapter, I utilize two sections to demonstrate Zhiyi’s profound concept of the nature of the dynamic mind. The first section is viewed as the Threefold Buddha-nature. Zhiyi discusses “Buddha-nature as Proper or Objective Cause,” “Buddhanature as Revealing Cause,” and “Buddha-nature as Conditioning Cause,” with Emptiness, Provisional Positing, and Middle Way. He also discusses the Threefold Buddha-nature with the twelve limbs of Dependent Origination. The second section discusses whether the mind is good or evil and if the icchantika can become a Buddha or not. 5.2. Zhiyi’s Opinion about Threefold Buddha-Nature and Dynamic Mind 5.2.1. Introduction The idea of Buddha-nature originates from a later period of Indian Buddhism. Zhiyi values Buddha-nature. Zhiyi’s fourfold “classification of teachings” (panjiao 判教)348 is The Tripiṭaka Teaching (zangjiao 藏教)—usually associated with the Agamas, and more generally Hīnayāna Buddhism as a whole, or the Two Vehicles (Śrāvakas and Pratyeka-buddhas). The Common Teaching (tongjiao 通教), so-called because it is common to all four teachings and is the basic tenet on which further doctrines are built in the last two types of teachings. It is associated with the teaching of Emptiness in the Prajñā-pāramitā sūtras and certain interpretations of the teaching of Nāgārjuna. The 348 134 based on Buddha-nature. The Separate Teaching and the Perfect Teaching treat Buddhanature as truth. The Tripiṭaka Teaching and The Common Teaching treat Emptiness as truth. How he values Buddha-nature can be found in Fahuaxuanyi, which emphasizes that the 12 divisions of the Buddhist canon are divided by what is Buddha-nature and non-Buddha-nature. This possibly is a very crucial thought in Zhiyi’s opinion, because it is mentioned enormously (I listed in which works Zhiyi mentions it in next paragraph). Zhiyi identifies Buddha-nature (which stands for the Truth) with Middle Way through the mind. Therefore, Zhiyi advocates Middle-Way-Buddha-Nature as the ultimate truth.349 Zhiyi discusses Buddha-nature as Proper or Objective Cause (zheng yin 正因), Buddha-nature as Revealing Cause (liao yin 了因), and Buddha-nature as Conditioning Cause (yuan yin 緣因) in Renwang huguo bore jingshu 仁王護國般若經疏 Vol. 3, 4, 5, Fahua Xuanyi Vol. 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, Fahua Wenju Vol. 1, 8, 9, 10, Guanyin Xuanyi Vol. 1, Weimojing Xuan Shu Vol. 5, 6, Jinguangming Jing Xuanyi 金光明經玄義 Vol. 1, 2, Jinguangming Jing Wenju Vol. 5, Mohe Zhiguan Vol. 9, Shi mohe bore boluomi jing jueyi sanmei, Weimojing Wenshu Vol. 11, 14, 25, 28, Fanwang pusa jiejing yishu 梵網菩薩戒經義疏, and Sanguanyi 三觀義. In Fahua Xuanyi Vol. 2, Zhiyi argues that Buddha-nature as Conditioning Cause is the appearance of Buddha. Nature is composed internally. Buddha-nature as Revealing Separate Teaching (biejiao 別教), so called not only because it is a special vehicle for bodhisattvas but also because it conceives of the parts of various doctrines (e.g., the stages of practice, the Three Truths) as separate rather than integrated and interpenetrating. It is sometimes associated with certain versions of Buddha-nature, Consciousness-only, and Tathāgatagarbha thought. The Integrated Teaching (yuanjiao 圓教), literally the Round or Perfect Teaching. The definition comes from: Ziporyn, Evil and/or/as the Good: Omnicentrism, Intersubjectivity and Value Paradox in Tiantai Buddhist Thought, 114-115. 349 Wu 吳汝鈞, Fahua Xuanyi de Zhexue yu Gangling 法華玄義的哲學與綱領, 48. 135 Cause is wisdom. Fundamentally pure nature is the body of Buddha-nature as Proper or Objective Cause.350 In this paragraph, Zhiyi demonstrates that the mind displays three angles: first is Buddha-nature as Conditioning Cause, the second is Buddha-nature as Revealing Cause, and the third is Buddha-nature as Proper or Objective Cause. Zhiyi utilizes this Threefold Buddha-nature to explain the enlightened essence. In this section, Zhiyi’s opinion about Buddha-nature as Proper or Objective Cause, Buddha-nature as Conditioning Cause, and Buddha-nature as Revealing Cause will be discussed as follows. 5.2.2. Zhiyi’s Opinion about Threefold Buddha-Nature and Dynamic Mind In this section, Threefold Buddha-nature will be discussed in depth. In addition, Threefold Buddha-nature will be studied with twelve limbs of Dependent Origination, three kinds of inconceivable liberation, enlightenment, Three Virtues, consciousnesses, mind-king, Eight Inconceivable Natures, Six Identities, and Three Truths. From the outline, it can be perceived how complicated this section will be. The more complicated the situation is, the more dynamic the mind is. The primary sources are Zhiyi’s works. In addition, the works of modern scholars will be discussed. In Fahua Xuanyi Vol. 2, Zhiyi discusses the Threefold Buddha-nature. He argues that nirvāṇa Buddha-nature is the original essence of all being, which is eternal and unchanging. The prajñā (bodhisattva-wisdom 般若) illuminates the region of Reality. 350 T. no. 1716, 33: 695a05-08. Fahua Xuanyi Vol. 2. 136 Neither coming nor going351 is the state of the non-arising of dharmas.352 The state of the non-arising of dharmas is Buddha. Therefore, the original essence of all beings and Reality is Buddha-nature as Proper or Objective Cause. The contemplation of prajñā is Buddha-nature as Revealing Cause. That the merits of five perfections disclose that prajñā is Buddha-nature as Conditioning Cause.353 Here, Wu Rujun thinks Zhiyi deems that the ultimate truth of enlightenment of Buddha-nature as Proper or Objective Cause is Dharmatā or Reality. Buddha-nature as Revealing Cause is the function of the mind meditating on the ultimate truth, which is called prajñā. However, in Zhiyi’s opinion, one cannot only rely on prajñā to get enlightenment about Reality. There are some other conditions, especially the Five Perfections, that is dāna, śīla, kṣānti, vīrya, and dhyāna. This is called Buddha-nature as Conditioning Cause.354 In short, Zhiyi’s and Wu’s are not conflicted. Buddha-nature as Proper or Objective Cause is related to Reality. Buddha-nature as Revealing Cause is related to prajñā. Buddha-nature as Conditioning Cause is related to merits. When one practices the Five Perfections, one can attain merits, which is related to Five Perfection. In Fahua Xuanyi Vol. 5, Zhiyi continues to explain the Threefold Buddha-nature in detail. The absolute and real, the bhūtatathatā 眞性軌 is Buddha-nature as Proper or Objective Cause. Meditation upon and understanding of it 觀照軌 is Buddha-nature as Revealing Cause. The extension of this understanding to all its workings 資成軌 is Buddha-nature as Conditioning Cause. Therefore, the Lotus Sūtra mentions that the 351 Anāgamana-nirgama 不來不去. 352 The Tathāgatagarbha (the bhūtatathatā 眞如). 353 T. no. 1716, 33: 802a07-11. Fahua Xuanyi Vol. 10. 354 Wu 吳汝鈞, Fahua Xuanyi de Zhexue yu Gangling 法華玄義的哲學與綱領, 49. 137 practitioners are the Buddha’s sons and the Buddha is their father,355 which is from the viewpoint of Buddha-nature as Proper or Objective Cause. In addition, in the Lotus Sūtra it mentions that he taught people the supreme way. Therefore, all wisdom and vows are not lost.356 This wisdom is Buddha-nature as Revealing Cause. These vows are Buddhanature as Conditioning Cause. Furthermore, the Lotus Sūtra mentions, “I did not dare to depreciate you and you will be a Buddha.”357 This is Buddha-nature as Proper or Objective Cause. The Lotus Sūtra mentions that the four vargas (groups, or orders) are oral readings of the scriptures. This is Buddha-nature as Revealing Cause. Cultivating merits is Buddha-nature as Conditioning Cause.358 Thus, the Threefold Buddha-nature are three kinds of qualities of sentient beings. These Threefold Buddha-nature are also inherent in sentient beings. Buddha-nature as Proper or Objective Cause is like eighth consciousness, Buddha-nature as Revealing Cause is like seventh consciousness, and Buddha-nature as Conditioning Cause is like sixth consciousness. These opinions will be discussed later with Zhiyi’s works. There are arguments that will be deliberated by reasons. The Threefold Buddha-nature are another point of view to discourse about the Mind. These viewpoints are different from Chapter 3; however, there is some kind of connection. In Fahua Xuanyi Vol. 6, Zhiyi explores the Threefold Buddha-nature further. He deliberates in the Lotus Sūtra why the relationship among Buddhas and the sentient 355 T. no. 263, 9: 80c21-24. The Lotus Sūtra Vol. 3. 356 T. no. 262, 9: 29a16-22. The Lotus Sūtra Vol. 4. 357 T. no. 262, 9: 50c20-23. The Lotus Sūtra Vol. 6. 358 T. no. 1716, 33: 744c12-18. Fahua Xuanyi Vol. 5. 138 beings are fathers and sons, but not guests. Sadāparibhūta359 assumed this profound meaning, and knew that all sentient beings’ Buddha-nature as Proper or Objective Cause is never ceasing. Therefore, he never despises all sentient beings. All sentient beings, who have ever listened to one sentence from any past or present Buddha, will accomplish the Buddha-way. This is Buddha-nature as Revealing Cause never ceasing. By bending one’s head or raising one’s hand, all can accomplish the Buddha-way. This is Buddhanature as Conditioning Cause never ceasing. None of the sentient beings contain this Threefold Buddha-nature.360 Here a question raised. Is the Buddha-nature within the sentinet being or outside the sentient being? I utilize Brook Biporyn’s Evil and/or/as the Good to give an explanation. He states, “Here we see the importance for Tiantai of not conceiving this Buddha-nature as something that is in any sense ‘within us.’ What makes it precisely Buddha-nature is that it is a nature shared with something initially conceived as ‘outside’ us, the Buddha. The Buddha must be outside, must be an “other” (indeed, the most complete possible negation of our current state), for the nature to do any good.”361 When one keep Ziporyn’s opinion in mind, one can understand that the provious paragraph makes sense. From another angle to understand the Threefold Buddha-nature as follows. Buddhanature as Proper or Objective Cause is the original essence of all being or Reality. As for the statement, “all sentient beings, who have ever listened to one sentence from any past Sadāparibhūta, the monk who never slighted others, but assured all of Buddhahood, a former incarnation of Śākyamuni; Lotus Sūtra 20. Never Despise, 常不輕菩薩 a previous incarnation of the Buddha, as a monk whose constant greeting to all he met, that they were destined for Buddhahood, brought him much persecution. 359 360 T. no. 1716, 33: 757b06-11. Fahua Xuanyi Vol. 6. 361 Ziporyn, Evil and/or/as the Good: Omnicentrism, Intersubjectivity and Value Paradox in Tiantai Buddhist Thought, 189. 139 Buddha or present Buddha, will all accomplish the Buddha-way,” this is about instantly apprehending or attaining Buddha-enlightenment. When it says, “to bend one's head or raise one’s hand all can accomplish the Buddha-way,” this is coming from a real-world and compassionate point of view to express Buddha-nature as Conditioning Cause. In the path of the Buddha-way, if there is only wisdom, it is not enough. Compassion is necessary as well. One utilizes vows based on compassion to build Buddha-nature as Conditioning Cause. This is a way to create the power to move along the Buddha-way. Through daily activities, it is a way to demonstrate this power.362 From daily activities, (such as to listen to one sentence from any past or present Buddha, to bend one’s head or raise one’s hand, to vow based on compassion, etc.) one can achieve the Buddha-way. Meanwhile, they demonstrate the Threefold Buddha-nature (Buddha-nature as Proper or Objective Cause, Buddha-nature as Revealing Cause, and Buddha-nature as Conditioning Cause). From the theory, there is a path for the practice. In Fahua Xuanyi Vol. 2, Zhiyi utilizes the Nirvāṇa Sūtras (The Mahā-parinirvāṇa Sūtras 大般涅槃經) to give advanced explanations about the Threefold Buddha-nature with the twelve limbs of Dependent Origination. This is inconceivable and neither arising nor ceasing with the twelve limbs of Dependent Origination. In the Nirvāṇa Sūtras, the twelve limbs of Dependent Origination are called Buddha-nature. Ignorance (avidyā), desire (tṛṣṇā), and grasping (upādāna) are afflictions. Affliction is enlightenment. Enlightenment is not affliction. If there is no affliction, there is consummate purity. This is Buddha-nature as Revealing Cause. Activity (saṃskāra) and existence (bhava) are the path of karma (activity), which is liberation. This unimpeded liberation is Buddha-nature 362 Wu 吳汝鈞, Fahua Xuanyi de Zhexue yu Gangling 法華玄義的哲學與綱領, 49-50. 140 as Conditioning Cause. Name-and-form (nāmarūpa) and old-age-death (jarāmaraṇa) is the path of suffering. Suffering is dharmakāya. Dharmakāya is neither suffering nor pleasure, which is called great bliss. Unborn and undying is permanency, which is because of Buddha-nature as Proper or Objective Cause. If one says ignorance and desire are Middle Way, ignorance was past and desire is present. Either the middle or the extremes are Buddha-nature, which is permanence, bliss, self, and purity. Ignorance is neither arising nor ceasing. This is called inconceivable neither arising nor ceasing twelve limbs of Dependent Origination.363 From the twelve limbs of Dependent Origination to understand the Threefold Buddha-nature, the Threefold Buddha-nature are much clearer. The Threefold Buddhanature are connected to how the rebirth occurs. This makes the sentient being much more familiar with Threefold Buddha-nature. In Sanguanyi 三觀義,364 Mohe Zhiguan Vol. 9,365 and Weimojing Wenshu Vol. 25366 Zhiyi also writes about the Threefold Buddha-nature with the twelve limbs of Dependent Origination. In Huiyue’s Tiantai Jiao Xue Shi, Huiyue discusses that Zhiyi follows the Nirvāṇa Sūtras four interpretations of Four Noble Truths (Vol. 12) and four kinds of pure cognition (Vol. 27).367 The first is the conceivable arising and ceasing of the twelve limbs of Dependent Origination. The second is the conceivable neither arising nor ceasing of 363 T. no. 1716, 33: 700a17-27. Fahua Xuanyi Vol. 2. 364 X. no. 909, 55: 677b05-13. Sanguanyi 三觀義. 365 T. no. 1911, 46: 126c12-24. Mohe Zhiguan Vol. 9. 366 X. no. 338, 18: 662c04-17. Weimojing Wenshu 維摩經文疏 Vol. 25. 367 T. no. 374, 12: 434c. and T. no. 374, 12: 524b. 141 the twelve limbs of Dependent Origination. The third is the inconceivable arising and ceasing of the twelve limbs of Dependent Origination. The fourth is the inconceivable neither arising nor ceasing of the twelve limbs of Dependent Origination. The first three are coarse. The fourth is subtle. Among the four, the fourth emphasizes Intrinsic Inclusiveness the most. The minds of ordinary sentient beings contain the effect of Intrinsic Inclusiveness.368 There is Zhiyi’s paradoxical way to express the Threefold Buddha-nature. The most famous sentence is “affliction is enlightenment.” This is because affliction and enlightenment belong to the mind. When the mind is lost, it is affliction. When the mind is enlightened, it is enlightenment. Enlightenment is transformed from affliction. According to subject, the ultimate truth is dharmakāya. According to object, the ultimate truth is dharmatā (Dharma-nature). At some point, dharmakāya is intercommunicated with dharmatā. Dharmatā is Buddha-nature as Proper or Objective Cause.369 Zhiyi claims in Fahua Xuanyi Vol. 10 that if one analyzes oneself one can find reality. If one analyzes Buddha the answer is the same. There are three kinds of inconceivable liberation. True nature, true wisdom, and expediency are the meanings of Threefold Buddha-nature. Ordinary sentient beings are the family of the Tathāgata. Is this not Buddha-nature as Proper or Objective Cause? Even if one does not cut delusion and affliction, one can still accomplish enlightenment and liberation. Enlightenment is 368 Shi 釋慧嶽, Tiantai Jiao Xue Shi 天台教學史, 182-186. 369 Wu 吳汝鈞, Fahua Xuanyi de Zhexue yu Gangling 法華玄義的哲學與綱領, 50-51. 142 Buddha-nature as Revealing Cause. Liberation is Buddha-nature as Conditioning Cause. These three meanings are very vibrant.370 What is the relationship between enlightenment and Threefold Buddha-nature? The family of the Tathāgata is the highest subjectivity. The ultimate truth is Dharma-nature. Zhiyi utilizes the highest subjectivity to reveal objectivity (Dharma-nature). This “enlightenment” is when one becomes aware that delusion and affliction themselves are illusions, which is because of Dependent Origination. Dependent Origination is selfless and empty. Therefore, there is no necessity to sever delusion and affection in order to accomplish the Buddha-way. This requires wisdom to achieve. Therefore, Zhiyi thinks that “enlightenment is Buddha-nature as Revealing Cause.” Liberation is freedom from all bonds. Even though the practitioners comprise Buddha-nature as Proper or Objective Cause and Buddha-nature as Revealing Cause, there is no guarantee of attaining enlightenment. There are some other preparations needed, which lead to the achievement of liberation. Zhiyi discusses Buddha-nature as Conditioning Cause for those conditions needed to achieve liberation. Buddha-nature involves not only the subject attaining enlightenment, but the object as well. Buddha-nature from subjectivity develops into organism. In the sequence of enlightenment activities, the ability to attain enlightenment is Buddha-nature as Revealing Cause. The one who is enlightened is Buddha-nature as Proper or Objective Cause. The conditions helping to reach enlightenment are Buddhanature as Conditioning Cause. Buddha-nature as Revealing Cause, Buddha-nature as Proper or Objective Cause, and Buddha-nature as Conditioning Cause are related by 370 T. no. 1716, 33: 802c04-08. Fahua Xuanyi Vol. 10. 143 being opposite yet connected. If the three elements of the Threefold Buddha-nature collaborate closely and properly, enlightenment can be achieved.371 Furthermore, in Guanyin Xuanyi Vol. 1, Zhiyi discusses the Threefold Buddhanature in virtues possessed by nature 性德, cultivating merit 修德, and the potency of the Buddha’s perfect knowledge 智德. He mentions that virtues possessed by nature are Buddha-nature as Revealing Cause, cultivating merit can perform prajñā, and perfection can achieve the potency of Buddha’s perfect knowledge. If virtues possessed by nature is Buddha-nature as Conditioning Cause, cultivating merit is the liberating power to eliminate all illusions in attaining nirvāṇa. If virtues possessed by nature are neither Buddha-nature as Revealing Cause nor Buddha-nature as Conditioning Cause, then it is Buddha-nature as Proper or Objective Cause.372 What is the relation among the Threefold Buddha-nature and consciousnesses? What is the Threefold Buddha-nature? In Jinguangming Xuanyi Vol. 1, Zhiyi discusses the relation among the Threefold Buddha-nature and consciousnesses as follows. Buddha is the enlightened one. Nature is unchanging. The unchanging is neither permanent nor nonpermanent, which is like the earth containing gold. The demons and heretics373 cannot destroy Buddha-nature as Proper or Objective Cause. The awakening cognition is neither permanent nor non-permanent. Cognition corresponds with principle, which is like people knowing the golden treasury.374 This cognition is irrefutable, which is called Buddha-nature as Revealing Cause. All of these are neither permanent nor non371 Wu 吳汝鈞, Fahua Xuanyi de Zhexue yu Gangling 法華玄義的哲學與綱領, 51-56. 372 T. no. 1726, 34: 878b16-21. Guanyin Xuanyi Vol. 1. 373 Māras and heretics 天魔外道. 374 Golden treasury 金藏. 144 permanent, merit, nor wholesome roots supporting the awakening cognition to develop the correct nature. This is like people cutting a weed to find the golden treasury. This is called Buddha-nature as Conditioning Cause. When this Threefold Buddha-nature is permanent, bliss, self, and purity, there is no difference from the three virtues or powers 三德. The three virtues are like a golden light. In addition, the Threefold Buddha-nature is also like a golden light. What are three consciousnesses? Consciousness is called completely realized, which is the alias of wisdom. Amala-vijñāna is the ninth, immovable consciousness (Buddha consciousness). Ālayavijñāna is the eighth, non-disappearing consciousness. There are still latent afflictions and ignorance in the eighth consciousness, which is discrimination. This is bodhisattva consciousness. The Dazhidu Lun mentions that according to bodhisattvas the mind is called prajñā. Ādānavijñāna is the seventh discriminating consciousness, which detests birth-and-death and adores nirvāṇa. This is śrāvakas’ and pratyekabuddhas’ consciousness. According to Buddha, this is Expedient Wisdom. One should know that the three consciousnesses (amala-vijñāna, ālayavijñāna, ādānavijñāna) are all permanence, bliss, self, and purity. There are no differences among the three consciousnesses and the three virtues (or powers). Since the three virtues are like a golden light, the three consciousnesses are like a golden light as well.375 In a nutshell, when this Threefold Buddha-nature is permanent, bliss, self, and purity, there is no difference from the three virtues or powers. The three virtues are like a golden light. In addition, the Threefold Buddha-nature is also like a golden light. Meanwhile, the three consciousnesses are all permanence, bliss, self, and purity. There are no differences 375 T. no. 1783, 39: 4a02-21. Jinguangming Xuanyi Vol. 1. 145 among the three consciousnesses and the three virtues. The relation among the Threefold Buddha-nature and consciousnesses is connected with the three virtues, a golden light. In different viewpoints, Zhiyi deliberates the relation among the Threefold Buddhanature and consciousnesses in Weimojing Wenshu Vol. 25. He also confers the meaning of Threefold Buddha-nature as follows. He ruminates that the true nature is Buddhanature as Proper or Objective Cause, wisdom is Buddha-nature as Revealing Cause, and all good works are Buddha-nature as Conditioning Cause. This means to destroy the delusion and enlighten the Buddha-nature. To destroy the delusion means to be free from birth-and-death and attain nirvāṇa. One gets rid of the evil and retains the good. However, the Vimalakīrti Sūtra does not mean this. If one destroys the delusion, there is no Buddha-nature as Revealing Cause. This is similar to how fire comes from the firewood. When the firewood is completely burnt, the fire will be extinguished. It is like śrāvakas and pratyeka-buddhas severing the bonds of the afflictions. The bonds of the afflictions are finished; therefore they (śrāvakas and pratyeka-buddhas) lose the cause of Buddhawisdom. They cannot attain Buddha-knowledge because they lost the Buddha-nature as Revealing Cause. If one destroys the evil and one embraces the good, the evil is destroyed, and then there is no existence of the good. Śrāvakas and pratyeka-buddhas have no evil; there is no Buddha-nature as Conditioning Cause.376 If one who is free from birth-and-death, enters the status of extinguished without remainder, and one has no more rebirth, how can one have Buddha-nature as Proper or Objective Cause? In the Nirvāṇa Sūtras (The Mahā-parinirvāṇa Sūtras), there are Buddha-nature and icchantika. One who has wholesome roots without the nature of icchantika has affliction, all kind of evil, and the suffering of birth-and-death. The evil is 376 X. no. 338, 18: 666b12-b18. 146 Buddha-nature as Conditioning Cause. The good people have the causes and conditions of good phenomena. Icchantika have none of this kind of good phenomena. However, good people and evil people all have Buddha-nature as Proper or Objective Cause.377 In brief, even evil as icchantika has Buddha-nature as Proper or Objective Cause. As to Buddha-nautre as Revealing Cause and Buddha-nature as Conditioning Cause, in the viewpoint of Vimalakīrti Sūtra, the delusion and affliction are necessary to attain Buddha-wisdom. If it mentions the consciousness, the sixth consciousness is Buddha-nature as Conditioning Cause. No matter whether it is good or evil; it arises from the sixth consciousness. If one discards the sixth consciousness, there will be neither good nor evil; will there be Buddha-nature as Conditioning Cause? The seventh consciousness is Buddha-nature as Revealing Cause. Delusion or liberation relate to the seventh consciousness. If one discards the seventh consciousness, there is neither delusion nor liberation. The eighth consciousness is Buddha-nature as Proper or Objective Cause. If one abandons the eighth consciousness, there is neither birth-and-death nor nirvāṇa.378 What is the relationship between mind-king and Threefold Buddha-nature? Zhiyi asserts in Weimojing Wenshu Vol. 11 that all sentient beings have the mind-king (10 kinds),379 which is the Threefold Buddha-nature. The mind-king is Buddha-nature as 377 X. no. 338, 18: 666b18-b23. 378 X. no. 338, 18: 666b23-c04. Weimojing Wenshu Vol. 25. 379 The mind and its qualities, or conditions 心王心所. Mind-king is called in Sanskrit as citta-dharma. 147 Proper or Objective Cause. The mental function of knowing380 is Buddha-nature as Revealing Cause. The other nine are Buddha-nature as Conditioning Cause.381 Zhiyi also mentions the Threefold Buddha-nature and the mind-king in Fahua Wenju Vol. nine. There are three kinds of meanings about offspring. First is that all sentient beings who have three kinds of virtues possessed by nature of Buddha-nature are Buddha-sons. Consequently, it is said that entirely sentient beings are Buddha’s sons and Buddha has numerous sons. According to the 10 minds and mental factors, there are 100 factors. The mind-king is Buddha-nature as Proper or Objective Cause. Buddha-nature as Revealing Cause is Wisdom. The other nine are Buddha-nature as Conditioning Cause. When one of the mahā-bhūmika arises, the rest will follow. One hundred develop from the 10.382 Zhiyi estimates that virtues possessed by Buddha-sons are neither good nor evil, but communicates good with evil. The 10 mahā-bhūmikas383 and mind-king are three causes of virtues possessed by nature, which belong to Buddha-sons as Proper or Objective Cause. Second, according to form, the Buddha-sons are like the 16 princes. They repeat the lesson of Lotus Sūtra to a teacher, and understand the lesson, which is Buddha-nature as Revealing Cause. They can practice the lesson, which is Buddha-nature as Conditioning Cause. The correct nature is the original. The three causes are the one Conditioning Cause. The present realization is formed by a prior connection, which 380 381 382 Mental conditions in contrast to mind itself 慧數. X. no. 338, 18: 540c10-12. Weimojing Wenshu Vol. 11. T. no. 1718, 34: 134b20-25. Fahua Wenju Vol. 9. 383 (1) Feeling, (2) perception, (3) volition, (4) contact, (5) desire, (6) wisdom, (7) mindfulness, (8) attention, (9) decision, (10) mental concentration. 148 causes the Conditioning Cause or Buddha-sons. These are the 30 sons in Lotus Sūtra’s fable of the boiling house.384 Accordingly, there is a question which needs to be clear. “mind-king” means eighth consciousnesses. However, the 10 mahā-bhūmikas mean feeling, perception, volition, contact, desire (to act), wisdom, mindfulness, attention, decision, and mental concentration. The 10 mahā-bhūmikas come from the teachings of the Abhidharma,385 but not come from Mind-Only School. Zhiyi clarifies, in Fahua Wenju Vol. 10, the Threefold Buddha-nature taught in the Lotus Sūtra. In the Lotus Sūtra, it mentions that there is a monk who not only orally read the scriptures, but also makes reverence. This is the first stage of rejoicing in gratitude about which all dharmas with peace are reality. To rejoice in gratitude, all human beings have the Threefold Buddha-nature. To read the scriptures orally is Buddha-nature as Revealing Cause. To practice the path of bodhisattvas is Buddha-nature as Conditioning Cause. Daring not to despise and revere other human beings is Buddha-nature as Proper or Objective Cause. To respect human beings and all dharmas and to stop disputes is the true meaning of rejoicing.386 Zhiyi continues to speculate that the eight inconceivable natures is neither nature nor non-nature. Therefore, this Nirvāṇa Sūtras treats afflictions and bad qualities as Buddha-nature. If one disposes of these three bad qualities, there is no Threefold Buddhanature.387 384 T. no. 1718, 34: 134b25-c03. Fahua Wenju Vol. 9. 385 Abhidharma is 3rd century B.C.E. and later Buddhist tests. 386 T. no. 1718, 34: 141a08-13. Fahua Wenju Vol. 10. 387 X. no. 338, 18: 666c07-09. Weimojing Wenshu Vol. 25. 149 For that reason, Zhiyi puts two kinds of contradictions together to explain. It is because Zhiyi supposes that enlightenment and affliction have the same extension. If one is in affliction, one has the opportunity for enlightenment. If one discards the affliction, there are no opportunities for enlightenment. When one is lost, it is affliction. When one is enlightened from the afflictions, it is enlightenment. Enlightenment is the good result of affliction. This is like a person in a dark room. When he turns on the switch of the light, the room becomes bright. The darkness of the room is like the affliction of sentient beings. To turn on the switch of the light is to enlighten someone. The status of brightness of the room is like the enlightenment. What are the relationships between Threefold Buddha-nature and liberation? What are the relationships between liberation and Reality? In Weimojing Xuanshu Vol. 5, Zhiyi points out that in the Nirvāṇa Sūtras (The Mahā-parinirvāṇa Sūtras) it mentions that Buddha-nature is both one and non-one; in addition, it is neither one nor non-one. This “one” means Buddha-nature as Proper or Objective Cause, which is true liberation. This “non-one” refers to Buddha-nature as Conditioning Cause, which is expedient liberation. This “neither one nor non-one” means Buddha-nature as Revealing Cause, which is true wisdom liberation. These Threefold Buddha-natures commune with three kinds of prajñā. The true liberation 真性解脫 is wisdom in its essence or reality 實相般若. The true wisdom liberation 實慧解脫 is the knowledge of sensing the real meaning of the last 觀照般若. The expedient liberation 方便解脫 is the knowledge of knowing things in their provisional and altering condition (Expedient Wisdom 方便般若). Buddhas know that all sentient beings are the aspects of enlightenment 菩提相. The true liberation is the enlightenment of Reality 實相菩提. The true wisdom liberation is the enlightenment of 150 the knowledge or wisdom of Reality 實智菩提. The expedient liberation is the enlightenment of expedient, and vice versa.388 What are the relationship between “Six Identities” (of Tiantai Teaching) (liuji 六即) and Threefold Buddha-nature? In Guanyin Xuanyi Vol. 1, Zhiyi discusses Threefold Buddha-nature and “Six Identities.” Zhiyi ponders that “meditative insight into the unreality of all things” is “Buddha-nature as Conditioning Cause.” If one can observe “Emptiness of person” and “observing dharmas as empty,” one can understand Threefold Buddha-nature. The Buddha-nature of sentient beings is neither the same nor different from “Six Identities to the Buddhahood.” This “neither the same” means that Buddhanature as Proper or Objective Cause is neither aggregate nor self. Non-aggregate is not dharma. Non-self is non-others. Non-others is non-awareness. Non-aggregate is nonconditions. This is called neither the same of “Six Identities to the Buddhahood.” This “different from ‘Six Identities to the Buddhahood’” means that one does not separate from the emptiness of sentient beings before there is Buddha-nature as Revealing Cause. One separates from the emptiness of aggregate, and then there is Buddha-nature as Conditioning Cause.389 The Threefold Buddha-nature connects with enlightenment, Reality, Six Identities to the Buddhahood, etc. The key is mind. The mind makes all these activities possible. These activities enrich and improve the mind. In Jinguangming Xuanyi Vol. 2, Zhiyi deliberates the mind, Threefold Buddhanature, and Three Truths. He cogitates that the mind and Buddha-mind are provisional 388 T. no. 1777, 38: 553b10-21. Weimojing Xuanshu Vol. 5. 389 T. no. 1726, 34: 879a02-07. Guanyin Xuanyi Vol. 1. 151 words. The provisional names distinguish self from Buddha. My mind and Buddha-mind are as empty as the ordinary sentient beings and sage. If there is no my-mind and Buddha-mind, how can there be my-mind as the same as Buddha-mind; or Buddha-mind as the same as my-mind? If there is neither my-mind nor Buddha-mind, how can there be my-mind and Buddha-mind? If there is neither Emptiness nor Provisional Positing, it reveals the Middle Way. To contemplate the mind as the Means 觀心即中 is Buddhanature as Proper or Objective Cause. To contemplate the mind as the Emptiness is Buddha-nature as Revealing Cause. To contemplate on the mind as the Provisional Positing is Buddha-nature as Conditioning Cause.390 Here I want to utilize Brook Ziporyn’s explanation because his analysis is very clear about the Emptiness, Provisional Positing, and Middle Way as follows: Zhiyi goes on unequivocally to s the Provisional with upāya, Emptiness with the real, and the Mean with both. Just before the passage quoted here, Zhiyi says, "When I say, ‘One dharma is all dharmas,’ this refers to [Nāgārjuna’s] ‘all dharmas produced by causes and conditions,’ and this is what we call ‘provisional name,’ and the contemplation of Provisional Positing. When I say ‘All dharmas are one dharma,’ [this refers to Nāgārjuna’s] ‘I say are themselves empty,” the contemplation of Emptiness. When I say “Neither one nor all,’ [this refers to Nāgārjuna’s] ‘This is the contemplation of the Middle Way.’” After the quoted passage about how each of these is reducible to the others, he goes on, ‘All dharmas produced by causes and conditions’ refers to the wisdom of upāya, the provisional wisdom of the types of teachings, which follows the emotional attachments of others. ‘All dharmas are one dharma’ and ‘I say are themselves empty’ refers to the wisdom of all, which speaks [one's own] wisdom. ‘Neither one nor all’ and ‘This is also the meaning of the Middle Way’ refer to the wisdom of all types, which is neither provisional nor ultimate. So by the same token, we can say, since one is provisional upāya, all are provisional upāya; since one is ultimate truth, all are ultimate truth; and also, all are neither provisional nor ultimate. This applies to everything, and it is this that we call the inconceivable three wisdoms.” Note the way “Emptiness” is here referred to as “one dharma.” This will be a key point later; even Emptiness, which here serves as the universal of universals, is merely a dharma, is itself a particular, is itself a provisional posit, to the extent that it is 390 T. no. 1783, 39: 8a20-28. Jinguangming Xuanyi Vol. 2. 152 determinate at all, that is, to the extent that it is opposed to “the particular” as such.391 Zhiyi connects mind and Threefold Buddha-nature through Emptiness, Provisional Positing, and Middle Way. 5.2.3. Conclusion Zhiyi identifies Threefold Buddha-nature with “like golden light” through the three virtues or powers, and through the three consciousnesses (amala-vijñāna, ādānavijñāna, ālayavijñāna), which all contain the qualities of permanence, bliss, self, and purity. The twelve limbs of Dependent Origination is Threefold Buddha-nature. In cause, it is called Threefold Buddha-nature. In effect, it is called the three virtues or powers of nirvāṇa. To treat the twelve limbs of Dependent Origination as suchness (ghanaika-sāra 一實理) is Buddha-nature as Proper or Objective Cause. If one can transfer ignorance into knowledge, this is Buddha-nature as Revealing Cause. If one can transfer unwholesome behavior into wholesome behavior, this is Buddha-nature as Conditioning Cause. In addition, either the middle or the extremes can be Threefold Buddha-nature, which is permanence, bliss, self, and pureness. Ignorance is neither arising nor ceasing. This is called inconceivable neither arising nor ceasing twelve limbs of Dependent Origination. If one can observe “emptiness of person” and “observing dharmas as empty,” one can understand Threefold Buddha-nature. The Three Truths are: to contemplate on the mind as the Mean 觀心即中 is Buddha-nature as Proper or Objective Cause; to contemplate the mind as the Emptiness is Buddha-nature as Revealing Cause; and to contemplate the mind as the Provisional Positing is Buddha-nature as Conditioning Cause. 391 Ziporyn, Evil and/or/as the Good: Omnicentrism, Intersubjectivity and Value Paradox in Tiantai Buddhist Thought, 412. 153 In my opinion, the Buddha-nature as Proper or Objective Cause is related to some sort of “reality.” In Mind Only School’s opinion, it is the eighth consciousness, ālayavijñāna. The Buddha-nature as Revealing Cause is related to the distinguishing, seventh consciousness. In the profound meaning, it can be related to wisdom. The Buddha-nature as Conditioning Cause, which is related to sixth consciousness, is related to causes and conditions. In the mundane world, the causes and conditions determine everything. The Buddha-nature as Proper or Objective Cause is like a pile of books, in which there is no string between the books, not like the pearl necklace. There is a string among the pearls in a pearl necklace. Through the Buddha-nature as Revealing Cause, the Buddha-nature as Proper or Objective Cause functions in the mundane world. In the mundane world, the Buddha-nature as Proper or Objective Cause is recognized through the Buddha-nature as Conditioning Cause. Therefore, the Buddha-nature as Proper or Objective Cause, Buddha-nature as Revealing Cause, and Buddha-nature as Conditioning Cause are trinities, which cause the mind dynamic. 5.3. Zhiyi’s Opinion about the Mind is Good or Evil? The Icchantika can Become a Buddha or not? 5.3.1. Introduction What is Zhiyi’s opinion about the mind? Is it good or evil? Before we discuss this idea, there are some points we should understand. In Confucianism, there are also theories about the mind. Early Confucian thinkers, such as Mengzi 孟子(372 – 289 B.C.E.) and Xunzi 荀子(312–230 B.C.E.), discussed the nature of human beings. Mengzi’s contemporary, Gaozi 告子 (420-350 B.C.E.), elaborated further on such ideas. 154 Gaozi thought that human nature is neither good nor evil. I first want to introduce the different theories about the nature of human beings in the thought of Mengzi, Gaozi, and Xunzi. In Mengzi’s opinion, the nature of human beings is divided into two parts: one is “path” (this “path” is very similar to animals, which is the most part of human beings. This “path” in another word is “the nature of animals”); the other is “four qualities of mind 四端心,” which are benevolence 仁, righteousness 義, courtesy 禮, and wit 智. These “four qualities of mind” can make human beings become a sage. These “four qualities of mind” are what Mengzi calls the nature of “good.” In Gaozi’s opinion, the nature of human beings refers to physical reactions, which are equal to Mengzi’s “path.” Gaozi’s nature of human beings has the meaning of “genetic,” which means that the “nature” is like the river when there is a hole in the east the water flows to the east. In Xunzi’s opinion, the nature of human beings means all kinds of desires, which includes the genetic ones and the social ones. Xunzi’s nature of human beings can express itself psychologically. Xunzi’s nature of human beings, is totally different from Mengzi’s. Xunzi’s nature of human beings can meet the extension of Mengzi’s “path.” How does Xunzi define the nature of human beings as evil? There are two parts to describe this “evil.” First of all, the nature of human beings is a departure from the “original.” For example, he sees the purpose of the ears as only for hearing. When we hear, he believes we should only hear rather than follow up our hearing by distinguishing between concepts like good or bad, like or dislike, etc. Unfortunately, people do distinguish. This discriminating mental capacity makes the nature of human beings evil. 155 Second, human beings indulge the desires, which make the nature of human beings evil. Ironically, Xunzi also says human beings desire good because of their evil nature. That is to say, the evil nature of human beings is not purely evil, and within that evil, there still exist good qualities.392 Zhiyi is one of the first people to bring the nature of evil into Buddhism, which stands as one of Taintai’s defining characteristics. What does Zhiyi mean by evil? What are the scriptural bases? What is the beginning of the evil? What is “evil by nature”? All these questions will be discussed in this section. 5.3.2. Zhiyi’s Opinion about the Mind is Good or Evil? The Icchantika can Become a Buddha or Not? In Guanyin Xuanyi Vol.one, Zhiyi asks whether the attributes of Buddha-nature as Conditioning Cause and Buddha-nature as Revealing Cause are good or evil. Zhiyi answers that it is both good and evil (but not nature inclusion or Intrinsic 394 Inclusiveness).393 Tiantai scholars, such as Zhanran 湛然, Zhili 知禮, and Chandeng 傳 Chen 陳堅, Fannao ji Puti: Tiantai Zong "Xinge" Sixiang Yanjiu 煩惱卽菩提: 天台宗「性惡」思想硏究, 19-34. 392 T. no. 1726, 34: 882c08-09 Guanyin Xuanyi Vol. 1 觀音玄義卷第上: “問。緣了既有性德善亦有性德惡否。答。具。” 393 In Guanyin Xuanyi Ji Vol. 2 觀音玄義記卷二 (T. no. 1727, 34: 905a) he discusses that it means nature inclusion or intrinsic inclusiveness. 394 156 燈395 believe Zhiyi meant nature inclusion or Intrinsic Inclusiveness. However, modern scholar Yang Huei-Nan 楊惠南 insists it means that nature is both good and evil.396 Here Zhiyi focuses on the function of the virtues possessed by nature to discuss “good by nature” or “evil by nature.” There is no single agreed upon definition of good and evil in Buddhism. In different sūtras, there are various definitions. However, Zhiyi has his own definition in Mohe Zhiguan Vol. 2: “The good and evil have no certain definitions. The six pāramitās are good. In addition, the six obstacles are evil. In the Dazhidu Lun (Mahāprajñāpāramitā-śāstra), it discusses the six obstacles.397 Zhiyi, in Mohe Zhiguan Vol. 8, also discusses the detail in pages of the six obstacles, which smother the six pāramitās.398 These six obstacles are grudging, precept-violation, irritation, family attachment, chaotic opinions, and unwise witlessness. Zhiyi discards dogmatism and doctrinarism to discourse good and evil. He utilizes a standard to define good and evil. This standard is whether one can benefit sentient beings to achieve enlightenment and become Buddha or not. If one can benefit sentient beings to become Buddha, this is good. If one cannot benefit sentient beings to become Buddha, this is evil. Zhiyi’s definition of good and evil make him unique in Buddhism. The system is based on a useful and pitying manner. In his Chanfo xinyin jizhu 傳佛心印記註 he discusses that it means nature inclusion or intrinsic inclusiveness. 395 This question is discussed in the article of Huei-Nan Yang 楊惠南, “From ‘Dharma-nature is Ignorance’ to ‘Evil by Nature’” (從「法性即無明」到「性惡」) Journal of the Center for Buddhist Studies (Foxue Yanjiu Zhongxin Xuebao 佛學研究中心學報), (1996): 131-132. 396 397 T. no. 1509, 25: 303c24-304b06 Dazhidu Lun Vol. 33 (Mahāprajñāpāramitā-śāstra). 398 T. no. 1911, 46: 113a01-116c26 Mohe Zhiguan Vol. 8. 157 Zhiyi continues his deliberation of good and evil in Guanyin Xuanyi Vol. 1 through a discussion of icchantika 一闡提.399 Icchantika cut off all cultivation of goodness 修善, but still maintained the “good by nature.” Buddha cut off all cultivated evil 修惡, but still preserved “evil by nature.”400 Here, there are some terms which should be clarified: “natural capacity for good 性德善,” “natural capacity for evil 性德惡,” “good by nature 性善,” and “evil by nature 性惡.” Because there is a “natural capacity for good,” there is “good by nature.” Because there is a “natural capacity for evil,” there is “evil by nature.” Sasaki 佐々木憲德, in his Tendai Kyōgaku 天台敎學 (The Teaching of Tiantai), mentions that “good by nature” and “evil by nature” belong to the area of ontology. As to “cultivation of goodness” and “cultivated evil,” they belong to the area of phenomenology. In ontology, “good by nature” and “evil by nature” exist congenitally.401 Zhiyi continues to debate the questions of “good by nature” and “evil by nature.” He asks why there is no way to cut off “natural capacity for good and evil.” In Guanyin Xuanyi Vol. 1, Zhiyi argues that natural capacity for good and evil are the dharmas of good and evil. Even in the past, the present, and the future, the nature cannot be changed, destroyed, cut off, nor stopped. For example, the demons cannot burn all scriptures to destroy all dharmas of “good by nature.” Buddha cannot burn all documents of “evil by nature” to destroy the evil. For example, in China there is an Emperor Qinshi Huangdi (260-210 B.C.E.) burned books and killed scholars in 212 B.C.E. who burned the books 399 400 401 The icchantika means those who lack all the wholesome nature. T. no. 1726, 34: 882c09-11. Guanyin Xuanyi Vol. 1. Sasaki 佐々木憲德, Tendai Kyōgaku 天台敎學, 187-190. 158 and killed the scholars. How can burnt scriptures and documents destroy all the good and evil?402 Buddha-nature is the cause of whether sentient beings can become Buddha or not. In Mou Zongsan’s 牟宗三 book, Foxing yu Bore 佛性與般若 (Buddha-nature and Wisdom), he argues that this paragraph about Zhiyi’s so-called “good by nature” and “evil by nature” actually means “good teaching 善法門” and “evil teaching 惡法門.” The good and evil describe the “teaching” but not “nature.” In the sentence natural capacity for good and evil are the dharmas of good and evil. Even in the past, the present, and the future, the nature cannot be changed, destroyed, cut off and stopped, it means that the “good teaching” and “evil teaching” of “virtues possessed by nature,” which cannot be changed, destroyed, cut off and stopped.403 However, Jian Chen 陳堅 argues that the “good teaching” and “evil teaching” are theoretical. In practical situations, Zhiyi thinks in his time, there is no “good teaching,” only “evil teaching,” because he is in the age of decline of the Dharma 末法. In the age of decline of Dharma, even “good teaching” transforms into “evil teaching.” All sentient beings are immersed in evil. All sentient beings only can become a Buddha through “evil teaching.” Zhiyi’s theory of “evil by nature” is for the sake of all sentient beings in the age of decline of Dharma.404 One may question that if an icchantika does not cut off “good by nature” yet still has an opportunity to cultivate of goodness, and then if a Buddha does not cut off “evil by nature” will there be an opportunity to cultivate evil? Zhiyi debates that an icchantika 402 T. no. 1726, 34: 882c11-16. Guanyin Xuanyi Vol. 1. 403 Zongsan Mou 牟宗三, Foxing yu Bore 佛性與般若 (Taipei City: Taiwan Xue Sheng Shu Ju, 1997), 876. 404 Chen 陳堅, Fannao ji Puti: Tiantai Zong "Xinge" Sixiang Yanjiu, 64. 159 does not realize the profound meaning of “good by nature.” Therefore, there is opportunity to be influence by good. Once cultivation of goodness can arise, it can manage the evil. Buddha does not cut off “evil by nature,” therefore Buddha can theoretically reach evil. Yet because Buddha can understand evil, Buddha is unimpeded by evil. Buddha is not defiled by evil and cultivated evil cannot arise. Therefore, a Buddha never is evil. Because Buddha will not be impeded by evil, Buddha can convert and convey to salvation sentient beings with evil teaching 惡法門. But even if Buddha utilizes evil teaching all day long, he will not be defiled by evil. (This is theoretical existence, but not practical existence.) By avoiding defilement of such evil, he prevents its cultivation. Let’s utilize icchantika as an example. If an icchantika can reach Buddha’s level of “good by nature” and “evil by nature,” he will not be called icchantika.405 Zhiyi employs the masters Dilun 地論師 and Shelun’s 攝論師 opinion to support his argument in asserting that even though an icchantika severs cultivation of goodness, when the seeds of good are arisen from ālaya-vijñāna by causes and conditions, the good will rise. Ālaya-vijñāna is moral indeterminacy (or neutrality) in karma and ignorance 無記無明. The good or evil is supported by all seeds in ālaya-vijñāna. Icchantikas do not remove moral indeterminacy (or neutrality) in karma and ignorance, so consequently, there is good. Buddha removes moral indeterminacy (or neutrality) in karma and ignorance. Hence there is nothing to crave; there is no evil. If Buddha wants to apply evil to save sentient beings, Buddha utilizes supernatural power to protect sentient beings.406 405 T. no. 1726, 34: 882c16-24. Guanyin Xuanyi Vol. 1. 406 T. no. 1726, 34: 882c24-29. Guanyin Xuanyi Vol. 1. 160 Andō Toshio argues that the most unique aspect of the Tiantai “Intrinsic Inclusiveness 性具” theory is “evil by nature.” The theory of “evil by nature” demonstrates that the Buddha is evil in some parts. Evil includes “cultivated evil” 修惡407 and “evil by nature” 性惡. Cultivated means trained. “Evil by nature” means that the evilness cannot be changed. “Cultivated evil,” means that the consciousness or deeds are evil. “Evil by nature” refers to having the possibility of evil. The Buddhas have finished their experienced (cultivated) evil, but remain “evil by nature.” If the Buddha did not remain “evil by nature,” there is no possibility for the Buddha to save sentient beings proficiently. Therefore, Buddhas remain evil “intrinsic inclusively,” when they want to utilize the supernatural powers to save sentient beings; that is the connection between Buddhas and the sentient beings. If Buddhas did not remain “evil by nature,” there is no connection between Buddhas and the sentient beings. To eliminate evil and to cultivate goodness are the general principles in all schools of Buddhism. However, Zhiyi bravely argues that if the Buddha does not remain “evil by nature,” he cannot save sentient beings skillfully, which not only confused the other schools but also confused the Tiantai followers.408 That is to say, Zhiyi demonstrates that the revealing cause of Buddha-nature and conditional causes of Buddha-nature have “virtues possessed by good nature” and “virtues possessed by evil nature.” The icchantika (who does not believe in cause and effect, and eradicates wholesome roots) eradicates the cultivation of goodness, but he or 407 Cultivated evil is formed by practice. For example, when one is a baby, he/she cannot smoke cigarettes. When an adult smokes cigarettes they are doing it by choice. 408 Andō, Tendaigaku: Konpon Shisō to sono Tenkai (The Theory of Tendai: the Fundamental Thought and its Development), 165-168. 161 she remains good by nature. A Buddha eradicates cultivated evil, but remains evil by nature. This is Zhiyi’s unique theoretical hypothesis. In other words, sentient beings and Buddhas remain both afflicted-and-pure and good-and-evil simultaneously. In the point of view of “Intrinsic Inclusiveness,” Buddhas and sentient beings are equal. The difference between Buddhas and sentient beings is cultivation (practice). According to Ziporyn’s summary of Zhiyi's Guanyin Xuanyi, the Buddha-nature, inherently includes not only good but also evil; icchantikas eliminate good in practice but not in their nature, while Buddhas eliminate evil in practice but not in their nature.409 One asks that if Buddha eliminates cultivated evil and operates his supernatural power to utilize evil to save sentient beings, first is the need to have the thought arise. This is like people drawing a picture who need to design or conceive; however, this is not like an object put in front of mirror, which automatically appears in the mirror. If Buddha has arisen the (evil) thought, how is it different from non-Buddhists? Zhiyi explains that an icchantika possesses good virtues possessed by nature and the good will mature when he encounters good causes and conditions. Buddha possesses evil by nature; the motive of salvation of sentient beings influences him (Buddha) to go to Avīci hell, and cooperation with the hell sentient beings leads them into the truth. It is called unceasing because of evil by nature. It is called not constant because it lacks any cultivated evil.410 If “evil by nature” and “cultivated evil” are all extinguished, it is elimination. This cannot be called unceasing or non-constant. An icchantika possesses good by nature and 409 Brook Anthony Ziporyn, What's So Good About Evil: Value and Anti-value in Tiantai Thought and its Antecedents (University of Michigan, 1996), 504. Ziporyn, Evil and/or/as the Good: Omnicentrism, Intersubjectivity and Value Paradox in Tiantai Buddhist Thought, 254-256. 410 T. no. 1726, 34: 882c29-883a06. Guanyin Xuanyi Vol. 1. 162 he still keeps the wholesome roots. Buddha possesses evil by nature. Even if he uses the dharma of evil, he is still pure which means that Buddha utilizes evil to cooperate with evil sentient beings for the purpose of leading them to accomplish the Buddha-way. When he reaches evil, he reaches the region of reality 實際. He can then liberate people from five heinous crimes 五逆. There is neither bond nor liberation. This demonstrates that Buddha practices wrong ways 非道411 to accomplish the Buddha-way. The icchantika is in affliction and cannot apprehend the realm of reality. This is the difference between Buddha and an icchantika. 412 The “Buddha being evil by nature” theory is the consequential development of Zhiyi’s Tiantai teaching of “Intrinsic Inclusiveness.” According to this worldview, the theory of “Intrinsic Inclusiveness” denotes the mutual containment of the Ten Realms. Why is the mutual containment of the Ten Realms so significant? It is because the lower realms have the possibility to go up to the Buddha realm. In addition, the Buddha realm has the opportunity to save the lower realms. The mutual containment of the Ten Realms provides the path of connection. In the dharma teaching point of cessation and clear observation, “Intrinsic Inclusiveness” develops the dharma teaching of “in one thought to survey or embrace the Three Thousand Worlds.” In addition, in the theory of the Buddhabody, “Intrinsic Inclusiveness” develops into the theory of “the Buddha being evil by nature,” which means Buddhas eliminate cultivated evil but possess evil by nature. This kind of thought appears in Weimojing Xuan Shu, Jingming Xuanyi 淨名玄義, and Guanyin Xuanyi. In addition, Fahua Xuanyi expresses this kind of thought. The Buddha 411 Wrong ways, heterodox view, or doctrines. 412 T. no. 1726, 34: 882a06-883a11. Guanyin Xuanyi Vol. 1. 163 is not only simply good or evil, but both good and evil, which demonstrates that there is no difference with the development of the icchantika to the 51 stage of a bodhisattva. Therefore, as the icchantika also possesses good by nature as well as cultivated evil, whether or not he can get a response from the Buddhas depends on his or her adaptation to capacities.413 The importance of these theories for my dissertation and my central research questions can be found in the fact that these theories are the cause of the dynamic mind, which show the dynamism of the mind and how flexible the mind is. Here I want to utilize Ziporyn’s opinion mentioned in Evil And/Or/As the Good to explain the profound meaning of good and evil. He thinks that “good” is the “includer,” and “evil” is the included. “Evil” is a necessity of achieved “good.” In addition, “Evil” can be overcome by dwelling in it (evil). Once you focus on “evil” directly, it vanishes.414 Ziporyn continues to argue about evil and suffering as follows. In Buddhism, “suffering” and “evil” are the same thing. Zhiyi utilizes the example of those who were forced to serve in the king’s army. This will transgress the precept against killing. Zhiyi recommends that they practice in the midst of this evil.415 It actually makes Buddhism 413 Andō, Tendaigaku: Konpon Shisō to sono Tenkai, 409-416. 414 Ziporyn, Evil and/or/as the Good: Omnicentrism, Intersubjectivity and Value Paradox in Tiantai Buddhist Thought, 364-366. 415 T 46.19a-b: "When in the due course of time political unrest appears and one is bound by service to the king and thus unable to practice good; [in such circumstances the Buddha] had one practice concentration and insight in the midst of evil. . . But at present there is no such unrest, and you are unbound by any such constraints; you are lucky enough to have access to an easy crossing, a good road on which to drive your flock—why then follow a difficult road?" This translation comes from Ziporyn, Evil and/or/as the Good: Omnicentrism, Intersubjectivity and Value Paradox in Tiantai Buddhist Thought, 451. 164 less threatening to the state and the moral status quo. The doctrine effectively nullifies any positive social use for Buddhism.416 Ziporyn has some further discussion about the evil as follows. Moreover, due to the intersubjective dynamics of the Tiantai system, it is never just one way or the other…It is in this sense, then, that Zhili, developing certain tendencies in Zhiyi, recommends knowingly doing evil. That is, to take false views as one's attendants or to perform heretical practices enjoined by the devil, not in the ignorant belief that one is acting rightly, not in the belief that there are no such things as good and evil, that all actions are blameless and equally value-free, but rather, to do evil while knowing that it is really wrong—but also, for that very reason, that it is really right and really both and really neither. This is based on the belief that to do evil knowingly is a way of overcoming evil, while preserving it in a new, glorified form; it is a way of sublating evil. This is, of course, predicated on a particular concept of "evil." "Knowingly" here means to know that evil is identical to and inherently included in the nature, and thus that it is identical to good and to neither-goodnor-evil. This evil is, however, at the same time evil, in the sense of being opposed to the good. This simultaneity is made possible, as described above, by the elaboration of the Threefold Truth into the doctrine of upāya, which brings with it the joke-like structure of set-up and punch line and the simultaneity of subjective states of the intersubjective dialogue. It is these two structures that ultimately make possible this doctrine of knowingly doing evil qua evil. Indeed, if it is not known as evil, it is useless to do it. On the metalevel, then, evil is only really bad when it is thought to be good. But once evil is known to be evil, it then really is something good. When one further comprehends this, one knows the evil to be both evil and, so comprehended, to be good. Thus the original "regarding evil as good," which was the meta-level evil, is here redeemed—it too turns out to be good. This is another instance of the set-up / punch line structure of upāya, which both retains and overcomes the contrast between good and evil, between provisional and ultimate, between anti-value and value.417 Zhiyi professes that where there is evil, there is good. This idea bridges the gap between the Buddha realm and the other nine realms, especially the lower six realms; in which the rescue of sentient beings is imaginabale. This is the characteristic of Zhiyi’s 416 Ziporyn, Evil and/or/as the Good: Omnicentrism, Intersubjectivity and Value Paradox in Tiantai Buddhist Thought, 369-373. 417 Ziporyn, 2000. Evil and/or/as the Good: Omnicentrism, Intersubjectivity and Value Paradox in Tiantai Buddhist Thought, 382-384. 165 hands-on and ruthful style. This connects Zhiyi’s opinion of Buddhānusmṛti (mindfulness of Buddha), which allows for the possibility of salvation. This concept of evil and good equality is also mentioned in Fahua Xuanyi Vol. 5. In Fahua Xuanyi Vol. 5, Zhiyi estimates that evil essential nature and characteristic 惡性相 is similar to good essential nature and characteristics 善性相. Because there is evil, there is good. Where there is no evil, there is no good. For example, in the bamboo there is the nature of fire. Before the bamboo is burned, the nature of fire is recessive. It is not in the state of burning. If the causes and conditions match, bamboo can be burned. Evil is the quality of (moral) goodness 善性. Evil and good are only the matter of revealing or concealing. If evil reveals, good will be concealed. If good reveals, evil will be concealed. If good is achieved, evil will not exist. If evil is accomplished, good will not arise. This is like bamboo catches fire; the fire burns the bamboo down. Good is in the evil. If good is completed, evil is destroyed. Therefore, evil essential nature and characteristics are the same as good essential nature and characteristics.418 Why evil essential nature and characteristics are the same as good essential nature and characteristics? It is because the essential nature and characteristics of evil and good are Emptiness. Evil cannot obstruct Emptiness, neither good can obstruct Emptiness. Zhiyi raises some examples in Mohe Zhiguan Vol. two to clarify those sentient beings that are in a mundane world filled with hindrances to enlightenment. This does not mean that the sentient beings cannot practice to get enlightened. If sentient beings slack and develop evil livelihood, there is no opportunity to cut off the cycle of birth-and-death. However, if sentient beings can meditate, there is a possibility to get enlightenment. 418 T. no. 1716, 33: 743c26-744a03. Fahua Xuanyi Vol. 5. 166 During Śākyamuni’s time, there were laypeople that practiced Buddhism together with their spouses. Ministers in a monarchy can practice Buddhism to get to enlightenment. In addition, Aṇgulimālya 央掘魔羅 attained enlightenment despite assassinating 999 persons; Vasumitra 婆須蜜 noted as a libertine performed pure practices, while Devadatta 提婆達多 embraced erroneous views instead of correct views. If evil is only all evil, these people will never have an opportunity to get into the path. Because in evil there is the path, these people at least have an opportunity to become a sage. Therefore, evil does not obstruct the path.419 What is the path? The path is Emptiness. Evil cannot obstruct Emptiness. There is opportunity to convert evil into good. How can it function? There is some technical skill. In Buddhism, it is meditation. How can meditation function? In next paragraph, it will be described. Zhiyi utilizes an example to explain that evil does not obstruct the path in Mohe Zhiguan Vol. 2. Sentient beings have plentiful desires, which are defiled and tough. If they want to have antidotes to deal with them, the problems turn out to be worse. If they relax the effort to correct the problems, then dealing with the problems will be like fishing. If the fish is big and strong and the fishing line is weedy, one should first let the fish swallow the bait and then let the fish swim as far as it can. Later, one can catch the fish when it is tired. Here the desires are just like the fish. Meditation is like the bait. Finally, one can transform the desires into wisdom.420 419 T. no. 1911, 46: 17c12-19. Mohe Zhiguan Vol. 2. 420 T. no. 1911, 46: 17c22-29. Mohe Zhiguan Vol. 2. 167 Since one can transform the desires into wisdom, the sentient beings have opportunities to improve themselves. The sentient beings who are in the lower realms can progress themselves into the higher realms. Therefore, there is no nature. If there is nature, it is Emptiness. Every beings are Emptiness. From the perspective of ideology, Zhiyi’s “evil by nature,” “good by nature,” and “Intrinsic Inclusiveness” open the perspective of Buddha-nature and mind. “Good and evil” is an issue which must be understood within the context of traditional Chinese philosophy. The Middle Way is one of the important teachings of Mahāyāna Buddhism. Zhiyi merges these two and creates a new perspective. Zhiyi’s “evil by nature” demonstrates a functional and benevolent viewpoint to eliminate the worry about whether an icchantika can become Buddha or not. According to Zhiyi, an icchantika can become Buddha if its causes and conditions align because an icchantika does not cut off “good by nature.” From the perspective of practice, this “evil by nature” concept validates the view that there is no fundamental difference between mind, Buddha, and sentient being. Moreover, it allows sentient beings to gain confidence when they practice Buddhism. Furthermore, when one encounters difficulties in practice, it converts the difficulty into Buddhas’ or Bodhisattvas’ encouragement. However, this “evil by nature” concept should not be utilized unless one reaches a certain level. From the examples of Aṇgulimālya, Vasumitra, Devadatta, etc. when one perceives some “evil,” it should not be immediately criticized.421 Juetai Shi 釋覺泰, “Tiantai ‘Xinge’ Sixiang zhi Yihan yu Bianzheng 天台「性惡」思想之義涵與辨正,” in Zhongguo Fojiao Xueshu Lundian Lundian 中國佛敎學術論典 (Gaoxiong: Fo Guang Shan Wen Jiao Ji Jin Hui, 2004), 91: 456-458. 421 168 As a result, Zhiyi’s opinion of “natural inclusion of both good and evil 性具善惡” is an important theoretical improvement in Buddhism. In addition, he inherits and develops Chinese traditional concepts of mind. His creation of the theory of mind is both significant in Buddhism and Chinese philosophy.422 Zhiyi defines good and evil in Mohe Zhiguan Vol. 2.423 Yang Weizhong argues that here Zhiyi’s standard of good and evil is based on the theory of liberation, which means everything that can help liberation is good and everything that obstructs liberation is bad. What is the absolute good in Zhiyi’s opinion? Zhiyi set the standard in Reality. Therefore, good is to follow the Reality. Evil is to violate the Reality.424 There is another angle to understand good and evil. One may think that Zhiyi tries to utilize “natural inclusion of both good and evil” to explain “mutual containment of the Ten Realms” and “the Three Thousand Worlds in an Instant of Thought” 一念三千.425 There is a small problem about who creates “evil by nature?” Satō Tetsuei 佐藤哲英 in his Tendai Daishi no Kenkyū: Chigi o no Chosaku ni Kansuru Kisoteki Kenkyū 天台大師の研究: 智顗の著作に關する基礎的硏究 (The research of the Grand Master Tiantai: According to the basis research of Zhiyi’s work), argues that “evil by nature” is the supreme teaching of Intrinsic Inclusiveness. This teaching is taught obviously in Guanyin Fenglei Zhang 張風雷, “Zhiyi Fojiao Zhexue Shu Ping 智顗佛敎哲學述評,” in Zhongguo Fojiao Xueshu Lundian 中國佛敎學術論典, 5: 214-215. 422 423 T. no. 1911, 46: 17b17- c03. Mohe Zhiguan Vol. 2. Weizhong Yang 楊維中, “Xinxing yu Foxing: Zhongguo Fojiao Xinxing Lun ji qi Xiangguan Wenti Yanjiu 心性與佛性: 中國佛敎心性論及其相關問題硏究,” in Zhongguo Fojiao Xueshu Lundian 中國佛敎學術論典 (Gaoxiong: Fo Guang Shan Wen Jiao Ji Jin Hui, 2001), 12: 158-160. 424 Yonghai Lai 賴永海, Zhongguo Foxing Lun 中國佛性論 in Zhongguo Fojiao Xueshu Lundian 中國佛敎學術論典, (Gaoxiong: Fo Guang Shan Wen Jiao Ji Jin Hui, 2001), 1: 125-126. 425 169 Xuanyi. Guanyin Xuanyi is recorded by Zhiyi’s disciple Guanding 灌頂 preached by Zhiyi. Therefore, Satō considers that Guanding is the one who creates the teaching of “evil by nature.”426 This question still leaves plenty of room for debate. For example, Andō Toshio in his Tendai Shōgu Shisōron 天台性具思想論 approves that “evil by nature” is the creation of Zhiyi.427 Andō Toshio has another opinion about Zhiyi’s source of evil by nature as follows. Andō discusses the source of “evil by nature,” which comes from the thought that all things arise from the Tathāgatagarbha, or bhūtatathatā 如來藏緣起. In the sūtras and śāstras discussed Tathāgatagarbha, such as Śrīmālā-sijha-nāda-sūtra 勝鬘大方便方廣經, they deliberate the Tathāgata womb or store as the source of all things, which means pureness or contamination, good or bad, all generated things are in the Tathāgatagarbha. These sūtras and śāstras admit that the causes of sufferings, which are treated as evil, have the meaning to exist. From the mundane world, the experience is actually built. From the point of Tathāgatagarbha view, ignorance no longer is accidental; but ignorance becomes original substance, which exists as the consequential meaning. Zhiyi is inspired by the idea that the Tathāgatagarbha embraces the deluded part. He systematizes the concepts of “completely interpenetrated,” “the Three Thousand Worlds in an Instant of Thought,” “Intrinsic Inclusiveness,” and “Tathāgatagarbha embraces the deluded part;” thus, he creates the idea of “evil by nature.”428 Satō 佐藤哲英, Tendai Daishi no Kenkyū: Chigi o no Chosaku ni Kansuru Kisoteki Kenkyū 天台大師の研究: 智顗の著作に關する基礎的硏究, 494-496. 426 427 Andō, Tendai Shōgu Shisōron, 78-81. 428 Andō, Tendai Shōgu Shisōron, 82-89. 170 Tamura’s 田村芳朗 utilizes existentialist’s opinion to evaluate Zhiyi’s works. For example, Fahua Xuanyi Vol. 5, Vol. 8, Guanyin Xuanyi Vol. 1, etc. which discuss icchantika cutting off all cultivation of goodness, but still maintaining the good by nature and Buddha cutting off all cultivated evil, but still preserving evil by nature.429 In Chen’s 陳英善 Tiantai Yuanqi Zhongdao Shixiang Lun 天台緣起中道實相論, she discusses that some modern scholars think that “evil by nature” is the one of the characteristics of Tiantai theories, such as Andō Toshio, Satō Tetsuei, Huiyue, Mou Zongsan, Zhang Rueiliang 張瑞良.430 In addition, Gyōei Fukuda 福田堯穎 is also like these scholars above.431 She argues that Andō Toshio, Zhang Rueiliang, Huiyue, Satō Tetsuei, etc. discuss “evil by nature” from the viewpoint of ontology. The problem here is that they misunderstood “nature” as “Buddha-nature as Proper or Objective Cause,” which is related to Reality. In Guanyin Xuanyi Vol. 1, the nature is related to “Buddhanature as Revealing Cause” and “Buddha-nature as Conditioning Cause,” but not “Buddha-nature as Proper or Objective Cause.” All these “natural capacity for good” 性德善, “natural capacity for evil” 性德惡, “good by nature” 性善, and “evil by nature” 性惡 should be deliberated to relate to conditions. The purpose of “Buddha-nature as Revealing Cause” and “Buddha-nature as Conditioning Cause” is to exhibit “Buddha- Yoshirō Tamura 田村芳朗, and Kōryū Tada 多田厚隆, Tendai Hongakuron 天台本覺論 (Tōkyō: Iwanami Shoten 岩波書店, 1973), 494-495. 429 430 Those scholars and references to their works are as follows: Andō, Tendai Shōgu Shisōron and Tendaigaku: Konpon Shisō to sono Tenkai; Satō 佐藤哲英, Tendai Daishi no Kenkyū: Chigi o no Chosaku ni Kansuru Kisoteki Kenkyū 天台大師の研究: 智顗の著作に關する基礎的硏究; Huiyue 釋慧嶽, Tiantai Jiao Xue Shi 天台教學史; Mou 牟宗三, Foxing yu Bore 佛性與般若; and Zhang Rueiliang 張瑞良, “Tiantai Zhizhe Dashi de Rulai Xingeishuo zhi Tanjiu 天台智者大師的如來性惡說之探究,” National Taiwan University Philosophical Review no.9 (1986): 99. 431 Fukuda 福田堯穎, Tian Tai Xue Gai Lun 天台學概論, 298-300. 171 nature as Proper or Objective Cause,” which is neither good, nor evil, neither good-andevil, and neither non-good nor non-evil. Because “Buddha-nature as Revealing Cause” and “Buddha-nature as Conditioning Cause” are cause and conditions, they are not self. If one utilizes Emptiness, Provisional Positing, Middle Way to explain “Buddha-nature as Proper or Objective Cause,” “Buddha-nature as Revealing Cause,” and “Buddha-nature as Conditioning Cause;” then “Buddha-nature as Proper or Objective Cause” represents Middle Way, “Buddha-nature as Conditioning Cause” represents Provisional Positing, and “Buddha-nature as Revealing Cause” represents Emptiness. “Buddha-nature as Proper or Objective Cause,” “Buddha-nature as Revealing Cause,” and “Buddha-nature as Conditioning Cause” cannot abandon one another. Therefore, one cannot discard “Buddha-nature as Revealing Cause,” and “Buddha-nature as Conditioning Cause” to discuss “Buddha-nature as Proper or Objective Cause.” However, in the case of “evil by nature,” it stands on the point of view of “Buddha-nature as Revealing Cause” and “Buddha-nature as Conditioning Cause” to display “Buddha-nature as Proper or Objective Cause.” This should not be misunderstood.432 Consequently, evil by nature should be discussed in Buddha-nature as Revealing Cause and Buddha-nature as Conditioning Cause. It should not be discussed in Buddhanature as Proper or Objective Cause. 5.3.3. Conclusion Zhiyi discusses “evil by nature” in Weimojing Xuan Shu, Jingming Xuanyi, Guanyin Xuanyi and Fahua Xuanyi, which is taught as icchantika cut off from all cultivation of goodness, but still maintaining the good by nature and Buddha cut off from all cultivated 432 Chen 陳英善, Tiantai Yuanqi Zhongdao Shixiang Lun 天台緣起中道實相論, 365-401. 172 evil, but still preserving evil by nature. Zhiyi’s standard of good and evil is based on the theory of liberation, which means everything that can help liberation is good. At the meta-level, Zhiyi professes that evil turns out to be good, which is the structure of upāya. Good is in the evil. Therefore, evil essential nature and characteristics are good essential nature and characteristics. Consequentially, evil does not obstruct the path. This is his pragmatic and warm-hearted outlook which are the bridges between the Buddha realm and the other realms. This makes the salvation of sentient beings possible. There is, therefore, a possibility that icchantika can become Buddha. 5.4. Conclusion This chapter has discussed Threefold Buddha-nature, whether the mind is good or evil, and whether the icchantika can become a Buddha or not. As to the Threefold Buddha-nature the absolute and real, the bhūtatathatā is Buddha-nature as Proper or Objective Cause. Meditation upon and understanding of it is Buddha-nature as Revealing Cause. The extension of this understanding to all its workings is Buddha-nature as Conditioning Cause. The Lotus Sūtra mentions that Sadāparibhūta did not dare to depreciate the sentient beings and the sentient beings will become Buddha. This is Buddha-nature as Proper or Objective Cause. It also mentions that the four varga (groups, or orders) orally read the scriptures. This is Buddha-nature as Revealing Cause. As for cultivating merits, this is Buddha-nature as Conditioning Cause. The ordinary sentient beings are the family of the Tathāgata, which is Buddhanature as Proper or Objective Cause. Enlightenment is Buddha-nature as Revealing Cause. Liberation is Buddha-nature as Conditioning Cause. If these Threefold Buddha-natures collaborate closely and properly, they can achieve enlightenment. 173 To contemplate the mind as the means is Buddha-nature as Proper or Objective Cause. To contemplate on the mind as emptiness is Buddha-nature as Revealing Cause. Zhiyi identifies Threefold Buddha-nature with “golden light” through the three virtues or powers, and through the three consciousnesses (amala-vijñāna, ālayavijñāna, ādānavijñāna), which all contain the quality of permanence, bliss, self, and purity. The twelve limbs of Dependent Origination are Threefold Buddha-nature. In cause, it is called Threefold Buddha-nature. In effect, it is called the three virtues or powers of nirvāṇa. To treat the twelve limbs of Dependent Origination as suchness, ghanaika-sāra is Buddhanature as Proper or Objective Cause. If one can transfer ignorance into knowledge, this is because Buddha-nature as Revealing Cause. If one can transfer unwholesome behavior into wholesome behavior, this is because Buddha-nature as Conditioning Cause. In the second section, I demonstrate that Zhiyi discusses “evil by nature” in Weimojing Xuan Shu, Jingming Xuanyi, Guanyin Xuanyi and Fahua Xuanyi. Zhiyi debates that Icchantika cut off all cultivation of goodness, but still maintain good by nature. Buddha cut off all cultivated evil, but still preserved evil by nature. In Mou Zongsan’s opinion, this “nature” means “teaching.” Jian Chen argues that Zhiyi thought there was no “good teaching,” but only “evil teaching” during his (Zhiyi’s) time, because Zhiyi believed it was the age decline of the Dharma. The “Buddha being evil by nature” theory is the consequential development of Zhiyi’s Tiantai teaching of “Intrinsic Inclusiveness.” According to this worldview, the theory of “Intrinsic Inclusiveness” denotes the mutual containment of the Ten Realms. The mutual containment of the Ten Realms is so significant because the lower realms have the possibility to go up to the Buddha realm. In addition, the Buddha realm has the 174 opportunity to save the lower realms. The mutual containment of the Ten Realms provides the path of connection. I then utilized Ziporyn’s opinion in Evil And/Or/As the Good to explain the profound meaning of good and evil. “Evil” is a necessity to achieve “good.” In Buddhism, there is a specific meaning of “suffering” which means “evil.” On the meta-level, once evil is known to be evil, it then really is something good. This is one of the structures of upāya. Evil and good are only the matter of revealing or concealing: when evil reveals, good will be concealed; when good reveals, evil will be concealed; when good is achieved, evil will not exist; and when evil is accomplished, good will not disclose. This is like when bamboo catches fire, then fire burns down the bamboo. Because there is the path in evil, people have an opportunity to become a sage. Therefore, evil does not obstruct the path. Andō Toshio argues that the most unique aspect of the Tiantai “Intrinsic Inclusiveness” theory is “evil by nature.” The theory of “evil by nature” demonstrates that the Buddha is evil in some parts. However, Zhiyi bravely argues that if the Buddha does not remain “evil by nature,” he cannot save sentient beings skillfully, which not only confused the other schools but also confused the Tiantai followers. In Chen’s Tiantai Yuanqi Zhongdao Shixiang Lun, she discusses that some modern scholars think that “evil by nature” is one of the characteristics of Tiantai theories, such as those represented by numerous previous scholars. She discusses how they utilize “evil by nature” from the viewpoint of ontology. The problem here is their misunderstanding of “nature” as “Buddha-nature as Proper or Objective Cause,” which is related to Reality. The nature is 175 related to “Buddha-nature as Revealing Cause” and “Buddha-nature as Conditioning Cause;” but not “Buddha-nature as Proper or Objective Cause.” Here, I want to make a conclusion about Zhiyi’s dynamic mind which is mentioned in previous chapters. The dynamic mind is like the organism. In human beings’ bodies, there are numerous chemical functions to keep the lives harmoniously. Those functions as to human beings’ bodies are like “the intention of mind, the extension of mind, the cause of dynamic mind, and the natures about dynamic mind” as to the mind. The mind is also like the space. Zhiyi’s system displays his realistic and charitable approach which bridges the gap between the Buddha realm and the other realms. This makes the salvation of sentient beings possible. This is the serial thought of Zhiyi about Buddhists practice which guarantees that current Buddhists become future Buddhas. This will lead to what Zhiyi thinks about Buddhānusmṛti (mindfulness of Buddha), which will be discussed in Chapter 6 and 7. 176 CHAPTER SIX Zhiyi’s Opinions about Dynamic Mind and Buddhānusmṛti 6.1. Introduction The Avataṃsaka sūtra says that one mind of each sentient being is Buddha mind. All Pure Land433 or deluded land depend on this one mind. Emptiness, Provisional Positing, and Middle Way not only exist in all phenomena, but also exist in the one mind. Zhiyi develops the idea of mutual containment of Ten Realms, Hundred Realms, and Thousand Realms. And then he develops this further into one thought embracing the Three Thousand Worlds. In other words, this mind mutually contains the Three Thousand Worlds, which is titled Intrinsic Inclusiveness. These Three Thousand Worlds are in the one mind. ‘Be one mind, Be Pure Land’ is Intrinsic Inclusiveness in each sentient being’s mind. How do sentient beings purify their Mind? In Chapter 7, I discuss how Zhiyi utilizes his opinion about Amitābha Buddha’s Pure Land and Buddhānusmṛti to lead sentient beings to purify their minds. Zhiyi emphasizes both Self-power and Other-power. On the one hand, in Zhiyi’s huge Tiantai system, he demonstrates the supremacy of Self-power. On the other hand, he emphasizes the blissing of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas to demonstrate Other-power. For example, he composes the rules for confession and pardon 懺儀. In these rules for confession and pardon, he releases his faith in Buddhas and Bodhisattvas. Especially, at the end of his life, he put his faith in Amitābha Buddha’s Pure Land, believing and commiting to be reborn there. In his Mohe Zhiguan, he mentions four kinds of samādhi. 433 The pure land, i.e. Buddha-land. 177 The first i.e., constantly sitting samādhi and second i.e., pratyutpannasamādhi (constantly walking samādhi) are about the absorption of the mindfulness of the Buddha 念佛三昧. Furthermore, in Southern Sung Zhili defined Tiantai Pure Land clearly.434 In addition, the Pure Land patriarchate was the creation of two Tiantai monks in the Southern Sung period.435 These were all influenced by Zhiyi. In the practice of pratyutpannasamādhi, Lushan Hueiyuan 廬山慧遠 emphasizes meditation on Buddha’s features and merits, but not on Amitābha Buddha’s name. However, Zhiyi adds the name of Buddha, specifically Amitābha Buddha, into meditation (practice of pratyutpannasamādhi). This means by chanting or being mindful of Amitābha Buddha’s name, the meditation becomes a specific kind of practice. Zhiyi also put this method into the practice of constantly sitting samādhi. However, most modern scholars ignore the part of Zhiyi’s opinion of Amitābha Buddha’s Pure Land and are attracted to Zhiyi’s brilliant Tiantai system. Only a few scholars such as Mochizuki Shinkō,436 Andō Toshio,437 Zhang Tingshi 張廷仕438 etc. pay attention to Zhiyi’s opinion 434 Daniel Aaron Getz, Siming Zhili and Tiantai Pure Land in the Song Dynasty (New Haven: Yale University, 1994), 164. Daniel A. Getz, “T’ien-t’ai Pure Land Societies and the Creation of the Pure Land Patriarchate,” in Buddhism in the Sung, ed. Peter N. Gregory et al. (Honolulu: University of Hawaii, 1999), 477-523. 435 Shinkō Mochizuki 望月信亨, Zhongguo Jingtu Jiaoli Shi 中國淨土教理史, trans. Yinhai fa shi, (Taipei: Yan Kuanhu Wen Jiao Ji Jin Hui, 2004), 92-93. 436 Toshio Andō 安藤俊雄, Tendai Shisōshi 天台思想史 (The History of Tendai’s Thought) (Kyōto: Hōzōkan, 1959). 437 Tingshi Zhang 張廷仕, “Zhiyi de Jingtu Sixiang 智顗的浄土思想 (Zhiyi’s Pure Land Thoughts),” in Zhongguo Fojiao Xueshu Lundian 中國佛敎學術論典 (Gaoxiong: Fo Guang Shan Wen Jiao Ji Jin Hui, 2001), 23: 359-378. 438 178 of Amitābha Buddha’s Pure Land. According to Fozu Tongji 佛祖統紀,439 Wangshengji 往生集, Xugaosengzhuan 續高僧傳 or the Tanggaosengzhuan 唐高僧傳, etc. Tiantai school’s Guanding 灌頂, Faxi 法喜, Dengguan 等觀, Fajun 法俊, Fazhi 法智, etc. practiced being mindful of Amitābha Buddha and committed to be reborn into Amitābha Buddha’s Pure Land. This was influenced by Zhiyi. In addition, Shandao 善導, Huiri 慧日, Fazhao 法照, all practiced pratyutpannasamādhi, which is also influenced by Zhiyi.440 Some Pure Land works are related by Zhiyi, such as Guan Wuliangshoufo Jing Shu, Amituo Jiang Yiji 阿彌陀經義記, Jingtu shiyi lun 淨土十疑論, Wufangbian Nianfo Men 五方便念佛門, Nianfo chanmen sijiao linian 念佛禪門四教離念, Chuli shengsi yaowen 出離生死要文, Xifang jingye wen 西方淨業文, Fayuanwen 發願文, Weimojing Wenshu 28 volumes, Fahua Sanmei Chanyi 法華三昧懺儀, Mohe Zhiguan 10 volumes etc. However, there are some problems with these works as to whether they truly belonged to Zhiyi or not. In the first section of this chapter the philology of Zhiyi’s works will be discussed. In the second section of this chapter, Zhiyi’s opinion about the three bodies of the Buddha, and the four Buddha-kṣetra, or realms will be discussed. Zhiyi in his Fahua Wenju Vol. 9 discusses the opinion of the Three Bodies of Buddha. How Zhiyi named these three bodies i.e., nirmāṇakāya, sambhogakāya and dharmakāya are adopted later. Zhiyi also discusses that one body is three bodies i.e., nirmāṇakāya, sambhogakāya and 439 T. no. 2035, 49: 271c01-15. Fozu Tongji. 440 Mochizuki 望月信亨, Zhongguo Jingtu Jiaoli Shi 中國淨土教理史, 191. 179 dharmakāya, which Zhiyi usually utilizes as one in three and three in one. In Zhiyi’s Weimojing Wenshu and Weimojing Xuan Shu, he discusses that there are four kinds of Buddha realms, which are also adopted later. First are realms where all classes dwell 染淨國凡聖共居 (凡聖居同土). Second are temporary realms 方便有餘土. Third are realms of permanent reward and freedom 實報無障礙土. Fourth are realms of eternal rest, wisdom and dharmakāya 常寂光土. 6.2. Philology about Zhiyi’s Pure Land Works 6.2.1. Introduction Zhiyi has some works related to the Pure Land theory, such as Guan Wuliangshoufo Jing Shu, Amituo Jiang Yiji 阿彌陀經義記, Jingtu shiyi lun 淨土十疑論, Wufangbian Nianfo Men 五方便念佛門, Nianfo chanmen sijiao linian 念佛禪門四教離念, Chuli shengsi yaowen 出離生死要文, Xifang jingye wen 西方淨業文, Fayuanwen 發願文, Weimojing Wenshu 28 volumes, Weimojing Lueshu 10 volumes, Jinguangming Jing Xuanyi two volumes, Jinguangming jing wenj six volumes, Qing Guanyin Jingshu 請觀音經疏, Fahua Xuanyi Vol. seven, Fahua Sanmei Chanyi 法華三昧懺儀 and Mohe Zhiguan 10 volumes. There are some questions related to the philology about Zhiyi’s Pure Land works. Even during C.E. 1185 to 1333 (Kamakura era 鎌倉時代かまくらじだい), C.E. 1868 to 1912 (Meiji era 明治時代めいじじだい), and C.E. 1912 to 1926 (Taisyou era 大正時代たいしょうじだい) some questions arose which doubted whether these works were really Zhiyi’s. Before starting to research Zhiyi’s opinion about Buddhānusmṛti, the related philology should be studied. In the next section, the philology 180 about Zhiyi’s Pure Land works will be examined. After this investigation, the counterfeit of Zhiyi’s Pure Land works will not be utilized as the primary source in the rest of the dissertation. 6.2.2. Philology about Zhiyi’s Pure Land Works Some modern scholars have done research about Zhiyi’s Pure Land works, such as Toshio Andō, Huanzhong Han 韓煥忠,441 Shinko Mochizuki (望月信亨モチヅキ, シンキョウ), Guiming Pan 潘桂明, Zhongwei Wu 吴忠伟, Tingshi Zhang, Tetsuei Satō, Gisen Shioda, etc. They are in different levels of agreement about whether Guan Wuliangshoufo Jing Shu, Amituo Jiang Yiji, Jingtu shiyi lun, Wufangbian Nianfo Men, Nianfo chanmen sijiao linian, Chuli shengsi yaowen, Xifang jingye wen, Fayuanwen, etc. are Zhiyi’s Pure Land works. As to Zhiyi’s Guan Wuliangshoufo Jing Shu, in Toshio Andō’s 安藤俊雄 Tendai Shisōshi 天台思想史, he argues that Zhiyi’s Guan Wuliangshoufo Jing Shu is very similar to Jingying Huiyuan’s 淨影慧遠 (C.E. 523-592) Guan wuliangshou jing yishu 觀無量壽經義疏.442 Satō Tetsuei also discusses this problem in his Tendai Daishi no Kenkyū: Chigi o no Chosaku ni Kansuru Kisoteki Kenkyū. He mentions that there are some scholars such as Shaku Seitan (釋清潭シャク, セイタン),443 Uesugi Bunshū (上杉 Huanzhong Han 韓煥忠, “Tiantai Panjiao Lun: yi "Fahua Xuanyi" Weizhu 天台判敎論: 以《法華玄義》為主,” in Zhongguo Fojiao Xueshu Lundian 中國佛敎學術論典 (Gaoxiong: Fo Guang Shan Wen Jiao Ji Jin Hui, 2004), 92: 246-249. 441 442 Andō 安藤俊雄, Tendai Shisōshi 天台思想史 (The History of Tendai’s Thought), 343-344. Seitan Shaku, “Tendai Kanngyousyo ha Tisya no Shinsen ni Arazu 天台觀經疏 (カンギョウショ) は智者 (チシャ)の真撰に非ず(アラズ).” 443 181 文秀ウエスギ, ブンシュウ), etc. they also doubt whether this work is in fact Zhiyi’s.444 Mochizuki Shinkō in his Tyūgoku zyoudo kyouli si (中国浄土教理史チュウゴクジョウドキョウリシ) also suspects that this work is not Zhiyi’s.445 When Satō Tetsuei compares Zhiyi’s Guan Wuliangshoufo Jing Shu to Jingying Huiyuan’s Guan wuliangshou jing yishu, there are 50 similarities. Zhiyi’s Guan Wuliangshoufo Jing Shu occupies eight and a half pages in the Taishō Shinshu Daizōkyō. Jingying Huiyuan’s Guan wuliangshou jing yishu occupies 14 1/2 pages. When one compares the similarities between these two works, Zhiyi’s work is shortened or summarized from Jingying Huiyuan’s. Therefore, it can be easily perceived that this socalled work of Zhiyi’s was rather unskillfully copied. Additionally, this dull copy skilled version reveals mistakes. This is also one of the key points to demonstrate that this is not Zhiyi’s work. According to Zhiyi’s other works, he explains in the Jinguangmingjing shouliangping 金光明經壽量品, that the Buddha utilizes a Threefold Body i.e., dharmakāya, Sambhogakāya, nirmāṇakāya. Here in the Guan Wuliangshoufo Jing Shu is where Zhiyi explains that the Amitābha Buddha conflicts these rules, i.e. Threefold Body. This is evidence that proves Zhiyi’s Guan Wuliangshoufo Jing Shu is not Zhiyi’s work.446 Compared to Zhiyi’s other works (such as Fahua Xuanyi, Weimojing Xuan Shu, Jinguangming Jing Xuanyi, Guanyin Xuanyi, Renwang huguo bore jingshu, Jingang bore Satō 佐藤哲英, Tendai Daishi no Kenkyū: Chigi o no Chosaku ni Kansuru Kisoteki Kenkyū 天台大師の研究: 智顗の著作に關する基礎的硏究, 567-568. 444 445 Mochizuki 望月信亨, Zhongguo Jingtu Jiaoli Shi 中國淨土教理史, 76. Satō 佐藤哲英, Tendai Daishi no Kenkyū: Chigi o no Chosaku ni Kansuru Kisoteki Kenkyū 天台大師の研究: 智顗の著作に關する基礎的硏究, 569-584. 446 182 jingshu 金剛般若經疏, Fanwang pusa jiejing yishu), some writing styles in the Guan Wuliangshoufo Jing Shu are different. For instance, in the Jinguangming Jing Xuanyi 447 Zhiyi systematizes his work by numbers. However, in Guan Wuliangshoufo Jing Shu448 he does not utilize his style to systematize his work. Ironically he utilizes Jingying Huiyuan’s style,449 which is not rational. Based on historical record, the earliest evidence to show Zhiyi’s Guan Wuliangshoufo Jing Shu appears in C.E. 805 in Saityou’s (最澄さいちょう) Taisyūloku 台州錄えっしゅうろく.450 In summary, Zhiyi’s Guan Wuliangshoufo Jing Shu is not Zhiyi’s work, but is the work of someone later than Zhiyi; someone, probably in the Tang dynasty, composed this work and utilized Zhiyi’s name to make a counterfeit. In Pan Guiming and Wu Zhongwei’s Zhongguo Tiantai Zong Tong Shi 中国天台宗通史, they claim that Zhiyi’s Guan Wuliangshoufo Jing Shu is copied from Sui Huiyuan’s work. Zhiyi’s Jingtu shiyi lun is either cited from Xuanzhuang’s 玄奘 (C.E. 602-664) translation of Mahāyānābhidharma-samuccaya-vyākhyā 大乘阿毘達磨雜集論 or Tang dynasty Zhanran’s (C.E. 711-782) work. According to Zhiyuan’s 智圓 research in Song dynasty, Zhiyi’s Amituo Jiang Yiji is a Japanese monk’s work.451 Wufangbian Nianfo Men has five kinds of chanting. The fifth is about Huayan’s 華嚴 ‘arising from 447 T. no. 1783, 39: 10b29- c09. Jinguangming Xuanyi Vol. 1. 448 T. no. 1750, 37: 188a21- 29. Guan Wuliangshoufo Jing Shu Vol. 1. Satō 佐藤哲英, Tendai Daishi no Kenkyū: Chigi o no Chosaku ni Kansuru Kisoteki Kenkyū 天台大師の研究: 智顗の著作に關する基礎的硏究, 584-588. 449 450 T. no. 2159, 55: 1055b13-1056c04. 451 T. no. 1760, 37: 352c06-08. 183 the primal nature, or bhūtatathatā, in contrast with arising from secondary causes 性起.’ This work cites the Mahā-ratnakūta-sūtra 大寶積經, which is translated by Bodhiruci 菩提流支 (C.E. ?-727), twice.452 The Wufangbian Nianfo Men is thought to have been written after the eighth century. Zhiyi was alive from C.E. 538 to 597. Therefore, the Wufangbian Nianfo Men cannot be Zhiyi’s work. Fayuanwen is also thought to not be Zhiyi’s work. There are eight works claimed not Zhiyi’s works: Guan Wuliangshoufo Jing Shu, Jingtu shiyi lun, Amituo Jiang Yiji, Jingang bore jingshu, Sinianchu, Wufangbian Nianfo Men, Chanmenzhang 禪門章, and Puxian Pusa Fayuanwen 普賢菩薩發願文.453 As for the Jingtu shiyi lun, there are points written by Anleji’s 安樂集 in it.454 Daochuo 道綽 is Anleji’s composer who was alive from C.E. 562 to 645455 Therefore, the Jingtu shiyi lun has to have been composed after or during C.E. 645 However, Zhiyi was alive from C.E. 538-597. This work had to have been composed after or in Tang dynasty. Obviously, it cannot be Zhiyi’s work. Zhang Tingshi in his Zhiyi’s jingtu sixiang 智顗的淨土思想, also argues that the Jingtu shiyi lun is not Zhiyi’s work. One of his reasons is that in Fahua Xuanyi and Mohe Zhiguan Zhiyi used the name of Vasubandhu as Tianqin 天親; however, in Jingtu shiyi Bodhiruci, intp. as 道希, in C.E. 508 In addition, He (菩提留支, 菩提鶻露支) is still known during C.E. 534 to 537. However, after that nobody knew where he was. 452 453 Pan and Wu 潘桂明, 吴忠伟, Zhongguo Tiantai Zong Tong Shi 中国天台宗通史, 103-104 and 211. 454 Andō 安藤俊雄, Tendai Shisōshi 天台思想史 (The History of Tendai’s Thought), 343-344. Shuyu Shi 釋修優 (Mei-Yu Lin), “The Study of Nien-fo in Tao-ch'o's An-lo-chi 道綽安樂集念佛法門的研究” (MA thesis, Chung-Hwa Institute of Buddhist Studies 中華佛學研究所畢業論文, 2004), accessed Feb 02, 2004, http://www.chibs.edu.tw/ch_html/grad-th/81.pdf), 7. 455 184 lun the name of Vasubandhu as Shiqin 世親 was used. Vasubandhu as Shiqin was translated by Xuanzhuang (C.E. 600-664). In addition to this, the Jingtu shiyi lun mentions that Amitābha Buddha’s Pure Land is outside of the three regions of desire, form, and formlessness. However, in Zhiyi’s Weimojing Lueshu 維摩經略疏 he claims that Amitābha Buddha’s Pure Land is inside of the three regions of desire, form, and formlessness, which is called where saints and sinners dwell together 凡聖居同土. From these comparisons, it is obvious that Jingtu shiyi lun is not Zhiyi’s work. In Wufangbian Nianfo Men, the Mahā-ratnakūta-sūtra which was translated in C.E. 713 is cited several times. This proves that Wufangbian Nianfo Men is not Zhiyi’s work, because it is anachronism.456 In conclusion, according to the evidences above, Guan Wuliangshoufo Jing Shu, Amituo Jiang Yiji, Jingtu shiyi lun, and Wufangbian Nianfo Men are not Zhiyi’s works. Zhiyi’s Fahua Sanmei Chanyi, Mohe Zhiguan, Weimojing Wenshu, Tiantai Zhizhe dashi Fayuanwen, etc. are all related to Amitābha Buddha’s Pure Land. Fahua Sanmei Chanyi was written in the early stages of Zhiyi’s work, which means before the dhūta part of his life in Huading peak 華頂峰 (before and included C.E. 575). Mohe Zhiguan and Weimojing Wenshu were written in the later stages of Zhiyi’s works, which means after and included C.E. 585 These two are both distinguished works of Zhiyi’s.457 In the rest of the sections of Chapter 6, I will examine the Fahua Sanmei Chanyi, Mohe Zhiguan, Weimojing Wenshu, and the Tiantai Zhizhe dashi Fayuanwen. Zhang 張廷仕, “Zhiyi de Jingtu Sixiang 智顗的浄土思想 (Zhiyi’s Pure Land Thoughts),” in Zhongguo Fojiao Xueshu Lundian 中國佛敎學術論典, 23: 322-326. 456 Satō 佐藤哲英, Tendai Daishi no Kenkyū: Chigi o no Chosaku ni Kansuru Kisoteki Kenkyū 天台大師の研究: 智顗の著作に關する基礎的硏究, 24-27. 457 185 6.3. Zhiyi’s Opinion about Three Bodies of Buddha and Pure Land 6.3.1. Introduction Some of Zhiyi’s works regarding the Pure Land are the Mohe Zhiguan, Weimojing Wenshu, and the Fahua Sanmei Chanyi. In Andō’s 安藤俊雄 Tendai Shisōshi 天台思想史, he claims that Zhiyi’s opinion of Pure Land is influenced by Huisi. In the Cidi chmen 次第禪門 Zhiyi writes about the concept of pratyutpannasamādhi, a concept that he wrote about in the early stage of his life. This is one of the influences of Huisi, who taught various people, like Huichao 慧超 Huihuei 慧輝 about pratyutpannasamādhi. Huisi practiced pratyutpannasamādhi, was admired by others, and is said to be enlightened into Buddha’s wisdom within his lifetime. Obviously, Zhiyi follows Huisi’s opinion about the specific sequence of meditation (the order of certain things or steps within meditation) in the Zhufa Wuzheng Sanmei Famen. Huisi and the early stage of Zhiyi’s writings do not aspire to be reborn into Amitābha Buddha’s Pure Land completely.458 Interestingly enough, Zhiyi’s writing in the Fahua Sanmei Chanyi seems to respect being reborn into Amitābha Buddha’s Pure Land. In the latter stages of Zhiyi’s life, from age 58 to 60, he devoted himself to the Weimojing Xuan Shu and Weimojing Wenshu. At this time of his life, he is aware of his death. And then he changes his opinion from “getting enlightened into Buddha’s wisdom in this lifetime” into “to be reborn into Amitābha Buddha’s Pure Land.” 458 Andō 安藤俊雄, Tendai Shisōshi 天台思想史, 346-368. 186 Zhiyi’s four kinds of Pure Land were announced when he was 50 years old in Guangzhai Temple 光宅寺 during the first time he preached the Fahua Wenju. During this time Zhiyi utilizes the contemporaneous northern Pure Land teaching, which Amitābha Buddha is in the second highest level of the Pure Land. In Zhiyi’s later stages, he finishes teaching pratyutpannasamādhi and systemizes his Pure Land teaching. In Vol. 9 of Zhiyi’s Fahua Wenju, he discusses three bodies of the Buddha. Zhiyi discusses realms where all classes dwell, realms of expedient transformation with remainder 方便有餘土, realms of permanent reward and freedom, for those who have attained bodhisattva rank 實報莊嚴土, and realms of constant quiescence 常寂光淨土. This is within his Weimojing Wenshu and Weimojing Xuan Shu. He discusses pratyutpannasamādhi in Mohe Zhiguan. In the next section, Zhiyi’s opinion about the Pure Land will be discussed, which includes the three bodies of the Buddha, and the four Buddha-kṣetra, or realms. In addition, Guan Wuliangshoufo Jing Shu, Amituo Jiang Yiji, Jingtu shiyi lun, Wufangbian Nianfo Men, Nianfo chanmen sijiao linian, Chuli shengsi yaowen, Xifang jingye wen, and Fayuanwen will be exclusive for reasons that have been discussed in the previous section of Chapter 6. 6.3.2. What is Zhiyi’s Opinion about the Three Bodies of Buddha? Zhiyi in his Fahua Wenju Vol. 9 discusses his opinion of the Three Bodies of Buddha in a unique way. Zhiyi elucidates the dharmakāya-tathāgata 法身如來 which is the Buddha who reveals the spiritual body. The dharma of dharmakāya-tathāgata is the 187 realm of the absolute.459 The realm of the absolute is the essence of objects filled everywhere. This essence is neither causes nor conditions. No matter if there is Buddha or there is no Buddha, the essential nature and characteristic (the nature of everything and its phenomenal expression) is always like this: it fits everywhere and is not different. Additionally, it is without moving and then it arrives. This is the dharmakāya-tathāgata. Zhiyi elucidates the dharma of saṃbhogakāya-tathāgata 報身如來 as the wisdom of the absolute.460 One follows the real path of thusness 如如 to get marvelous enlightenment. The wisdom is Buddha-wisdom. The original essence of every being reveals as marvelous cognition experiences; this is saṃbhogakāya-tathāgata. According to the characteristics of phenomena 法相, it is named Tathāgata. The realm of the absolute and the wisdom of the absolute merge perfectly, which can reveal getting enlightenment everywhere. It is like quicksilver and gold can be painted in all kind of figures. Zhiyi elucidates the eight characteristics of the Buddha's life and turning the wheel of the wonderful dharma as the nirmāṇakāya-tathāgata 應身如來.461 Dharmakāya-tathāgata has neither form nor material. In addition, it cannot be visible. It is pure, and it does not have the sensation of six consciousnesses. It is nonorigination and non-extinction. It neither increases nor decreases. Saṃbhogakāyatathāgata is the result of wisdom, which has the function of meditation.This wisdom comes from all goodness and enlightenment. As to nirmāṇakāya-tathāgata, it is for the sake of salvation. Therefore, Buddha can practice four all embracing (bodhisattvas) 459 如如境. 460 如如智. 461 T. no. 1718, 34: 128a07-16. Fahua Wenju Vol. 9. 188 virtues 四攝法 in the mundane world. For example, the Śākyamuni Buddha is nirmāṇakāya-tathāgata. What is four all embracing virtues? They are giving, affectionate speech, conduct profitable to others, and cooperation with others, in order that one can lead them (others) to love and receive the truth. The threefold body of a Buddha is starting with the traces to disclose the source. The nirmāṇakāya embraces sambhogakāya and dharmakāya. The adornment of wisdom of sambhogakāya will influence the difference of nirmāṇakāya. From the difference of nirmāṇakāya, one can trace back to how premium sambhogakāya and dharmakāya are. Therefore, nirmāṇakāya is sambhogakāya and dharmakāya. In Fahua Wenju Vol. 9, Zhiyi discusses that dharmakāya, sambhogakāya, and nirmāṇakāya as one body is three bodies. These three bodies are neither one nor different. From one body one can realize the rest of the bodies’ merits, length, etc...462 This opinion of Zhiyi also fits his famous ‘three in one and one in three.’ This point of view shows that Zhiyi’s teachings are coherent. 6.3.3. What is Zhiyi’s Opinion of the Four Buddha-kṣetra? Zhiyi discusses four kinds of Buddha-kṣetra (realms). First are realms where all classes dwell 凡聖同居土. Second are temporary realms 方便有餘土. Third are realms of permanent reward and freedom 實報無障礙土. Fourth is the realm of eternal rest, light (i.e., wisdom), and of dharmakāya 常寂光土.463 Zhiyi discusses these four kinds of Buddha realms which are very similar to Jingying Huiyuan’s in content. However, they are different in names. Jingying Huiyuan 462 T. no. 1718, 34: 129a01-03. Fahua Wenju Vol. 9. 463 T. no. 1778, 38: 564a28-564b28. Weimojing Lueshu Vol. 1. 189 was in the northern medieval China. Zhiyi was in the southern medieval China. Zhiyi was 15 years younger than Jingying Huiyuan. It is difficult to say whether Zhiyi copied Jingying Huiyuan’s opinions or not. It is because in medieval China the traffic was not so convenient. In addition, Zhiyi preached his teaching and his disciples recorded for him. It could be the popular opinions at that period of time.464 The lower six realms are defiled. Three Vehicles (śrāvakas, pratyekabuddha, bodhisattvas) are pure. These Nine Realms dwelling together are named realms where all classes dwell. The defiled ones are divided into two groups: one group is in the lower four realms (four evil destinies 四惡道). And the other group is divine beings and human beings. The four evil destinies and human beings can dwell in sahā. The human beings, divine beings, śrāvakas, pratyekabuddhas, bodhisattvas, and Buddhas (the four kinds of holy men) can dwell in the Western Amitābha Buddha’s Pure Land.465 The realms, where all classes dwell, are blend worlds for all. For example, sahā is one of these kinds of worlds. This kind of realms are for the lower four realms, that is to say, beings of the hell, hungry ghosts, animals, and asuras. There is the other kind of blend worlds, for example, Amitābha Buddha’s Pure Land. Human beings, divine beings, śrāvakas, pratyekabuddha, bodhisattvas, and Buddha can dwell in Amitābha Buddha’s Pure Land. Zhiyi continues to discuss the temporary realms. In the temporary realms Zhiyi describes two vehicles of three kinds of bodhisattvas practice two kinds of meditation and sever two all-pervading delusions in seeing and thinking wrongly. These bodhisattvas, 464 Mochizuki 望月信亨, Zhongguo Jingtu Jiaoli Shi 中國淨土教理史, 77-79. 465 T. no. 1778, 38: 564a28-564b28. Weimojing Lueshu Vol. 1. A similar opinion also appears in Weimojing Wenshu Vol. 1: X. no. 338, 18: 465c22-466b13. 190 i.e., śrāvakas, pratyekabuddhas, and bodhisattvas, still have illusion and temptation through the immense variety of duties in Buddha-knowledge 塵沙惑 and illusions and temptations that arise from a philosophical failure to understand things in their reality 無明惑 to avoid the mortal lot, or dispensation in regard to the various forms of reincarnation. These three kinds of bodhisattvas can be reborn outside the three realms and have dharma-nature body. Outside of the three realms is where the condition and station resulting from good karma in the realms beyond transmigration. Therefore this dwelling is called temporary realms.466 The resident of the temporary realms are śrāvakas, pratyekabuddhas, and predaśabhūmi bodhisattvas. They practice the path of upāya to cut off the illusions arise from false views 見惑 and the illusion of thought 思惑. However, they have not destroyed the illusion arising from original ignorance 根本惑. This is the reason why the realms is called temporary realms. Zhiyi explains realms of permanent reward and freedom. In Indra's net of the lotusworld the bodhisattvas who have attained the realization of the dharmakāya 法身菩薩 dwell in the realms of permanent reward and freedom. This is the Pure Land of Vairocana Buddha 毘盧遮那佛. These bodhisattvas meditate on one real truth, refute ignorance, reveal dharma-nature, and attain the true retribution. However, they still remain in a little bit of ignorance, enrich uncontaminated karma, and experience 受 dharma-nature reward body 法性報身. The reward bodies dwell in circumstantial reward which is entitled realms of permanent reward and freedom. The bodhisattvas meditate on reality, activate 466 T. no. 1778, 38: 564c03-12. Weimojing Lueshu Vol. 1. The similar opinion also appears in Weimojing Wenshu Vol. 1: X. no. 338, 18: 466b13-c3. 191 real uncontaminated karma,467 and then attain the reward. This reward is real. There is no obstruction between mind and body. This no obstruction means that there is one world that includes all worlds. This is termed inexhaustible worlds. 468 The Bodhisattvas who dwell in the realms of permanent reward and freedom are not ordinary sentient beings, śrāvakas, and pratyekabuddhas. They are at least in the bodhisattva’s stage of joy 歡喜地469 according to the Distinct Teaching. In addition, they are at least in the bodhisattva’s purposive stage 發心住470 according to Perfect Teaching. Zhiyi gives an explanation of the realm of eternal rest, light (wisdom), and of dharmakāya. The utmost wisdom of marvelous enlightenment illuminates the Absolute Wisdom dharma-realm. The Mahāyāna dharma-nature is true tranquility wisdom-nature, which is different from śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas’ principles. The Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtras 大般涅槃經 mentions that the highest Void is wisdom. If one realizes that the nature of ignorance is enlightenment, this is the meaning of perpetual peace and glory. The most inconceivable wisdom is tranquility and enlightenment. This realm is also titled dharma-nature. Buddha-nature is neither body nor realm. According to body and realm, if one is far away from body there is no realm. If one is far away from realm there is no body. The meaning of realm includes body and realm. In Vajracchedikā- 467 Anāsrava 無漏. 468 T. no. 1778, 38: 564c12-565a04. Weimojing Lueshu Vol. 1. A similar opinion also appears in Weimojing Wenshu Vol. 1: X. no. 338, 18: 466c3-467a01. 469 The bodhisattva’s stage of joy (pramuditā) is the first stage of Ten Bhūmi 十地. 470 The bodhisattva on the purposive stage is whose mind set on Buddhahood. 192 prajñāpāramitopadeśa 金剛般若論, it mentions that the cognitions aggregate can lead to mind. This is how one can get to Pure Land.471 The one, who dwells in the realm of eternal rest, light (wisdom), and of dharmakāya, has destroyed the original ignorance. There is no ignorance in that one completely. This is where Buddha dwells. Therefore, Zhiyi explains that nirmāṇakāya-tathāgata teaches in realms where all classes dwell, and the temporary realms. In addition, saṃbhogakāya-tathāgata teaches in realms of permanent reward and freedom, for those who have attained bodhisattva rank. Moreover, dharmakāya-tathāgata, not saṃbhogakāya-tathāgata and nirmāṇakāyatathāgata, dwells in the realm of constant quiescence.472 According to the previous paragraphs, only Buddha can dwell in the realm of constant. Besides, only dharmakāya-tathāgata can appear in the realm of constant. The highest one, the Buddha, can go down to all realms. Nevertheless, the sentient beings in the lower realms cannot go to the highest realm. Mochizuki Shinkō analyses that Zhiyi’s Pure Land theory is not a great extent different from Jingying Huiyuan’s. Mochizuki states that Zhiyi’s realms where all classes dwell is equal to Jingying Huiyuan’s the phenomenal Pure Land 事淨土. The ordinary sentient beings dwell in the phenomenal Pure Land He also sees Zhiyi’s temporary realms as equals to Jingying Huiyuan’s the attributes Pure Land 相淨土. The śrāvakas, and pratyekabuddhas, and bodhisattvas who are below the bodhisattva’s stage of joy dwell in the attributes Pure Land. Likewise, he views Zhiyi’s realms of permanent reward 471 T. no. 1778, 38: 565a04-12. Weimojing Lueshu Vol. 1. 472 T. no. 1778, 38: 564b03-05. Weimojing Lueshu Vol. 1. 193 and freedom and realm of constant quiescence as equal to one part of Jingying Huiyuan’s noumenal Pure Land 真淨土. Jingying Huiyuan’s noumenal Pure Land can be divided into response land and noumenal land. Bodhisattvas, who are above or equal to the bodhisattva’s stage of joy, dwell in response land of noumenal Pure Land. Buddhas dwell in noumenal land of noumental Pure Land. In Zhiyi’s opinion, Amitābha Buddha is nirmāṇakāya-tathāgata. Therefore, Amitābha Buddha’s Western Pure Land is the realm where all classes dwell, which is nirmāṇakāya-Land. Meanwhile, Jingying Huiyuan thinks that Amitābha Buddha’s Western Pure Land is the phenomenal Pure Land. Amitābha Buddha is nirmāṇakāya-tathāgata. Thus, Amitābha Buddha’s Western Pure Land is nirmāṇakāya-Land. In this point of view, Zhiyi’s point is also the same as Jingying Huiyuan’s.473 In Weimojing Lueshu, Amitābha Buddha’s Western Pure Land is realms where all classes dwell. However, Zhiyi only wrote four books, one of which is Fahua Sanmei Chanyi 法華三昧懺儀 or the Lotus Samādhi Repentance. In this very book, he makes a promise to be reborn in Amitābha Buddha’s Western Pure Land. In addition, Fahua refers to the Lotus Sūtra. The Lotus Sūtra belongs to Perfect Teachings. Does that mean that Zhiyi changed some of his opinion about Amitābha Buddha’s Western Pure Land? What is the difference between these two periods of thinking? In the later stage of Zhiyi’s life, does he become enlightened about something important but not have enough time to adjust his teaching? There is something important that needs to be explored in Chapter 7. Zhiyi develops the idea of the meaning of realm including body and realm with Intrinsic Inclusiveness. In addition, the Vimalakīrti Sūtra or Vimalakīrti-nirdeśa Sūtra 473 Mochizuki 望月信亨, Zhongguo Jingtu Jiaoli Shi 中國淨土教理史, 66-79. 194 introduces the opinion of cognitions aggregate can lead to mind. Mind is central in how one can get to Pure Land. In Weimojing Lueshu Vol. 1, Zhiyi deliberates that only Buddha dwell in Pure Land. The Vimalakīrti Sūtra claims that when the mind is pure then the Buddha Land is pure, because the purest mind is Buddha’s. 474 Here, according to the Vimalakīrti Sūtra the mind and land are connected. When the mind is pure, then the land is pure. For example, when one feels his/her room is dirty, s/he tries to clean the room. After cleaning, the room becomes clean. This is our daily life example to explain that the mind is pure, then the land is pure. Weimojing Lueshu, Weimojing Wenshu, and Weimojing Xuan Shu are Zhiyi’s commentaries about the Vimalakīrti Sūtra. In Weimojing Lueshu, Zhiyi utilizes the following teaching about Emptiness, Provisional Positing, and Middle Way to explain the four Buddha-kṣetra, or Buddharealms. Mind is Emptiness. Sentient beings have contrary or false positions.475 There can be good and evil, because of sentient beings’ ignorance. All causally produced phenomena are Emptiness, are Provisional Positing, and are Middle Way. The Middle Way is the realm of good-and-evil and causes-and-conditions, which are the realms where all classes dwell. Why is it so? Contemplated good and evil are Pure Land and defiled land. If one cognizes causes, realizes the false, then one can meditatively practice analyzing things to be empty of self-nature. The Emptiness realm is the temporary realm. One realizes Emptiness is non-Emptiness. In addition, one realizes that the Middle Way is non-causes-and-non-effects; therefore they are causes and effects. If one realizes the 474 T. no. 1778, 38: 565a13-14. Weimojing Lueshu Vol. 1. 475 Viparyaya 顛倒. 195 causes and effects without hinderance, one is in the realms of permanent reward and freedom. If one realizes that Emptiness and Provisional Positing are different, still one realizes that the origin of ignorance is Buddha-nature. If one realizes that ignorance is enlightenment, one is in the realm of constant quiescence. Therefore, when one’s mind is pure, one is in the pure Buddha-land. In Mahāvaipulya-mahāsaṃnipāta-sūtra 大方等大集經, it mentions that if one wants to purify the Buddha-land, one should purify one’s mind. In Buddhāvataṃsaka-mahāvaipulya-sūtra 大方廣佛華嚴經 or the Avataṃsaka 華嚴經, it mentions that the endless worlds all arise from the mind. Furthermore, all dharma-realms or dharmadhātu can shrink into one pore.476 As a result, when one understands the Dependent Origination is Emptiness, the Emptiness has no-self. No-self is temporary. So, the Emptiness realm is the temporary realm. The Bodhisattvas dwell in the realms of permanent reward and freedom, who have no affliction and karmic impressions. To them there is no reaction to affliction. In the realms of permanent reward and freedom, they can see the saṃbhogakāya-tathāgata. They enjoy the retribution of their merits. They still have to get rid of their ignorance. The more they get rid of their ignorance, the faster they can enter the realm of constant quiescence. When there is no ignorance, they can enter the realm of constant quiescence. Zhiyi contends that there are some teachings about the realm of constant quiescence. In the realm of constant quiescence, the ineffable is speech. The dharmakāya or the Buddha's eternal, spiritual body, is unconditioned with all, however it supports all indirectly. The speech of the ineffable is the preaching of the dharmakāya. The unconstructed Four Noble Truths 無作四諦 explain the realms of permanent reward and 476 T. no. 1778, 38: 566c06-17. Weimojing Lueshu Vol. 1. 196 freedom, for those who have attained bodhisattva rank. One real truth explains the realm of constant quiescence.477 That is to say, Reality is the realm of constant quiescence. The realm of constant quiescence is dharmakāya. The teaching of dharmakāya is non-speaking. Dharmakāya maintains everything. Reality is everywhere. In addition, the realm of constant quiescence is everywhere. This “everywhere” does not mean three dimension (of space). Zhiyi classifies Ten Realms into four Buddha-realms not at random which is connected to his four teachings, four kinds of Four Noble Truths, and three insights (Emptiness, Provisional Positing, and Middle Way). He employs Emptiness, Provisional Positing, and Middle Way to explain four Buddha-realms. Before one enlightens on Emptiness, one dwells in realms where all classes dwell. If one enlightens on Emptiness from Provisional Positing, one dwells in realms of expedient transformation with remainder (i.e. temporary realms). If one realizes that Emptiness is non-Emptiness, from Emptiness into Provisional Positing, moreover he/she realizes the Middle Way; one dwells in realms of permanent reward and freedom. If one comprehends that ignorance is enlightenment and Middle Way, one dwells in the ‘realm of constant quiescence.’ The four teachings are raised from three insights. The four Buddha-realms also are raised from Three Insights. The four teachings and the four Buddha-realms are related by the mind.478 The mind is the core of Zhiyi’s theories. In Mohe Zhiguan Vol. 1, Zhiyi elucidates that there are four kinds of Four Noble truths. In the Holy Actions section of the Nirvāṇa Sūtras or the Mahā-parinirvāṇa Sūtras, 477 T. no. 1778, 38: 566c02-06. Weimojing Lueshu Vol. 1. Zhang 張廷仕, “Zhiyi de Jingtu Sixiang 智顗的浄土思想 (Zhiyi’s Pure Land Thoughts),” in Zhongguo Fojiao Xueshu Lundian 中國佛敎學術論典, 23: 341-343. 478 197 four kinds of Four Noble Truths are introduced: arising-and-ceasing, neither-arising-norceasing, countless, and unconstructed. According to the Four Noble Truths as arisingand-ceasing, suffering and arising of suffering are the worldly cause-and-effect; and extinction of suffering and the way of extinction, are the supra-mundane cause-and-effect. Suffering causes the three aspects to leave.479 Arising of suffering causes the four thoughts to flow away. The way of extinction or suffering is the antidotes. Extinction of suffering is to extinguish which existed into non-existence. Mundane world and supramundane world are both mutable; therefore they are called Four Truths as arising-andceasing.480 Because the worlds are changing, therefore they are arising-and-ceasing. Suffering is because it is fluid from one event into another. The cause of arising suffering is three poison, desire, anger, and ignorance. The path leading to the extinction of passion is to destroy the suffering. The extinction of suffering is to end desire, anger, and ignorance. Zhiyi continues to go into detail about the Four Truths as non-arising (and nonceasing). So called non-arising is that suffering and non-pressure-and-constraint are Emptiness. Zhiyi asks in Mohe Zhiguan Vol. 1, “how can it be that Emptiness banishes Emptiness?” Zhiyi explains by himself as form is just empty; sensation, perception, volition, and consciousness are also like this. Therefore, there is non-pressure-andconstraint. So called ‘arising of suffering has no characteristic of harmonization because both cause and effect are empty. How can empty cause match empty effect? All of the 479 The three forms 三相. 480 T. no. 1911, 46: 5b14-18. Mohe Zhiguan Vol. 1. There is translation by Neal Arvid Donner, Daniel B. Stevenson, and Zhiyi, The Great Calming and Contemplation: A Study and Annotated Translation of the First Chapter of Chih-i's Mo-ho chih-kuan. In addition, there is Paul L. Swanson’s opinion and translation in his book. Paul L. Swanson, Foundations of Tʻien-Tʻai Philosophy: the Flowering of the Two Truths Theory in Chinese Buddhism. These are related translatiaons in these (above) two books in the following five footnotes, which will not mention again. 198 desire, anger and ignorance is also like this. The path has no two characteristics, that which is counteracted, and the counteracting agent practice, antidote, etc. Emptiness even has no one, how can emptiness be two? Dharma is not like this, which is unceasing. Neither arising nor ceasing is Four Truths as non-arising and non-ceasing.481 The paragraph above is that Zhiyi discusses the way to confront Emptiness and not to go to the extremes. Form is Emptiness. Feeling is Emptiness. Perception is Emptiness. Impulse is Emptiness. Consciousness is Emptiness. Cause is Emptiness. Effect is Emptiness. Desire, anger, and ignorance are Emptiness. Emptiness is Emptiness. There are no two Emptiness. Neither arising nor ceasing is Emptiness. Middle Way is Emptiness. Emptiness is the truth. Four Truths is Emptiness. In Mohe Zhiguan Vol. 1, Zhiyi carries on to discourse about the Four Truths as immeasurable. Here the immeasurable means that suffering has innumerable characteristics. It means that one dharmadhātu or dharma-realm in suffering means incalculable suffering. Even if it is up to 10 dharmadhātu. This is not suffering that the śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas can perceive and apprehend. This is suffering that only bodhisattvas can observe and comprehend. For example, the differences between hells, are things such as being flayed by double-edged straight swords, cut, severed, burned, boiled, chopped, or sliced. There is a difference between these hells. Something like these cannot be counted. Therefore, how can the rest of the realms of form, feeling, perception, impulse, and consciousness be counted? Obviously, these cannot be counted. Therefore, these are not kinds of suffering that the śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas can perceive and apprehend. However, the wisdom-eye of bodhisattvas can observe and comprehend this immeasurable suffering. In addition, arising of suffering also has innumerable 481 T. no. 1911, 46: 5b19-25. Mohe Zhiguan Vol. 1. 199 characteristics. For example, greed, desire, anger, ignorance, etc. all kinds of activities of the body, mouth, and mind cannot be counted. Furthermore, the way of extinction has innumerable characteristics. Therefore, extinction of suffering has innumerable characteristics. This is entitled Four Truths as immeasurable.482 Zhiyi gives the following definition of four unconstructed Noble Truths. Reality is inconceivable; not only can absolute truth not be constructed, but also the four siddhānta 四悉檀 and all phenomena cannot be constructed.483 Zhiyi confers on four Buddha-realms to relate to four kinds of Four Noble Truths. In realms where all classes dwell, there is suffering 苦, the aggregation or exacerbation of suffering 集, the extinction of desire 滅, and the way of such extinction 道. In realms of expedient transformation with remainder (temporary realms), there are Three Truths: the aggregation (or exacerbation) of suffering, the extinction of desire, and the way of such extinction. In realms of permanent reward and freedom, there are the extinction of desire, and the way of such extinction. In the realm of constant quiescence, there is only the way of such extinction. According to Four Truths as arising-and-perishing, Four Truths as non-arising and non-perishing, Four Truths as immeasurable, and four unconstructed Noble Truths, the realms where all classes dwell are related to Four Truths as arisingand-ceasing. The realms of expedient transformation with remainder are related to Four Truths as non-arising and non-ceasing. The realms of permanent reward and freedom are 482 T. no. 1911, 46: 5b25-5c15. Mohe Zhiguan Vol. 1. 483 T. no. 1911, 46: 5c15-17. Mohe Zhiguan Vol. 1. 200 related to Four Truths as immeasurable. The realm of constant quiescence is related to four unconstructed Noble Truths.484 Śrāvakas, pratyekabuddhas, and bodhisattvas dwell in the temporary realms. Therefore, only Three Truths are left. There is no suffering in the temporary realms. The bodhisattvas who have attained the realization of the dharmakāya dwell in realms of permanent reward and freedom. They still remain in a little bit of ignorance. This kind of bodhisattvas only need the extinction of desire, and the way of such extinction. Only Buddhas dwell in the realm of constant quiescence. Therefore, there is only the way of extinction in the realm of constant quiescence. It is generally said that the twelve limbs of Dependent Origination are the Four Noble Truths explained in detail. Zhiyi explicates that suffering is consciousness (Skt. vijñāna), name and form (nāmarūpa), the six sense organs (ṣaḍāyatana), contact or touch (sparśa), sensation or feeling (vedanā), birth (jāti), and old age, death (jarāmaraṇa). The aggregation (or exacerbation) of suffering means that ignorance or un-enlightenment (avidyā); action, activity, or conception (saṃskāra); thirst, desire, or craving (tṛṣṇā); laying hold of, grasping (upādāna); and being, existing (bhava). The extinction of desire means the extinction from ignorance to old age-and-death. The way of such extinction means to respond or face up to and control all causes and conditions by expedient means. Therefore, the Nirvāṇa Sūtras or the Mahā-parinirvāṇa Sūtras mentions four kinds of Four Noble Truths and four kinds of twelve limbs of Dependent Origination. 485 When one understand the relationship of the twelve limbs of Dependent Origination and the Four Noble Truths, one will understand the Four Noble Truths better. In the other 484 T. no. 1911, 46: 5c18-21. Mohe Zhiguan Vol. 1. 485 T. no. 1911, 46: 5c21-25. Mohe Zhiguan Vol. 1. 201 hand, one will understand the twelve limbs of Dependent Origination deeper. It is good way to understand doctrine in different angle. Zhiyi classifies that there are four kinds of lands and there are four kinds of causes. The bodhisattvas of Tripiṭaka Teaching, Shared Teaching, Distinct Teaching, and Perfect Teaching perform the vow as causes to get the effect of Buddha’s level to attain four kinds of Buddha-realms. These four causes are as follows. First, bodhisattvas practice three provisional and one real to transform all beings by developing their Buddha-nature and causing them to obtain enlightenment. If the four kinds of sentient beings do not cut off the desires of the three realms, these four kinds of sentient beings will be reborn into realms where all classes dwell. Second, bodhisattvas exercise four practices of the expedient and the real to become the four kinds of sentient beings. They meditate to get rid of love, hate, pride, ignorance, wrong views, possessions or grasping, doubt, envy, meanness or selfishness. When a bodhisattva becomes a Buddha in the realms of expedient transformation with remainder; these four kinds of sentient beings will be reborn into that land simultaneously, and practice Distinct Teaching, and Perfect Teaching. Third, a bodhisattva practices the vow of Distinct Teaching, and Perfect Teaching, which perfects two kinds of sentient beings. These two kinds of sentient beings can amputate ignorance. When a bodhisattva becomes a Buddha in realms of permanent reward and freedom, the sentient beings of Distinct Teaching and Perfect Teaching accomplish the cause of reality and non-defilement. These two kinds of sentient beings are reborn into this realm to practice the perfections together. Fourth, one practices the cause of complete elimination. When one completes the cause perfect and terminates 202 fruition of merit, one attains the stage of marvelous enlightenment, or Buddhahood. And then, one dwells in the realm of constant quiescence.486 In the paragraph above, it describes how to be reborn in each realm in a brief way. In the realms where all classes dwell, the sentient beings do not cut off the desires of the three realms. In the temporary realms, the sentient beings cut off love, hate, pride, ignorance, wrong views, possessions, doubt, envy, selfishness. In the realms of permanent reward and freedom, the sentient beings get rid of ignorance, and bring about the cause of reality. In the realm of constant quiescence, the sentient beings get enlightenment and become Buddha. Zhiyi clarifies that bodhisattvas choose the Buddha-land dependent on the level of the sentient beings that they will educate or discipline. The bodhisattvas choose the Buddha-land dependent on the sentient beings in which Buddha-land can get Buddha-like enlightenment or rise the bodhisattva-root.487 According to Tamura 田村芳朗, the realms where all classes dwell, and realms of expedient transformation with remainder are dwelled in by nirmāṇakāya-tathāgata. The realms of permanent reward and freedom are dwelled in by saṃbhogakāya-tathāgata. The realms of constant quiescence are dwelled in by dharmakāya-tathāgata.488 Zhiyi asserts that in the 10 directions Buddhas are like the Emptiness, neither increasing nor decreasing. Buddhas, for the sake of sentient beings, raise four Buddharealms. Buddhas lead four kinds of sentient beings to dwell in Buddha-lands, perform the 486 T. no. 1778, 38: 565b04-19. Weimojing Lueshu Vol. 1. 487 T. no. 1778, 38: 565a19-21. Weimojing Lueshu Vol. 1. Yoshirō Tamura 田村芳朗 et al., “Sanzhong jingtu guan 三種淨土觀,” in Jingtujiao Sixiand Lun 淨土教思想論, trans. Yinhai fa shi (Taipei City: Yan Kuanhu Wen Jiao Ji Jin Hui, 2004), 475. 488 203 vow as causes, achieve the result of Bodhi, and finally dwell in realm of constant quiescence eternally, as written in chapters of the Lotus Sūtra on Tathāgata powers and eternity.489 Buddha realms are the expedient of Buddha to save the sentient beings. Buddha realms are the temporary resident land. The true resident land is the realm of constant quiescence. The other three Buddha realms are short-term. Zhiyi’s four Buddha realms depend on his theory of Intrinsic Inclusiveness, which means that the four Buddha realms embrace one mind. The following is Zhiyi’s explanation in Vol. 6 of Fahua Xuanyi. The realms of expedient transformation with remainder are outside of the three realms. If this is true, the realm of expedient transformation with remainder is not far away. If one has the profound mind of confidence in the dharma, one can always see the Buddha in Gṛdhrakūṭa, Vulture Peak 靈鷲山 near Rājagṛha. The Buddha preached doctrine while the great Bodhisattvas490 and the śrāvakas monks were surrounding him. This is the realm of expedient transformation with remainder. There is a saying that realms of permanent reward and freedom are on the outside of realms of expedient transformation with remainder. If this is true, the realms of permanent reward and freedom are not far away. One observes that the ground of sahā is made by beryl, which is very smooth. All of the platforms, buildings of two or more stories, etc., are made by jewels. The great Bodhisattvas dwell here. This is the realm of permanent reward and freedom.491 In this paragraph, Zhiyi tries 489 T. no. 1778, 38: 565b19-22. Weimojing Lueshu Vol. 1. 490 Bodhisattva-mahāsattva. 491 T. no. 1716, 33: 760c24-761a10. Fahua Xuanyi Vol. 6. 204 to demonstrate that if one discards sahā, then realms where all classes dwell, realms of expedient transformation with remainder, realms of permanent reward and freedom, and the realm of constant quiescence cannot exist. As Huiyue Shi discusses in the Tiantai Jiao Xue Shi, this is one of Zhiyi’s basic theories: “Intrinsic Inclusiveness.” Zhiyi utilizes this theory of Intrinsic Inclusiveness to develop the new era of Chinese Buddhism. 492 Tamura 田村芳朗 in his Three Kinds of Pure Land also claims that sahā is a realm of constant quiescence.493 6.3.4. Conclusion Zhiyi classifies there are three kinds of Buddha Bodies: dharmakāya, sambhogakāya, and nirmāṇakāya. In addition, he classifies there are four kinds of Buddha-realms: realms where all classes dwell, realms of expedient transformation with remainder, realms of permanent reward and freedom, and realms of constant quiescence. Certain beings dwell in each of these realms. The human beings, divine beings, śrāvakas, pratyekabuddhas, bodhisattvas, and Buddhas i.e., the four kinds of holy men, can dwell in the Western Amitābha Buddha’s Pure Land. In Zhiyi’s opinion, the Western Amitābha Buddha’s Pure Land is realms where all classes dwell. This Amitābha Buddha is saṃbhogakāya. Zhiyi utilizes Intrinsic Inclusiveness, Three Insights in one thought, “twelve limbs of Dependent Origination, Four Noble Truths, etc., to discuss these four kinds of Buddharealms. To sum up, Zhiyi concludes that sahā contains realms where all classes dwell, realms of expedient transformation with remainder, realms of permanent reward and 492 Shi 釋慧嶽, Tiantai Jiao Xue Shi 天台教學史, 171. Yoshiro Tamura 朗 et al., “Three Kinds of Pure Land,” in Jingtujiao Sixiand Lun 淨土教思想論, 475477. 493 205 freedom, and the realm of constant quiescence. Accordingly, Zhiyi’s point of view advances an innovative era of Chinese Buddhism. 6.4. Conclusion Zhiyi has some works related to the Pure Land theory in one volume of each of following texts: Guan wuliang shoufo jing shu, Amituo jiang yi ji, Jingtu shiyi lun, Wufang bian nianfo men, Fayuanwen, Qing Guanyin Jingshu 請觀音經疏, and Fahua Sanmei Chanyi 法華三昧懺儀. There are some other works about Pure Land theory, such as Weimojing Wenshu in 28 volumes, Weimojing Lueshu in 10 volumes, Jinguangming Jing Xuanyi in two volumes, Jinguangming jing wenj in six volumes, the seventh volume of Fahua Xuanyi, and Mohe Zhiguan 10 volumes. There are some modern scholars who disagree about whether some of these works are Zhiyi’s. This is mostly because of anachronism and some inconsistencies in the writing style of Zhiyi. Some of these modern scholars are Toshio Andō, Huanzhong Han, Shinko Mochizuki, Guiming Pan, Zhongwei Wu, Tingshi Zhang, Tetsuei Satō, and Gisen Shioda. They each have a different opinion about which eight works are actually Zhiyi’s: Guan Wuliangshoufo Jing Shu, Jingtu shiyi lun, Amituo Jiang Yiji, Jingang bore jingshu, Sinianchu, Wufangbian Nianfo Men, Chanmenzhang, and Puxian Pusa Fayuanwen. For instance, when Satō Tetsuei compares Zhiyi’s Guan Wuliangshoufo Jing Shu to Jingying Huiyuan’s Guan wuliangshou jing yishu, there are 50 similarities, in which Zhiyi’s work is shortened or summarized from Jingying Huiyuan’s work. In addition, Pan Guiming and Wu Zhongwei zhu argue that Zhiyi’s Jingtu shiyi lun is either cited from Xuanzhuang’s (C.E. 602-664) translation of Mahāyānābhidharma-samuccaya-vyākhyā or Tang dynasty Zhanran’s (C.E. 711-782) work. This is an anachronism, because Zhiyi’s 206 era was from C.E. 538 to 597. Furthermore, Wufangbian Nianfo Men is after the eighth century. Therefore, it cannot be Zhiyi’s work. Moreover, Jingtu shiyi lun has adopted some of Daochuo’s (C.E. 562-645) Anleji’s points. Obviously, it cannot be Zhiyi’s work. Zhang Tingshi also argues that Jingtu shiyi lun is not Zhiyi’s work for reasons that, in Fahua Xuanyi and Mohe Zhiguan Zhiyi use the name of Vasubandhu as Tianqin; however, the Jingtu shiyi lun uses the name of Vasubandhu as Shiqin. Vasubandhu as Shiqin is translated by Xuanzhuang (C.E. 600-664). This is both an anachronism and a writing style issue. There are six stages in Zhiyi’s life. The first stage is his youth, when he was between one to 18 years of age (C.E. 538-555). The second stage is the learning stage, when he was between 18 to 31 years of age (C.E. 555-568). The third stage is Waguan stage, when he was between 31 to 38 years of age (C.E. 568-575). The fourth stage is Tiantai retreat stage, when he was between 38 to 48 years of age (C.E. 575-585). The fifth stage is Sandabu’s preaching stage, when he was between 48 to 57 years of age (C.E. 585-595). The sixth stage is the sunset of his life, when he was between 58 to 60 years of age (C.E. 595-597). In Zhiyi’s sunset stage of his life, during the time when he was between ages 58 and 60, he devoted himself to Weimojing Xuan Shu and Weimojing Wenshu. According to him, he was aware of his death during the sunset stage of his life. At that time he changed his opinion about from getting enlightened into Buddha’s wisdom in this lifetime into being reborn into Amitābha Buddha’s Pure Land. In Vol. 9 of Zhiyi’s Fahua Wenju, he discusses three bodies of the Buddha. In his Weimojing Wenshu and Weimojing Xuan Shu, he discusses realms where all classes dwell, realms of expedient transformation with remainder, realms of permanent reward and 207 freedom for those who have attained bodhisattva rank, and realm of constant quiescence. In the Mohe Zhiguan, he discusses pratyutpannasamādhi. Zhiyi develops the idea that the meaning of realm includes body and realm with Intrinsic Inclusiveness. In addition, Vimalakīrti Sūtra or Vimalakīrti-nirdeśa Sūtra introduces the opinion that cognitions aggregate can lead to mind. Mind is central to how one gets to Pure Land. In the Weimojing Lueshu, Zhiyi utilizes Emptiness, Provisional Positing, and Middle Way to explain the four Buddha-kṣetra, or Buddha-realms. Zhiyi classifies Ten Realms into four Buddha-realms. These are connected to his four teachings, four kinds of Four Noble Truths, Three Insights (Emptiness, Provisional Positing, and Middle Way) in one thought. Before one enlightens on Emptiness, one dwells in realms where all classes dwell. If one enlightens on Emptiness from Provisional Positing, one dwells in realms of expedient transformation with remainder. If one realizes that Emptiness is non-Emptiness, from Emptiness into Provisional Positing, moreover he realizes the Middle Way; one dwells in realms of permanent reward and freedom. If one comprehends that ignorance is enlightenment and Middle Way, one dwells in the realm of constant quiescence. The four teachings are raised from three insights. The four Buddha realms also are raised from Three Insights. The four teachings and the four Buddha realms are related by the mind. Zhiyi’s four Buddha realms depend on his theory of Intrinsic Inclusiveness, which means that the four Buddha realms embrace in one mind. The mind is the core of Zhiyi’s theories. Amala-vijñāna, ādāna-vijñāna (mano-vuijñāna), ālaya-vijñāna, Ten Suchness, Intrinsic Inclusiveness, Threefold Buddha-nature, etc. enrich the dynamic mind, which develops a new era of Chinese Buddhism. 208 CHAPTER SEVEN Zhiyi’s Opinion about Buddhānusmṛti and Amitābha Buddha’s Pure Land 7.1. Introduction In this chapter, Zhiyi’s opinion about Buddhānusmṛti and Amitābha’s Pure Land will be discussed. Constantly sitting samādhi and pratyutpannasamādhi are both practices being mindful of Buddha. In Zhiyi’s opinion constantly sitting samādhi and pratyutpannasamādhi are practiced by chanting Amitābha Buddha’s name. Zhiyi notices the practical benefit of chanting Amitābha Buddha’s name. In addition, he views the pratyutpannasamādhi as not only beholding Buddha, but also practicing the Three Insights are in one thought. Within pratyutpannasamādhi the practitioner can experience Perfect Interpenetration of the Three Truths—which is considered the Reality. Samādhi can generate wisdom. In Zhiyi’s opinion, this wisdom has to be based on the practice of the Tiantai mode of meditation in Ten ‘Vehicles’ or Stages 十乘觀法. Pratyutpannasamādhi is utilized in the Tiantai mode of meditation in Ten Vehicles or Stages to prove that in reality the practitioner will realize or see clearly that one thought surveys or embraces the Three Thousand Worlds. Zhiyi also puts the three practices494 of discipline, meditation, wisdom into pratyutpannasamādhi. What brings dramatic change within Zhiyi from his enormous system of belief in Buddhism to beliefs in Amitābha Buddha’s Pure Land? In the following sections, some of Zhiyi’s biographies, such as the Sui Tiantai Zhizhe Dashi Biezhuan, Xugaosengzhuan, 494 The “three studies.” 209 Tanggaosengzhuan, Vol. 17, Guoqing Bailu 國清百錄, and Zhiyi’s Fahua Sanmei Chanyi will be studied. In Zhiyi’s biographies there are the answers about why Zhiyi turned himself from the realm of constant quiescence into admiring Amitābha Buddha’s Pure Land. In addition, he even believed that Amitābha Buddha, Guanyin 觀音 (Skt. Avalokiteśvara), and Shizhi 勢至 (Skt. Mahāsthāmaprāpta) came to welcome him in the sunset or final stage of his life. These will be investigated further in the next section of this chapter. 7.2. Zhiyi’s Opinion about Buddhānusmṛti 7.2.1. Introduction Zhiyi only wrote four books, one of which is the Fahua Sanmei Chanyi 法華三昧懺儀, which can be translated as the Lotus Samādhi Repentance. This book is what inspired me to do research into Zhiyi’s Buddhānusmṛti. In the Japanese scholar Fujiwara Ryōsetsu’s 藤原凌雪 (Jp.フジワラ, リョウセツ) opinion, Zhiyi is one of the monks who advocated for Amitābha Buddha’s Pure Land.495 Zhiyi’s abundant works about the Pure Land are the basis for the turning point in the practice within the Tiantai School from meditation practice into beliefs and practice that focused on the Pure Land.496 This is demonstrated in Siming Zhili’s (C.E. 960-1028) 四明知禮 Guanjingshu Miaozong chao 觀經疏妙宗鈔, where Zhiyi states that which can be translated as Buddha-nature is Amitābha Buddha and my mind is the Pure Land 本性 Ryōsetsu Fujiwara 藤原凌雪, Nianfo Sixiang zhi Yanjiu 念佛思想之硏究, trans. Yinhai fa shi (Taipei City: Yan Kuanhu Wen Jiao Ji Jin Hui, 2004), 177-178. 495 Huanzhong Han 韓煥忠, “Tiantai Panjiao Lun: yi "Fahua Xuanyi" Weizhu 天台判敎論: 以《法華玄義》為主,” in Zhongguo Fojiao Xueshu Lundian 中國佛敎學術論典, 92: 248-251. 496 210 彌陀唯心淨土.497 According to Mochizuki Shinkō, Zhili adopts Zhiyi’s Mohe Zhiguan to create the belief that Buddha-nature is Amitābha Buddha and my mind is the Pure Land, which originates from Zhiyi’s Intrinsic Inclusiveness.498 Based on historical development of Pure Land teaching, it establishes that Zhiyi’s opinions of Amitābha Buddha’s Pure Land and Buddhānusmṛti are crucial to the practitioners of Pure Land Buddhism. The causes of being reborn into Amitābha Buddha’s Pure Land which are mentioned in Sukhāvatyajrta-vyūha Sūtra 阿彌陀經, and Sukhāvatī-vyūha Sūtra 無量壽經 originate from Pratyutpanna-buddha-sammukhāvasthita-samādhi-sūtra 般舟三昧經.499 The Pratyutpanna-buddha-sammukhāvasthita-samādhi-sūtra is an important scripture in Pure Land teaching because it outlines causes for being reborn into Amitābha Buddha’s Pure Land. Furthermore, in the Sukhāvatī-vyūha Sūtra being reborn into the Pure Land of Amitābha Buddha is elaborated on within the three grades of those who reach the Pure Land of Amitābha Buddha.500 In the next two sections, Zhiyi’s Mohe Zhiguan, Jinguangming Jing Xuanyi, Shi Chanboluomi Cidi Famen, Zhiyi’s biographies, i.e., the Sui Tiantai Zhizhe Dashi Biezhuan, Kaiyuan shijiao lu 開元釋教錄, Zhongjing Mulu 眾經目錄, etc., will be utilized to discuss constantly sitting samādhi, pratyutpannasamādhi, the samādhi which sees into the three dogmas or Fahua Sanmei 法華三昧, and Buddhānusmṛti. Zhiyi’s Toshio Andō 安藤俊雄, Tendaigaku Ronshū: Shikan to Jōdo 天台学論集: 止観と浄土 (Kyōto: Heirakuji Shoten, 1975), 143-145. 497 Shinkō Mochizuki 望月信亨, Jingtu Jiao Gailun 淨土教概論, trans. Yinhai fa shi, (Taipei City: Yan Kuanhu Wen Jiao Ji Jin Hui, 2004), 132-133. 498 499 Mochizuki 望月信亨, Jingtu Jiao Gailun 淨土教概論, 150. Shinkō Mochizuki 望月信亨, Jingtu Jiao Qiyuan ji qi Kaizhan 淨土教起源及其開展, trans. Yinhai fa shi (Taipei City: Yan Kuanhu Wen Jiao Ji Jin Hui, 2004), 640-641. 500 211 opinion of Amitābha Buddha’s Pure Land and Buddhānusmṛti is a result of his acute and thorough research of Buddhism. In the first section of Chapter 7, the constantly sitting samādhi, pratyutpannasamādhi will be discussed. 7.2.2. What is Zhiyi’s Opinion about Constantly Sitting Samādhi? Zhiyi, in the Mohe Zhiguan, discusses four kinds of samādhi, which means four ways of cultivating samādhi. These four ways of cultivating samādhi are (1) constantly sitting, (2) constantly walking, (3) part walking part sitting, and (4) neither walking nor sitting.501 Zhiyi’s Mohe Zhiguan Vol. 2 discusses constantly sitting samādhi as it derives from the Wenshushili suoshuo mohe banro boluomi jing 文殊師利所說摩訶般若波羅蜜經 and Wenshushili suowen mohe banro boluomi jing 文殊師利所問摩訶般若波羅蜜經. There are two prajñā sūtras of Mañjuśrī’s Discourse on Prajñā and Mañjuśrī’s Queries.502 Constantly sitting samādhi is also named as one practice samādhi 一行三昧. There are two kinds of methods to meditate in one practice samādhi or constantly sitting samādhi. The first method is to sit and chant, be mindful, or practice mindfulness using the Buddha’s name. There are merits equal in chanting and being mindful of the names of Buddhas in the ten directions. According to Zhiyi’s other works or his biographies, he states that this one Buddha’s name is Amitābha Buddha. The second method is to meditate on dharmadhātu. This dharmadhātu is titled as prajñā. Buddha is dharmadhātu. 501 Stevenson, “The Four Kinds of Samādhi in Early T’ien-t’ai Buddhism,” 48-49. 502 It is translated in C.E. 503. T 8. 212 The practitioners do not need to go to Buddha’s Pure Land to listen to Buddha preach.503 This method can utilize chanting, or being mindful of the one Buddha’s name to reach the reality.504 Later, pratyutpannasamādhi (constantly walking samādhi) will be discussed. 7.2.3. What is Zhiyi’s Opinion about Pratyutpannasamādhi? According to Guanding’s Sui Tiantai Zhizhe Dashi Biezhuan,505 Zhiyi preaches Shi Chanboluomi Cidi Famen from C.E. 568 to 575 in the Waguan stage. In this Shi Chanboluomi Cidi Famen Vol. 10, he discusses the opinion of the pratyutpannasamādhi. If a bodhisattva can attain the pratyutpannasamādhi, śūraṃgamadhyāna or samādhi 首楞嚴定 or 三昧, a samādhi on the characteristic marks of a Buddha 觀佛三昧, etc., this bodhisattva can achieve the bodhisattva rank. This rank can enlighten all sentient beings like Buddha.506 However, it does not mention exactly how pratyutpannasamādhi is practiced and what the fruits or rewards of the various stages of attainment are. In Zhiyi’s youth there is no record about his Pure Land belief in Sui Tiantai Zhizhe Dashi Biezhuan and Xugaosengzhuan or Tanggaosengzhuan. However, in the early stages of Zhiyi’s life, the Pure Land teaching, especially pratyutpannasamādhi, was popular in his hometown Jingzhou 荊州.507 In Shi Chanboluomi Cidi Famen he shows concern about pratyutpannasamādhi. Zhiyi shows that he was influenced by Huisi when 503 T. no. 1911, 46: 11a28-12a19 Mohe Zhiguan Vol. 2. 504 Shi 釋修優 (Mei-Yu Lin), The Study of Nien-fo in Tao-ch'o's An-lo-chi, 86-87. T. no. 2050, 50: 192c19-20 Sui Tiantai Zhizhe Dashi Biezhuan 隋天台智者大師別傳: “停瓦官八載講大智度論。說次第禪門。” 505 506 T. no. 1916, 46: 547c04-11. Shi Chanboluomi Cidi Famen Vol. 10. 507 Mochizuki 望月信亨, Zhongguo Jingtu Jiaoli Shi 中國淨土教理史, 75-80. 213 he preached in the Jinling 金陵. Zhiyi was probably influenced by Huisi when he preached about the Pure Land, revealed in his Shi Chanboluomi Cidi Famen. In the Mohe Zhiguan Vol. 2, Zhiyi discourses about constantly walking samādhi, which is pratyutpannasamādhi. In Chinese it is called 般舟三昧, which is pronounced banzhou sanmei. Mochizuki Shinko argues that this samādhi was introduced in the Pratyutpanna-buddha-sammukhāvasthita-samādhi-sūtra 般舟三昧經, which was translated into Chinese around C.E. 179 There are seven kinds of translation mentioned in the Kaiyuan shijiao lu. However, only four remain. Of the four that remain, the author of the oldest one is anonymous. Two are translated by the Central Asian monk Lokakṣema 支婁迦讖 ; one is three volumes and the other is one volume. The last one is translated by Lokakṣema and Zhufosuo 竺佛朔, which is two volumes.508 However, Sui 隋 Fajing’s 法經 Zhongjing Mulu 眾經目錄509 mentions that Dharmarakṣa 竺法護 translated Pratyutpanna-buddha-sammukhāvasthita-samādhi-sūtra into Chinese in two volumes. Zhufosuo 竺佛朔 could be Dharmarakṣa. In his Bukkyō Kyōten Seiritsu Shiron 佛敎経典成立史論, Mochizuki Shinko also suggests that the Pratyutpanna-buddhasammukhāvasthita-samādhi-sūtra could be translated by Dharmarakṣa because of the terms he uses in the translations in the Lotus Sūtra and Guangzan panruo 光讚般若.510 Zhiyi introduces pratyutpannasamādhi in the Mohe Zhiguan as constantly walking samādhi. Pratyutpannasamādhi comes from the Pratyutpanna-buddhaShinko Mochizuki 望月信亨, Bukkyō Kyōten Seiritsu Shiron 佛敎経典成立史論 (Kyōto: Hōzōkan, 1946), 190-191. 508 509 T. no. 2146, 55: 115c03 Zhongjing Mulu Vol. 1,: “般舟三昧經二卷(晉世竺法護譯)” 510 Shinko Mochizuki 望月信亨, Bukkyō Kyōten Seiritsu Shiron 佛敎経典成立史論, 192. 214 sammukhāvasthita-samādhi-sūtra, which means Buddha stands. The meanings of Buddha stands signify the authoritative power of the Buddhas, the awe-inspiring majesty of samādhi, and the power of individual merit increased through religious practice 行者本功德力. This pratyutpannasamādhi intends for one to see the present Buddhas in the Worlds of the Ten Directions standing in front of him by the power of his merit increased through his religious practice of samādhi. He can observe as many Buddhas in the Worlds of the Ten Directions, which is likened to a person who has good vision that can observe the stars in the clear night sky. Therefore, pratyutpannasamādhi is also called meditation of the Buddha's appearance 佛立三昧.511 Zhiyi utilizes verses of the Daśabhūmika-vibhāṣā-śāstra 十住毘婆沙論 to explain that there are differences in this samādhi abiding. There are numerous characteristics which should be deliberated. The samādhi abiding is the first dhyāna, the second dhyāna, the third dhyāna, and the fourth dhyāna. The first dhyāna is not many, which means that the one who attains the first dhyāna cannot observe many worlds. In addition, the one who attains the first dhyāna cannot observe many Buddhas. The second dhyāna is medium. This means that the one who can attain the second dhyāna can observe a medium number of worlds and Buddhas. The one who attains the third dhyāna or the fourth dhyāna can observe multitudinous worlds and Buddhas.512 The higher samādhi one attains, the more worlds and Buddhas one can see. It means that the ability increase follows the higher samādhi. No matter it is samādhi or four 511 T. no. 1911, 46: 12a19-25. Mohe Zhiguan Vol. 2. 512 T. no. 1911, 46: 12a25-12b01. Mohe Zhiguan Vol. 2. 215 dhyāna, they are dependent on the power of individual merit increased through religious practice. Zhiyi describes how to practice pratyutpannasamādhi as follows: the one who wants to practice pratyutpannasamādhi should walk constantly. He gives specific instructions on how one should practice the pratyutpannasamādhi of walking constantly. During practice one should avoid bad relations, friends, or teachers. Furthermore, one should avoid foolish persons, relatives, and neighbors. One should always stays alone, and not allow others to interrupt practice. One should always live on alms, and not want to have a special meals offering. One should gloriously adorn as religious practices setting, and prepares all kinds of offerings, such as flowers, a censer, candles, hot liquid, fruits, tea, unguents, water, incense, food, light, etc. One should bathe, and change clothes when using the bathroom. During 90 days the practitioners focus on walking. There must be an enlightened teacher to guide the practice, and controls the whole religious practices setting in order to expel internal hindrances and external obstacles. The practitioner should treat the person who teaches them pratyutpannasamādhi as a Buddha. The practitioner should not dislike and feel anger. They should not observe others’ shortcomings and fortes. They can cut their muscle to offer to the enlightened teacher, even the rest of the offerings. The practitioner serves his enlightened teacher the way servants serve the rich people. If they have even one bad thought about their enlightened teacher, they cannot attain the pratyutpannasamādhi. The practitioner needs this enlightened teacher just like children need their mothers. If one sets out to do something risky or dangerous, one needs companions. If one wants to attain one’s vow, one will exhaust one’s energy. One practices pratyutpannasamādhi. If one does not achieve 216 pratyutpannasamādhi, they should not rest. The one who has great faith cannot be destroyed. The one who has great zeal cannot be reached. The wisdom that is gained cannot be reached. The practitioner always learns from reliable teachers. For three months one never thinks about mundane desires for even one second. For three months one never lies down and goes out for even one second. One does not rest during three months, except when eating and going to the bathroom. Zhiyi preaches the doctrine of Buddhism without hoping for any offerings of food or clothes. There are also verses in the Daśabhūmika-vibhāṣā-śāstra as follows: one learns from reliable teachers with zeal and without laziness. One’s wisdom is firm and stable. One’s power of faith will not act rashly.513 The above is the guidelines of practice pratyutpannasamādhi in detail. If one wants to practice pratyutpannasamādhi, one should follow it. Certainly, the reliable teacher is necessary. It is not easy to practice pratyutpannasamādhi. One should prepare all causes and conditions, if one wants to practice. During the 90 days, Zhiyi gives instructions for how the body, mouth, and mind should function. The body should constantly walk without rest. The mouth should stay shut, except for chanting Amitābha Buddha’s name without rest. The mind should remember Amitābha Buddha’s name without rest. The practitioner takes turns alternately chanting and recollecting Amitābha Buddha’s name without rest. The practitioner may recall Amitābha Buddha’s name first and then chant, or they may chant first and then recall. Whether they chant or recollect Amitābha Buddha’s name without rest, this is to recollect the Buddhas’ merits in the Ten Directions. However, this dharma teaching 513 T. no. 1911, 46: 12b01-12b18. Mohe Zhiguan Vol. 2. 217 focuses on Amitābha Buddha. No matter one is walking, chanting, or recalling, one focuses on Amitābha Buddha.514 The paragraph above, it focuses on how body, mouth, and mind should behave. If the body, mouth, and mind could behave right, there is more possibility of success. If one wants to practice pratyutpannasamādhi, one should follows the instructions step by step. In this paragraph Zhiyi notices the practical benefits of chanting Amitābha Buddha’s name because of Pratyutpanna-buddha-sammukhāvasthita-samādhi-sūtra. In Mohe Zhiguan Vol. 7,515 Zhiyi discusses the antidotal factors to control the obscuration of lethargy and sleep. He (Zhiyi) utilizes the chanting of Amitābha Buddha’s name. Furthermore, in Mohe Zhiguan Vol. 8516 he discourses that karmic hindrances can be controlled by chanting Amitābha Buddha’s name. This part is the same as Tanluan’s 曇鸞 Pure Land opinion about the benefits of chanting Amitābha Buddha’s name. Tanluan in his Jingtu lunzhu 淨土論註517 states that there are two ways of chanting. One is the easy way salvation by invocation of Amitābha Buddha. The other is the hard way of works by practicing six pāramitā and the disciplines. Tanluan’s easy way salvation is the chanting the name of Amitābha Buddha.518 As to the mind is on meditation, Zhiyi inculcates that the practitioner recalls the Western Amitābha Buddha. Passing beyond tens of thousands of millions of Buddha Lands, there are jeweled grounds, jeweled ponds, jeweled trees, and jeweled halls. 514 T. no. 1911, 46: 12b18-24. Mohe Zhiguan Vol. 2. 515 T. no. 1911, 46: 93a29-b02. Mohe Zhiguan Vol. 7. 516 T. no. 1911, 46: 102c22-25. Mohe Zhiguan Vol. 8. 517 It is also named Wangsheng Lunzhu. 518 Shi 釋修優 (Mei-Yu Lin), The Study of Nien-fo in Tao-ch'o's An-lo-chi, 48-50. 218 Bodhisattvas sit in the halls to listen to the preachings. During 90 days, they constantly recall Amitābha Buddha. How do they recall the Buddha? The practitioner should recall Amitābha Buddha’s 32 marks. From thousand-spoked wheels on the bottom of a Buddha’s feet to an invisible mark on the head or from an invisible mark on the head to thousand-spoked wheels on the bottom of a Buddha’s feet, the practitioner hopes to attain those characteristics.519 The paragraph above introduces the methods to meditate on Buddha. Meanwhile, one should understand that the Buddha cannot be apprehended via body and mind. It seems these two opinions put together are controversial. However, the point is when one meditates, s/he can meditates on Buddha. But one should not apprehend Buddha via physical or mind. The mental activities of meditation and apprehension are different. The reasons will be discussed as follows. I want to utilize Neal Donner and Daniel B. Stevenson’s translation to explain Zhiyi’s preaching about the mind, body, and Buddha in the following quotes: Ponder in this way: "Do I apprehend the Buddha via the mind? Do I apprehend the Buddha via the body? No, the Buddha is not to be apprehended through the mind, nor is the Buddha apprehended through the body; nor is the form of the Buddha to be apprehended via the mind, nor is the mind of the Buddha to be apprehended via form." Why? As concerns "mind," the Buddha is without mind; as concerns "physical form" the Buddha is without form. Hence perfect enlightenment (sambodhi) is not to be apprehended or achieved via "physical form" or "mind." The material form of the Buddha is already extinct, [and so it is for the other aggregates] up to consciousness, which is also extinguished. The foolish do not understand this extinction as it is expounded by the Buddha, but the wise comprehend it well. Buddhahood is not to be apprehended via body or speech, nor is Buddhahood to be apprehended even via wisdom. Why? Because no matter how deeply one seeks for wisdom, wisdom is inapprehensible, [just as] when the self seeks to know self, it is ultimately unable to apprehend it. Nor is there anything to be seen. All dharmas are 519 T. no. 1911, 46: 12b24-29. Mohe Zhiguan Vol. 2. There is translation by Donner, Daniel B. Stevenson, and Zhiyi, The Great Calming and Contemplation: A Study and Annotated Translation of the First Chapter of Chih-i's Mo-ho chih-kuan, 239-240. 219 fundamentally lacking in content. One must destroy any notion of a fundament and eradicate the very idea of a foundation.520 Andō Toshio argues that Zhiyi utilizes the opinion of Daśabhūmika-vibhāṣā-śāstra to explain that the Buddha’s 32 marks, the 40 unique qualities of a Buddha, and contemplating reality of Buddha in mind 實相念佛. To contemplate Buddha’s 32 marks from one to 32 and from 32 to one is to practice Emptiness, the Provisional Positing, and Middle Way. The pratyutpannasamādhi is not only to behold Buddha, but also to practice that the Three Insights, are in one thought, and to experience Perfect Interpenetration of the Three Truths—the reality.521 Zhiyi employs dreams and desires to explain how to recall Amitābha Buddha. For example, he writes that one should recall Amitābha Buddha as if one sees seven jewels and experiences the happiness of one’s entire family in a dream. When one awakens, they do not know where they are. This is like in Śrāvastī522 where there was a lady named Vasumitra. When one heard her name, one felt joy. At night one dreamed of Vasumitra. When he awoke, he recalled her. He did not visit her, and she did not approach him. The joy of interacting is like this reality. This is like recalling Amitābha Buddha. It is like the travelers that walked around the waters, and felt hungry and thirsty. They saw food and beverages in a dream, but when they awoke, their stomachs were still empty. One should recall Amitābha Buddha with the attitude that all the phenomena is like dream. The one 520 Donner, Daniel B. Stevenson, and Zhiyi, The Great Calming and Contemplation: A Study and Annotated Translation of the First Chapter of Chih-i's Mo-ho chih-kuan, 240-241. T. no. 1911, 46: 12b29c08. Mohe Zhiguan Vol. 2. 521 Andō 安藤俊雄, Tendai Shisōshi 天台思想史 (The History of Tendai’s Thought), 379-80. 522 Śrāvastī is also called Wravasti, 舍婆提. 220 who recalls Amitābha Buddha without rest will be reborn into Amitābha Buddha’s Pure Land. This is named the mindfulness of external marks just as they are 如相念.523 When one is in the dream, s/he feels in reality. It seems real. When one is in the daily life, s/he feels Reality. This kind of experience can be utilized in chanting Amitābha Buddha. Amitābha Buddha becomes very real in one’s mind. Zhiyi clarifies that mindfulness of external marks just as they are is like one who puts the jewels on the beryl and then the images of jewels appear on the beryl. This is also like the monks who meditate on a skull, and then see all kinds of lights shown on the skull. There is no source of the lights, neither is there a skull. This is a function of the mind. This is like an image in a mirror; the image neither comes from outside the mirror nor comes from the inside of the mirror. It is because the mirror is very clear, and the images are reflected on the mirror. A similar situation is stated about a practitioner who has a clear mind, will be clear about all the rest.524 The function of mind is very similar to mirror in some viewpoint. The images reflects on the mind as the images reflects on the mirror. There are some discussions in the next paragraph about the mind and Buddha. Zhiyi then illuminates the connection between mind and Buddha as follows. If the practitioner wants to see Buddha, then he will see Buddha. If one requests Buddha to preach the dharmas, then Buddha preaches the dharmas. The practitioner is filled with great joy. The practitioner thinks to himself, “Where does the Buddha come from? I have not approached the Buddha. I see what I recall. It is the mind that is a Buddha. It is the 523 T. no. 1911, 46: 12c08-15. Mohe Zhiguan Vol. 2. 524 T. no. 1911, 46: 12c15-19. Mohe Zhiguan Vol. 2. 221 mind that sees the mind of Buddha. Is it Buddha’s mind or it is my mind that sees Buddha? The mind cannot recognize itself. The mind cannot see itself. The mind that has any thoughts is a deluded mind. Without thought is nirvāṇa. This dharma cannot be exhibited because it is about thoughts. Even though there are thoughts arising, it should be treated as Emptiness.”525 From the mind to practice, practice brings the discussions above into daily life. Practice brings Amitābha Buddha, Tiantai mode of meditation in Ten Vehicles or Stages, Three Thousand Worlds, etc. into practitioners’ daily life. The practice of pratyutpannasamādhi includes the practicing with phenomena, such as to put a statue, image, or picture of Amitābha Buddha; to decorate a place set aside for religious practices; to chant the name of Amitābha Buddha; to go around the Buddha to his right in worship; to recall Amitābha Buddha’s 32 marks; etc. The aim of these practices is to contemplate on principle. The contemplation of principle is to meditate in Ten Vehicles or Stages. One who practices the Tiantai mode of meditation in Ten Vehicles or Stages can testify accurately the principle of in one thought to survey or embrace the Three Thousand Worlds. This is based on samādhi to generate the wisdom. In Zhiyi’s opinion, this wisdom has to be based on the practice of the Tiantai mode of meditation in Ten Vehicles or Stages to practice the four kinds of samādhi. The Buddhas utilize this meaning of pratyutpannasamādhi, or the Tiantai mode of meditation in Ten Vehicles or Stages, in their testimony to prove the reality of in one thought to survey or embrace the Three Thousand Worlds.526 525 T. no. 1911, 46: 12c19-25. Mohe Zhiguan Vol. 2. 526 Andō 安藤俊雄, Tendai Shisōshi 天台思想史 (The History of Tendai’s Thought), 383. 222 In the gāthā 偈頌 it says that the mind does not know the mind itself. The mind does not see the mind itself. If the mind has thoughts, it is a deluded mind. If the mind has no thoughts, it is nirvāṇa. The Buddhas get enlightenment through the mind. The mind that has no deluded thoughts is called pure. If one understands that the five destinies527 are pure and need not be controlled by their forms, they get enlightenment that attains the great path. This attainment is called the Buddha-seal.528 There is nothing to crave and be attached to. There is nothing to seek and discern. All existing is extinguished. Whatever one desires is extinguished. There is nothing that can arise within the Buddha-seal. Likewise, there is nothing that can vanish; or decay. This is the kernel of the path. This is the groundwork of the path. This seal cannot be destroyed by śrāvakas and pratyekabuddha. How can it be destroyed by the wickedness of māras?529 The Buddha-seal is Three Dharma Seals.530 First, everything is impermanence. Second, there is non-self. Third, nirvāṇa is eternal peace. The impermanence, non-self, and eternal peace cannot be destroyed by the mischief of māras. In Daśabhūmika-vibhāṣā-śāstra, one who is newly resolved on becoming a bodhisattva to get enlightenment should first recollect Buddha’s 32 marks. Each mark has its substance, action, effect, and function. If one contemplates these 32 marks and their substance, action, effect, and function, one can attain the lower degree of power. If one contemplates 40 unique qualities of a Buddha, one attains the medium degree of power. If one contemplates bhūtatathatā, one can attain the supreme degree of power. After he 527 There is difference in a statement whether there are five or six gati 五道, 六道. 528 Buddha-seal is the symbol of assurance about Buddhism. 529 T. no. 1911, 46: 12c25-13a02. Mohe Zhiguan Vol. 2. 530 Three Dharma Seals are every 223 contemplates these three levels of Buddha, he does not attach to the form body and dharma body of Buddha.531 Three levels of powers above can be achieved by mindfulness of Buddha. The lowest level is to recall the 32 marks of Buddha. The medium level is to recall the 40 qualities of Buddha. The highest level is to meditate on reality of Buddha in mind. These three levels are related to pratyutpannasamādhi. In addition, there are some benefits about pratyutpannasamādhi will be discussed below. In the gāthā of Daśabhūmika-vibhāṣā-śāstra, it says to be neither attached to the physical body nor the dharma body. Be aware that all dharmas are quiescence as Emptiness. There is also something else the practitioner should pay attention to. If the practitioner wants to attain the wisdom of the ocean; wants the unsurpassed one (or Buddha) to be his teacher; wants to sit and without using supernatural powers is able to see Buddhas and listen to Buddhas’ preaching; and wants to practice what has been learned, then this practitioner should practice pratyutpannasamādhi. The merit of pratyutpannasamādhi is the greatest merit. This pratyutpannasamādhi is often called the mother of all Buddhas, the eyes of Buddhas, the father of Buddhas, and the non-arising Great Compassionate mother 無生大悲母. All Tathāgatas are arisen from these two dharmas of father and mother.532 Shatter the ground, grass, and woods of thousands of worlds into dust, and then make each dust particle become one Buddha-land. If one donates the number of jewels equal to these amounts of Buddha-lands, the merits are abundant. However, this (the merits of donating those number of jewels) is less than one who listens to this 531 T. no. 1911, 46: 13a03-06. Mohe Zhiguan Vol. 2. 532 T. no. 1911, 46: 13a06-12. Mohe Zhiguan Vol. 2. 224 pratyutpannasamādhi without being startled and afraid. Moreover, one believes in pratyutpannasamādhi, memorizes pratyutpannasamādhi, recites pratyutpannasamādhi, and explains pratyutpannasamādhi for others; from which one can gain merits. One can even attain the merit by contemplating pratyutpannasamādhi. This is like the ground has an indirect role in the cow’s producing of milk; which means that one listens to, believes in, memorizes, recites, explains, and contemplates pratyutpannasamādhi, there is an indirect role to pratyutpannasamādhi. If one is perfect in pratyutpannasamādhi, one can attain merits that are incalculable, and immeasurable. In the Daśabhūmika-vibhāṣā-śāstra it says that if one practices pratyutpannasamādhi, it is impossible for the fire in the kalpa of destruction, officials, gangsters, poisonous dragons, brutes, and sickness to assault the pratyutpannasamādhi practitioner. This practitioner will be guarded and cared for, protected, kept in mind, and praised by devas, nāgas, yakṣas, gandharvas, asuras, garuḍas, kinnaras, mahoragas and Buddhas. They all will see the pratyutpannasamādhi practitioner wherever the pratyutpannasamādhi practitioner dwells. If one hears this pratyutpannasamādhi, one rejoices in gratitude for it in its four kinds of merits. Buddhas and bodhisattvas of the three periods rejoice as well. If the practitioner actually practices pratyutpannasamādhi, the merits are more than the four kinds of merits mentioned. If the practitioner does not practice pratyutpannasamādhi, he loses innumerable amounts of precious treasure. Human and divine beings have sorrow for and are distressed by this. This is likened to a person who has a benumbed sense of smell that is holding sandalwood. This person cannot smell it. This is also likened to the son of farmer who has a fabulous gem and trades it for an ox.533 533 T. no. 1911, 46: 13a12-23. Mohe Zhiguan Vol. 2. 225 These two paragraphs above are mentioned the benefits of pratyutpannasamādhi. Into the bargain, the practitioners are persuaded to practice pratyutpannasamādhi. These benefits increase practitioners’ power. Meanwhile, the practitioners attain the protection of devas, nāgas, yakṣas, gandharvas, asuras, garuḍas, kinnaras, mahoragas and Buddhas. In the following paraagraoh, the general estimations about meditation are discussed, of course, which include the opinions about pratyutpannasamādhi. Zhiyi also talks over absorption practice of mindfulness of the Buddha in Mohe Zhiguan Vol. nine in a systemized way to explain the perfect-and-sudden-cessation-andcontemplation 圓頓止觀. In the conditions of dhyāna and samādhi, there are two stages of absorption of mindfulness of the Buddha. One is hidden and the other is revealed. In particular, contemplating on Buddha’s merits, and Buddha’s 32 marks is considered a hidden stage. If Buddha’s merits enter into consciousnesses, one enters into concentration of Buddha and one can observe Buddha’s light, 32 marks, etc. very clearly. When one observes Buddha’s marks and there is no dharma in the mind, this is not Buddha. Because one focuses on Buddha’s form, the Buddha’s marks are transformed by māras. Meditation, which is transformed by māras, is harmful meditation.534 Before Zhiyi, nobody systemizes the pratyutpannasamādhi. Zhiyi is the first person who systemizes the pratyutpannasamādhi. Zhiyi also put discipline, meditation, and wisdom, or the three practices, into the pratyutpannasamādhi. Zhiyi put these practices of discipline, meditation, and wisdom into Ten-Vehicle meditation 十乘觀法. Zhiyi 534 T. no. 1911, 46: 129c18-130b01. Mohe Zhiguan Vol. 9. 226 transforms the pratyutpannasamādhi by adding the 25 expedients 二十五方便535 as discipline, and Ten-Vehicle meditation supported as wisdom—this is the most meaningful of Zhiyi’s pratyutpannasamādhi teaching. Here Zhiyi does not mean that a pratyutpannasamādhi practitioner aims to be reborn into the Amitābha Buddha’s Pure Land. In Zhiyi’s opinion, the aim of the pratyutpannasamādhi is to be reborn into the highest Pure Land—the realm of constant quiescence. Furthermore, he considers that among the four kinds of Buddha land Amitābha Buddha’s Pure Land is the lowest one. These opinions are different from Lushan Hueiyuan 廬山慧遠 who admires Amitābha Buddha’s Pure Land, and wishes to be reborn there.536 In Jinguangming Jing Xuanyi 金光明經玄義 Vol. two, Zhiyi situates the three insights in one thought into the pratyutpannasamādhi practice. He develops a metaphor about the following dream. When one cannot feel full in the dream—this is Emptiness; when one can consume plenty of food—this is Provisional Positing; and all these included in dharma—this is the Middle Way. In addition, my mind and Buddha’s mind is Provisional Positing, which identifies the differences. My mind and Buddha’s mind are Emptiness. There is neither my mind nor Buddha’s mind. How can there be my mind as Buddha’s mind, or Buddha’s mind as my mind. This is not Provisional Positing. There is neither the suchness of my mind nor the suchness of Buddha’s mind. How can there be the suchness of my mind as the suchness of Buddha’s mind, or the suchness of Buddha’s mind as the suchness of my mind. This is not Emptiness. There is neither Emptiness nor The 25 expedients 二十五方便 are (1) preparing the five conditions 具五緣; (2) reprimanding the five desires 訶五欲; (3) rejecting the five obscurations 棄五蓋; (4) regulating five matters 調五事; (5) practicing five supplementary methods 行五法. 535 536 Andō 安藤俊雄, Tendai Shisōshi 天台思想史 (The History of Tendai’s Thought), 386-387. 227 Provisional Positing to reveal the Middle Way. As to observe Amitābha Buddha, it means both Emptiness and Provisional Positing. One contemplates the Middle Way is Buddhanature as Proper or Objective Cause, on the Emptiness is Buddha-nature as Revealing Cause, and on the Provisional Positing is Buddha-nature as Conditioning Cause.537 7.2.4. Conclusion In Mohe Zhiguan Zhiyi discusses four kinds of samādhi. In Vol. 2 he discusses constantly sitting samādhi, which is related to being mindful of Buddha, or dharmadhātu. Zhiyi treats pratyutpannasamādhi as constantly walking samādhi. If one practices and attains this pratyutpannasamādhi, one can observe the Ten Directions of Buddhas standing in front of him. Therefore, this pratyutpannasamādhi is called concentration of the Buddha’s appearance. This constantly walking samādhi focuses on chanting, recalling, or practices mindfulness of Amitābha Buddha. The benefit of chanting, recalling, or being mindful of Amitābha Buddha is also exhibited in Mohe Zhiguan Vol. 7 and Vol. 8, which are the antidotal factors that control the obscuration of lethargy, sleep and karmic hindrances, and can be controlled by chanting Amitābha Buddha’s name. One can utilize the Tiantai mode of meditation in Ten Vehicles or Stages to demonstrate the reality that one thought embraces the Three Thousand Worlds when he practices pratyutpannasamādhi. The merits of pratyutpannasamādhi are great, because it is the mother of all Buddhas, the eyes of Buddhas, the father of Buddhas, and the nonarising Great Compassionate mother. 537 T. no. 1783, 39: 8a09-8b08. Jinguangming Jing Xuanyi Vol. 2. 228 Zhiyi enhances the 25 expedients as discipline and Ten-Vehicle Meditation supported as wisdom, which completes the three practices of discipline, meditation, wisdom into the practice of pratyutpannasamādhi. This is the most meaningful of Zhiyi’s pratyutpannasamādhi teaching. Zhiyi is the first to systemize the pratyutpannasamādhi teaching. In addition, Zhiyi positions the three insights in one thought into the pratyutpannasamādhi practice. This means that Emptiness, the Provisional Positing, and Middle Way are in one thought within the practice of pratyutpannasamādhi. When one chants, observes, or is mindful of Amitābha Buddha, one can practice Emptiness, Provisional Positing, and Middle Way. When one contemplates Middle Way, this is Buddha-nature as Proper or Objective Cause. When one contemplates the Emptiness, this is Buddha-nature as Revealing Cause. When one contemplates the Provisional Positing, this is Buddha-nature as Conditioning Cause. The three causes of the Buddha-nature are included in the practice of pratyutpannasamādhi. Zhiyi’s pratyutpannasamādhi practice enriches the teaching of Pure Land which also enhances the dynamic mind. 7.3. Zhiyi’s Opinion about Amitābha Buddha’s Pure Land and Buddhānusmṛti 7.3.1. Introduction During the end of Zhiyi’s life, he finishes the spirit of his Tiantai teaching system. We can observe a dramatic change in Zhiyi’s thoughts from his early stage to the sunset stage of his life. He emphasizes that the four universal vows of a Buddha or bodhisattva are to save all sentient beings without limit 衆生無邊誓願度, to terminate all passions 229 and delusions however numerous 煩惱無數誓願斷, to learn all methods and means without end 法門無盡誓願學, and to perfect in the supreme Buddha-law 佛道無上誓願成. How can sentient beings be saved in order to enter the Buddha realm? This kind of question Zhiyi thinks about over and over again. When Zhiyi finishes his pratyutpannasamādhi teaching, he intends to lead sentient beings into the realm of constant quiescence. However, according to Guanding’s Sui Tiantai Zhizhe Dashi Biezhuan, in Zhiyi’s sunset stage of life (C.E. 595-597) he admires Amitābha Buddha’s Pure Land and he believes that Amitābha Buddha, Guanyin 觀音 (Skt. Avalokiteśvara) and Shizhi 勢至 (Skt. Mahāsthāmaprāpta) all come to welcome him. What brings this dramatic change from Zhiyi’s enormous systemization of the Tiantai teaching into believing that Amitābha Buddha, Guanyin, and Shizhi have come to welcome him into Amitābha Buddha’s Pure Land? There are some clues in his biographies. In this section, Zhiyi’s biographies, like the Sui Tiantai Zhizhe Dashi Biezhuan, Xugaosengzhuan (Tanggaosengzhuan) Vol. 17 卷第十七, Guoqing Bailu 國清百錄), etc., will be utilized. Moreover, Zhiyi’s Fahua Sanmei Chanyi etc. will be explored. 7.3.2. What are Zhiyi’s Pragmatic and Soteriological Opinions about Fahua Sanmei Chanyi and Buddhānusmṛti? There are two kinds of Fahua Sanmei Chanyi, translated as the Lotus Samādhi Repentance. One is the old Japanese transcript called the Kanesawabunko 金澤文庫.538 The other Fahua Sanmei Chanyi is in the preface of the Zunshi 遵式. According to Satō 538 Kanesawabunko 金沢文庫（かねさわぶんこ、かなざわぶんこ）was built in the 13th century. 230 Tetsuei’s 佐藤哲英 Tendai Daishi no Kenkyū: Chigi o no Chosaku ni Kansuru Kisoteki Kenkyū 天台大師の研究: 智顗の著作に關する基礎的硏究, he contends that according to the old transcript of Japanese Kanesawabunko 金澤文庫, Fahua Sanmei Chanyi or the Lotus Samādhi Repentance, was composed during C.E. 578 to 585539 Yet, according to the preface of Zunshi 遵式, Fahua Sanmei Chanyi was composed during the Waguan stage (C.E. 568 to 575).540 There are two problems here. First is the time the text was composed. Second is the place the text was composed. These two questions cannot be solved because there is lack of further evidence. Satō Tetsuei concludes something important about the Fahua Sanmei Chanyi. He settles on the fact that the Fahua Sanmei Chanyi was actually created by Zhiyi. Furthermore, he believes that the Fahua Sanmei Chanyi was composed after Shi Chanboluomi Cidi Famen, because there is only the name of Fahua sanmei in Shi Chanboluomi Cidi Famen, but there are no real components in there. Fahua Sanmei Chanyi could not have been composed in the fifth stage of Zhiyi’s life (Sandabu 三大部 preaching stage C.E. 585-595), because there is none of his written opinions written about the four kinds of teaching 四教 and the Five Periods of Śākyamuni's teaching 五時. Huisi’s Fahuajing Anlexing Yi also mentions the Fahua sanmei. In addition, in Fahuajing Anlexing Yi Huisi emphasizes the practice without substantial features 無相行 in anlexing ping 安樂行品541 and the practice with substantial features 有相行 in puxian Satō 佐藤哲英, Tendai Daishi no Kenkyū: Chigi o no Chosaku ni Kansuru Kisoteki Kenkyū 天台大師の研究: 智顗の著作に關する基礎的硏究, 138. 539 540 T. no. 1941, 46: 949a15-18. Fahua Sanmei Chanyi. 541 T. no. 1926, 46: 700a18-29. 231 quanfa ping 普賢勸發品.542 Zhiyi follows Huisi’s opinion, and accentuates anlexing ping and puxian quanfa ping. In Fahua sanmei, Zhiyi accentuates reverence, repentance, going three times around the Buddha’s statue or picture, chanting or intonating a sūtra, and meditation on 21 days. These are called part walking, part sitting samādhi.543 I adopt Satō’s conclusions above about Fahua Sanmei Chanyi. Based on Satō’s research, I will explore more of the Fahua Sanmei Chanyi to deliberate Zhiyi’s Amitābha Buddha’s Pure Land. Zhiyi adopts Fahua Sanmei Chanyi from the Lotus Sūtra, Puxian guan jing 普賢觀經544 and other Mahāyāna Sūtras.545 The structure and content of Fahua Sanmei Chanyi can be divided into five parts. The first part explains the benefit of the 21 days practice. The second is the prior skillful means of practice of the 21 days. The third is to elucidate how the practitioner can concentrate upon the 21 days’ practice. The fourth is to explicate how the practitioner can practice during the 21 days. The fifth are the characteristics of the practice and realization. There are four characteristics of Fahua Sanmei Chanyi. First of all, Fahua Sanmei Chanyi has the most representative rules for confession and pardon 懺儀 of Tiantai. This Fahua Sanmei Chanyi combines both rules for confession and pardon with meditation, which opens the tradition of sanmei chanyi 三昧懺儀. Zhiyi adopts the characteristics of the Mahāyāna way for confessing sins, the rules for 542 T. no. 1926, 46: 700a29-b15. Satō 佐藤哲英 Tendai Daishi no Kenkyū: Chigi o no Chosaku ni Kansuru Kisoteki Kenkyū 天台大師の研究: 智顗の著作に關する基礎的硏究, 127-151. 543 544 This Sūtra is translated by Dharmamitra. 545 Shi 釋大睿, Tiantai Chan Fa zhi Yan Jiu 天台懺法之硏究, 95. 232 confession and pardon from his contemporary Tang Esoteric teachings, and Kumārajīva’s opinion about samādhi that sees into the three dogmas of unreality or Fahua sanmei. Zhiyi, from his former opinions, improves and transforms them into a new idea of Fahua Sanmei Chanyi, which is centrally based on anlexing ping. Moreover, Zhiyi emphasizes that both rules for confession and pardon go along with meditation. Furthermore, he harmonizes both practice and theory. In addition, in Mohe Zhiguan Vol. 2, he mentions that the four kinds of samādhi, including Fahua sanmei, can practice with Three Insights in one thought, 10 objects, and Ten Vehicle meditation.546 In Fahua Sanmei Chanyi, Zhiyi writes something important about Amitābha Buddha’s Pure Land. He states, “I make vow to hope that I can be aware when I am dying to be directly reborn into Amitābha Buddha’s Pure Land. In addition, I can meet Amitābha Buddha and the other sages to practice the 10 bhūmis’s eternity and bliss”547 Zhiyi, not only in the vow emphasizes Amitābha Buddha’s Pure Land, but also in the fifth section of Fahua Sanmei Chanyi he highlights three levels of practitioners. These three levels each have three levels.548 Kālayaśas 畺良耶舍 (C.E. 383-442) translates Guan wuliangshou jing 觀無量壽經 into Chinese in C.E. 424. These nine levels equal to Guan wuliangshou jing’s nine classes. Zhiyi is familiar with Guan wuliangshou jing. For instance, in Mohe Zhiguan Vol. 7, Zhiyi quotes Guan wuliangshou jing to discuss Buddha’s 32 marks. Zhiyi also utilizes the opinion of Guan wuliangshou jing to structure Fahua Sanmei Chanyi. For example, in Fahua Sanmei Chanyi’s section 546 Shi 釋大睿, Tiantai Chan Fa zhi Yan Jiu 天台懺法之硏究, 96-135. 547 T. no. 1941, 46: 953b 21-29. Fahua Sanmei Chanyi. 548 T. no. 1941, 46: 954c03-955a23. Fahua Sanmei Chanyi. 233 four paragraph seven he utilizes Guan wuliangshou jing’s ‘perfect sincerity 至誠心’ to structure ‘confession for the crime of the senses 懺悔六根’ and ‘begging (all Tathāgatas to rain down the saving law)勸請.’ Second, he utilizes Guan wuliangshou jing’s ‘profound resolve for it 深心’ to structure Fahua Sanmei Chanyi’s ‘rejoicing (in all good) 隨喜.’ Third, he utilizes Guan wuliangshou jing’s ‘resolve on admitting one's merits to others 廻向發願心’ to structure Fahua Sanmei Chanyi’s ‘sharing the goodness by the above eight methods, to others 廻向’ and in section five arouse the vow 發願. What is stated above demonstrates that Fahua Sanmei Chanyi and Guan wuliangshou jing have a very close relationship.549 It is significant to Zhiyi of Amitābha Buddha’s Pure Land, even though Zhiyi did not show this in the early part of his life. The cause is demonstrated in Zhiyi’s Fahua Sanmei Chanyi. However, the result appears in the sunset stage of Zhiyi’s life. There is historical evidence that the Fahua sanmei and pratyutpannasamādhi have been practiced. Those who practice Fahua sanmei also make a vow to be reborn into Amitābha Buddha’s Pure Land. This kind of opinion is very popular in Medieval China, which Zhiyi is also familiar with. The practitioners usually chant the Lotus Sūtra and Sukhāvatī-vyūha Sūtra simultaneously. For instance, in Liang Gaosen Zhuan 梁高僧傳, Zhufakuang 竺法曠 (C.E. 327-402) chants and advocates for the Lotus Sūtra and Sukhāvatī-vyūha Sūtra simultaneously.550 Moreover, Huijin 慧進 (C.E. 401-485) chants, copies the Lotus Sūtra, and transforms the merit to be reborn into Amitābha Buddha’s 549 Andō 安藤俊雄, Tendai Shisōshi 天台思想史 (The History of Tendai’s Thought), 362-365. 550 T. no. 2059, 50: 356c07-18. Liang Gaosen Zhuan. 234 Pure Land.551 In Fozu Tongji 佛祖統紀, Huichi 慧持,552 Tanyi 曇翼,553 Liu yimin 劉遺民 (Liu chengzhi 劉程之),554 etc. practice Fahua and Amitābha Buddha’s Pure Land Buddhism simultaneously. In Sui Tiantai Zhizhe Dashi Biezhuan, Zhiyi first dreams about a gust that blows down a stūpa. Then he dreams that a monk from India555 came to tell him that favorable circumstances are like the firewood, the illuminating function is like the fire, and that which aids is like the wind. The extinction of Zhiyi’s physical condition is coming. The promises in the peak of Huading 華頂峰, which are about influence and opportunity, are almost finished. Auxiliary means or conditions are diminishing. Moreover, Zhiyi dreamed that Master Huisi, and Xichanshi 喜禪師 came to ask him to preach the dharma. They then wait for him for a long time, until Zhiyi is ready to come. Zhiyi answers them ‘yes,’ therefore, Zhiyi knows that the time for his decease is coming. 556 How does Zhiyi react when he realizes his own death is coming? It seems that he tried to practice what is the most direct, significant, simple, and easy ways to prepare for his decease. He also demonstrated for other practitioners what to do when their death is coming. 551 T. no. 2059, 50: 407c22-408a05. Liang Gaosen Zhuan Vol. 12. 552 T. no. 2035, 49: 265c14-266a01. Fozu Tongji Vol. 26. 553 T. no. 2035, 49: 268c27-269a17. Fozu Tongji Vol. 26. 554 T. no. 2035, 49: 267c10-268a10. Fozu Tongji Vol. 26. 555 Also a monk maintains his purity. 556 T. no. 2050, 50: 195c12-23. Sui Tiantai Zhizhe Dashi Biezhuan. 235 When Zhiyi was in Shicheng 石城, he prepared for his final practice. He divided kāṣāya 袈裟 (Skt: saṁghāṭī 僧伽梨衣, uttarāsaṅga 鬱多羅僧衣, antarvāsaka 安陀會衣), a bowl, and the implements of faith, into two parts. One part was offered to the future Buddha Maitreya. One part was offered to the monastic assembly. After making these decisions, he lay down on the right upper part of the side of his body and faced west. In addition, he was mindful of Amitābha Buddha, prajñā, and Guanyin, or Avalokiteśvara.557 It looks like that Zhiyi’s most direct, significant, simple, and easy way to prepare for his decease was to practice mindfulness on Amitābha Buddha, prajñā, and Guanyin or Avalokiteśvara. Zhiyi gave oral instructions immeditately before death about the letter or note that was left by him. After that he asked to have his kāṣāya and bowl. He also requested that someone, or more than one, chant the Lotus Sūtra and Sukhāvatī-vyūha Sūtra. After he listened to the chanting of the Sukhāvatī-vyūha Sūtra, he gave praise in the following way, “Amitābha Buddha decorates his Pure Land by his 48 vows. There are flowered pools and jeweled trees. It is very easy to be reborn into Amitābha Buddha’s Pure Land, however, no one wants to be reborn there. Even one who is reborn into the hell of the fire-chariot, if one can repent, he still can be reborn into Amitābha Buddha’s Pure Land. Furthermore, the one who can practice morality, meditation, and wisdom558 can be reborn into Amitābha Buddha’s Pure Land. It is because of the power of following the path, the effort will not be wasted; it will be paid back.” The power of the voice of chanting in praise of Buddha is not deception. According to Sui Tiantai Zhizhe Dashi Biezhuan, 557 T. no. 2050, 50: 196a08-14. Sui Tiantai Zhizhe Dashi Biezhuan. 558 Discipline, meditation, wisdom 戒定慧. 236 when the sūtras were chanted at Shicheng, Wuzhou’s 吳州 government officials 侍官 Zhangda 張達 etc. five people saw a huge Buddha embraced by light which shone on the mountain. The light also shone into the monastery on the monks, who saw the auspicious in their dream or extraordinary appearances of light. Even the people who were in different locations, saw this phenomena. 559 Zhiyi said that if he did not lead the practice of his disciples and followers, he could purify his six senses. He benefited others by reducing his practice, so he only revealed the level of identity in meditative practice 觀行卽, which is called wuping diziwei 五品弟子位. Wuping diziwei is translated as five preliminary grades of the disciple. In Sui Tiantai Zhizhe Dashi Biezhuan, Zhiyi says “if you ask me (Zhiyi) where I will be reborn? My teachers and friends will accompany Guanyin, or Avalokiteśvara to welcome me to Amitābha Buddha’s Pure Land.”560 Zhiyi told Weinuo 維那, 羯磨陀那 (Skt., karmadāna) that when a human being’s life is going to end, the sound of a great bell or gong will increase correct mindfulness (Skt., samyak-smṛti). He asked if the sound should be as long as possible until the person passes away. It should not be done as follows: cry after the person passed away and change the clothes of the decease. After Zhiyi said these things stated above, he sat in lotus posture and chanted the name of Buddha, Dharma, and saṅgha. And then he was in a state of samādhi. He passed away on Chinese lunar calendar date of November 24 in C.E. 597 between 1 to 3 pm (weishi 未時). He was 60 years of age. The munber of years he was ordained as a monk was 40. During the hours after he passed away, from 11 p.m. 559 T. no. 2050, 50: 196a19- b03. Sui Tiantai Zhizhe Dashi Biezhuan. 560 T. no. 2050, 50: 196b13-15. Sui Tiantai Zhizhe Dashi Biezhuan. 237 to 1 a.m., the top of Zhiyi’s head was still warm.561 That the top of Zhiyi’s head was still warm signifies that Zhiyi was to be reborn into upper realm. In this case, it means that Zhiyi was reborn into Amitābha Buddha’s Pure Land. About Zhiyi’s death, Pan Guiming has some argument developed further. In his Zhiyi Pingzhuan 智顗評傳, Pan argues that Zhiyi did not die because of illness. Zhiyi did not want to serve Sui Emperor and the royal family. In addition, the tension between Zhiyi and Sui Emperor (and royal family) increased. On the other hand, Zhiyi had to consider the survival of Tiantai disciples. He chose to finish his life to earn the Tiantai disciples’ continuum.562 The context in the Xu Gaoseng Zhuan Vol. 17 biography of Zhiyi563 is the same as the Sui Tiantai Zhizhe Dashi Biezhuan. The context is also very similar in Guoqing Bailu Vol. 3, except there are some mysterious phenomena.564 These three recorded biographies report similar historical events about Zhiyi. This is the reason why I utilized the Sui Tiantai Zhizhe Dashi Biezhuan as a basis to explain the sunset stage of Zhiyi’s life as previously stated above. From Zhiyi’s characterization of the doctrine of the Lotus Sūtra and systemization of the contemplation of the mind, Zhiyi finishes his perfected scriptural study and meditation practice within the Tiantai teaching. Because Zhiyi has six kinds of regret565 in his life, Zhiyi turns himself into a practitioner of Pure Land. Zhiyi’s opinions about 561 T. no. 2050, 50: 196b22-28. Sui Tiantai Zhizhe Dashi Biezhuan. 562 Guiming Pan 潘桂明, Zhiyi Pingzhuan 智顗評傳 (Nanjing: Nanjing Daxue Chubanshe, 1996), 51-70. 563 T. no. 2060, 50: 564a18-568a14 Xu Gaoseng Zhuan Vol. 17. 564 T. no. 1934, 46: 808a09-816a12 Guoqing Bailu Vol. 3. 565 T. no. 1934, 46: 809c09-816a12 Guoqing Bailu Vol. 3. 238 Pure Land is scattered within the Weimojing Wenshu, Weimojing Lueshu, Jinguangming Jing Wenju,566 Jinguangming Xuanyi, Qing Guanyin Jing Shu 請觀音經疏,567 Fahua Xuanyi,568 Shi Chanboluomi Cidi Famen, Mohe Zhiguan, Sui Tiantai Zhizhe Dashi Biezhuan, Xugaosengzhuan (Tanggaosengzhuan), Guoqing Bailu, Fahua Sanmei Chanyi, as well as other texts. There are great amounts of information about Zhiyi’s opinion of Pure Land. Throughout Zhiyi’s Tiantai system about the dynamic mind, when we check from Zhiyi’s youth to his sunset stage, perhaps it could be said that Zhiyi puts Amitābha Buddha’s Pure Land as one of the crucial positions, which he practiced right before he passed away. He demonstrates the practical and soteriological method to indicate the path of salvation. 7.3.3. Conclusion Zhiyi classifies four kinds of samādhi, which can be practiced in the Ten Vehicle meditation. This implies that Fahua sanmei can be practiced in the Ten Vehicle meditation. In Medieval China, the Lotus and Sukhāvatī-vyūha Sūtra are practiced simultaneously. In Zhiyi’s time, the practitioners practice Fahua and Amitābha Buddha’s Pure Land Buddhism simultaneously. According to Sui Tiantai Zhizhe Dashi Biezhuan, Xu Gaoseng Zhuan Vol. 17, and Guoqing Bailu Vol. 3, Zhiyi dreamed about a gust of wind that blew down a stūpa, a monk from India, and his master Huisi and Xichan shi. Those dreams gave him the hints that his death was coming. He prepared his death by the direct, significant, simple, and 566 T. no. 1785, 39: 53c9-17. Jinguangming Jing Wenju Vol. 2. And T. no. 1785, 39: 54a12-15. Jinguangming Jing Wenju Vol. 2. 567 T. no. 1800, 39: 971c17-21. Qing Guanyin Jingshu. 568 T. no. 1716, 33: 767a17-25. Fahua Xuanyi Vol. 7. 239 easy practice, which is mindful of Amitābha Buddha, prajñā, and Guanyin, or Avalokiteśvara. In the final moments, he requested that people chant the Lotus and Sukhāvatī-vyūha Sūtra for him. In addition, he chanted the name of Buddha, Dharma, and saṅgha. He passed away in lotus posture on Chinese lunar calendar date of November 24 in C.E. 597 in the state of samādhi. Zhiyi starts Tiantai Buddhism from scriptural study and meditation practice. In his huge systemization of the dynamic mind, maybe it could be said that Zhiyi put Amitābha Buddha’s Pure Land in one of the crucial positions. He demonstrated this practice right before his death. He was mindful of Amitābha Buddha, prajñā, and Guanyin (Avalokiteśvara), which demonstrates the practical and soteriological method to indicate the path of salvation. 7.4. Conclusion Zhiyi in Mohe Zhiguan Vol. 2 discusses constantly sitting samādhi. This type of samādhi is related to being mindful of Buddha or dharmadhātu. Zhiyi treats pratyutpannasamādhi as constantly walking samādhi. This constantly walking samādhi focuses on chanting, recalling, or mindfulness of Amitābha Buddha. These two types of samādhi are related to mindfulness of Amitābha Buddha. Zhiyi is the first person who systemized the pratyutpannasamādhi, that he put discipline in, by adding the 25 expedients, meditation, and wisdom, by supporting by Ten-Vehicle meditation, as the three practices into the pratyutpannasamādhi. This transformation is the most meaningful of Zhiyi’s pratyutpannasamādhi teaching. However, for Zhiyi the goal of pratyutpannasamādhi is to be reborn into the realms of constant quiescence, but not necessarily Amitābha Buddha’s Pure Land. 240 In Fahua Sanmei Chanyi, Zhiyi writes something important about Amitābha Buddha’s Pure Land, he says “I make vow and hope I can be aware when I am dying, and to be directly reborn into Amitābha Buddha’s Pure Land. In addition, I want to meet Amitābha Buddha and the other sages to practice the ten bhūmis eternity and bliss.” Zhiyi, in the vow, not only emphasizes Amitābha Buddha’s Pure Land, but also in the fifth section of Fahua Sanmei Chanyi he highlights three levels of practitioners. These three levels each have three levels, which mean there are a total of nine levels. These nine levels are equal to Guan wuliangshou jing’s nine classes. Zhiyi also utilizes the opinion of Guan wuliangshou jing to structure Fahua Sanmei Chanyi. For instance, he utilizes Guan wuliangshou jing’s profound resolve for it to structure Fahua Sanmei Chanyi’s rejoicing in all good. There are some more examples that exist in the Fahua Sanmei Chanyi. It perchance could be said that those examples demonstrate that Guan wuliangshou jing is important in Zhiyi’s mind. In addition, in Medieval China, practitioners practice Fahua and Amitābha Buddha’s Pure Land Buddhism simultaneously. This can be found in the Liang Gaosen Zhuan and Fozu Tongji. When we check Zhiyi’s whole life, from Zhiyi’s characterization of the doctrine of the Lotus Sūtra and the systemization of the contemplation of the mind, Zhiyi finishes his perfect scriptural study and meditation practice in Tiantai teaching. Zhiyi practiced Amitābha Buddha’s Pure Land right before his death. This conceivably could demonstrate that Amitābha Buddha’s Pure Land is oen of the crucial positions in Zhiyi’s system. He demonstrates the actual and sympathetic method to exhibit the path of salvation to all sentient beings. 241 CONCLUSION Among Zhiyi’s existing 188 volumes which come from 46 works, Fahua Wenju, Fahua Xuanyi, and Mohe Zhiguan contain the most important theories of Tiantai teaching. Shi Chanboluomi Cidi Famen, Xiuchan Liumiaomen, and Mohe Zhiguan elucidate the opinions about Gradual Dhyāna, Indeterminate Dhyāna, and ‘Perfect and Sudden Cessation and Contemplation.’ Weimojing Xuan Shu and Weimojing Wenshu and other such texts explain Zhiyi’s opinions about Pure Land. In this dissertation, the main focus is to discuss Zhiyi’s opinions about the mind and argue that Zhiyi utilizes the mind as a super path (dynamic mind) to raise sentient beings from the lower realms into Buddha realm by mindfulness of Buddha. The mind is dynamic because of the intention and extension of the mind, Intrinsic Inclusiveness, Ten Thusnesses, and Threefold Buddhanature. The dynamic mind is not static. When the mind has this marvelous path, Zhiyi sets the path to lead sentient beings to Pure Land. Therefore, in Weimojing Wenshu, Weimojing Lueshu, Jinguangming Jing Wenju, Jinguangming Xuanyi, Qing Guanyin Jing Shu, Fahua Xuanyi, Shi Chanboluomi Cidi Famen, Mohe Zhiguan, Fahua Sanmei Chanyi, etc. Zhiyi preaches the Pure Land teaching. In Mohe Zhiguan, Zhiyi preaches four kinds of meditation. Two of them (constantly sitting samādhi and constantly walking samādhi) are related to mindfulness of Buddha. He even specifically teaches the practice of mindfulness of one Buddha’s name in the constantly sitting samādhi and Amitābha Buddha’s name in constantly walking samādhi (pratyutpannasamādhi). He emphasizes that the merits of chanting one Buddha’s name is equal to chanting ten directions Buddhas’ name. 242 In Mohe Zhiguan Vol. 2 (T. no. 1911, 46: 11a28-12a19), Zhiyi discusses constantly sitting samādhi. This type of samādhi is related to being mindful of Buddha or dharmadhātu According to Zhiyi’s other works or his biographies, he states that this one Buddha’s name is Amitābha Buddha. In Mohe Zhiguan Vol. 2 (T. no. 1911, 46:12c14-15), about the constantly walking samādhi, he even preaches to be mindful about Amitābha Buddha’s name in order to be reborn into Amitābha Buddha’s Pure Land. The main contribution of this dissertation is to emphasize the opinions of Zhiyi’s mindfulness of Buddha. Modern scholars do not pay much attention to this. This dissertation re-evaluates its importance in Zhiyi’s teaching. In addition, imaginably it could be said that Zhiyi’s mindfulness of Buddha is one of the important teachings of his (Zhiyi’s). Some modern scholars have discussed Tiantai Zhiyi’s concept of Mind, among them, Chen Yingshan, Ishizu 石津照璽, Ng Yukwan, Yanpei, Brook Ziporyn, etc. Few modern scholars have discussed Tiantai Zhiyi’s concept of Pure Land, including Mochizuki Shinkō, Zhang Tingshi, Tamura 田村芳朗, Andō Toshio. Numerous modern scholars have researched Tiantai Zhiyi’s teaching. Multitudinous modern scholars are doing research about the Pure Land. However, not many of them are interested in both areas. Mochizuki Shinkō focuses on Tiantai Zhiyi’s four Buddha realms and pratyutpannasamādhi. Zhang Tingshi also discusses Zhiyi’s four Buddha realms, selfpower and other-power. In addition, he examines Zhiyi’s influence. His approach and emphasis are different from mine. There are not many secondary sources about this topic. 243 According to Zhiyi’s opinion, sentient beings are the master of themselves. This does not mean that sentient beings can do whatever they want. Sentient beings are limited by causes and conditions. However, they are free to control their mind. Through the functions of mind, sentient beings can go to any realm they want to. The mind is the key. In Fahua x0uanyi, Zhiyi argues that the mind can create hell or heaven. The mind can make one an ordinary person or a sage. It means that the mind can be deluded or pure. From Zhiyi’s viewpoint of the mind, the intention of mind is explained in terms of eight consciousnesses. In Mohe Zhiguan Vol. 5, he even claims that if one wants to exterminate suffering, the best way is to meditate on consciousness, on the mind. In Fahua Xuanyi Vol. 5, Zhiyi represents that the amala-vijñāna is the sixth consciousness, the ādāna-vijñāna is the seventh consciousness, and the ālaya-vijñāna is the eighth consciousness. If in ālaya-vijñāna there are the seeds of birth and death, after perfuming and augmenting, it becomes discriminating perception. If in ālaya-vijñāna there are the seeds of wisdom, after perfuming and augmenting it becomes Buddhanature which is called pure consciousness. It is according to ālaya-vijñāna to discuss the one consciousness in three consciousnesses and the three consciousnesses in one consciousness. In Fahua Xuanyi Vol. 7, Zhiyi purifies the mind by meditating on the mind, which is Dependent Origination. Dependent Origination is Emptiness, Provisional Positing, and Middle Way. Because the three insights are in one thought, one knows that mind is nonmind, but exists only as a name. One knows that the dharma is non-dharma. The dharmas have no self. 244 These are Zhiyi’s general claims about the nature of mind. In view of these positions, I want to make a conclusion about Zhiyi’s dynamic mind, those that are related to the intention of mind, the extension of mind, the cause of dynamic mind (Intrinsic Inclusiveness and The Thusnesses), and the natures about dynamic mind (Threefold Buddha-nature). The mind, on this model, is like space. In space, there are heat, waves, light, magnetism, electricity, etc. Heat, waves, light, magnetism, electricity, etc. are formless; they are all in space. The heat, waves, light, magnetism, and electricity are to space as “the intention of mind, the extension of mind, the cause of dynamic mind, and the natures about dynamic mind” are to the mind. “The intention of mind, the extension of mind, the cause of dynamic mind, and the natures about dynamic mind” are all in the mind. They are formless but function fluently. In short, they are the exhibiting power of the mind. The mind owns the powers which can drive sentient beings from the lower realm to the higher realm. The sentient beings can travel in the Ten Realms because of the power of mind. In fact, Zhiyi’s system analyzes the power of mind. Zhiyi utilizes the power of mind to lead sentient beings into Buddha realm. This is the only aim of Zhiyi’s teachings. Zhiyi establishes his whole system to prepare this aim that every sentient being has the power of mind to become Buddha. Among these teachings, perhaps the evidences are expressing that one of the powerful ways is to be mindful of Buddha. There is another idea that is distinctive to Zhiyi’s teaching, which is where there is evil, there is good. This idea makes the salvation of sentient beings possible. According to Zhiyi, an icchantika can become a Buddha if its causes and conditions align. Icchantika does not cut off “good by nature.” From the perspective of practice, this “evil 245 by nature” concept validates the view that there is no fundamental difference between mind, Buddha, and sentient beings. There is a large amount of information about Zhiyi’s opinion of Pure Land in Weimojing Wenshu, Weimojing Lueshu, Jinguangming Jing Wenju, Jinguangming Xuanyi, Qing Guanyin Jingshu, Fahua Xuanyi, Shi Chanboluomi Cidi Famen, Mohe Zhiguan, Sui Tiantai Zhizhe Dashi Biezhuan, Xugaosengzhuan (Tanggaosengzhuan), Guoqing Bailu, Fahua Sanmei Chanyi. Throughout Zhiyi’s Tiantai system about the dynamic mind, possibly the manuscripts are testifying that Zhiyi puts Amitābha Buddha’s Pure Land as one of the crucial positions, which he practiced accurately before he passed away. He demonstrates one of the practical and soteriological methods to indicate the path of salvation. There is an issue that must be clarified in this connection. Japanese Buddhists have a very serious sectarian consciousness. However, Chinese Buddhists are not concerned with this kind of issue. Even though I utilize several modern Japanese Buddhist scholars’ works, I do not adopt this Japanese sectarianism. I only utilize their opinions as sources, information. Zhiyi is the founder of Tendai in Japan. Japanese Tendai scholarship does not contain the Pure Land components. Pure Land essentials are part of the Jōdoshinshū group (浄土真宗). However, in Zhiyi’s works there DO exist Pure Land elements. Japanese Tendai neglect this part because of their sectarianism. If this dissertation were not be criticized by this Japanese sectarian issue, it would be much appreciated. There are some possible future studies after this dissertation. For example, the topic about how and what does Zhiyi’s Pure Land teaching influence the later Taintai School or 246 Pure Land School? Furthermore, what are the differences among Huisi, Zhiyi, Zhanran, Zhiyuan, and Zhili about the topic of “xinxing” (mind-nature)? How did the thought of “xinxing” change? In addition, what are the differences between Zhiyi’s opinion about mind and psychology? 247 BIBLIOGRAPHY Primary Sources Laozi 老子 Daode jing 道德經. 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Beijing Shi: Zongjiao Wenhua Chu Ban She, 2004. 257 APPENDIX List of Characters (I keep the case-sensitive for the English as second language people) absolutely empty 畢竟空 Absolute Wisdom 實智 aggregates, fields, and realms [The five skandhas, the twelve entrances, or bases through which consciousness enters (āyatana), and the eighteen dhātu or elements] 陰入界 a great chiliocosm 大千 amala-vijñāna (the ninth, immovable consciousness) 阿摩羅識 Amituo Jiang Yiji 阿彌陀經義記 Amituo Shiyilun 阿彌陀十疑論 a mustard seed 芥子 anlexing ping 安樂行品 Andō Toshio 安藤俊雄 Anleji 安樂集 arising and ceasing 生滅 Aṅgulimālika Sūtra 央掘魔羅經 Asipattra 劍樹地獄 attributes Pure Land 相淨土 avidyā 無明 Avīci Hell 無間 (河鼻旨; 阿惟越致; 阿毗至; 阿鼻; 阿毗) 地獄 awareness and insight 覺慧 awareness-cause 了因 ādāna-vijñāna (the seventh discriminating consciousness) 阿陁那識 ālaya-vijñāna (the eighth consciousness) 第八阿賴耶識 Banre (Prajñāpāramitā)般若 Banzhou Zhengxiang Xingfa 般舟證相行法 be Empty be Phenomenal be Medial 即空即假即中 Bhaiṣajya-rāja 藥王 bhūtatathatā 眞性軌 biejiao (the Separate Teaching) 別教 birth and death 生死 Bodhiruci 菩提流支 Bodhisattvas of the Perfect Teaching 圓教菩薩 Bodhisattvas of the Separate Teaching 別教菩薩 Bodhisattvas of the Shared Teaching 通教菩薩 Bodhisattvas of the Six Perfections 六度菩薩 Buddha-nature 佛性 Buddha-nature as Conditioning Cause (yuan yin) 緣因 258 Buddha-nature as Proper or Objective Cause (zheng yin) 正因 Buddha-nature as Revealing Cause (liao yin) 了因 Buddhāvataṃsaka-mahāvaipulya-sūtra 大方廣佛華嚴經 or Avataṃsaka 華嚴經 catvāri-ārya-satyāni 四聖諦; 四眞諦: includes duḥkaha-ārya-satyam (suffering)苦諦 (苦聖諦), samudaya (the aggregation or exacerbation of suffering) 集諦, nirodha (the extinction of desire) 滅諦, and mārga (the way of such extinction) 道諦 Chan Boluomimen 禪波羅蜜門 Chanmenzhang 禪門章 characteristics and natures 相性 characteristics of phenomena 法相 Chen, Jian 陳堅 Chen, Yingshan 陳英善 Chengming nianfo yu chengxing nianfo 稱名念佛與稱性念 Chengshi School 成實宗 Chihō Shoin 地方書院 Chuli shengsi yaowen 出離生死要文 Cidi Chanmen 次第禪門 Cidi chanyao 次第禪要 Cidixue ping 次第學品 cintāmaṇi (the wish-granting jewel) 如意珠 contemplate reality of Buddha in mind 實相念佛 contemplate the mind as the Means 觀心即中 contrary or false positions 顛倒 contributory cause 緣因 cultivated evil 修惡 cultivating merit 修德 Dafangdeng Xingfa 大方等行法 Daochuo 道綽 Daode jing 道德經 Daoxuan’s (C.E. 596-667) 道宣 Daśabhūmika-vibhāṣā-śāstra 十住毘婆沙論 Dasheng qixin lun 大乘起信論 Dasushan 大蘇山 Datang Neidianlu 大唐內典錄 Dazangjing 大藏經 Dazhangyansi Fashen Siji Chanmen 大莊嚴寺法慎私記禪門 Dazhidu Lun (Mahāprajñāpāramitā-śāstra) 大智度論 Dengyo Daishi Shorai Mokuroku (デンギョウダイシショウライモクロク) 傳教大師將來台州錄 Dependent Origination 緣起 Dependent-Origination-Middle-Way-Reality 緣起中道實相 259 Devadatta 提婆達多提婆; 提婆達; 提婆達兜; 達兜; 地婆達多 (or 地婆達兜); 禘婆達多; 調婆達多 dharma attained by practice 修得法 Dharmagupta 達摩笈多 dharmakāya-tathāgata 法身如來 dharma-nature reward body 法性報身 Dharmarakṣa 竺曇摩羅察 or 竺法護 Diguan 諦觀 Dilun School (Skt. Daśabhūmikā sect) 地論宗 Distinct Bodhisattvas 別教菩薩 Distinct Teaching 別教 Droṇodana rāja 斛飯王 Dvādaśamukha-śāstra 十二門論 earth-seed 地種 eighteen dhātu, or realms 十八界 Eight Negations (pa-pu 八不中道): No-origination 不生, No-extinction 不滅, Nopermanence 不常, No-destruction 不斷, No-sameness 不一, No-difference 不異, No-approaching 不來, No-separating 不出 Ekākāra samādhi (one practice samādhi) 一行三昧 Emptiness, Provisional Positing, and Middle Way 空假中 evil by nature 性惡 evil teaching 惡法門 Expedient Wisdom 權智 Fahua (Lotus; Saddhamapuṇḍarīka Sūtra) 法華 and Niepan (Mahā-parinirvāṇa Sūtras) 涅槃 Fahuajing Anlexing Yi 法華經安樂行義 Fahua sanmei 法華三昧 Fahua Sanmei Chanyi (the Lotus Samādhi Repentance) 法華三昧懺儀 Fahua Sanmei Xingfa 法華三昧行法 Fahua Wenju 法華文句 Fahua Xuanyi 法華玄義 Fajie Cidi Chumen 法界次第初門 Fajie Cidi Zhangmen 法界次第章門 Fajing 法經 Fangdeng (Vaipulya) 方等 Fangdeng Chanfa 方等懺法 Fang Guangchang 方廣錩 Fan nao ji pu ti: Tiantai "xing e" si xiang yan jiu 煩惱即菩提: 天台「性惡」思想研究 fangbian (Skt. upāya) 方便 Fangdeng Sanmei 方等三昧 Fanwang pusa jiejing yishu 梵網菩薩戒經義疏 260 fashen (Dharma Body) (Skt., dharmakāya)法身 Fayuanwen 發願文 Fazhao 法照 five aggregates 五蘊: form 色, feeling 受, perception 想, impulse 行, and consciousness 識) 五陰 five heinous crimes 五逆 Five Objects of Meditation 五停心 Five Periods 五時 five senses 五根 flower recompense 華報 Fojiao Shiliao Xue 佛教史料學 foshing chenghsin (Buddha Nature-True Mind) 法性真心 Four Developments of the Buddha’s own teaching and the Five Periods of the same 四教五時 four dhyānas 四禪 Four Formless Concentrations 四無色定 four forms of wisdom of a Buddha 四智: (1) 大圓鏡智 the great mirror wisdom of Akṣobhya; (2) 平等性智 the universal wisdom of Ratnaketu; (3) 妙觀察智 the profound observing wisdom of Amitābha; (4) 成所作智 the perfecting wisdom of Amoghasiddhi. There are various other groups. Four Immeasurables (or Infinite Buddha-States of mind) 四無量心 four kinds of holy men: śrāvakas(聲聞), pratyekabuddhas(緣覺辟支佛), bodhisattvas(菩薩), and Buddhas (佛) 四聖 four siddhānta 四悉檀, v. 悉檀. The Buddha taught by (1) mundane or ordinary modes of expression 世界悉檀; (2) individual treatment, adapting his teaching to the capacity of his listeners 各各為人悉檀; (3) diagnostic treatment of their moral diseases 對治悉檀; and (4) the perfect and highest truth 第一義悉檀 Foxing yu Bore 佛性與般若 Fozu Tongji 佛祖統紀 Fujita Kōtatsu 滕田宏達 Fujiwara Ryōsetsu’s 藤原凌雪 (Jp.フジワラ, リョウセツ) Fukuda Gyōei 福田堯穎 fundamental pure nature 自性清淨心 fundamental pure store 自性清淨藏 Gaoli dazangjing 高麗大藏經 ghanaika-sāra 一實理 good by nature 性善 good teaching 善法門 gradual meditation 漸次禪; Gradual Dhyāna 漸次止觀 great adamantine wisdom 金剛智 Guanding 灌頂 261 Guanding Siji Fahua Xuan Chufen 灌頂私記法華玄初分 Guangzan panruo 光讚般若 Guangzhai Fayun 光宅法雲 (C.E. 467-529) Guangzhai Temple 光宅寺 Guanjingshu 觀經疏 Guanjingshu Miaozong chao 觀經疏妙宗鈔 Guanshiyin pusa pumenping 觀世音菩薩普門品 Guanxin shier bu jingyi 觀心十二部經義 Guan Wuliangshoufo Jing Shu 觀無量壽佛經疏 guanxin (contemplation on the mind) 觀心 Guanxinlu 觀心論 Guanxin Shifa 觀心食法 Guanyin 觀音 (Skt. Avalokiteśvara) Guanyin Xuanyi 觀音玄義 Guanyin Yi Shu 觀音義疏 Guoqing Bailu 國清百錄 GuoXiang 郭象 habit 習因 habit karma 習業 Han Huanzhong 韓煥忠 Heirakuji Shoten 平楽寺 Hibi, Senshō 日比宣正 Himālayas 喜馬拉雅山 Hoēi Izumi 泉芳璟 Hokke kyōgakushi no kenkyū 法華敎学史の研究 Hōzōkan 法藏館 hu 忽 Huading peak 華頂峰 Huafa sijiao (Four Periods of Teaching) 化法四教 Huayan (Avataṃsaka Sūtra) 華嚴 Huayi sijiao 化儀四教 Huichao 慧超 Huichi 慧持 Huihuei 慧輝 Huiri 慧日 Huisi (C.E. 515-577) 慧思 Huijin (C.E. 401-485) 慧進 huran 忽然 huran nianqi 忽然念起 icchantika 一闡提 identity in contemplation and practice 觀行即 262 identity in name 名字即 identity in principle 理即 identity of semblance 相似即 liu liuji (Six Identities to the Buddhahood of Tiantai Teaching) 六即 illusions and temptations that arise from a philosophical failure to understand things in their reality 無明惑 illusion and temptation through the immense variety of duties in Buddha-knowledge 塵沙惑 Immediate and Whole meditation 圓頓禪 Inari Nissen 稲荷日宣 incense balls 丸香, 香丸 Intrinsic inclusiveness 性具 invoke Buddha’s name 稱名念佛 Irregular meditation 不定禪; Indeterminate Dhyāna 不定止觀 Ishizu, Teruji 石津照璽 Jinggang Banre Shu 金剛般若疏 Jingming Jingshu 淨名經疏 Jingming Xuanyi 淨名玄義 Jinguangming Jing Wenju 金光明經文句 Jinguangming Jing Xuanyi 金光明經玄義 Jingxi Zhanran 荊溪湛然 Jingtujiao Sixiand Lun 淨土教思想論 Jingyou xinxiu fabao lu 景祐新修法寶錄 Jinling 金陵 Jingtu lunzhu 淨土論註 Jñānagupta 闍那崛多 Jōdokyou no seiritsusiteki kenkyū 淨土教の成立史的研究 Jōdoshinshū group 浄土真宗 Jueyi Sanmei (bodhy-avgavatī samādhi) 覺意三昧 Kaibaozang 開寶藏 Kaiyuan shijiao lu (edited in C.E. 730) 開元釋教錄 Kamata, Shigeo 鎌田茂雄 Kanesawabunko 金澤文庫 Kato Tsutomu 加藤勉 Kālayaśas (C.E. 383-442) 畺良耶舎 kāṣāya 袈裟: Skt.: saṁghāṭī 僧伽梨衣, uttarāsaṅga 鬱多羅僧衣, antarvāsaka 安陀會衣 Kumārajīva 鳩摩羅什 Kuśala-mūla-saṃgraha Sūtra 佛說華手經 Lai, Yonghai 賴永海 Lan Jifu 藍吉富 Laozi 老子 263 Liang Dynasty 梁代 Liang Gaosen Zhuan 梁高僧傳 Liumiaomen 六妙門 Liu Yimin 劉遺民 (Liu Chengzhi 劉程之) Lokakṣema 支婁迦讖 Lotus Sūtra (Skt. Saddhamapuṇḍarīka Sūtra) 妙法蓮華經 lower four realms (four evil destinies 四惡道, i.e. the hells, hungry ghosts, animals, and asura 阿修羅) Lushan Hueiyuan 廬山慧遠 Lu Yijian 呂夷簡 Luyuan (Āgama) 鹿苑 Mahā-prajñāpāramitā-sūtra 大般若波羅蜜多經 Mahā-ratnakūta 寶積 Mahā-sajnipāta 大集 Mahā-sajnipāta-sūtra 大集經 Mahāyāna-saṃgraha 攝大乘論 manas 意 mano-vijñāna or kliṣṭa-mano-vijñāna 末那識 Matsui Kyosi 松居恭示 Mādhyamika-śāstra 中觀論 Mahā-ratnakūta-sūtra 大寶積經 Mahāvaipulya-mahāsaṃnipāta-sūtra 大方等大集經 Mahāyānābhidharma-samuccaya-vyākhyā 大乘阿毘達磨雜集論 meditation realm 觀境 Mengrun 蒙潤 Mengzi 孟子 mind (hsin; citta) 心, thought (or intention) (i; manas) 意, and consciousness (shih; vijñāna) 識 Mind Only School; Yogācāra School 唯識宗 Ming beizang 明北藏 Ming nanzang 明南藏 Mohe Zhiguan 摩訶止觀 Mohe Zhiguan Fuxing 摩訶止觀輔行 morality 戒, meditation 定, and wisdom 慧 Mou, Zongsan 牟宗三 Mt. Sumeru 須彌山 Muranaka Yūshō 村中祐生 mutual containment; mutually contained 互具 mutual containment of the Ten Realms” 十界互具 Nanyue Sichanshi Zhuan 南岳思禪師傳 Narendrayaśas 高齊那連提黎耶舍 264 natural capacity for evil 性德惡 natural capacity for good 性德善 natural inclusion of both good and evil 性具善惡 Navasaṃjñā 九想 (九想觀) Nāgārjuna 龍樹 neither walking nor sitting samādhi 非行非坐三昧 Ng Yukwan 吳汝均 nian 念 Nianfo chanmen sijiao linian 念佛禪門四教離念 Nianfo Sanmei 念佛三昧 nirmāṇakāya-tathāgata 應身如來 Nirvāṇa Sūtras (The Mahā-parinirvāṇa Sūtras 大般涅槃經) Nitta, Masaaki 新田雅章 Northern Qi Huiwen 北齊慧文 Northern Wei 北魏 not merely empty 不但空 not produced by itself 不自生 Noumenal Fully Present 理具、體具 noumenal Pure Land 真淨土 one mind and three aspects of knowledge 一心三智 Ōchō, Enichi 横超慧日 Ōno Hideto 大野栄人 Originally Possessed 本具 Pan Guiming 潘桂明 panjiao (Classification of Teachings) 判教 pañca balāni, their five powers 五力 pañca indriyāṇi, five spiritual faculties 五根 Pañcaviṃśati-sāhsrikā-prajñā-pāramitā 大品般若經 Paramārtha 真諦 (C.E. 499-569) partial realization 分證即 Perfect Interpenetration of the Three Truths 圓融三諦 phenomenal Pure Land 事淨土 Pinqiezang 頻伽藏 (C.E. 1909-1914) potency of the Buddha’s perfect knowledge 智德 Practice of Formless 無相行 Practice with Form 有相行 Pratyutpanna-buddha-sammukhāvasthita-samādhi-sūtra 般舟三昧經 pratyutpannasamādhi 般舟三昧 primal ignorance 無始無明 Pusa Jiejing Yiji 菩薩戒經義記 Puxian guan jing 普賢觀經 265 Puxian Pusa Fayuanwen 普賢菩薩發願文 puxian quanfa ping 普賢勸發品 Qing Guanyin chanfa 請觀音懺法 Qing Guanyin Jing Shu 請觀音經疏 Qing Guanyin Xingfa 請觀音行法 quality of (moral) goodness 善性 ṛddhipāda, four steps towards supernatural power 四如意足 Reality 實相 realms of constant quiescence (or realm of eternal rest and light i.e., wisdom, and of eternal spirit or dharmakāya) 常寂光淨土 realms of expedient transformation with remainder (or temporary realms) 方便有餘土 realms of permanent reward and freedom, for those who have attained bodhisattva rank 實報莊嚴土 realms where all classes dwell— men, devas, Buddhas, disciples, non-disciples 凡聖同居土 ren (benevolence) 仁 Renwang huguo bore jingshu 仁王護國般若經疏 Renwang Jing 仁王經 resultant path of suffering 苦道 reveals the penetrative power of the Buddha’s wisdom (or vision) 開佛知見 rewarding cause, or fruit-ripening cause 報因 or 果熟因, Rulai Shouliang Yi 如來壽量義 sahā 娑婆 Saityou’s (サイチョウ C.E. 767-822) 最澄 Samādhirāja-sūtra 佛說月燈三昧經 samādhi of following one's own thoughts; Suiziyi Sanmei 隨自意三昧 saṃbhogakāya-tathāgata 報身如來 samyakprahāṇa, four proper lines of exertion 四正勤 Sanguanyi 三觀義 Shanhui Bodhisattva Fuyi 善慧大士傅翕 Sankibou Bushorin 山喜房佛書林 sapta bodhyaṅga, seven degrees of enlightenment, or intelligence 七覺支 Sasaki, Kentoku 佐々木憲德 Sata-śāstra 百論 Satō, Taishun 佐藤泰舜 Satō, Tetsuei 佐藤哲英 satyasiddhi-śāstra 成實論 Śākyamuni Buddha 釋迦牟尼佛 scripture fascicle 經卷 Sekiguchi, Shindai 關口真大 Shared Bodhisattvas 通教菩薩 266 Shared Teaching 通教 Shelun School 攝論宗 Shi Chanboluomi Cidi Famen 釋禪波羅蜜次第法門 Shi, Dairui 釋大睿 Shi, Juetai 釋覺泰 Shi Mohe boreboluomi jing jueyi sanmei 釋摩訶般若波羅蜜經覺意三昧 Shioda, Gisen 塩田義遜 Shiqin (Skt. Vasubandhu) 世親 Siming Zhili (C.E. 960-1028) 四明知禮 Sijiaoyi 四教義 si nianchu (smṛtyupasthāna; contemplation of the four bases of mindfulness) 四念處 sinianchu guanfa 四念處觀法 Six Approaches to the Wondrous (Nirvana) 六妙門 six contacts 六觸 six objects [the objective fields of form 色, sound 聲, smell 香, taste 味, touch 觸, and idea (or thought)法] 六境 six organs [(1) 眼根 eye, cakṣurindriya; (2) 耳根 ear, śrotrendriya; (3) 鼻根 nose, ghrāṇendriya; (4) 舌根 tongue, jihvendriya; (5) 身根 body, kāyendriya; (6) 意根 consciousness, manaīndriya.] 六根, 六入, 六處 six consciousnesses or six perceptions [seeing-consciousness 眼識, hearingconsciousness 耳識, smelling-consciousness 鼻識, tasting-consciousness 舌識, tactile/kinetic consciousness 身識, and empiric-consciousness 意識] 六識 six qualities; six guṇas 六塵 six pāramitās [(1)布施 dāna, charity, or giving; (2) 持戒 śīla, keeping the commandments ; (3) 忍辱 kṣānti, patience under insult; (4) 精進 vīrya, zeal and progress; (5) 禪定 dhyāna, meditation or contemplation; (6) 智慧 prajñā; wisdom] (Six Perfections) 六度波羅蜜 Six Perfections Bodhisattvas 六度菩薩 six senses 六根 six sensations 六受 six vijñānas 六識 six stages of rebirth for ordinary people: in the hells, and as hungry ghosts, animals, asuras, men, and devas 六凡 Sixitanyi 四悉檀義 Sixteen Superior Forms of Meditation 十六特勝 Southern Chen 南朝陳 Spiritual Vulture Peak, as the Lotus Sūtra is also known as the 鷲峯偈 Vulture Peak gāthā. The peak is also called 鷲峯; 鷲頭 (鷲頭山); 鷲臺; 鷲嶽; 鷲巖; 靈山 Śrīmālā-sijha-nāda-sūtra 勝鬘大方便方廣經 starting with the traces to disclose the source 開迹顯本 store consciousness 藏識 267 Sui Tiantai Zhizhe Dashi Biezhuan 隋天台智者大師別傳 Sukhāvatī-vyūha Sūtra (Sūtra of Infinite Life) 無量壽經 Sukhāvatyajrta-vyūha Sūtra 阿彌陀經 supreme correct enlightenment [saṃyak-saṃbodhi. Correct universal intelligence, 正徧知 (道). Correct equal or universal enlightenment (正等覺). Correct universal perfect enlightenment (正等正覺). An epithet of every Buddha. The full term is anuttarāsaṃyak-saṃbodhi 阿耨多羅三藐三菩提, perfect universal enlightenment, knowledge, or understanding; omniscience] 阿耨多羅三藐三菩提 Suvarna prabhāsottama-sūtra 金光明經 śūraṃgamadhyāna or samādhi 首楞嚴定 or 三昧 Tada Koryu 多田厚隆 Taishō Shinshu Daizōkyō 大正新修大藏經 Takao Kagawa 香川孝雄 Tamaki, Kōshirō 玉城康四郎 Tamura Yoshirō 田村芳朗 Tang Junyi 唐君毅 Tanluan (C.E. 476-542) 曇鸞 Tanyi 曇翼 Tathāgata-dharmadhātu 如來法界 Tathāgatagarbha 如來藏 Ten Realms 十界 Tendaigaku: Konpon Shisō to sono Tenkai 天台学: 根本思想とその展開 Tendai jissōron no kenkyū 天台実相論の研究 Tendai Kyōgaku 天台敎學 Tendai Shikan no Kenkyū 天台止觀の研究 Tendai Shōgu Shisōron 天台性具思想論 ten dedications of merit 十廻向 Ten Objects 十境 Ten Thusnesses; Ten Essential Qualities or Characteristics of Things 十如是: “thus and so appearance (如是相),” “thus and so nature (如是性),” “thus and so entity (如是體),” “thus and so power (如是力),” “thus and so activity (如是作),” “thus and so main cause (如是因),” “thus and so secondary conditions (如是緣),” “thus and so effect (如是果),” “thus and so retribution (如是報),” and “thus and so consistency from beginning to end (如是本末究竟等).” Ten-Vehicle Meditation 十乘觀法 the age of decline of the Dharma 末法 the perfect interfusion of the Three Truths 三諦圓融 the wisdom of hearing and apprehending the truth 聞慧 the wisdom of observance 修慧 the wisdom of thought 思慧 Thirty-Seven Conditions Leading to Bodhi, or Buddhahood 三十七道品 268 Three Aspects of Knowledge in one mind 一心三智 three good or upward directions or states of existence [deva being, or heaven 天; human being 人; the asura state 阿修羅] 三善道 (or 三善趣) Three Insights (Emptiness, Provisional Positing, and Middle Way) in one thought 一心三觀 Three Kinds of Knowledge in one mind 一心三智 three poisons (concupiscence, or wrong desire 貪, anger, hate, or resentment 瞋, and stupidity, ignorance 痴) 三毒 three Provisional Positings 三假 three realms (trailokya) [(a) 欲界 Kāmadhātu is the realm of sensuous desire. (b) 色界 Rūpadhātu is the realm of form; it is represented in the 四禪天, or Brahmalokas. (c) 無色界 Arūpadhātu, or ārūpyadhātu, is the formless realm of pure spirit] 三界. Three Thousand Worlds in an Instant of Thought 一念三千 three types of worlds [(1) world of the five aggregates 五蘊世間, (2) world of sentient beings 有情世間, 眾生世間 (3) world of lands 國土世間]三種世間 three virtues or powers 三德: (1) (a) 法身德 The virtue or potency of the Buddha's eternal, spiritual body, the dharmakāya; (b) 般若德 the virtue of his prājñā, or wisdom, knowing all things in their reality; (c) 解脫德 the virtue of his freedom from all bonds and his sovereign liberty. Tianqin (Skt. Vasubandhu) 天親 Tiantai Chan Fa zhi Yan Jiu 天台懺法之硏究 Tiantai Dashi de Sandi Sanguan Sixiang 天台大師的三諦三觀思想 Tiantai Dashi Fayuanwen 天台大師發願文 Tiantai Great Master 天台大師 Tiantai Jiaodian Ruzang Kao 天台教典入藏考 Tiantai Sandabu 天台三大部 Tiantai School (or Sect) 天台宗 Tiantai Sixiang de Yinian Sanqian 天台思想的一念三千 Tiantai si xiang lun ji 天臺思想論集 tiyong 體用 tongjiao (the Common Teaching) 通教 Tripiṭaka Teaching (zangjiao) 藏教 twelve limbs of Dependent Origination: [(1) 無明 avidyā, ignorance, or unenlightenment; (2) 行 saṃskāra, action, activity, conception, "dispositions," Keith; (3) 識 vijñāna, consciousness; (4) 名色 nāmarūpa, name and form; (5) 六入 ṣaḍāyatana, the six sense organs, i.e. eye, ear, nose, tongue, body, and mind; (6) 觸 sparśa, contact, touch; (7) 受 vedanā, sensation, feeling; (8) 愛 tṛṣṇā, thirst, desire, craving; (9) 取 upādāna, laying hold of, grasping; (10) 有 bhava, being, existing; (11) 生 jāti, birth; (12) 老死 jarāmaraṇa, old age, death.] 十二因緣,十二支 twelve sense fields 十二入 twenty-five expedients 二十五方便 269 ultimate identity 究竟即 Unrai Ogiwara 荻原雲來 Vairocana Buddha 毘盧遮那佛 Vajracchedikā-prajñāpāramitopadeśa 金剛般若論 vijñāna 識 virtue possessed by nature 性德 Wangshengji 往生集 Wangsheng Lunzhu 往生論註 Weimo ching (Skt. Vimalakīrti Sūtra; Vimalakīrti-nirdeśa Sūtra) 維摩經 Weimojing Xuan Shu 維摩經玄疏 Weinuo (Skt., karmadāna) 維那, 羯磨陀那 weishi 未時 Wenshushili suoshuo mohe banro boluomi jing 文殊師利所說摩訶般若波羅蜜經 Wenshushili suowen mohe banro boluomi jing 文殊師利所問摩訶般若波羅蜜經 without duality or distinction 無二無別 wrong ways 非道 Wuen 悟恩 Wufangbian Nianfo Men 五方便念佛門 wunian 無念 wuping diziwei 五品弟子位 Wu Zhongwei 吴忠伟 Wuzhou 吳州 xian 縣 Xian Dai Fo Jiao Xue Shu Cong Kan 現代佛教學術叢刊 Xiaozhiguan 小止觀 Xichanshi 喜禪師 Xifang jingye wen 西方淨業文 Xinxing yu Foxing: Zhongguo Fojiao Xinxing Lun ji qi Xiangguan Wenti Yanjiu 心性與佛性: 中國佛敎心性論及其相關問題硏究 Xuanzhuang 玄奘 (C.E. 602-664) Xu Fuguan 徐復觀 Xu Gaoseng Zhuan 續高僧傳 Xunzi 荀子 Xuzangjing 續藏經 yang 陽 Yang, Weizhong 楊維中 Yanpei 演培 Yao Mingda 姚名達 yi (righteousness) 義 yin 陰 Yingluo Jing 瓔珞經 270 Yixin ju wanxing ping 一心具萬行品 Yongle beizeng 永樂北藏 You Huizhen 尤惠貞 Yuandun Zhiguan (Perfect and Sudden Cessation and Contemplation) 圓頓止觀 yuanjiao (the Integrated Teaching, Round or Perfect Teaching) 圓教 Yuanren lun 原人論 Yuezang zhijin 閱藏知津 zangjiao (the Tripiṭaka Teaching) 藏教 Zang wai fo jiao wen xian 藏外佛教文獻 Zhangda 張達 Zhang Fenglei 張風雷 Zhang Mantao 張曼濤 Zhang Rueiliang 張瑞良 Zhang Tingshi 張廷仕 Zhejiang taizhou 浙江台州 zhi (wit) 智 Zhifonian 竺佛念 Zhiguan Chufen 止觀初分 Zhisheng 智昇 Zhixu (C.E. 1599-1655) 智旭 Zhiyi 智顗 (C.E. 538-597) Zhiyi Fojiao Zhexue Shu Ping 智顗佛敎哲學述評 Zhiyi Pingzhuan 智顗評傳 Zhiyi’s jingtu sixiang 智顗的淨土思想 Zhiyuan 智圓 Zhongguo Mulu Xue Shi 中國目錄學史 Zhongjing Mulu 眾經目錄 Zhongguo Ren Xing Lun Shi. Xian Qin Pian 中國人性論史. 先秦篇 Zhongguo Tiantai Zong Tong Shi 中国天台宗通史 Zhonglun (Skt.Mūlamadhyamakakārikā (Kārikā, i.e. CL) 中論 Zhongguo Foxing Lun 中國佛性論 Zhuangzi 莊子 Zhufakuang (C.E. 327-402) 竺法曠 Zhufa Wuzheng Sanmei Famen 諸法無諍三昧法門 Zhufosuo 竺佛朔 zifen 自分 ziran 自然 Zokuzōkyō 續藏經 Zongmi 宗密 Zunshi 遵式 271 INDEX absolutely empty, 48, 53, 75, 87 Absolute Wisdom, 115, 186 aggregates, 61, 64, 70, 71, 72, 76, 77, 80, 81, 90, 91, 101, 102, 107, 126, 213 a great chiliocosm, 75, 76 amala-vijñāna, 45, 65, 69, 139, 238 (the ninth consciousness, 14) arising and ceasing, 46, 48, 49, 53, 87, 136 Aṅgulimālika Sūtra, 94 attributes Pure Land, 187 avidyā, 1, 120, 135, 195 Avīci Hell, 62, 64, 157 awareness and insight, 49 awareness-cause, 121 ādāna-vijñāna, 47, 65, 67, 69, 202, 238 (the seventh consciousness, 14, 50, 51, 54, 65, 66, 68, 69, 133, 142, 148, 238) aggregation, 194-195 ālaya-vijñāna, 8, 45, 46, 47, 52, 55, 65, 66, 67, 69, 148, 154, 155, 202, 238 (the eighth consciousness, 14, 45, 50, 52, 54, 55, 65, 66, 68, 69, 133, 140, 142, 143, 148, 238) Banre, 41 (Prajñāpāramitā, 8, 19, 41, 42, 43, 59) be Empty be Phenomenal be Medial, 104, 105, 106, 107, 126 Bhaiṣajya-rāja, 97 bhūtatathatā, 132, 164, 167, 177, 217 biejiao (the Separate Teaching, 130) birth and death, 67, 238 Bodhiruci, 17, 177 Buddha-nature, 4, 5, 15, 40, 45, 49, 50, 58, 67, 69, 93, 94, 97, 126, 128-149, 151, 153, 156, 162, 165-168, 170, 186, 190, 196, 202, 205, 221-223, 236, 238, 239 Buddha-nature as Conditioning Cause (yuan yin), 130, 132-134, 138, 149, 151 Buddha-nature as Proper or Objective Cause (zheng yin) 130, 132-134, 138, 145, 148 Buddha-nature as Revealing Cause (liao yin) 130-134, 139, 142, 148, 151, 166 Buddha Nature-True Mind 10 Buddhāvataṃsaka-mahāvaipulya-sūtra, 88, 190 or Avataṃsaka, 41-42, 171, 190 characteristics and natures, 62 characteristics of phenomena, 182 cintāmaṇi (the wish-granting jewel, 80, 88) contemplate the mind as the Means, 146, 168 contrary or false positions, 87, 95, 189 contributory cause, 121 cultivated evil, 152, 155-158, 165, 167-168 cultivating merit, 138-139 Daśabhūmika-vibhāṣā-śāstra, 209, 211, 214, 217-219 Dasheng qixin lun, 1 Dazhidu Lun, 5, 11-12, 18-21, 25-27, 30, 39, 92, 110-111, 140, 151 (Mahāprajñāpāramitā-śāstra, 5, 11-12, 18-21, 25, 27, 30, 39, 43, 92, 110-111, 151) 272 Dependent Origination, 59, 63, 65, 67, 85-86, 88, 102, 106, 120-123, 127, 135-136, 138, 147, 168, 190, 195-196, 238 Dependent-Origination-Middle-Way-Reality, 105 Devadatta, 161, 163 dharma attained by practice, 97 Dharmagupta, 108 dharmakāya-tathāgata, 181-182, 187 dharma-nature reward body, 185 Dharmarakṣa, 208 Distinct Bodhisattvas, 90 Distinct Teaching, 77, 91, 196 Dvādaśamukha-śāstra, 88 earth-seed, 75 eighteen dhātu, 72 (or eighteen realms, 53, 70, 72, 81, 90, 107 Eight Negations, 59 Ekākāra samādhi, 28 (one practice samādhi, 206) Emptiness, 4, 18-20, 28-29, 40, 47-48, 50, 53-54, 58-61, 63, 68-70, 75-76, 79, 81-84, 87, 90, 92, 99-107, 112-115, 119, 125-126, 128-130,145-148, 160-162, 166, 168, 171, 189193, 197, 202, 214, 216, 218, 221-223, 238 evil by nature, 3-4, 12, 15, 20, 22, 98, 150-158, 162-169, 239 evil teaching, 154 Expedient Wisdom, 115, 140, 145 extinction of desire, 194-195 fields, 51, 70, 72, 76, 77, 80, 81, 90, 91, 102, 107 five aggregates, 61, 70-72, 77, 80-81, 90, 107 five heinous crimes, 157 Five Objects of Meditation, 123 Five Periods, 41, 225 five senses, 48 flower recompense, 118 four dhyānas, 28 Four Formless Concentrations, 28 Four Immeasurables (or Infinite Buddha-States of mind), 28 four siddhānta, 194 fundamental pure nature, 50 fundamental pure store, 49 ghanaika-sāra, 147, 168 good by nature, 2-3, 12, 15, 151-154, 156-158, 162, 165, 167-168, 239 gradual meditation, 24; Gradual Dhyāna, 40, 43, 236 great adamantine wisdom, 49-51, 54-55, 68-69 Guanding, 21-22, 24, 30, 32-33, 164, 173, 207, 224 habit, 116, 118 Icchantika, 101, 129, 141, 149, 151-152, 154-158, 162, 165-168, 239 Intrinsic inclusiveness, 15, 20, 22, 40, 92-95, 97-99, 101, 103-104, 107-108, 114, 119, 125-126, 128, 137, 151, 155-158, 162, 164-165, 168-169, 171, 188, 198-199, 202, 205, 236, 239 273 Kumārajīva, 11, 13, 94, 108, 110, 226 Middle Way, 4-6, 8, 10-11, 18-19, 28-29, 40, 55, 58-61, 63, 69, 75, 80, 82, 92, 99-100, 102-107, 112-115, 119, 125-126, 128-130, 136, 146-147, 162, 166, 171, 189, 191, 193, 202, 214, 221, 223, 238 Perfect Interpenetration of the Three Truths, 18-19, 39-40, 99-100, 114, 203, 214 Perfect Teaching, 17, 20, 23, 25, 43, 77, 80, 91, 130, 186, 188, 196 pratyekabuddhas, 24, 65, 87-88, 90, 96, 116-117, 122-123, 140, 184-187, 193, 195, 199 Provisional Positing, 18-19, 28-29, 40, 59-61, 63, 69-70, 72 82, 92, 99-100, 102-107, 112-115, 119, 125-126, 128-129,146-148, 166, 171, 189-191, 202, 214, 221-223, 238 Reality, 4, 21, 28, 46, 56, 58, 60-62, 65, 69, 93-94, 98-99, 04-106, 110, 114, 119, 126, 131-132, 134, 137, 144-146, 148, 157, 163, 165, 170, 184-185, 191, 194, 196-197, 203, 207, 214-216, 218, 222 realms, 7, 9, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 53, 63, 64, 65, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 80, 81, 84, 85, 88, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 107, 108, 111, 112, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 120, 121, 122, 123, 125, 126, 127, 128, 157, 160, 162, 163, 167, 168, 169, 170, 171, 173, 174, 180, 181, 183, 184, 185, 186, 187, 188, 189, 190, 191, 193, 194, 195, 196, 197, 198, 199, 201, 202, 234, 236, 237, 239 ṣaḍāyatana, 52, 195 Separate Teaching, 130 Shared Teaching, 77, 91, 123, 196 Six Perfections, 29, 77, 87, 88, 90, 91 śrāvakas, 24, 64, 76, 85, 90-91, 95-96, 105, 116-117, 122-123, 140-141, 183-187, 193, 195, 198-199, 217 suffering, 61-62, 85, 87, 96, 119, 121-122, 135-136, 141, 158, 164, 169, 192-195, 238 Ten Thusness, 12-14, 29, 40, 44, 74, 88, 90, 92, 97-99, 101, 109-116, 118-125, 127-128, 236 way of such extinction, 194-195 274

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COMING TO TERMS WITH ZHIYI'S BUDDHĀNUSMṚTI: A CRITICAL READING OF ZHIYI'S THEORY IN DYNAMIC MIND A Dissertation

COMING TO TERMS WITH ZHIYI'S BUDDHĀNUSMṚTI: A CRITICAL READING OF ZHIYI'S THEORY IN DYNAMIC MIND A Dissertation

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