14 2020 Buddhist Art of Goryeo Front Cover: Silver-gilt Gourd-shaped Bottle. Goryeo. National Museum of Korea The photos of front and back covers were taken at the Special Exhibition "Goryeo: The Glory of Korea" of National Museum of Korea in 2018. JOURNAL of KOREAN ART & ARCHAEOLOGY Buddhist Art of Goryeo VOL. 14 2020 JOURNAL of KOREAN ART & ARCHAEOLOGY 137 Seobinggo-ro, Yongsan-gu Seoul, 04383 Korea http://www.museum.go.kr EDITORIAL COORDINATION Collections Management Division of National Museum of Korea, headed by Kim Kyu-dong SENIOR EDITOR Choi Eung Chon Dongguk University COPY EDITOR Jung Jongwoo PROOFREADERS Bill Sharp, Sung A. Jung PUBLISHING AND DISTRIBUTION KONG & PARK USA, INC. 1480 Renaissance Drive, Suite 412 Park Ridge, IL 60068 Tel: +1 847 241 4845 Fax: +1 312 757 5553 E-mail: usaoffice@kongnpark.com http://www.kongnpark.com © 2020 National Museum of Korea The copyright of this journal is owned by the National Museum of Korea. The contents and materials of this book may be used with the permission of the National Museum of Korea. For copyright inquiries, please contact the National Museum of Korea. Printed in Korea ISSN 2577-9842 Notes to the Readers Throughout the journal, East Asian names are listed in the order of family name followed by first name. The journal follows the author-date system of the Chicago Manual of Style, with the following modification. Since family names are often quite common in East Asia, the entire name of East Asian scholars is referenced within in-text citations. Hopefully, this will save readers from having to resort to the bibliography to identify a scholar. Also, non-Englishlanguage titles of secondary sources in the bibliography section are provided in English translation without transliteration of their original titles. They are capitalized headlinestyle regardless of whether they are published in English translation. The following standard systems have been adopted for the transliteration of East Asian names and texts: Revised Romanization System (2000) for Korean, Hanyu Pinyin System for Chinese, and the Hepburn System for Japanese. CONTENTS 005 Editorial Note: Reviews of the Five Articles on Characteristics of Goryeo Art Choi Eung Chon Special: Buddhist Art of Goryeo 013 Diverse Aspects and Characteristics of the Goryeo Dynasty Crafts in Xuanhe Fengshi Gaoli Tujing by Choi Eung Chon 027 The Development of Suryukjae in Goryeo and the Significance of State-sponsored Suryukjae during the Reign of King Gongmin by Kang Ho-sun 041 Thirteenth-century Wooden Sculptures of Amitabha Buddha from the Goryeo Dynasty and the Ink Inscriptions on their Relics by Choe Songeun 059 Consecrating the Buddha: The Formation of the Bokjang Ritual during the Goryeo Period by Lee Seunghye 073 Clothing and Textiles Depicted in Goryeo Paintings of Water-moon Avalokitesvara by Sim Yeonok Collection 092 A Study of the Metalworking Techniques Manifested in the Gold Buckle from Seogam-ri Tomb No. 9 by Yu Heisun and Ro Jihyun Consecrating the Buddha: The Formation of the Bokjang Ritual during the Goryeo Period Lee Seunghye Curator, Leeum, Samsung Museum of Art Introduction reveals a number of notable correspondences. The objects 059 mentioned in the Sutras on the Production of Buddhist Images and commonly found in Joseon bokjang deposits were already in In the Korean Buddhist tradition, “bokjang” ( 萝足 ) refers to the ritual applied for consecrating Buddhist images in order to transform a crafted image into an object of worship.1 The extant textual and visual evidence suggests that the consecration of use during the Goryeo period. Of particular interest are the five textile wrappings enshrined within the main container of a bokjang deposit since they correlate closely with the five treasure bottles ( ◩㸄毉 , obobyeong) described in the Sutra on the King of the Great Teaching of Visualization Methods Which Are Auspicious, Buddhist images as we know it today had been established by at Universal, Secret, and Superlative ( 㠹⻊瞏玄㶔劄┪閏ꪎ㝕侥 918–1392) (Jeong Eunwoo 2007, 55–56). A wealth of studies ang jing; T 1192), one of the major texts invariably cited in the least the mid-12th century during the Goryeo dynasty ( 둚 , has noted that the distinctive composition of a bokjang deposit ( 萝足朮 , bokjangmul) is based upon the Sutras on the Produc- tion of Buddhist Images ( ꅏ⦐籭 , Josang gyeong), a ritual manual 椟籭 , Ch. Miaojixiang pingdeng mimi zuishang guanmen dajiaow- Sutras on the Production of Buddhist Images and abbreviated here as the Sutra on the King of the Great Teaching Which Is Sublime and Auspicious. However, the five treasure bottles do not appear there of Korean origin codified during the Joseon period ( 劸똀 , in a context of image consecration, but regarding the initiation surviving editions and manuscript copies of the Sutras on the bottles ( ◩毉择꼾 , obyeong gwanjeong). This correspondence 1392–1910) (Taegyeong 2006; Lee Seonyong 2013). Although Production of Buddhist Images all postdate the 16th century, a prototype appears to have been formulated and circulated in the of a human practitioner known as an abhiseka using the five appears even more intriguing given that the sutra, translated sometime between 1062 and 1066 during the Liao dynasty (  , preceding Goryeo era. Taking a textual authority codified during 926–1125), is not included in either the Khitan Canon or the Joseon as evidence for a Goryeo practice is clearly anachronous, second edition of the Korean Canon. as scholars have rightly pointed out. However, an analytical This study examines this fascinating correspondence comparison of Goryeo bokjang deposits with this textual corpus in light of the Buddhist cultural exchanges between the Liao Consecrating the Buddha: The Formation of the Bokjang Ritual during the Goryeo Period and Goryeo dynasties. It first examines when the Sutra on the the Naksan Avalokitesvara, the practice of enshrining objects King of the Great Teaching Which Is Sublime and Auspicious, traces inside images must have been performed by Goryeo Buddhists of which are rare outside the bokjang corpus in the Korean prior to the early 13th century. “Two heart-circle mirrors, five Buddhist tradition, might have been transmitted to Goryeo. kinds of incense, five medicines, colored threads, silk pouches, It then considers what the abhiseka with the five bottles originally meant in the sutra and in the ritual repertoire of late and more” ( 䖥㏤ꡘ◝◜◩눥◩跨虝簤꜇㍧瞏 ) were reported by Yi to have been prepared in order to fill the belly and match Indian esoteric Buddhism. Next, it examines how Goryeo- what had been enshrined in the past. This list demonstrates the era Buddhists appropriated this ritual for the consecration of concept of pentad grouping, one of the prominent features of Buddhist images. Admittedly, this line of research is unable Korean bokjang deposits, which, notably, has not been found to reveal the full picture of bokjang, a highly complex ritual to date in objects retrieved from contemporaneous Chinese consisting of myriad steps and replete with symbolic meanings, Buddhist statues (Lee Seunghye 2015). The absence of mock given that the sutra in question is only one of the various organs from Yi Gyubo’s list, perhaps the most distinctive feature Buddhist sutras and writings cited in the Sutras on the Produc- among the objects yielded by Chinese Buddhist images, merits tion of Buddhist Images. Accordingly, it focuses on the correlation further attention. This lack is corroborated by the surviving between the five treasure bottles retrieved from Goryeo bok- deposits yielded by Goryeo Buddhist images (Lee Seunghye jang deposits and those explicated in the sutra. By doing so, 2015, 40–47). The silk pouches mentioned in the list above it reconsiders the formation of the bokjang ritual within the appear to correlate with the five treasure bottles made of textiles historical trajectory of Buddhist thought and practices prevalent and containing various pentads of objects that we will examine in the 11th and 12th centuries, a period in which new Buddhist shortly. elements, notably esoteric influences, were introduced to The “Record of the Marvels of the Relics [Enshrined Goryeo from India via Liao and reformulated into uniquely within] Sakyamuni, the Main Buddha of the Golden Hall of Korean expressions. Gukcheongsa Temple” ( ㏔庎㸊ꓭ㕔╭✏ꓥꂲ㠀❔蕩⯈귛沌 阾 , Gukcheongsa geumdang jubul Seokga yeorae sari yeongyi gi), composed by Min Ji ( ꪩ悻 , 1248–1326) and included in 060 fascicle 68 of the Dongmunseon ( 匯倀 , Anthology of Korean literature), merits particular attention for its use of the term Textual and Material Evidence for the Goryeo Bokjang Practice “eight-petaled container” ( ⪧訪瞥 , paryeop tong). According to this record, in 1313, the patrons of the Sakyamuni triad at Gukcheongsa Temple wished to enshrine the various objects Two textual accounts are important for understanding the issues necessary for making a bokjang, among which only relics were of how bokjang was regarded and what types of objects were difficult to obtain. Therefore, one of the devotees spread black 2 silk in front of a painting of White-robed Avalokitesvara to The earliest mention of the term bokjang appears in the “Eulogy which he had been offering daily worship. He burned incense and Record of the Repairs of the Bokjang of the Avalokitesvara and paid respects three times, and then a relic grain appeared. selected during the formative phase of its practice in Korea. at Naksan” ( 崦㻗閏꼞萝足⟵鎢倀皴 , Naksan Gwaneum The number of relic grains increased as several people gathered bokjang subomun byeong song ) composed by Yi Gyubo ( 匃㞌 to watch in wonder. Min Ji related that the relics so manifested Yi Gyubo’s Writings ( 匯㏔匃潸㏔겏 , Dongguk Yi sangguk jip). enshrined within the Buddha triad. 㖥 , 1168–1241) and contained in fascicle 25 of the Collection of were first encased inside eight-petaled containers and then This eulogy was composed to commemorate the repairs to the When cross-checked with the material evidence, neither deposit placed inside a famous sculpted image of Avalokitesvara the text by Yi Gyubo nor that by Min Ji provides a complete housed at Naksansa Temple ( 崦㻗㸊 ) after their loss during the Mongol Invasions of Goryeo, most likely in 1235. Yi Gyubo list of enshrined items, which also included woodblock prints of dharanis and seed-syllable mandalas, Buddhist texts, clothes lamented that although the overall form of the Water-moon previously worn by their donors, and more. This indicates that Avalokitesvara image remained, the “treasures concealed in the both Yi Gyubo and Min Ji selectively recorded only those items belly” ( 萝╚▆楻足 ) had been removed. Given that the eulogy was written for the rededication of the new bokjang deposit for JOURNAL of KOREAN ART & ARCHAEOLOGY deemed most important. Taken together, the two accounts indicate that a bokjang deposit was composed of heart-circle Special: Fig. 1. Amitabha Buddha of Munsusa Temple in Seosan, Chungcheongnam-do Province (current whereabouts unknown). Goryeo, 1346. Gilt bronze. H. 69.0 cm Fig. 2. Eight-petaled container from the Amitabha Buddha of Munsusa Temple at the time of its discovery (before unpacking) examined by a team of experts in 1973 and fully reported on in 1975, was removed from the statue and preserved at the Sudeoksa Museum in Yesan. Let us take the the deposit of Munsusa Temple as an example to illustrate the contents and configuration of bokjang deposits from the late Goryeo period (Kang Ingu 1975, 1–18; Sudeoksa Museum 2004, 13–67; Shin 061 Soyeon 2015, 90–97). The entire deposit was inserted through a hole in the bottom of the statue, which was then sealed with a wooden Fig. 3. Throat-bell. Goryeo, 1346. Bronze. H. 7.0 cm. Discovered inside the Amitabha Buddha of Munsusa Temple in 1973. Sudeoksa Museum Fig. 4. Eight-petaled container. Goryeo, 1346. Wood. H. 7.0 cm. Discovered inside the Amitabha Buddha of Munsusa Temple in 1973. Sudeoksa Museum plug. The wooden seal was affixed with iron nails, covered with several layers of hemp cloth, and finished with lacquer. A bronze bell called a throat-bell ( ㄕꖂ , huryeong) was wrapped in four pieces of dharani prints and set at the neck level of the statue (Fig. 3). A lidded wooden container holding a wide variety of objects was placed at the chest level (Fig. 4). At the time of discovery, mirrors, five kinds of incense, five medicines, colored threads, silk pouches, relics, and an eight-petaled container in which most of aforementioned objects were enshrined. These items this container was wrapped in five layers of cloth, with a yellow cloth wrapper ( 묙䋀㲳 , hwangpokja) outermost. The entire package holding the wooden container was tied with a folded are commonly found in bokjang deposits from the latter half of band of paper (Fig. 2). The paper turned out to be another the Goryeo dynasty and correspond closely to those prescribed donor inscription recording the names of a group of patrons in the Sutras on the Production of Buddhist Images.3 Among the (Fig. 5). Line drawings on the surface of the wooden container extant Goryeo examples, only two bokjang deposits have been transformed it into a representation of an eight-petaled lotus found intact without any trace of repair or theft: one from flower in keeping with its appellation “eight-petaled container” the Amitabha Buddha image of Munsusa Temple ( 倀媗㸊 ) as recorded in a catalogue of objects enshrined together within Anjeongsa Temple ( 㴗긆㸊 ) in Tongyeong (Lee Yongyun 2012, the exterior of the container’s body, and lotus seeds are painted in Seosan (Figs. 1, 2) and the other from a Buddha image at the statue. The eight lotus petals are drawn with cinnabar on 20–21; Jeong Eunwoo and Shin Eunje 2017, 259–261). The on top of the lid (Fig. 4). The inner side of the lid is inscribed bokjang deposit from the Munsusa Temple statue, which was with five Siddham characters identified as the true-mind seed Consecrating the Buddha: The Formation of the Bokjang Ritual during the Goryeo Period Fig. 6. Imagery of an eight-petaled lotus flower painted on the body of the wooden container (left) and inscription of “true-mind seed syllables” on the inner side of a lid from the Amitabha Buddha of Munsusa Temple (right). Sudeoksa Museum Fig. 5. Sealing band. Goryeo, 1346. Cinnabar on paper. D. 3.5 cm, H. 9.6 cm. Discovered inside the Amitabha Buddha of Munsusa Temple in 1973. Sudeoksa Museum 062 syllables ( 澳䖥甦㲻 , jinsim jongja) in the Sutras on the Production Fig. 7. Texts retrieved from the Amitabha Buddha of Munsusa Temple at the time of their discovery of Buddhist Images (Fig. 6). Documents and copies of Buddhist sutras were inserted at the upper level of the belly, including three pieces of dedicatory prayers and a catalogue of objects (Fig. 7). Finally, fragments of textiles wrapped in two pieces of paper were inserted into the lower level of the belly. Several bunches of paper either left blank or printed with dharani were placed between the individual objects and also between the objects and the inner wall of the statue in order to protect them from damage and abrasion. The “Catalogue of Objects Inserted in the Bokjang of Amitabha” ( 䓎ꮤ萝足⪜朮虝阾 , Mita bokjang ip mulsaek gi; hereafter the Catalogue) merits detailed examination since it provides a complete list of more than thirty discrete objects inserted into the Buddha image (Fig. 8). The objects are listed from right to left across three registers. The listed objects are identified and categorized as follows: (1) the five kinds of incense ( ◩눥 , ohyang); (2) the five medicines ( ◩跨 , oyak); (3) the five precious substances ( ◩㸄 , obo); (4) the five yellow substances ( ◩묙 , ohwang); (5) the eight-petaled container and its contents, including silks of five colors ( ◩虝䉻 , osaek baek), threads in five Fig. 8. “Catalogue of the Objects Inserted in the Bokjang of Amitabha.” Goryeo, 1346. Ink on paper. 35.1 × 35.9 cm. Discovered inside the Amitabha Buddha of Munsusa Temple in 1973. Sudeoksa Museum colors each with a presumed length of five meters ( ◩虝笛 ⶥ◩ JOURNAL of KOREAN ART & ARCHAEOLOGY Special: (2) South (3) West (4) North (5) Center (1) East Fig. 9. Five treasure bottles (unfolded). Goryeo, 1346. Silk. Discovered inside the Amitabha Buddha of Munsusa Temple in 1973 㹷 , osaek sa sibo cheok), a yellow cloth wrapper, and reliquary ( 蕩 petaled container was meant to serve as the symbolic heart of 063 and other media used for decoration and inscription; and (7) essential components of this heart. This core of the bokjang ⯈⻎ , sari dong), but not including the throat-bell; (6) pigments the Buddha, then the five silk pouches and their contents are the five different types of grain ( ◩ , ogok). A comparison of deposit—the eight-petaled container and its contents—have the Catalogue with the actual items found reveals that most of only been found in Korean examples to date, suggesting a model the objects listed were in fact used in the making of the eight- unique from earlier and contemporaneous Chinese images with petaled container found at the chest level of the interior of the deposits. Past scholarship has noted that the five treasure bottles, Buddha image (Figs. 4, 6). Of particular interest are the five silk the crux of the eight-petaled container, were produced faithfully pouches, referred to as the silks of five colors in group (5) of the according to the instructions laid out in fascicle 1 of the Sutra 4 Catalogue and corresponding to the five treasure bottles in the on the King of the Great Teaching Which Is Sublime and Auspicious. Sutras on the Production of Buddhist Images (Fig. 9). Each pouch However, the five treasure bottles mentioned in the sutra do seems to have contained a share of the substances listed under not appear in the context of enshrining consecrated deposits groups (1), (2), (3), (4), and (7) in the Catalogue (Kang Ingu within Buddhist images, but in fact are found in a different 1975, 8–9). Besides these objects, the eight-petaled container ritual context, namely the abhiseka of an esoteric Buddhist featured a single relic grain encased in a silver container practitioner. The issue is complicated by the fact that the sutra (corresponding to the reliquary in the list), a glass bead was brought from central India and translated under the Liao. (corresponding to the heart jewel [ 䖥榓 , simju] in the Sutras The following section of this study examines the historical on the Production of Buddhist Images ), a mirror made of nickel context in which this important text was received in the Liao (corresponding to the heart-circle mirror in Yi Gyubo’s record), dynasty and transmitted eastward to Goryeo. and a handful of dried rice. A comparison of the Catalogue with the objects found within the eight-petaled container suggests that the items deposited outside it were deemed subsidiary at best. If the eight- Consecrating the Buddha: The Formation of the Bokjang Ritual during the Goryeo Period Maitribhadra selected texts to translate in response to the religious needs of his imperial patrons and Liao Buddhists in general. When Maitribhadra arrived in Liao, the practice of enshrining dharma relics ( 岺蕩⯈ , Ch. fa sheli) within pagoda crypts as the textual equivalent of bodily relics of the Buddha was already widespread. For example, Liao Buddhists placed inscriptions of dharanis inside miniature pagodas and then enshrined them within pagoda crypts (Fig. 10). Similarly, they Fig. 10. Dharma relic pagoda. Liao, 1049. Gilt wood. H. 28.5 cm. Discovered inside the White Pagoda of Qingzhou, Inner Mongolia, China. Bairin Right Banner Museum enshrined polygonal stone pillars (籭䋰, Ch. jingchuang) or metal plates engraved with dharanis and the Verse of Dependent Aris- ing ( 紡鱍岺 , Ch. Yuanqifa song) within pagoda crypts (Shen 2001). Notably, Liao Buddhists engraved combinations of multiple short dharanis onto the surface of stone pillars or metal plates. This tendency had already appeared by the late Tang dynasty (  , 618–907) with a number of dharanis promising postmortem benefits being engraved together on stone pillars. One crucial difference is that during the Liao dynasty these stone pillars were destined for pagoda crypts, unlike their Tang precedents that were mainly erected in temple courtyards or graveyards. The monumental stone pillar enshrined at the Fig. 11. Dharani pillar. Liao, 1044. Stone. H. 5.26 m. center of the base of Chaoyang North Pagoda ( 劸갅ⵌ㗠 , Ch. Discovered inside the Chaoyang North Pagoda, Chaoyang, Liaoning Province, China demonstrates the high correlation between Maitribhadra’s Chaoyang Beita) in Liaoning Province in China, for example, selection of texts to translate and the cult of dharma relics in 064 Liao (Fig. 11). The second and third registers of this stone pillar erected in 1044 respectively bear inscriptions of the Mahapra- Reception of Late Indian Esoteric Buddhism in the Liao and Goryeo Dynasties tisara dharani ( 㝕걔寛ꮤ耇㹹 , Ch. Da suiqiu tuoluoni) and the Vajravidarana dharani ( ✏靽ꓭⰐ㝕䷢爕㜍ꮤ耇㹹 , Ch. Foshuo jingang da cuisui yanshou tuoluoni) as translated by Maitribhadra (Fujiwara Takato 2011, 205–206). This clearly indicates how The Sutra on the King of the Great Teaching Which Is Sublime and Auspicious is one of several Buddhist texts translated by the Maitribhadra’s translations were put into practice. The second group of translations represents the late Indian monk Maitribhadra ( 䡜鮂 , Ch. Cixian; fl. 11th century), period of the transmission of esoteric Buddhist texts into China who hailed from Magadha in central India and worked in (Sørensen 2011, 457–458). It includes the Sutra on the King of Liao under imperial patronage during the reigns of Emperors the Great Teaching Which Is Sublime and Auspicious, the Manual Xingzong ( 蕟㴴 , r. 1031–1055) and Daozong ( 㴴 , r. 1055–1011) (Ren Jie 1985, 34–37). Although little is known about Maitribhadra’s life or thoughts, his translations of ten Outlining Homa of the Sutra of the King of the Great Teaching of the Visualization Methods Which Are Auspicious and Universal ( 㠹⻊ 瞏閏ꪎ㝕侥椟籭汻⮂饦⧩ , Ch. Miaojixiang pingdeng guan- Buddhist texts preserved in the Fangshan Stone Canon ( 㻗焪 men dajiaowang jing lüechu homa yi; T 1194), the Ritual Manual Buddhism of the time and the Buddhism developed in Liao. the Yoga Which Is Auspicious and Universal ( 㠹⻊瞏橬⛥玄㶔 籭 , Ch. Fangshan Shijing) reveal much about both the Indian These ten texts can be categorized into two groups: 1) dharani sutras; and 2) an esoteric Buddhist sutra and esoteric ritual manuals engraved on stone slabs at Yunjusi Temple ( 곶 㺇㸊 ) around 1146 under the Jin dynasty ( ꓭ , 1115–1234) (Chen Yanzhu 1995, 392–503). The first group indicates that JOURNAL of KOREAN ART & ARCHAEOLOGY for Secret Self-Visualization and Attainment of Buddhahood through 閏麃䧯✏⧩黈 , Ch. Miaojixiang pingdeng yuqie mimi guanshen chengfo yigui; T 1193), and the Ritual of Cultivating Manicakra Lotus Heart Tathagata’s Method of Visualization ( ✏靽㠀䟨齡 䖥㠀❔⟵鉿閏ꪎ⧩ , Ch. Foshuo Ruyilun lianhua xin rulai xiuxing guanmen yi; T 1090), all of which were translated into Special: Chinese for the first time by Maitribhadra. Given the nature of the rituals prescribed in these four texts, Maitribhadra seems to have been well-versed in the esoteric Buddhist thought and that Jueyuan received instruction in esoteric Buddhism from a Kasmiri acarya by the name of Mani ( 㹹 , Ch. Moni; fl. 11th century) (Sørensen 2011, 458). Although a lack of practices prevalent in eleventh-century central India. Indian textual evidence hinders the identification of Mani, he must esoteric Buddhism is conventionally divided into three phases have spread a distinctive type of Buddhist scriptures in the in accordance with the development of major sutras and tantras Liao empire, classified as the esoteric class ( 㶔ꌃ , Ch. mibu). (Matsunaga Yukei 1990, 19). The early phase corresponds to The efforts of Indian acaryas such as Mani and Maitribhadra the fourth to sixth centuries; the middle phase refers to the in combination with imperial support may have resulted more systematized thought and practices centering on the in Buddhist pagodas being built in the former jurisdiction teachings of the Mahavairocanabhisambodhi Sutra ( 㝕嬩潙 䧯✏馕Ⲏ䭥籭 , Ch. Da Piluzhena chengfo shenbian jiachi jing; hereafter MVS) and Sarvatathagatatattvasamgraha ( ꓭⰐ 꼾籭 , Ch. Jingangding jing; hereafter STTS); and the strand of of Liao under the doctrinal influence of late Indian esoteric Buddhism. If this is the case, when and how was Liao Buddhism transmitted to the Goryeo dynasty? The Liao and Goryeo dynasties maintained a close esoteric Buddhism encompassing tantras, established from the relationship during the 11th and 12th centuries. In particular, eighth century onward, is considered the late phase. This late the transmission of Buddhist texts across their borders played phase developed with a focus on the STTS corpus rather than a significant role in the cultural exchanges between the two the MVS. Notably, the Sutra on the King of the Great Teaching states. The doctrinal studies of Avatamsaka and esoteric Which Is Sublime and Auspicious pertains to a cycle of texts closely Buddhist traditions were introduced to Goryeo through the related to the STTS corpus (Lü Jianfu 2011, 590). This sutra was well-received by Liao Buddhists following its translation in the 1060s, providing a scriptural basis for new iconographic motifs that appeared on Buddhist pagodas built in present-day Inner Mongolia and the western portion of Liaoning Province (Hang Kan 2002, 587–595; Fujiwara Takato 2013, 95–96). It should be noted that the objects retrieved from the few Liao Buddhist images so far examined have yet to show a direct connection to efforts of the monk Uicheon ( 聋㝘 , 1055–1011), who made a vow to collect commentaries on Buddhist sutras in 1073 and published his Catalogue of the Newly Complied Canon of Doctri- nal Teachings of All the Schools ( 偆㴴侥足練ꛇ , Sinpyeon jejong gyojang chongnok) in 1090. The Directorate General for Commentarial Canon ( 侥足潏 , Gyojang dogam) established 065 at Heungwangsa Temple ( 蕟椟㸊 ) in the capital Gaegyeong ( ꪛ☒ ) published the commentaries collected by Uicheon up the teachings of the Sutra on the King of the Great Teaching Which until his death in 1101. The manuscript copies of the eleven Is Sublime and Auspicious (Lee Seunghye 2015, 49–51). The commentaries featured in Uicheon’s Commentarial Canon material evidence currently at our disposal for examining the issue of whether Liao Buddhists also appropriated some parts of the sutra in the consecration of Buddhist images remains scant and piecemeal at best. The preceding analysis has explained the impact of newly and now preserved at Gozan-ji Temple ( 둚㻗㸊 ) in Kyoto, Japan, include Jueyuan’s Esoteric Extracts and Daochen’s (  ዚ , fl. late 11th–early 12th centuries) Collection of the Perfect and Complete Buddha’s Mind Essentials according to the Manifest and Esoteric Buddhist Traditions ( 꿵㶔㏤䧯✏䖥锡겏 , Ch. Xianmi translated esoteric Buddhist texts upon Liao Buddhism and its yuantong chengfo xinyao ji; T 1955), another influential text of visual culture. The reign of Emperor Daozong was particularly Liao origin (Park Yong-jin 2008, 7, 17). Composed at some momentous for the development of Liao Buddhism. He time between 1079 and 1089, Daochen’s text left an enduring patronized the carving of the Khitan Canon and the doctrinal impact on the Buddhist visual and material culture of the time study of Avatamsaka ( 襪㌼ , Ch. Huayan) and esoteric Buddhist traditions (Tang Tongtian 1994, 96–97). In 1077, he ordered the monk Jueyuan ( 閅蜙 , fl. late 11th century) to compose the (Zhang Mingwu 2013, 102–125). Given that it is not listed in Uicheon’s catalogue, he must have continued to collect and publish commentaries after completing the catalogue in 1090. Esoteric Extracts from the Presentations in the Abridged Commentary Interestingly, Jueyuan and Daochen’s texts are cited extensively Ch. Dari jing yishi yanmi chao; hereafter Esoteric Extracts ), a 겏 , Beomseo chongji jip) published at Geumsansa Temple ( ꓭ㻗 Mahavairocana-abhisambodhi-tantra ( 㝕嬩潙䧯✏籭沸 , text of Goryeo origin, contains dharanis culled from the MVS, to the Vairocana-abhisambodhi-tantra ( 㝕傽籭聋ꓥ悍㶔ꕋ , commentary on Yixing’s ( ┞鉿 , 683–727) Commentary on the Ch. Da Piluzhena chengfo jing shu; T 1796). It is worth noting in the preface to the Collection of Spells in Indic Script ( 唴剹練䭥 㸊 ) in 1218. The Collection of Spells in Indic Script, most likely a STTS, and other Buddhist texts deemed important in Goryeo Consecrating the Buddha: The Formation of the Bokjang Ritual during the Goryeo Period (Jeon Donghyeok 1990; Kim Soo-youn 2015, 2016; Nam Which Is Sublime and Auspicious opens with a preaching assembly Kwon-hee 2017). It is intriguing that the few known copies of where Sakyamuni Buddha mentions a secret method of great the text were discovered within the bokjang of Buddhist statues. Considering that commentaries not included in the Catalogue of the Newly Complied Canon of Doctrinal Teachings of All the Schools were published and circulated in Goryeo, the exchange ▆㠹岺 ). When Maitreya Bodhisattva asked the Buddha how to practice this teaching, the Buddha told the congregation to of Buddhist texts between Liao and Goryeo must have been far receive the abhiseka with five bottles, and only then would he more vigorous than what can be identified through historical expound on esoteric teaching. Upon entering the adamantine records. For instance, the Liao court sent envoys with two absorption, the Buddha emitted five rays of light from cases of Buddhist sutras to Goryeo in the fifth lunar month of between his eyebrows, manifesting Aksobhya, Mahavairocana, 1100. These two sutra cases seem to have held Buddhist texts Ratnasambhava, Amitayus, and Amoghasiddhi, the five wisdom translated and published after the completion of the Khitan buddhas of the Diamond Realm. Next, the Buddha manifested Canon (Kim Young-mi 2002, 71). the five paramita bodhisattvas, eight great bodhisattvas, twelve All in all, the Sutra on the King of the Great Teaching Which offering bodhisattvas, four bodhisattvas, and ten guardian Is Sublime and Auspicious seems to have been transmitted kings. The congregation sought to receive the abhiseka with five to the Korean Peninsula sometime in the late 11th or early bottles after witnessing the great mandala altar manifested by 12th century when the cultural interchange between Liao and Goryeo was peaking. Visual and material evidence, much of which has been retrieved from bokjang deposits, further 066 samaya ( 隀┩儦膇玄㶔⪠岺 ) apart from the incredibly profound and subtle method of the Three Vehicles ( ┩▘氊幾 the Buddha. The Buddha stated that he would empower ( Ⲏ 䭥 , gaji) the five bottles, powders of four precious things, water of five rivers, powders of five kinds of incense, five medicines, indicates that the Liao esoteric Buddhist tradition was well five types of grain, five seeds, five products of a cow, silks of received by Goryeo Buddhists and played an instrumental role five colors, leaves of five bodhi trees, five seasonal flowers, five in shaping the development of Buddhism in that country. The auspicious grasses, five threads in different colors, five parasols, five treasure bottles in Goryeo bokjang deposits suggest that and three shares of rice. Of these various sets of pentads, the Goryeo Buddhists absorbed the Sutra on the King of the Great five bottles are deemed the most important. They are associated Teaching Which Is Sublime and Auspicious among the newly with the five directions, the five colors, the four precious things, imported Buddhist texts and appropriated its abhiseka with the the five bodhisattvas and their mantras, the five mudras, and five bottles for the creation of the bokjang ritual, as we will see the five transformative results of empowerment. For instance, shortly. regarding the rock crystal jewel bottle at the center, the Buddha reported that the color white symbolizes the Buddha and the bottle represents the Vajramula paramita bodhisattva ( ꓭⰐ呧 The Appropriation of the Abhiseka with the Five Bottles 勓峒耇逻襛赘 ). Next, the Buddha taught how to empower it by reciting the mantra of this bodhisattva one hundred eight times. When the ritual officiant finishes the empowerment of the treasure bottle and then gives the great abhiseka to an initiate along with it, the initiate can attain an adamantine body Among the five fascicles of the Sutra on the King of the Great that that neither is born nor dies (T 1192, 20: 906c23–906c29). Teaching Which Is Sublime and Auspicious, the first is cited in its The procedures for empowering the four other bottles are entirety in the various editions of the Sutras on the Production structurally similar. The buddhas assigned to the center and of Buddhist Images . When cross-checked with the surviving each cardinal direction are not identified in the sutra, but they bokjang deposits from the Goryeo era, these passages appear to seem to have corresponded to the five buddhas of the Diamond have served as the scriptural basis for the five treasure bottles. Realm appearing at the beginning of fascicle 1. Therefore, it is imperative to first examine the procedures and Next, the sutra provides standardized instructions for meaning of the abhiseka with the five bottles as explicated empowering other groups of five substances. It instructs the in the sutra in order to understand the implications of its ritual officiant to empower them by reciting mantras, to divide appropriation into the context of the bokjang ritual. the empowered substances into five shares, and to place a The first fascicle of the Sutra on the King of the Great Teaching JOURNAL of KOREAN ART & ARCHAEOLOGY portion of each within each of the five treasure bottles. While Special: instructing on these procedures, the sutra explicates the intricate Which Is Sublime and Auspicious is reminiscent of several Tang symbolism associated with each material. Although there are and Song ritual manuals prescribing the abhiseka with the five variations in the mantras to be recited for empowerment and bottles (T 883, 18: 448b27–448b29). the merit to be gained as a result, the structure of each ritual Interestingly enough, the Sutra on the King of the Great step remains largely identical from the empowerment of the Teaching Which Is Sublime and Auspicious gives little explanation powders of the four precious things to that of the five seasonal as to the eventual disposal of the five treasure bottles that are flowers (T 1192, 20: 907b3–910a1). Subsequently, the sutra now fully empowered by the mantric power of acaryas. This lack directs the ritual officiant to empower the threads in five colors of explanation may not seem surprising when it is taken into to be used in demarcating the altar and the silks of five colors account that the ritual recipient in the sutra is not an image, but to be used in tying the openings of the five treasure bottles ( Ⲏ 䭥汔㚯◩虝納 繟殬⺚◩虝粼 ) (T 1192, 20: 910a9). Having empowered the five parasols in a similar way, the ritual officiant is told to place vajras on the openings of the five treasure bottles and recite the mantras of the main buddhas and accompanying paramita bodhisattvas. When the one-hundred-eight chantings of the mantra are completed, the five treasure bottles, now fully empowered, are placed in accordance with their associated a human disciple. This issue should be considered with regard to another important ritual of late Indian esoteric Buddhism, the pratistha (Lee Seunghye, forthcoming). Originally, pratistha meant the construction ( 䐭皑 , Ch. jianli) of an image or stupa, but it came to connote causing the divine to reside within a receptacle, whether it be an image or stupa (Gonda 1954, 1–37). The latter is translated as “installation” ( 㴗皑 , allip or 㴗翝 , anchi) in Sinitic Buddhist literature but usually directions (T 1192, 20: 910b5–910b10). This is the only place rendered as “consecration” in English-language scholarship. in fascicle 1 of the sutra where it speaks of acaryas who officiate It is not a simple coincidence that the term “ allip ” is used the abhiseka at the five directions. These acaryas are collectively consistently in the Sutras on the Production of Buddhist Images in referred to as the “dharma masters of the five directions” ( ◩ 偙岺䊘 , obang beopsa ) in the Sutras on the Production of Bud- the ritual steps of inserting empowered objects inside the five treasure bottles and, more importantly, in the final step of dhist Images. The lengthy description of the ritual concludes by enshrining the completed bokjang deposit inside an image. This providing instructions on empowering the three shares of rice ritual practice is performed not only with an image, but also 067 through the recitation of mantras and the fire ritual. for religious edifices such as a monastery or stupa, or for ritual The abhiseka with the five bottles is a type of abhiseka ritual objects, including Buddhist scriptures and rosaries. Through in which the five bottles’ empowered contents are poured over the ritual, the image is converted into an eternal abode of the the crown of an initiate’s head. Derived from an enthronement divine, or more appropriately, the divine itself. The pratistha of ceremony in ancient India, abhiseka was appropriated as a Buddhist image as prescribed in the ritual manuals that the ritual for attaining the Buddhahood during the Gupta appeared during the late phase of Indian esoteric Buddhism is a period (3rd century–543) and was reorganized into an complex procedure consisting of multiple ritual steps including esoteric Buddhist rite during the post-Gupta period (Mori the acarya’s construction of a mandala, sprinkling water over Masahide 1999, 194–208; Davidson 2011, 71–75). In the ritual an image, recitation of mantras, and visualization. Bottles programs of esoteric Buddhism, the abhiseka addresses the symbolizing the deities of the mandala are placed around it and idea of installing a deity within a person or an image through a used in the performance of abhiseka for an image in order to sequence of ritual steps, which entails the sprinkling of water, purify and empower it. use of mantras and mudras, and a fire ritual. Pouring water The Sutra on the King of the Great Teaching Which Is Sublime from the five bottles, which symbolize the five buddhas and and Auspicious provides long and detailed instructions on the the five wisdoms, over the crown of the head is interpreted production of the five bottles to be used by acaryas to give a as an act of endowing the initiate with the Buddhahood. The symbolic bathing to a disciple. However, Korean Buddhists five buddhas and the five wisdoms are closely correlated in from the late Goryeo period onward departed from these the STTS corpus translated by Amoghavajra ( ┮疾ꓭⰐ , Ch. prescriptions by using cloth rather than precious substances Bukong Jingang; 705–774). By the late phase of Indian esoteric in the production of the five bottles (Fig. 9). Given that the Buddhism, the five bottles had become firmly established as contents of the five bottles rarely deviate from the scriptural symbols of the five buddhas and five wisdoms. Moreover, the injunctions, bottles may indeed have been used instead ritual steps described in the Sutra on the King of the Great Teaching of textile wrappings in the early phase of bokjang practice. Consecrating the Buddha: The Formation of the Bokjang Ritual during the Goryeo Period merged into the NMK collection following the liberation of Korea. The first bundle from the belly of the bodhisattva turned out to contain five packets, each holding a miniature bottle with various contents along with a miniature mirror that symbolizes each of the five directions ( ◩偙ꡘ , obang gyeong) (Fig. 14). It also included a throat-bell container ( ㄕꖂ瞥 , huryeong tong), a new form of bokjang container that replaced the eight-petaled container from the Goryeo era during the Joseon dynasty (Fig.15). It held a heart jewel that had been split into two pieces and relic grains wrapped in a sheet of blank paper, among other items. The five miniature bottles from the first bundle, most probably a remainder of the original bokjang items from the 13th century, seem to have been re-enshrined within the inner recess of the image when a new bokjang deposit was created and dedicated in the early Joseon period (Shin Soyeon, Yi Yonghee, and Park Seungwon 2014, 105) (Fig. 16). The four bottles symbolizing the east, south, west, and north were colored on their lacquered surfaces, whereas the lacquered surface of the bottle symbolizing the center was adorned with gold leaf (Fig. 17). The five wooden bottles, colored on their lacquered surfaces according to their corresponding direction, were reported to hold grains, seeds, and medicinal herbs wrapped in blank paper, and were sealed with a wad of cotton. These miniature bottles, 068 Fig. 12. Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva. Goryeo, 13th century. Gilt wood. H. 67.65 cm. which are faithful to the shape and function of a conventional National Museum of Korea bottle, indicate that Goryeo Buddhists were acutely aware of the meaning of the five treasure bottles as a ritual tool to The bokjang deposits recently retrieved from a 13th-century Avalokitesvara statue in the collection of the National Museum install the Buddha within the ritual recipient through the acaryas’ attainment of the three esoterica ( ┩㶔 , sammil) via of Korea (hereafter NMK) lends credibility to this supposition “a ritualized replication of the body, speech, and mind of the (Fig. 12). This new discovery is part of the ongoing research Buddha”(McBride, 2006 [2008], 305) . into Buddhist sculpture in the NMK collection (Shin Soyeon, What differentiates Korean bokjang from consecration Yi Yonghee, and Park Seungwon 2014, 11–107; Shin Soyeon rituals performed in other parts of Buddhist Asia is that the five 5 2015, 100–107). Results from this important survey have been treasure bottles were permanently enshrined within an image. published in 2014, 2016, and 2018, providing rich resources for In other words, the key symbolic step of the ritualized watering students of Korean Buddhist art. The bodhisattva image yielded or bathing of an image with the contents of the five bottles was two groups of bokjang , a bundle of objects wrapped with a entirely replaced by the installation of the five bottles inside it. cloth inscribed with the true-mind seed syllables and five-wheel When compared with the five bottles used in the pratistha from seed syllables ( ◩齡甦㲻 , oryun jongja) and another bundle of India or abhiseka of Japanese esoteric Buddhism, the function printed texts and a skein of threads in five colors inside the and meaning of the five treasure bottles becomes even more lower portion of bodhisattva’s body (Fig. 13). A further group apparent. In the former, the five bottles are ritual tools only of bokjang objects appears to have been inserted at the time of momentarily empowered, and they lose their capabilities production inside the head of the bodhisattva. The two groups outside of the temporal frame of the ritual. However, the five of bokjang objects retrieved from the belly of the bodhisattva treasure bottles of the Korean bokjang tradition have a different had already been disrupted by the time the image was acquired ontological meaning. These five treasure bottles completed by the Yi Royal Household Museum ( 匃椟㵵朮 , Yi wangga bangmulgwan), whose collection of pre-modern Korean art was JOURNAL of KOREAN ART & ARCHAEOLOGY through acaryas’ making of mudras, recitation of mantras, and visualization of the unison of the Buddha and an image Special: Fig. 13. Two groups of bokjang objects found inside the lower part of the Avalo- Fig. 14. Five treasure bottles and a throat-bell container wrapped inside a yellow cloth kitesvar Bodhisattva in the NMK collection wrapper. Discovered inside the Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva in the NMK collection Fig. 15. Throat-bell container. Joseon, Fig. 16. Five treasure bottles yielded in the Avalokitesvara Fig. 17. Treasure bottle symbolizing the early 15th century. Lead alloy. H. 3.6 cm (body); 2.2 cm (lid). Discovered inside the Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva in the NMK collection Bodhisattva in the NMK collection center. Goryeo, 13th century. Wood. H. 4.2 cm. Yielded in the Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva in the NMK collection are an embodiment of the Buddhist cosmos imbued with the in fascicle 1 of the Sutra on the King of the Great Teaching Which Is five buddhas’ empowerment. Therefore, the inner realm of the Sublime and Auspicious, it concludes that the heart of the image image becomes transformed into a microcosm of the Buddhist consecration ritual in Korea, which continues today, dates back cosmos through the installation of a bokjang deposit. to no later than the 12th to 13th century. It demonstrates that this sutra, absent from the second edition of the Korean Canon, was introduced to Goryeo from the Liao dynasty around the late 11th to early 12th century at a time when vigorous cultural Conclusion interactions were occurring between the two states through the exchange of Buddhist texts. Like the pratistha of late Indian esoteric Buddhism, the bokjang ritual addresses the concept of installing the divine This study has revisited the formation of the bokjang ritual within a material image through acaryas’ attainment of the in the context of cultural exchanges and the transmission of three esoterica. However, this ritual conception seems not to esoteric Buddhist teachings that took place across Northeast have been transmitted to Goryeo in the form of a complete Asia during the Goryeo period. By examining textual records ritual manual. Goryeo Buddhists appear to have instead and bokjang deposits from the latter half of Goryeo period vis- appropriated the abhiseka ritual for an esoteric Buddhist a-vis the procedures of the abhiseka with the five bottles found practitioner as explicated in the sutra as a basis to formulate a Consecrating the Buddha: The Formation of the Bokjang Ritual during the Goryeo Period 069 unique image consecration ritual. In the Indian pratistha ritual, the image becomes one with the Buddha as it is anointed with the contents of the five bottles through a ritualized act of 1 2 3 pouring or sprinkling. In contrast, ritualized bathing was not adopted wholeheartedly in Korean Buddhism. Instead, Goryeo 4 Buddhists installed the five bottles within an image that was then permanently sealed. This ritual act bears the symbolic meaning of transforming the empty inner space of a Buddha image into a sealed space empowered with the Buddha’s grace and virtues. A microcosm of the image is thus made to correspond to the macrocosm of the Buddha through the enshrinement of the five treasure bottles symbolizing the five directional Buddhas of the Diamond Realm. This is a case where Bokjang is often rendered as pokchang in English-language scholarship based on the McCune-Reischauer Romanization system. 5 The discussion in this section is abbreviated from Lee Seunghye, forthcoming. A comprehensive analysis of the major Goryeo bokjang deposits is available in Jeong Eunwoo and Shin Eunje 2017. The identification proposed here is tentative. The collective names, such as the five kinds of incense, and sub-divisions here are my own creation on the basis of Yi Gyubo’s account as examined previously and on the Sutra on the King of the Great Teaching Which Is Sublime and Auspicious. This noteworthy image and its deposit contents were the focus of the “Sacred Dedication: A Korean Buddhist Masterpiece,” a loan exhibition dispatched by NMK to the Smithsonian's Freer|Sackler, the National Museum of Asian Art from September 21, 2019 to March 22, 2020. The research report, co-written by curators of the NMK and published in 2014, was translated into English in lieu of an exhibition catalogue and made available at https://asia.si.edu/ wp-content/uploads/2019/09/NMK-Report_FINAL-2019-11-18.pdf (accessed November 26, 2019). one of the central tenets of esoteric Buddhism, the unification of the practitioner and the Buddha through ritual practices, is appropriated for the creation of Buddhist images. Translated by the author This paper is a revised and abridged English version of “The Formation and Implications of the Consecration of Buddhist Images during the Goryeo Period” ( 둚免♣ ✏萝足 䓺䧯 070 뺂 䟨⽱ ), previously published in 2015 in Korean Journal of Art History ( 耘⺮㳴熯疴 ) 285. Image Sources Fig. 10: The Splendor of the Khitan Dynasty, 2011, 161, Fig. 114, Fukuoka: Nishinippon Shimbunsha Fig. 11: Chaoyang North Pagoda: Report of Archaeology Excavation and Renovation Project, 2007, Fig. 63-2, Beijing: Wenwu chubanshe JOURNAL of KOREAN ART & ARCHAEOLOGY Special: Selected Bibliography Primary Sources Dongguk Yi sangguk jip (匯㏔匃潸㏔겏, Collection of Yi Gyubo’s writings) (consulted on http://db.itkc.or.kr). Dongmunseon (匯倀, Anthology of Korean literature) (consulted on http://db.itkc.or.kr). Foshuo mimi sanmei dajiaowang jing (✏靽玄㶔┩儦㝕侥椟籭, Sutra of the king of the great teaching on the secret samadhi spoken by the Buddha; T 883) (consulted on http://21dzk.l.u-tokyo.ac.jp/SAT). Josang gyeong (ꅏ⦐籭, Sutras on the production of Buddhist images). Miaojixiang pingdeng mimi zuishang guanmen dajiaowang jing (㠹⻊瞏 玄㶔劄┪閏ꪎ㝕侥椟籭, Sutra on the king of the great teaching of visualization methods which are auspicious, universal, secret, and superlative; T 1192) (consulted on http://21dzk.l.u-tokyo.ac.jp/ SAT). Secondary Sources Chen, Yanzhu (꯴旼榓). 1995. A Study of the Sutras Carved during the Late Liao and Jin Periods in the Fangshan Stone Canon (㻗焪籭╚勒 蕜ꓭ♣⯣籭▆熯疴). Taipei: Gueyuan chubanshe. Davidson, Ronald M. 2011. “Abhiseka.” In Charles D. Orzech, Henrik H. Sørensen, and Richard K. Payne, ed., Esoteric Buddhism and the Tantras in East Asia. Leiden and Boston: Brill. Fujiwara, Takato (⸮䀥☭). 2011. “Aspects of Buddhism in Western Liao in the 11th Century as Seen through Artifacts Found in the North Pagoda” (ⵌ㗠溪槁倀朮‫מ‬锶‫׾‬11┾笫锞‫♉ס‬侷溷潸). Kansai daigaku tōzai gakujutsu kenkyūjo kiyo (ꫀ锞㝕㳔匯锞㳔煝疴笫 锡) 44. ― . 2013. “A Buddhist Kingdom on the Sea of Grass: Khitan Buddhism Seen in the Stone Carvings and Artifacts Retrieved from Buddhist Pagodas” (蠗‫✏ס‬侷椟㏔ˌ焪⯣·✏㗠倀朮‫מ‬锶‫׾‬ ╫‫✏ס‬侷). Ajia yūgaku (ؓ‫ؓة‬㳴) 160. Gonda, Jan. 1954. “Pratistha.” Samjnavryakranam, Studia Indologica Internationalia 1. Hang, Kan (匪❎). 2002. “The Esoteric Motifs on the Daming Pagoda of the Central Capital of the Liao Empire” (╚☒㝕僻㗠┪溷㶔㴴㏨ ⦐). In Collection of Essays in Commemoration of the 80th Birthday of Mr. Su Bai (㶆溮⩰气⪧璭襪笫䗻倀겏), vol. 2. Beijing: Wenwu chubanshe. Kang, Ingu (㣫☵寛). 1975. “Artifacts Recovered from the Bokjang of the Gilt Bronze Seated Buddha Statue at Munsusa Temple in Seosan” (橰㻗 倀媗㸊 ꓭꗸ㠀❔㑀⦐ 萝足朮). Misul jaryo (耘倣) 18. Kim, Soo-youn ( 뿆 펞 흶 ). 2015. “The Characteristics of Goryeo Esoteric Buddhism as Seen through an Analysis of the Collection of Spells in Indic Script Published during the Goryeo Period” ( 빦 즪 푢 쒆 붊 ւ唴剹䷕䭥겏փ  칾 빦즪 춆뻖  ). Hanguk jungsesa yeongu (뻳튾툲흶뻲) 57. ― . 2016. “ A Study on the Structures and Characteristics of the Collection of Spells in Indic Script in the Former Collection of Min Yeonggyu” ( 춂 힇 뽢 칾ւ唴剹䷕䭥겏փ 뻲 ퟆ  ). Hanguk sasangsahak (껜㏔䘼䞯⺮㳴) 54. Kim, Young-mi ( 뿆 힇 쵾 ). 2002. “Diplomatic Relations between Goryeo and Liao and the Exchange of Buddhist Texts during the Late 11th and Early 12th Centuries” (11튾 뾶  춞 –12 튾 뾶 빦 즪 · ퟾뻖뺆빊ퟆ 켎빃 뻖쫞 ). Yeoksa wa hyeonsil ( 흳툲ퟆ 푪 ) 43. Jeon, Donghyeok (匯鰺). 1990. “Nature of Esoteric Buddhism in Goryeo as Seen through the Collection of Spells in Indic Script”ր唴剹䭥 ( 겏ց ‫׼־‬锶‫ג‬둚㶔侷‫ס‬䙎呬). Taishō daigaku sōgo bukkyō kenkyū nempō (㝕婞㝕㳔粁⻉✏侥熯疴䌑㖥) 11. Jeong, Eunwoo (ꎍ䚽곝). 2007. A Study of Buddhist Sculpture of the Late Goryeo Period (둚䔿劻✏侥䔉⯣熯疴). Seoul: Munye chulpansa. Jeong, Eunwoo () and Shin, Eunje (푦). 2017. Sacred Objects of the Goryeo Kingdom from the Cavities of Buddhist Images (빦즪  朮, ✏萝足). Seoul: Gyeongin munhwasa. Lee, Seonyong, translated by Chung Eunsun. 2013. “History of the Bokjang Tradition in Korea.” Journal of Korean Art & Archaeology 7. Lee, Seunghye ( 퐿  ). 2015. “Enshrining the Sacred within Buddhist Images: Issues and Prospects” ( 켎퉇 朮 캏훎 : 뺂 뺂 ). Jeongsin munhwa yeongu (푦첾흶뻲) 138. ―. Forthcoming. “Rethinking Pokchang as Pratistha: The Invention of a Ritual of Image Consecration in Korean Buddhism.” Cahiers d’Extrême-Asie 27. Lee, Yongyun (匃㵼苯). 2012. “Bokjang, the Essence of the Rite of Installing the Buddha Image” (✏⦐㞅㴗⧩䑑 둌, 萝足). In Bulgyo munhwajae yeonguso (✏侥倀鬙熯疴), ed., Report on the Current Practice of Consecrating Buddhist Images (✏萝足⧩䑑 槁 岞鞪吉㖥⼴剹). Seoul: Daehan Bulgyo Jogyejong chongmuwon munhwabu. Lü, Jianfu (⼦䐭). 2011. History of Esoteric Buddhism in China (╚㏔㶔侥 ⺮). Rev. edition. Beijing: Zhongguo shehui kexue chubanshe. Matsunaga, Yukei (ꩽ劔䢻), translated by Heo Ilbeom (陵┞碃). 1990. History of Esoteric Buddhism (㶔侥婽⺮). Seoul: Gyeongseowon. McBride, Richard D., II. 2006 (2008). “The Mysteries of Body, Speech, and Mind: The Three Esoterica (sanmi) in Medieval Sinitic Buddhism.” Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies 29, no. 1. Mori, Masahide (喖게瑪). 1999. “The Abhiseka Ritual” (择꼾⧩瑂). In Tachikawa Musashi (皑䈢婣足) and Yoritomi Motohiro (鮝㶠勓㴤), ed., Indian Esoteric Buddhism (ؕ٤‫غ‬㶔侷). Tokyo: Shunjūsha. Nam, Kwon-hee ( 숮뼒 ). 2017. “An Analysis of Collections of Spells and Mantras in Small Letters Published in the Goryeo Period” (빦즪푢 쒆 붊 펞칾 㸯㲻 휾 흶뻲 ). Seojihak yeongu (剹 霺㳴熯疴) 71. Park, Yong-jin ( 춛 ). 2008. “A Study on the Exchange of Buddhist Thought across East Asia during the 11th and 12th Centuries.” A Research Report Submitted to the National Research Foundation of Korea. Ren, Jie (⚈匮). 1985. “The Buddhist Scriptures Translated by Maitribhadra of the Khitan Empire Preserved in the Fangshan Stone Canon” ( 071 㻗焪籭╚⟛㲽溷╫㏔䡜鮂饕籭). Fayin (岺꼞), no. 1. Shen, Hsueh-man. 2001. “Realizing the Buddha’s Dharma Body during the Mofa Period: A Study of Liao Relic Deposits.” Artibus Asiae 61, no. 2. Shin, Soyeon ( 푦팒흶 ), ed. 2015. Devout Patrons of Buddhist Art (춢 , 붊  춚 줒 쑺 쑪 : 켎 뻖 쵾 펦  왪 ). Seoul: National Museum of Korea. Shin, Soyeon ( 푦팒흶 ), Yi, Yonghee (  ) and Park, Seungwon ( 춛퐿 ). 2014. “A Survey Report of the Wooden Seated Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva Statue (duk 953)” ( 찯뺆칺툺퉇 [ 쓛펞 953] 툲 칺빦 ). In National Museum of Korea, ed., Buddhist Sculpture in the National Museum of Korea I ( 뻳 쭃 훟 춛 쳂 뺆 팒 켎 뻖 붇 툲칺빦 I). Seoul: National Museum of Korea. Sørensen, Henrik H. 2011. “Esoteric Buddhism under the Liao.” In Charles D. Orzech, Henrik H. Sørensen, and Richard K. Payne, ed., Esoteric Buddhism and the Tantras in East Asia. Leiden and Boston: Brill. Sudeoksa Museum (⟵䖍㸊垙㔔㸄), ed. 2004. Whole-heartedly Taking Refuge in the Buddha: Special Exhibition of Artifacts Recovered from the Cavities of Korean Buddhist Images (蔷䖥婿⾀瑂: 껜㏔ ✏萝 足 杅⯁㺤). Yesan: Sudeoksa Museum. Taegyeong ( 峩捘 ). 2006. The Sutras on the Production of Buddhist Images: Steps of Placing Objects inside Buddhist Images and their Implications (ꅏ⦐籭: ✏萝足  ퟆ 뽾 팓 흖 쑺 뾺 䘼䞯). Seoul: Unjusa. Tang, Tongtian (簡㝘). 1994. “Liao Emperor Daozong’s Contribution to the Development of Buddhism” (㴴㸫✏侥溬㺤溷鬚棾). Shehui kexue jikan (劋璇㳴齫⮜), no. 4. Zhang, Mingwu (䒟僻䜗). 2013. A Study of Sutra Pillars of the Liao and Jin Dynasties (ꓭ籭䋰熯疴). Beijing: Zhongguo kexue jishu chubanshe. Consecrating the Buddha: The Formation of the Bokjang Ritual during the Goryeo Period 089 Clothing and Textiles Depicted in Goryeo Paintings of Water-moon Avalokitesvara Bae Kidong Director-General National Museum of Korea EDITORIAL BOARD Burglind Jungmann University of California, Los Angeles Choi Seon Ju National Museum of Korea Ham Soonseop Daegu National Museum Han Soo National Museum of Korea Junko HABU University of California, Berkeley Lee Byong Ho National Museum of Korea Lee Soomi National Museum of Korea Li Liu Stanford University Park Jinwoo Gongju National Museum Yoo Byung-Ha National Museum of Korea (Former) Yu Heisun National Museum of Korea Further Reading Goryeo: The Glory of Korea 쒆빦즪 뽾줆않 National Museum of Korea (2018) Five Hundred Arhats of Changnyeongsa Temple Site: Reflection of our Hearts 싛툲힪춷숞쑿푦쭎쑴흂뻺 Chuncheon National Museum (2018) This book is an exhibition catalogue from the special exhibition “Goryeo: The Glory of Korea,” which was held at the National Museum of Korea in 2018 to commemorate the 1,100th anniversary of the foundation of Goryeo (918–1392). This special exhibition provided an opportunity to easily understand the characteristics of international and pluralistic Goryeo culture by gathering and exhibiting important domestic and foreign cultural assets of the Goryeo Dynasty. The exhibition consisted of four themes: The first featured royal art centered on Gaegyeong, the capital of Goryeo, and the second introduced the Tripitaka Koreana, containing 1,100 years of wisdom, and a variety of Buddhist statues and Buddhist paintings that can be found in the temple. The third theme showed the teahouses giving a glimpse of Goryeo's tea culture, and lastly, the crafts showcasing Goryeo's brilliant technology and design was introduced. This book contains in-depth explanations and columns on each theme, including commentaries on the exhibits, to help understand the overall culture of Goryeo. This book has been published as a research repor t that also functions as a special exhibition catalogue. Five Hundred Arhats of Changnyeongsa Temple Site, a brand collection of the Chuncheon National Museum, is a cultural asset discovered in Yeongwol in 2002. Together with the 10 experts (for the occasion of the special exhibition), the various contents about the Five Hundred Arhats of Changnyeongsa Temple Site was made by using the accumulated contents to be used as a guide for future exhibition and utilization of the Arhat statue. In addition to the review of the establishment of the Arhat faith, the significance of the art history of the Five Hundred Arhats of Changnyeongsa Temple, the information related to Arhat statue’s dressing, including Kasaya, the quarried areas of stone for industry of Arhat statue, the preservation and restoration process, and the possibility of damage, the aim of this study was to achieve the convergence of scholars surrounding the Five Hundred Arhats, including Buddhist philosophical messages and the study of aesthetic beauty in the Five Hundred Arhats of Changnyeongsa Temple, and an analysis of the faces of the Arhat statues, who resembles Koreans. ISBN 9788993518559 (371 pages, in Korean) ISBN 9788993518535 (236 pages, in Korean) Devout Patrons of Buddhist Art Sutra Painting in Search of Buddhahood National Museum of Korea (2015) National Museum of Korea (2007) 춢붊춚줒쑺쑪켎뻖쵾펦왪 툲빃칆퉇않튾빊켆뽾쬲빦쭎 This book is a special exhibition catalogue hosted at the National Museum of Korea in 2015. This special exhibition was an exhibition of ancient people who supported the creation of various Buddhist artworks that magnified the temples and their earnest desire. Patronage includes both mental and material support, and Buddhist art shows not only their deep faith but also their status, their economic status, and the purpose of their patronage. The book is divided into five parts and tells the hidden stories of the kings and nobles, bureaucrats to low class, believers of the community, royal women, monks and their people, and sponsors of various social classes through sarira reliquaries, scriptures, Buddhist statues, Buddhist paintings and crafts from the Three Kingdoms Period to the Joseon Dynasty. This book is a special exhibition catalogue of the 2007 National Museum of Korea. This special exhibition is the first of its kind in Korea to bring together the sutra paintings, which comprehensively sheds light on the cultural and historical meaning of the sutra paintings and their artistic value. The production of copying the sutra began with the copying of the scriptures as a way to read Buddhist scriptures and spread Buddhism, but as the printing technology developed, it was recognized that the act of sutra copying itself was a building up of virtue merit rather than a function of preaching. There remain many examples of very detailed sutra paintings summarizing the scriptures at their opening, and gold or silver are used to elaborately draw thin lines for these paintings, which makes the pictorial value very high. The catalogue is divided into three sections and provides a comprehensive look at the emergence of the sutra paintings and the historical characteristics of the periods. ISBN 9788981641221 (328 pages, in Korean) ISBN 9788995989708 (380 pages, in Korean) Special: Buddhist Art of Goryeo Diverse Aspects and Characteristics of the Goryeo Dynasty Crafts in Xuanhe Fengshi Gaoli Tujing by Choi Eung Chon The Development of Suryukjae in Goryeo and the Significance of State-sponsored Suryukjae during the Reign of King Gongmin by Kang Ho-sun Thirteenth-century Wooden Sculptures of Amitabha Buddha from the Goryeo Dynasty and the Ink Inscriptions on their Relics by Choe Songeun Consecrating the Buddha: The Formation of the Bokjang Ritual during the Goryeo Period by Lee Seunghye Clothing and Textiles Depicted in Goryeo Paintings of Water-moon Avalokitesvara by Sim Yeonok Collection A Study of the Metalworking Techniques Manifested in the Gold Buckle from Seogam-ri Tomb No. 9 by Yu Heisun and Ro Jihyun