Golden Visions of Densatil A TIBETAN BUDDHIST MONASTERY Edited by Olaf Czaja and Adriana Proser Asia Society Museum CONTENTS Director’s Preface 9 Melissa Chiu Curator’s Acknowledgments 11 Olaf Czaja Note to the Reader 13 Funders of the Exhibition 14 Lenders to the Exhibition 15 Golden Visions of Densatil: A Tibetan Buddhist Monastery 17 Olaf Czaja Descriptions of Densatil: Excerpts from the Journals of Sarat Chandra Das and Giuseppe Tucci 57 Adriana Proser From Journey to Lhasa and Central Tibet 59 Sarat Chandra Das From To Lhasa and Beyond 60 Giuseppe Tucci Works in the Exhibition 65 Olaf Czaja and Adriana Proser The Tashi gomang Stupas: Beginnings under Jigten Gonpo Tier of Protectors of the Teachings 76 Tier of Offering Goddesses 112 Tiers of Tantric Meditational Deities 126 Pillars, Columns, and Embellishments 146 Lineage Tier and the Uppermost Stupa 162 Art Historical Influence and Meaning 175 Maps of Tibet The Densatil Monastery Timeline of Selected Events Glossary Select Bibliography Index Opposite: Detail of cat. no. 10 Photography Credits 66 182 184 187 196 202 207 Golden Visions of Densatil A Tibetan Buddhist Monastery Olaf Czaja The Establishment of Densatil Everyone who has seen the Potala Palace in Lhasa as a pilgrim or a traveler will never forget its architectural majesty and its countless rooms with finely executed wall paintings, graceful statues, and imposing tombs for the late Dalai Lamas. You can justly regard it as a cultural treasure for all humanity, but there were more places in old Tibet, situated off the beaten track, which housed artistic treasures that probably would have caused the same astonishment and a similar entrancement in the viewer as the Potala and its gems still do. One of these places was the monastery of Densatil. Sadly, a present-day visitor would find nothing of its former glory, as it was destroyed during China’s Cultural Revolution. There are, however, photographs from a 1948 Italian expedition that allow a glimpse of the original beauty found at this site (figs. 1 and 2). Opposite: Detail of cat. no. 47 Following pages: Fig. 1. A tashi gomang stupa at the Densatil Monastery: (top-bottom) the Tier of Buddhas, the Tier of Offering Goddesses, and the Tier of Protectors of the Teachings, with the guardians of the four directions in the foreground. Photograph by Pietro Francesco Mele, 1948. © Ethnographic Museum of the University of Zurich, VMZ 402.00.0513 Fig. 2. A tashi gomang stupa at the Densatil Monastery showing the stupa for the late abbot on top of the tashi gomang structure; it is wrapped in cloth and surrounded by statues of Indian and Tibetan teachers. Photograph by Pietro Francesco Mele, 1948. © Ethnographic Museum of the University of Zurich, VMZ 402.00.0501 17 The Densatil Monastery was situated in a remote area off the major trade routes, because it evolved from a former hermitage. A long, arduous path winds up to where the Monastery once stood, in a rocky area with fir and juniper bushes (fig. 3). Once there, one has a magnificent view of the mighty Tsangpo River in the south, flowing through this central part of Tibet, before it reaches India and Bangladesh as the Brahmaputra River (fig. 4). The beginnings of the Densatil Monastery are linked to the charismatic monk Phagmo Drupa Dorje Gyalpo (1110–1170), originally from eastern Tibet, who traveled in his Fig. 3. Looking north at the ruins of the Densatil Monastery in 1997 before the reconstruction work that began in the following years. The dilapidated main buildings, main hall, and assembly hall can be seen. Fig. 4. View from the Densatil Monastery, 1997. The Mangkhar Ridge can be seen in the foreground to the left. The Tsangpo River is in the background, south of the Monastery. All these personalities laid the foundation for the later Kagyu schools of Tibetan Buddhism. After Gampopa died, Dorje Gyalpo stayed in Tsalgang for five years, where he, together with many monks who had followed him, strictly observed the Vinaya rules. He also taught a mixture of Kadam teachings and the Mahamudra system, a special teaching of the Kagyu school; but soon he found it increasingly inappropriate to live near a village, and felt compelled to retreat into solitude. One day, without telling anyone, Dorje Gyalpo left Tsalgang and set off to the west. youth to central Tibet to pursue his religious studies with various teachers. He came from On his journey, he came to Phagmodru, which means “Sow Crossing.” He found the a very poor family. His parents died when he was just seven years old, leaving him in the landscape very charming and a good place to meditate. He decided to stay, supported care of an uncle. When he was eighteen, he decided to leave eastern Tibet and wandered by the local ruler of this area, and henceforth he also became known as Phagmo Drupa, through many central regions of the country. After his full ordination at the age of twenty- “The One of Phagmodru.” This appellation was also assigned to the followers of the four, he studied under many teachers from different Buddhist religious schools. Besides religious school he founded and its associated noble house.1 Many of Dorje Gyalpo’s some Kadam teachers and the famous Sakya master Sachen Kunga Nyingpo (1092–1158), former students followed him to Phagmodru. Initially, he lived in caves, such as the Tatsa it was Gampopa Sonam Rinchen (1070–1153) in particular who had a lasting influence on Cave (figs. 5 and 6). A yogi meditating in this area later presented his own thatched hut his spiritual development. Gampopa was an important disciple of Milarepa (1040–1123), to Dorje Gyalpo. The thatched hut became an important symbol for the Phagmo Drupa the famous yogi and poet. He in turn was a student of Marpa Chokyi Lodro (1002/1012–1097). school; when Taglung Tangpa Tashi Pel, who later founded the Taglung school within the 22 CZAJA GOLDEN VISIONS OF DENSATIL 23 Fig. 7. A statue of Phagmo Drupa Dorje Gyalpo, seated on an elaborate lotus throne Phagmo Drupa (1110–1170), ca. late 12th to early 13th century. Gilt bronze, inlaid with gold, silver, copper, turquoise, lapis, and coral; 13.5 x 12 x 8.5 cm. The Cleveland Museum of Art, Purchase from the J. H. Wade Fund 1993.160.a-.b Fig. 5. The Tatsa Cave temple on the path to the Densatil Monastery, 2010. Phagmo Drupa Dorje Gyalpo lived and meditated in the Tatsa Cave when he first came to Phagmodru. Fig. 6. Shrine at the Tatsa Cave temple with some statues and paintings, 2010. Kagyu school, came to study under Dorje Gyalpo, he was instructed to build a hut for himself with willow branches.2 The new monastic congregation grew quickly because Phagmo Drupa Dorje Gyalpo was an impressive personality and an outstanding teacher. He must have been of sturdy build and worn a thick beard, as is indicated by some artistic representations (fig. 7; see cat. no. 3). Phagmo Drupa Dorje Gyalpo refused every luxury and had only a few personal possessions. He gave all gifts and offerings that he received to the assembly of monks. During the waning moon, he retired to meditate; during the waxing moon, he remained in meditation in the morning hours and gave public lessons to the monks in the afternoon. Jigten Gonpo, who later established the Drigung Kagyu school, also took part in these lessons. When Phagmo Drupa Dorje Gyalpo passed away on the 25th day of the seventh Tibetan month in 1170, the future of the monastic congregation was completely uncertain. 24 CZAJA GOLDEN VISIONS OF DENSATIL 25 Fig. 8. The northern part of the circumambulation path around the main hall, 2010. Part of the rock formation to the left was removed in order to make space for the main hall. The monks performed the funeral ceremonies for their deceased teacher and cremated him. According to the old customs, his tongue, untouched by the flames, was cut into two parts. One part remained in Densatil; the other was sent back to his home region in eastern Tibet. His heart was removed and placed in a newly built stupa. This stupa, called a tashi wobar stupa, or stupa of “Radiating Light of Auspiciousness,” most likely had the shape of a Kadam stupa (see cat. no. 45). The construction of tashi wobar stupas was not limited to Densatil, but built before and during the same period at other monasteries as well. Tashi Pel was responsible for the construction, supervising the work, and paying the workers and artists. Jigten Gonpo sent a pupil to Nepal to request the manufacture of a gilt parasol. Upon the pupil’s return, Jigten Gonpo put it on top of the tashi wobar stupa. The next few years at Densatil passed with the construction of new huts and the repair of old ones. It appears that at this time discussions continued among the students about the future of Densatil. Finally, in 1198, a large meeting was held in Densatil to resolve this question definitively. After some initial disagreements—especially between Tashi Pel and Jigten Gonpo—over the question of where exactly the main hall of the future monastery was to be built, it was agreed that it should be built around the thatched hut of the late Phagmo Drupa Dorje Gyalpo. Tashi Pel assumed full financing of the construction and promised to give each laborer a pound of salt for every pound of stone dust they cut from the rocks. Indeed, it seems that a part of the rocky slope where the thatched hut was located was ablated and leveled to make space for the construction of the main hall (figs. 8 and 9). Construction began immediately. Each student of Phagmo Drupa Dorje Gyalpo, together with his entourage, was responsible for a portion of the building. Jigten Gonpo, for example, was responsible for the eastern wall, while Tashi Pel was responsible for the northern. Legend has it that the fingers of Jigten Gonpo left a clearly visible imprint on one of the stones of the wall he built. Today you can still see imprints left on the stone. Comparing the recorded details of who was responsible for each wall of the Densatil Monastery’s main hall, it is clear that the geographic home region of each pupil corresponded with the geographic orientation of the wall on which they worked (fig. 10). While the establishment of the Monastery was the creation of a spiritual center for the various students of Phagmo Drupa Dorje Gyalpo, the main hall was conceived as a mandala. Thus, the Five Buddhas—Akshobhya, Ratnasambhava, Amoghasiddhi, Amitabha, and Vairochana— were associated with the main hall’s four walls and center respectively. After the structure was completed, major religious objects were arranged inside according to the four cardinal directions. Other smaller buildings were most likely erected beside the main hall and over the centuries some were enlarged and renovated while others were newly established (fig. 11). Throughout the history of the Monastery, the basic form of the main hall was probably preserved, at least in part because the building was situated on the slope of a rocky mountain, limiting the extent to which later architectural changes could be made. The timber for the Monastery mainly came from the area around Densatil. Only the logs for the main hall’s pillars were brought from a region to the south of the Tsangpo River, which was known for its rich forests. Typically, pillars and the wooden ceiling 26 CZAJA GOLDEN VISIONS OF DENSATIL 27 20 miles 50 miles Taglung Drigung Lhasa Densatil Shigatse Tropu Yazang Fig. 10. Map of central Tibet, showing the monasteries involved in the construction of the Densatil Monastery, and the major cities in the region Around this time, the monk Jigten Gonpo traveled from Drigung to the Dakpo region where Gampopa had his monastery. When Jigten Gonpo meditated there, he had a marvelous vision. He saw the snow-capped peak of the Pure Crystal Mountain in Tsari with the Tantric deity Chakrasamvara standing in a heavenly palace and surrounded by a retinue of 2,800 deities, arranged like a tashi gomang stupa (see cat. no. 2). The Pure Key Crystal Mountain in Tsari, often simply called Tsari, is an important sacred mountain City located in today’s Tibetan-Indian border region. Together with Mount Kailash in western Monastery Tibet and the Lachi Mountain near the border of Tibet and Nepal, it is one of the holiest Location of Densatil Monastery sites for pilgrims and meditators, especially of the Kagyu school. In Tibetan Buddhist tradition, there are specially designed stupas representing the eight major events in the life of Buddha. A tashi gomang stupa is a special type of stupa that commemorates the first time Buddha expounded his teachings after he had attained enlightenment, an event that took place in Varanasi. The name “tashi gomang” may be translated as “Many Doors structure would have been constructed inside the building’s frame. But in the case of the Densatil Monastery it was feared that the installation of the main hall’s pillars and ceiling might cause damage to the thatched hut of Phagmo Drupa Dorje Gyalpo. Besides the tashi wobar stupa, the thatched hut was considered the holiest structure belonging to Fig. 9. The main buildings and temples of the Densatil Monastery seen from the north, 2010 of Auspiciousness.” The middle section of a tashi gomang stupa comprises several levels showing a number of niche-doors at each level and in every direction. This design is particularly suitable to house a large number of deities. When Jigten Gonpo returned from his journey, he invited artists from Nepal, led by the new monastery (figs. 12–14). The carpenters were instructed to build the pillars and Manibhadra, to join him in Drigung, where they helped realize the highly complex artwork ceiling outside the main hall. Many complicated arrangements accompanied by religious he had envisioned, hitherto unknown in Tibet. The tashi gomang structure was completed rituals to ensure success were therefore deemed necessary, but ultimately those con- around 1208. At the instigation of Jigten Gonpo, the tashi wobar stupa containing the structing the hall completed the pillar-and-beam construction without damaging the remains of Phagmo Drupa Dorje Gyalpo was brought from Densatil to Drigung and placed thatched hut. The final consecration of the completed building was carried out by Tashi on top of the newly erected tashi gomang structure, thereby completing the tashi gomang Pel, who also made a substantial gift to the monastic community of Densatil. stupa.4 One can imagine that there was considerable resistance to this action on the part 3 28 CZAJA GOLDEN VISIONS OF DENSATIL 29 Fig. 11 Fig. 12 Main buildings of the Densatil Monastery Floor plan of the main hall of the Densatil Monastery (Layout after Tudeng Langga 1992, numbers and captions added) 3 N 2 4 7 1 7 9 6 N 8 5 3 1 4 6 10 13 13 13 1 Main hall 2 Northeastern corner chapel 3 Path for circumambulation 8 9 2 11 5 12 stupa Building containing earthen stupas for Phagmo Drupa Dorje Gyalpo (1110–1170) and Dragpa Tsondru (1203–1267) 1 Western main gate 2 Western side gate An earthen stupa for Dragpa Gyaltsen (1293–1360) or Dragpa Rinchen (1250–1310) 3 Central area tashi gomang stupa 4 May have been a guardian temple 10 Assembly hall 4 Stupas and statues 5 May have been a guardian temple 11 May have been monks’ quarters and administrative buildings 5 Platform with the thatched hut of Phagmo Drupa Dorje Gyalpo 6 Square for prayer 12 Temple on top of the Mangkhar Ridge 6 Chapel of the Teachers 7 Teaching Throne temple 13 Buildings of unknown function 7 Northeastern corner chapel 30 CZAJA thatched hut GOLDEN VISIONS OF DENSATIL 31 Fig. 13 Reconstruction of the arrangement of stupas and statues in front of the eastern wall in the main hall of the Densatil Monastery (not to scale) Above: Reconstructed view in situ (statue bases left out) Below: Arrangement according to Tibetan sources Stupas 1 Stupa for Phagmo Drupa Dorje Gyalpo 2 Stupa for Jigten Gonpo 3 Stupa for Dragpa Jungne 4 Stupa for Dragpa Yeshe 5 Stupa for Dragpa Rinchen Statues 6 Vajradhara 7 Tilopa 8 Naropa 9 Marpa Chokyi Lodro 2 4 3 1 5 Center of all Tiers 10 Milarepa 11 Shakyamuni 9 7 14 12 6 8 10 13 15 1st Tier 12 Gampopa Sonam Rinchen 13 Phagmo Drupa Dorje Gyalpo 11 2nd Tier 14 Dragpa Jungne 15 Jigten Gonpo 17 16 18 20 19 21 3rd Tier 16 An unidentified venerable lord 17 Venerable lord’s pupil 4th Tier 18 Venerable lord’s pupil 19 Phagmo Drupa Dorje Gyalpo 20 Zhang Sumtogpa 21 Jigten Gonpo 32 CZAJA GOLDEN VISIONS OF DENSATIL 33 ✔ Fig. 14. View of the five stupas along the eastern wall of the main hall of the Densatil Monastery, 1948. Left to right: the stupa for Dragpa Yeshe (not visible, view blocked by the tashi gomang stupa on the left), the stupa for Jigten Gonpo (between the tashi gomang stupa and a pillar), the tashi wobar stupa for Phagmo Drupa Dorje Gyalpo (behind the pillar), the stupa for Dragpa Jungne (partially visible to the right of the pillar), and the stupa for Dragpa Rinchen (to the right of the pillar). Statues were placed in front of the stupas. Photograph by Pietro Francesco Mele. The Rise and Fall of the Phagmo Drupa The early, close links between the Drigung and Densatil monasteries contributed to the development of their shared tradition. In 1208, Dragpa Jungne was appointed as abbot of the Densatil Monastery. Dragpa Jungne came from eastern Tibet and belonged to the clan of the Lang Lhazig, as did Phagmo Drupa Dorje Gyalpo, the charismatic founder of Densatil. It is fair to say that Dragpa Jungne was not an important religious figure, but he was a very gifted administrator and politician. Densatil became increasingly independent during his abbotship. Gradually, he and members of his family achieved an autonomy for Densatil that was also strengthened by the mid-thirteenth-century invasion of Tibet by the Mongols and the numerous changes and reforms in political life that resulted. A new administrative system was introduced in Tibet by the Mongols. The Phagmo Drupa became one such administrative unit known as a myriarchy and was headed by a myriarch, the administrative and political leader. However, Dragpa Jungne also formed alliances and relationships with important Drigung patrons, for example the Khasa kingdom, located in what today is Nepal, and the Tangut kingdom in what today is Qinghai province in China. The Densatil Monastery still maintained close ties to the Drigung Monastery, but it was becoming a monastery of equal rank. Densatil’s tendency toward independence was reinforced under the leadership of Dragpa Jungne’s younger half-brother, Dragpa Tsondru, who succeeded him as abbot at Densatil. Dorje Pel, also a member of the Lang Lhazig clan, ran the worldly affairs of the newly established myriarchy for the Phagmo Drupa noble house.6 Among the fortresses he of other students of Phagmo Drupa Dorje Gyalpo. They accused Jigten Gonpo of intend- established the most important was Neudongtse, which had undergone continuous expan- ing to destroy the monastery of their beloved teacher. Eventually, Jigten Gonpo had to sion and became the political and administrative center of the Phagmo Drupa. The Sakya give in to this pressure and returned the tashi wobar stupa to the Densatil Monastery. The were the hegemonic power in Tibet at the time due to their close ties to China’s Yuan tashi gomang structure remained in Drigung. As a substitute, a new stupa was built and dynasty. Political tensions increased between the Drigung and the Sakya and finally led to became the top of the tashi gomang stupa at Drigung. In both the Drigung and Densatil an open military conflict. The Phagmo Drupa, even though historically a close ally of the monasteries, the iconographic program created by Jigten Gonpo laid the foundation for Drigung, refrained from taking sides. In the end this led to a complete break with the Drigung. the tradition of erecting tashi gomang stupas that were adorned by thousands of deities rendered as statues and in relief to commemorate deceased abbots. The first tashi gomang stupa was probably destroyed in 1290 when the Drigung Following the break between the Phagmo Drupa and Drigung at the end of the thirteenth century, there were continuous disputes between the two. They even engaged in bloody conflict when Jangchub Gyaltsen (1302–1364), the new Phagmo Drupa myriarch, Monastery was set on fire by the Sakya during a war between the two. We are relatively entered the political arena in central Tibet.7 Step by step he extended the sphere of influ- well informed about the appearance of this first tashi gomang stupa owing to Sherab ence of the Phagmo Drupa through diplomacy and politics, but also in open breach of Jungne, a student of Jigten Gonpo, who wrote a complete description of the structure, the law and through brutal warfare.8 He expanded the Densatil Monastery and founded including its subsequent consecration, a record that is still extant. For a long time, this Tsetang Monastery, which was located near the Neudongtse fortress. It was one of the source had been overlooked by academic research and has been studied only in recent most important monastic centers in the fourteenth century and many famous religious years. These records provide an outline of the full iconographic program of such tashi dignitaries spent several years studying there in their youth. His political opponents, led by gomang stupas, and for the first time we can interpret the historic photographs of Densatil the Sakya and their allies, were just as ruthless in their choice of means for fighting the taken by the photographer Pietro Francesco Mele who accompanied the scholar Giuseppe Phagmo Drupa. Several times it looked as if the Phagmo Drupa would lose and that the Tucci to the Monastery in 1948 (figs. 15 and 16). These records also make it possible to noble house would disappear completely. At the end of the conflict, however, the Phagmo identify surviving pieces of tashi gomang stupas preserved in museums and private collec- Drupa had prevailed in Tibet and replaced the Sakya as a hegemonic power. With the tions around the world. disappearance of the Yuan dynasty and the establishment of the new Ming dynasty in 5 34 CZAJA GOLDEN VISIONS OF DENSATIL 35 Fig. 15 1 2 The eastern side of the tashi gomang stupa that stood to the left of the five stupas along the eastern wall of the main hall at Densatil, 1948 3 1 parasol 2 curtain 3 stupa 4 statues of the uppermost tier 4 The Tiers of Tantric Meditational Deities 5 Ratnasambhava 6 Vairochana 7 Dveshavajra 8 Amitabha 9 Amoghasiddhi (Guhyasamaja mandala) 10 Ratnasambhava 11 Akshobhya 12 Vairochana 13 Amitabha 14 Amoghasiddhi (Vajradhatu mandala) The Tier of Buddhas 5 6 15 Akshobhya 7 16 Akshobhya 8 17 Shakyamuni 9 18 Akshobhya 19 Akshobhya 10 11 12 13 15 16 17 14 18 19 Fig. 16 15 The southeastern side of a tashi gomang stupa at Densatil, 1948 16 17 The Tier of Buddhas The Tier of Protectors of the Teachings 15 Akshobhya 25 Dhumavati Shri Devi 16 Akshobhya 26 Rahu 17 Shakyamuni 27 Nagaraja Shankhapala 18 Akshobhya 28 Nagaraja Ananta 19 Akshobhya 29 Vaishravana 30 Kakanama Mahakala The Tier of Offering Goddesses 31 Pranasadhana Shri Devi 20 offering goddesses 32 Prithivi 18 20 21 22 19 23 24 21 offering goddesses 22 Parnashavari, Marichi, and Janguli Four Guardians of the Directions 23 offering goddesses A Virupaksha 24 offering goddesses B Dhritarashtra C Partially obscured, probably Virudhaka D Partially obscured, probably Vaishravana B A C 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 D China, the rule of the Phagmo Drupa was briefly consolidated before disputes broke out among the various factions of the noble house. Finally, it escalated to an open revolt in 1434 and factions waged war against each other. This year marked the end of the Phagmo Drupa’s rule and, moreover, coincided with the end of tashi gomang stupa construction; no more were built at the Densatil Monastery after this time. Fig. 17. The Phagmo Drupa ruler Ngawang Tashi Dragpa (1488–1563/64). Central Tibet. 16th century. Gilt copper. H. 611⁄16 in. (17 cm). Private collection. The beneficiaries of this political development were the members of the noble house of Rinpung. They were appointed by the Phagmo Drupa as governors for the fortress Rinpung that had been founded by Jangchub Gyaltsen. Phagmo Drupa’s loss of power did not come immediately, but was a gradual yet inexorable process that was increasingly determined by the Rinpung. Open resistance was eliminated by military retaliation. Rinpung replaced Neudongtse as the political center. The Densatil Monastery could only escape the grip of the Rinpung by having its ownership transferred to the Shamar Kagyu school. From this time on, with one brief exception, the abbots of Densatil were not members of Phagmo Drupa, but of Shamar. The Phagmo Drupa had lost their political and religious influence. The last great Phagmo Drupa ruler who tried to restore their former power was Ngawang Tashi Dragpa (1488–1563/64) (fig. 17). He was only partially successful. The old weaknesses between the different branches of the noble house resurfaced and resulted in conflict. The complicated political situation in central Tibet, where several noble houses, many of them originating from governor’s families, vied with each other, caused additional difficulties for the Phagmo Drupa. In 1554, Ngawang Tashi Dragpa was forced to abdicate and go into exile, but soon after, assisted by military allies, regained his throne. Only about a year after he died, a large uprising against the Rinpung took place in the province of Tsang. The uprising was successful and a new noble house, the Tsang desi (rulers), established itself and gained supremacy. The Phagmo Drupa remained spectators in this conflict and could not actively influence it. During the emerging major conflict in the seventeenth century between the Karma Kagyu and Gelug schools, each supported by their noble allies, the Phagmo Drupa tried as much as possible to stay out of the conflict. When the fortress of Shigatse, the stronghold of the rulers of Tsang, fell in 1642, the Gelug were the new hegemonic power in Tibet. The Phagmo Drupa could not intervene actively, but had to remain passive. The Gelug were only interested in the ceremonial heritage of this former ruling house, such as dances and ceremonies of courtly culture, in order to legitimize their own newly achieved rule. After they were successfully established, the Gelug exploited disputes within the Phagmo Drupa school to dispossess them; the Neudongtse estate and the Tsetang Monastery were transferred to Gelug followers. The Phagmo The Iconography and Construction of a Tashi gomang Stupa Drupa had become “beggars,” the regent of the fifth Dalai Lama wrote triumphantly. The That the noble house and the religious school of Phagmo Drupa did not exist beyond the only reason the Densatil Monastery escaped the devastating fate of the Phagmo Drupa end of the seventeenth century is also apparent in the limited number of works of art that was because it was in the possession of Shamar Kagyu and politically insignificant, there- have been preserved and can be attributed to the Phagmo Drupa with certainty. Besides fore able to avoid conversion to a Gelug monastery. Extraordinarily, despite the struggles some illustrated manuscripts, block prints, and a few inscribed statues of Phagmo Drupa roughly outlined in this essay, the Densatil Monastery was never attacked, ransacked, or personalities, including that of Ngawang Tashi Dragpa, there are two fascinating paintings even damaged until the mid-twentieth century. on display in this exhibition (see cat. nos. 3 and 4). One of them, a thangka executed in 40 CZAJA GOLDEN VISIONS OF DENSATIL 41 Fig. 18 Front elevation of a tashi gomang stupa the eighteenth century, depicts a fierce protector worshipped by members of the Phagmo Drupa school. The other scroll painting commissioned in the first half of the fifteenth century chronicles the abbatial succession at Densatil with the famous Phagmo Drupa Dorje Gyalpo occupying the center and surrounded by his successors to the left and right. A greater number of pieces associated with the Phagmo Drupa are statues and fragments that could have come from a tashi gomang stupa. The first tashi gomang stupa was commissioned by Jigten Gonpo in Drigung in the first decade of the thirteenth century. The first tashi gomang stupa built in Densatil was for the abbot Dragpa Tsondru, who died in 1267. In the following centuries, only seven I more tashi gomang stupas were built in Densatil: one in the thirteenth century, three in the fourteenth century, and three in the fifteenth century. Such an expensive and complex A work of art was not erected for each of the abbots who died between the thirteenth and fifteenth century. The remains of some abbots were inserted into stupas without a tashi II gomang structure. These stupas were placed next to the tashi wobar stupa of Phagmo Drupa Dorje Gyalpo on the eastern wall of the main hall (figs. 13 and 14). As there were only a total of eight tashi gomang stupas built for Densatil, only eight stylistic groups of Tier 1 tashi gomang fragments from Densatil can exist. Pieces from later than the fifteenth century cannot have come from Densatil. It is possible, however, that post-fifteenth-century Tier 2 tashi gomang stupas could have come from the Drigung Monastery, which continued the tradition of building tashi gomang stupas. For example, Kunga Rinchen (1475–1527), the Tier 3 fifteenth abbot and throne holder of Drigung, built a tashi gomang stupa in the years 1521– 1525; and the twenty-second throne holder, Konchog Rinchen (1590/91–1654), erected Tier 4 one after the year 1651. The architectural design and the iconographic program created by Jigten Gonpo III Tier 5 B became standard for all other stupas of this kind built in Drigung and Densatil. Some new deities were introduced and the number of deities increased for later stupas, but the basic outline remained the same. Certainly, the strong similarity of these stupas indicates that those who commissioned them wished to emphasize that the throne holders in both monasteries were in all respects the true and worthy successors of the celebrated Phagmo Drupa Tier 6 Dorje Gyalpo. The basic structure of a tashi gomang stupa can be described as follows (figs. 18 and 19). A base, called the adamantine ground, provided a foundation for the lowest tier—the Tier of Protectors of the Teachings—and the giant lotus flower that bloomed over the heads of the protectors. The double row of lotus petals served as a distinctive boundary that separated the lower, more worldly deities from the upper esoteric ones. Guardians of the dharma crowded around the rising lotus flower and were each encircled by a large vegetal scroll. They were carefully arranged with respect to the four directions. Pairs of Nagarajas were placed in the four intermediate directions, while pairs consisting of a Mahakala and a Shri Devi were located in the four cardinal directions. Additional dharmapalas were placed between those pairs. Together these represented an impressive circle of powerful guardians to protect the Buddhist teachings and their followers. A magnificent lotus flower rose up from the bottommost tier, or the “pool,” to accommodate 42 CZAJA Front elevation of a tashi gomang stupa (A and B), the six tiers of a tashi gomang structure, and the three main elements of consecration (I, II, and III) (not to scale). The tashi gomang structure (B) had a height of approximately 118 in. (300 cm). The stupa on top ( A) had a height of approximately 47–78 in. (120–200 cm). GOLDEN VISIONS OF DENSATIL 43 Fig. 19 Cross section of the construction of a tashi gomang stupa (not to scale) Fig. 20. A gilt bronze Tibetan altar fragment of the Tier of Buddhas. 14th–15th century. 14 x 32¼ in. (35.5 x 82 cm). Private collection. A C F B D E a structure of different tiers. The tiers were recessed and stepped, accentuating the central axis. They were adorned on all four sides with numerous free-standing deities and panels with deities represented in relief. The deities depicted were arranged according to their sanctity: the higher they were placed on the structure, the higher their religious status. The Tier of Offering Goddesses had a central panel occupied by three female deities flanked on both sides by two groups of four dancing offering goddesses each. A The next tier was known as the Tier of Buddhas, who were the main deities found on this level. Similar to the tier below, the central panel was reserved for the most important B deities. A specific buddha together with his entourage of bodhisattvas were depicted on this tier, in each of the four directions. Each specific buddha was accompanied by other C buddha figures placed in front of panels to its left and right. Many small buddha figures of alternating size executed in relief adorned the panels (fig. 20). D The two tiers above the Tier of Buddhas brought together various Tantric teaching cycles. In most cases, one specific teaching cycle was represented by one panel, but E there were also some highly esoteric mandalas that spread across all five panels, such as F the Vajradhatu mandala and the Guhyasamaja mandala on the eastern face of the stupa. Towards the top, the tiers were completed by a wreath of lotus petals. This formed the outer edge of the topmost platform on which the stupa with the remains of the late abbot was placed. This stupa was surrounded by a number of statues of Indian and Tibetan teachers placed in all directions. Statues of Vajravarahi were mounted at the edges of the platform to appear as if they were hovering in the sky. Furthermore, pillars and columns were placed at the corners of each panel on every tier, supporting the tashi gomang stupa 44 CZAJA A Inner structure architecturally. Trefoil embellishments with heavenly beings carrying offerings were used B Architectural structure as decorative elements. A precious fabric covered with buddha images served as a back C Panel curtain. Finally, a huge parasol, which was adorned with the representation of a mandala D Pillar in half relief, was mounted above the whole tashi gomang stupa. Four guardians of the E Statue at the corner directions stood outside the tashi gomang stupas and were, as one can see in historical F Column photographs, arranged as a group on the eastern side of the structure (figs. 1 and 21). GOLDEN VISIONS OF DENSATIL 45 remnants of a tenon can be found on a fastening slat on the back side of a standing figure of Parnashavari in the collection of Marie José Rossotto d’Harcourt. This would consequently result in an aperture located in the upper part of the lower third of the back panel. Moreover, one finds a mortise as the technical solution used for a free-standing statue like the statue of Manjushri (see cat. no. 32). Perhaps the panel was cast with a tenon or it had an aperture, and both panel and statue were connected by a joint or slat. These are just some possibilities. In addition, Tibetan inscriptions sometimes identify the deity associated with a particular panel or refer to a specific Tibetan letter. For example, one finds the Tibetan name of Avalokiteshvara incised on the above-mentioned panel of this deity. The panel that once belonged to a tier with a representation of the Vajradhatu mandala bears an inscription giving the designation “Vajradhatu” together with “east right first,” indicating the exact mounting location (see cat. no. 29). It is obvious that artists and laborers wanted to ensure a correct and systematic installation of the free-standing figures and panels with this kind of information. Moreover, some panels, statues, and decorative elements have incised Tibetan letters, a method often employed in the Tibetan world to number things consecutively. The location of where these letters were incised varies; sometimes the The exact process of how a tashi gomang stupa was built is unfortunately unknown. There are no sources with detailed information on this process. Zhonnu Pel (1392–1481) reports in his historical work, The Blue Annals, that it was first designed as a wooden model which was later crafted with precious materials. He lived for a time in Densatil and one can assume that he was familiar with its stupas. Indeed, the surviving fragments suggest such a kind of construction. Some of them show holes that most likely were made by nails that originally fixed the metal pieces to the wooden structure from behind. This can be seen, for instance, on the large gilt fragment of a Tier of Buddhas (fig. 20) or the Fig. 21. A tashi gomang stupa at Densatil, 1948, showing the Tier of Buddhas and the Tier of Offering Goddesses behind the guardians of the four directions: Dhritarashtra, Virudhaka, Virupaksha, and Vaishravana. Photograph by Pietro Francesco Mele. letters are found on the front of the pieces, sometimes on the back. An example of this system can be found on one of the architectural embellishments presented in the exhibition. It bears the letter “cha” on the back (see cat. no. 41), the sixth letter of the Tibetan alphabet. Some pillar figures have a letter on the front of the capital, for example the letter “kha,” the second letter of the alphabet, or the letter “pa,” the thirteenth Tibetan letter (see cat. nos. 36 and 37). They were used to determine where exactly a pillar figure should have been placed on a tier (fig. 22). This would have meant that the pillar figure with the letter “kha” was installed on a tier on the eastern side of panel of Avalokiteshvara (see cat. no. 33). The need to secure all pieces to the structure the tashi gomang stupa in the second position from the left, whereas the pillar figure did not just concern panels, but free-standing statues as well. One of the reasons for this bearing the letter “pa” was placed on the southern side of a tier, occupying the first posi- was probably that such a towering, complex, and delicate construction required a firm tion from the left. Panels too can have assembly directions in the form of a Tibetan letter, fitting. Moreover, earthquakes were not unknown on the Tibetan plateau. The securing of as in the case of the panels of offerings goddesses (fig. 23). The order of Tibetan letters free-standing statues was achieved in different ways. One option was to attach a statue to follows the reading direction of Tibetan script—left to right—and continues counterclock- the construction by means of a mortise and tenon joint. Some panels still have a rectangu- wise around each tier. It is likely that the panels were lined up first on the ground in the lar hole positioned in central axis corresponding to the main statue in front. The position correct sequence so that letters could be assigned accordingly before they were attached of this aperture varies; it can be placed in the upper, the middle, or the lower third. The to the tashi gomang stupa. During the subsequent assemblage, one could mount each proper position of the aperture probably depended on the type of statue in front. In each panel in its designated position more efficiently. case it allowed the statue to be attached more firmly by means of a tenon or other similarly functioning device. Remnants of mortise-and-tenon joinery can be found on some The Consecration of a Tashi gomang Stupa statues, which clearly indicates that they were originally connected to a structure such as After a tashi gomang stupa was erected, an elaborate consecration was performed. Today a tashi gomang stupa, because Tibetan statues placed on an altar in a home or a monas- when we are able to appreciate the surviving statues and fragments aesthetically only, this tery do not possess these details. A lotus or lotus throne was a suitable part of a statue for fundamental matter can be easily overlooked. However, the consecration was of utmost such a constructional element, as well as the back side of the deity itself, as exemplified significance, and equally as important as the sculptural organization of the tashi gomang by a statue of Sarvavid Vairochana in the Capital Museum, Beijing. Furthermore, the stupa itself. In fact, the interior of the structure, consisting of religious items inserted 46 CZAJA GOLDEN VISIONS OF DENSATIL 47 Fig. 22 Fig. 23 Distribution of Tibetan letters on pillar figures for each tier. The example below is the Tier of Offering Godesses. Distribution of Tibetan letters on panels for each tier. The example below is the Tier of Offering Goddesses na da tha ka kha ga nga 1 2 3 4 ca cha ja nya 5 6 7 8 ta tha da na 9 10 11 12 pa pha ba ma 13 14 15 16 east ka kha ga nga ca 1 2 3 4 5 cha ja nya ta tha 6 7 8 9 10 da na pa pha ba 11 12 13 14 15 ma tsa tsha dza va 16 17 18 19 20 north pha ja N ba cha ma ca west south ba pha nya north west ta pa east south pa na da ma tha tsa ta tsha nya dza ja cha va ka 48 CZAJA kha ga nga N ka kha ga nga ca GOLDEN VISIONS OF DENSATIL 49 during the consecration ceremony, reveals essential aspects of the underlying religious including the white bones of Gampopa, black hair and white teeth from Phagmo Drupa values for the monastic community and helps us to understand the meaning the tashi Dorje Gyalpo, and certain religious texts with protective charms and spells. Then the gomang stupas held for those who commissioned them. divine palace was filled to the brim with the powder of precious substances like gold, The consecration of the tashi gomang stupa for Phagmo Drupa Dorje Gyalpo com- silver, and beryl; fragrant materials like various types of sandalwood; medicinal ingredi- prised three main elements. The first was the upper part of the stupa that was placed on ents like camphor and saffron; and, finally, auspicious items such as the wood, leaves, and top of the tashi gomang structure. It consisted of the tapered, stylized parasols and the fruit from the Bodhi tree. In a similar manner the parasols of the stupa were made sacred stupa’s finial, which depicted the sun and moon over a lotus bud. The second part was by inserting various holy objects into them, which included personal items and bodily the lower part of the stupa placed on top of the tashi gomang structure, including the relics of the Kagyu masters Marpa, Milarepa, Gampopa, Phagmo Drupa Dorje Gyalpo, dome and its domed base with a double lotus frieze. The last, third part was the tashi and Jigten Gonpo.9 gomang structure itself (fig. 18). For the latter, a complex construction was built: a huge The arrangement of holy objects during the consecration also may be interpreted as sandalwood pillar richly adorned with silk ribbons served as a central axis. It was inserted a political statement. The details above demonstrate the significance of the consecration and fixed into a vajra cross that decorated the foundation made of sandalwood. Similar to of a tashi gomang stupa for the religious and political identities of those who had con- the outer structure, numerous pillars and beams also made of sandalwood and decorated structed it. Furthermore, it also throws light on the technological complexity and religious with various textiles and cloths were set up to form an intricate wooden construction. relevance of the construction of tashi gomang stupas. Undoubtedly, it was a significant A model that resembled a divine palace, square shaped and made of precious materials, event for the monastic community and its related laity. Usually, the cost of erecting the stood in this interior structure. The design, with its many short edges, corresponded to the stupa was distributed among several parties and taken from the income of selected house- outer design of the tashi gomang structure. Built to resemble a seven-storied palace, it holds. Besides funding, another important decision was to determine where the stupa contained three layers of religious items. The first layer comprised footprints of Phagmo should be built. The builders had to take into account particular aspects of geomancy, a Drupa Dorje Gyalpo commissioned in gold, a holy relic that Jigten Gonpo highly vener- complicated and sometimes time-consuming process. Those involved had to refrain at all ated. Wrapped in fine garments and cloths, this item formed the base for a lavishly costs from quarrels and fights during preparation and construction, as it was believed decorated Avalokiteshvara statue that was consecrated one hundred and eight times by that conflict could cause spiritual obstacles to the successful completion of the funeral Phagmo Drupa Dorje Gyalpo himself. According to Sherab Jungne in his description of ceremony for the late abbot. Moreover, disharmony could also damage the spiritual power the consecration, it was believed that the statue possessed magical powers, including and potential of the newly built tashi gomang stupa, a structure that was meant to ensure the ability to cure any disease. In the four directions around this statue, a multitude of prosperity and happiness for the whole community of monks and laypeople in the future. religious manuscripts written by Phagmo Drupa Dorje Gyalpo, Jigten Gonpo, and other Believers expected concrete help and assistance from the guardians of the faith depicted venerated teachers were piled. A large number of other relics and statues were placed on the bottommost tier. The deity Rahu was responsible for rain and the ripening of the on the first level as well, such as bones with a miraculously manifested image of the deity harvest, but could also send hail. Vaishravana promised wealth, and the Nagarajas were Tara; wooden, golden, and silver statues of Tantric deities commissioned in India and associated with both rain and wealth. In addition to these more worldly hopes and fears, Tibet; and woven thangkas from China. Powerfully charged ritual objects, such as vajras the tashi gomang stupa was also important for the inner, spiritual sphere as the entire and bells formerly in the possession of important religious masters, were added. Then a stupa was created as a huge, three-dimensional mandala. collection of Buddha’s words and treatises, beautifully commissioned in gold and wrapped in fine cloth, was stored to the right side of this interior space, while finely executed Tashi gomang Stupa as Mandala Tantras enveloped in delicate textiles were placed to the left. Similarly, the body of the The outline of a mandala is clearly recognizable from the bird’s-eye view of a tashi stupa placed on top of the tashi gomang structure, and its parasols and finial were filled gomang stupa (fig. 24). The circles of vajras and lotuses are evident and one may imagine with holy objects. that the circle of light, which usually forms the outer circle of a mandala, is formed by The upper part of the stupa placed on top of the tashi gomang structure held another butter lamps encircling the tashi gomang stupa. The divine palace is situated at the center model that resembled a divine palace, which was built with precious materials and sealed of these circles, erected on an adamantine cross, called vishvavajra, comprising two with pure resin from a Sal tree. Inside was a smaller model of a multi-storied divine palace crossed vajras. The gates of the divine palace are lined up with each cardinal direction made of copper. The palace was filled with numerous statues, such as a fine statue of and correspond to the central section of each tier of the tashi gomang stupa, as empha- Phagmo Drupa Dorje Gyalpo, together with special seats, elegant parasols, fine clothes, sized by the figural outline. The different tiers or steps seen from above represent stages and exquisite offerings. The center of the palace was occupied by specially blessed relics of the path towards enlightenment—successive teachings, which are sculpturally 50 CZAJA GOLDEN VISIONS OF DENSATIL 51 Fig. 24 Aerial view of a tashi gomang stupa (not to scale) represented by images and symbols. The highest level and center of this mandalic layout was occupied by the stupa of a late abbot. It symbolizes the highest spiritual attainment. Similarly, the spiritual metaphor within the design of a tashi gomang stupa may also have been experienced by a believer who stood in front of such a stupa and presented offerings, or a pilgrim who circumambulated it ritually. He would have been reminded that he was still trapped in the immense ocean of samsara, the endless cycle of birth and death, and would continue to be helplessly tossed hither and thither by the waves of sorrow and uncertainty. Only the dharma, the Buddhist teachings, could provide a precious boat, steered by Buddha, to ferry him across the ocean. Even the powerful guardians of the faith, such as the Nagarajas and others, are still part of this samsaric world. Although they can grant wealth and help eliminate negative influences in his life, they cannot offer enlightenment. Only a true cleansing from the defilements and faults of earthly existence and complete renunciation of the material world—symbolized by the magnificent pure lotus flower that rises from the dirty water of the samsaric ocean—can lead to the path of salvation. Once he has been cleansed from these defilements, he may proceed to the stages that constitute the path towards enlightenment. The steps on this path are ordered in a clear structure in accordance with practice and correspond to the hierarchical arrangement of the four Tantra categories of Kriya, Charya, Yoga, and Anuttarayoga. In each of these levels of Tantric teaching, the visualization of symbolic offerings is important. Imagined by the practitioner, they manifest as lovely goddesses bringing offerings such as perfumed water and fragrant incense. Ritual practices like ablution and fasting, as taught in the Kriya Tantras, are used to ritually purify the body and behavior, and to accumulate merit. This becomes the foundation for further spiritual advancement. Progress is achieved by combining equal parts external ritual practice with inner cultivation of meditative concentration, which is explained in the Charya Tantras. Meditation requires the union of method and wisdom to be effective: method can be understood as the activities performed by a practitioner for himself and, more importantly, for others, in an effort to help them awaken to their own true natures and begin to seek enlightenment. Wisdom is achieved when the mind embraces emptiness and the lack of inherent existence of all phenomena. By shifting the emphasis to inner yogic meditation of method and wisdom as outlined in the Yoga Tantras, an adept strives to realize all aspects of the profound ultimate truth. To proceed on this path towards enlightenment, the Tantric practitioner must accomplish the generation and completion stages by employing specific and advanced meditation techniques and practices as expounded in Anuttarayoga Tantras. Finally, a practitioner can achieve liberation from samsara and attain full enlightenment as symbolized by the stupa on the top of the tashi gomang structure. When an adherent of Buddhist faith saw a tashi gomang stupa, he therefore had a sculptural delineation for the path towards enlightenment right before him, a path outlined by Buddha Shakyamuni on a more fundamental level, when he expounded his insights about the Four Noble Truths and related teachings in his first sermon in the deer park of Sarnath not far from Varanasi. At the same time, the adherent commemorates the late 52 CZAJA GOLDEN VISIONS OF DENSATIL 53 abbot who has attained enlightenment like Buddha and whose cremated remains are passed away and a tashi gomang stupa was erected to commemorate him, Tsongkhapa inside the stupa. The architecture of tashi gomang stupas is highlighted in some early created a sophisticated poem for his beloved teacher. In his fine composition, written at thangkas of the Drigung and Taglung schools; the paintings employ important composi- Densatil, he artfully alludes to the construction of a tashi gomang stupa, by referring, for tional elements of the tashi gomang stupa and transpose them to painted formats (see cat. example, to the individual sections of his poem as tiers. After praising the body of his nos. 46 and 47). At the bottom of these paintings, one can see the crossed double vajra, teacher as similar to Mount Meru, he extols the tashi gomang stupa whose construction symbolizing the adamantine ground. A vase is placed in its center from which a huge lotus he had witnessed: flower grows, similarly identifiable on the frieze of a Shri Devi statue (see cat. no. 15). Vegetal scrolls encircle the dharmapalas on this level. Two Nagarajas raise a wreath of Being surrounded by statues which are beautiful in all ways lotus petals forming the throne of a standing Tantric deity Chakrasamvara with his consort, on all tiers of the sides filling all directions, or of a seated monk. Both Chakrasamvara and the monk have attained the rank of full which are of sparkling luster of a clear brilliance, enlightenment, symbolized in the image of the monk by a rainbow. They therefore repre- these tashi wobar and tashi gomang sent the ultimate truth or reality—the dharmakaya—and are, like the stupa, symbols of the are, in their breath-taking sight, like Buddha Shakyamuni, fully enlightened mind. Similar to the top level of tashi gomang stupas where the stupa is are, in their moving of big waves of blessing, like the ocean, surrounded by important Indian and Tibetan teachers, the central figures of both thangkas are, in their natural brilliance, like the lord of mountains Mount Meru, are surrounded by analogous personalities. It seems that tashi gomang stupas and the as if the builders were piling up one beauty on another, painted thangkas noted above share key elements in composition and intended meaning. like stirring up the bees by a lotus grove and To a certain extent, this type of painting may be regarded as a two-dimensional represen- the hares by white light and tation of a tashi gomang stupa. the mind by a beautiful appearance, Moreover, both sculptural and painted forms allow a monk or a layman to make these grasp the sentient beings’ hearts.10 offerings and to show their devotion, thereby accumulating religious merit. The adherent could also earn merit by circumambulating a single tashi gomang stupa or all the stupas It is evident that a tashi gomang stupa was not a mere receptacle for the remains of housed within the main hall by circling the building on the circumambulatory path outside a deceased abbot, but possessed multiple political, religious, and artistic aspects. Today, its walls. The practice of ritual circumambulation is also an important part of Tibetan at the beginning of the twenty-first century, it seems possible to reveal some of the secrets pilgrimage when pilgrims circle monasteries or holy mountains such as Mount Tsari or of the destroyed tashi gomang stupas that once stood in the Densatil and Drigung monas- Mount Kailash. teries, and bring the historical photos taken by Mele to life again. For the first time, it is Every person who gazed at a towering tashi gomang stupa probably had the impres- possible to identify individual pieces and to determine their original arrangement on a sion of looking upon a huge golden mountain. In fact, stupas are often compared to the tashi gomang stupa. This is an important step, but it is only the beginning. Further studies cosmic Mount Meru and this also applies to a tashi gomang stupa. Tsongkhapa (1357– have to be conducted to fully understand all the aspects of stupas. 1419), the famous founder of the Gelug school, expressed this observation most eloquently This pioneering exhibition at Asia Society Museum, which assembles numerous and poetically. One of his teachers was the Densatil abbot Dragpa Jangchub (1356–1386), statues and panels representing most of the tiers of a tashi gomang stupa, is a major whom he visited to study under him (fig. 25). At that time, the Phagmo Drupa were contribution to our knowledge of Tibetan art in general, and the artistic tradition of tashi important supporters of the emerging movement of the Gelug. When Dragpa Jangchub gomang stupas in particular. For the first time since the destruction of the Densatil Monastery, lost treasures that belonged to a world now long gone have been brought together Fig. 25. Detail of cat. no. 48. Two biographical scenes from the thangka of Tsongkhapa. He was fully ordained in 1381, an event depicted in the lower register. Then he proceeded to Densatil to study under Dragpa Jangchub, as seen in the upper register. 54 CZAJA once more. Even with only fragments to hint at the grandeur of the original tashi gomang stupas, we are excited to catch a compelling glimpse of the truly innovative and masterly artistry that once graced Densatil. GOLDEN VISIONS OF DENSATIL 55 Notes 1. The Phagmo Drupa was both a religious school and a noble house. Members of this noble house became monks and abbots of the Densatil Monastery, while others became secular rulers, and sometimes the abbot and secular ruler were the same person. 2. This type of hut is also depicted in the lower register of some early thangkas commissioned by the Taglung school. 3. Sources speak of two statues of Phagmo Drupa Dorje Gyalpo, about seven hundred books commissioned with golden and silver ink on blue paper, countless volumes of ordinary paper, about fifty pieces of gold and turquoise, sixty bricks of tea, three thousand bales of silk brocade, and one hundred hybrid cattle and horses. 4. At the same time, he gave the order that the valuable books given by Tashi Pel should be transferred to Gampopa’s monastery. 5. Czaja 2010, 2013. Luczanits 2010. 6. His greatest achievement was the establishment of twelve fortified estates protecting Yarlung valley, the heartland of Phagmo Drupa in central Tibet, and adjacent regions to strengthen them economically and politically. 7. It is justified to call him the founder of the Phagmo Drupa dynasty. Even though he came to power as myriarch under very adverse circumstances, he soon developed political ambitions to ensure the supremacy for his noble house in Tibet. He left a Political Testament to his descendants, describing in detail his decades-long struggle towards this end. 8. Similar to the above-mentioned Dorje Pel, he founded fortresses protecting his domain. 9. The inclusion of relics of the Monastery’s succession is interesting as it clearly corresponds to the transmission of religious teachings and, by extension, religious authority. It is evident that the order of religious items follows a distinctive hierarchy. 10. Czaja 2010: 268ff. Descriptions of Densatil Excerpts from the Journals of Sarat Chandra Das and Giuseppe Tucci Adriana Proser Today, with the help of Tibetan texts that date from as early as the first half of the thirteenth century, we are able to envision the Densatil Monastery that stood in central Tibet until the middle of the twentieth century. These writings provide us with both historical and anecdotal information about the Monastery. We are fortunate that a good deal of detail about the iconographic program for the first tashi gomang stupa at Drigung, the likely model for the tashi gomang stupas at Densatil, still exists in the form of inventory charts (Dkar chag) written by Sherab Jungne (1187–1241). Even the contents of the interior of the Densatil Monastery are known to us as a result of an overview written by Chokyi Gyatso (1880– 1923/25). Olaf Czaja has relied on these and other historical sources for the research that informs his enlightening essay in this catalogue. Although there are no extant Tibetan descriptions of the overall impression the Densatil Monastery and the splendor of its main hall made on adherents and visitors, happily we do have passages from the journals of two foreign scholar-explorers who visited Tibet and saw the Monastery before it was destroyed. The first of these scholar-explorers to visit Densatil was Sarat Chandra Das (1849–1917). Born in eastern Bengal, Das studied engineering at the Presidency College in Calcutta. He began to learn the Tibetan language during his appointment as headmaster of Bhutia Boarding School in Darjeeling. By traveling with the school’s Tibetan language teacher, lama Ugyen-gyatso, he was able to obtain permission to enter Tibet and ultimately studied there for six months in 1879. He made a second visit in 1881, also accompanied by Ugyen-gyatso, and stayed for fourteen months. Das became a prolific Tibetan scholar Fig. 26. Photograph of Sarat Chandra Das by S.C. Sen, year unknown 56 CZAJA following this second journey; his accomplishments included the translation of numerous texts from Tibetan to English, writings on Tibet’s pre-Buddhist DESCRIPTIONS OF DENSATIL 57