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Brill’s Encyclopedia of Buddhism Volume II: Lives Editor-in-chief Jonathan A. Silk Editors Richard Bowring Vincent Eltschinger Michael Radich Editorial Advisory Board Lucia Dolce Berthe Jansen John Jorgensen Christian Lammerts Francesco Sferra LEIDEN | BOSTON For use by the Author only | © 2019 Koninklijke Brill NV Contents Prelims Contributors ............................................................................................................................................................. xi Editors and Editorial Board .................................................................................................................................. xxxiii Primary Sources Abbreviations........................................................................................................................... xxxv Books Series and Journals Abbreviations ......................................................................................................... xxxvii General Abbreviations .......................................................................................................................................... xlii Introduction ............................................................................................................................................................. xliv Section One: Śākyamuni: South Asia .......................................................................................................................................... Barlaam and Josaphat ............................................................................................................................................ 3 39 Section Two: South & Southeast Asia: Ajātaśatru .................................................................................................................................................................. Āryadeva.................................................................................................................................................................... Āryaśūra..................................................................................................................................................................... Asaṅga/Maitreya(nātha)....................................................................................................................................... Bhāviveka .................................................................................................................................................................. Brahmā, Śakra, and Māra ...................................................................................................................................... Buddhaghoṣa............................................................................................................................................................ Buddhas of the Past: South Asia ......................................................................................................................... Buddhas of the Past and of the Future: Southeast Asia ............................................................................... Candragomin ........................................................................................................................................................... Candrakīrti................................................................................................................................................................ Ḍākinī ......................................................................................................................................................................... Devadatta .................................................................................................................................................................. Dharmakīrti .............................................................................................................................................................. Dharmapāla .............................................................................................................................................................. Dharmottara............................................................................................................................................................. Dignāga ...................................................................................................................................................................... Early Sarvāstivāda Masters ................................................................................................................................... Gavampati in Southeast Asia ............................................................................................................................... Gopadatta ................................................................................................................................................................. Guṇaprabha.............................................................................................................................................................. Haribhadra................................................................................................................................................................ Haribhaṭṭa ................................................................................................................................................................. Harivarman............................................................................................................................................................... Harṣa .......................................................................................................................................................................... Hayagrīva................................................................................................................................................................... Indian Tantric Authors: Overview ...................................................................................................................... Jñānagarbha ............................................................................................................................................................. Jñānapāda ................................................................................................................................................................. © Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, 2019 Also available online – www.brill.com For use by the Author only | © 2019 Koninklijke Brill NV 51 60 70 73 81 85 92 95 109 121 125 132 141 156 168 173 179 186 191 196 198 204 209 211 214 218 228 261 264 BEB, vol. II vi Contents Jñānaśrīmitra ........................................................................................................................................................... Kamalaśīla ................................................................................................................................................................ Karuṇāmaya ............................................................................................................................................................. Kṣemendra ................................................................................................................................................................ Kumāralāta ............................................................................................................................................................... Mahādeva.................................................................................................................................................................. Maitreya..................................................................................................................................................................... Mārīcī ......................................................................................................................................................................... Mātṛceṭa .................................................................................................................................................................... Nāgārjuna .................................................................................................................................................................. Paccekabuddhas/Pratyekabuddhas in Indic Sources ................................................................................... Phra Malai in Thailand and Southeast Asia..................................................................................................... Prajñākaragupta ...................................................................................................................................................... Ratnākaraśānti......................................................................................................................................................... Ratnakīrti .................................................................................................................................................................. Saṅghabhadra .......................................................................................................................................................... Śaṅkaranandana ..................................................................................................................................................... Śaṅkarasvāmin ........................................................................................................................................................ Śāntarakṣita .............................................................................................................................................................. Śāntideva ................................................................................................................................................................... Sarasvatī/Benzaiten................................................................................................................................................ Śāriputra .................................................................................................................................................................... Scholars of Premodern Pali Buddhism ............................................................................................................. Seers (ṛṣi/isi) and Brāhmaṇas in Southeast Asia ............................................................................................ Siddhas....................................................................................................................................................................... Śrīlāta ......................................................................................................................................................................... Sthiramati ................................................................................................................................................................. Śubhagupta............................................................................................................................................................... Tantric Buddhist Deities in Southeast Asia ..................................................................................................... Thera/Therī in Pali and Southeast Asian Buddhism ..................................................................................... Udbhaṭasiddhasvāmin .......................................................................................................................................... Upagupta ................................................................................................................................................................... Vāgīśvarakīrti ........................................................................................................................................................... Vasubandhu .............................................................................................................................................................. Vināyaka .................................................................................................................................................................... Yama and Hell Beings in Indian Buddhism ..................................................................................................... 269 272 279 286 293 298 302 325 332 335 348 357 363 366 371 374 378 382 383 391 398 409 420 437 443 452 456 458 463 474 479 481 490 492 507 513 East Asia: Ākāśagarbha in East Asia ...................................................................................................................................... Arhats in East Asian Buddhism .......................................................................................................................... Aśvaghoṣa (East Asian Aspects) ......................................................................................................................... Avalokiteśvara in East Asia................................................................................................................................... Dizang/Jizō ............................................................................................................................................................... Jianzhen (Ganjin) ................................................................................................................................................... Mahākāla in East Asia............................................................................................................................................ Mahākāśyapa in Chan-inspired Traditions...................................................................................................... Mañjuśrī in East Asia ............................................................................................................................................. Maudgalyāyana (Mulian)...................................................................................................................................... Musang (Wuxiang) ................................................................................................................................................. Tejaprabhā ................................................................................................................................................................ Yinyuan Longqi (Ingen) ........................................................................................................................................ For use by the Author only | © 2019 Koninklijke Brill NV 521 529 540 546 562 571 576 586 591 600 608 612 616 Contents vii China: Amoghavajra ............................................................................................................................................................ An Shigao .................................................................................................................................................................. Chengguan ................................................................................................................................................................ Daoxuan .................................................................................................................................................................... Falin ............................................................................................................................................................................ Faxian ......................................................................................................................................................................... Fazun .......................................................................................................................................................................... Hanshan Deqing ..................................................................................................................................................... Hongzhi Zhengjue .................................................................................................................................................. Huihong (see Juefan Huihong) Huineng (see Shenxiu) Huiyuan (see Lushan Huiyuan) Jigong.......................................................................................................................................................................... Juefan Huihong ....................................................................................................................................................... Liang Wudi................................................................................................................................................................ Lokakṣema ................................................................................................................................................................ Luo Qing .................................................................................................................................................................... Lushan Huiyuan ...................................................................................................................................................... Mazu Daoyi............................................................................................................................................................... Mingben (see Zhongfeng Mingben) Nāgārjuna in China ................................................................................................................................................ Nenghai...................................................................................................................................................................... Ouyang Jingwu ........................................................................................................................................................ Ouyi Zhixu ................................................................................................................................................................ Paramārtha ............................................................................................................................................................... Qian Qianyi............................................................................................................................................................... Qisong ........................................................................................................................................................................ Shenhui (see Shenxiu) Shenxiu, Huineng, and Shenhui ......................................................................................................................... Śubhākarasiṃha...................................................................................................................................................... Wumen ...................................................................................................................................................................... Wuxiang (see East Asia: Musang) Wuzhu ........................................................................................................................................................................ Xiao Ziliang............................................................................................................................................................... Yinshun...................................................................................................................................................................... Yixing ......................................................................................................................................................................... Yuan Hongdao ......................................................................................................................................................... Yuanwu Keqin .......................................................................................................................................................... Zhanran ..................................................................................................................................................................... Zhi Qian ..................................................................................................................................................................... Zhili............................................................................................................................................................................. Zhixu (see Ouyang Zhixu) Zhiyi............................................................................................................................................................................ Zhongfeng Mingben............................................................................................................................................... Zhuhong .................................................................................................................................................................... 623 630 642 648 653 657 662 668 673 679 684 689 700 707 711 722 727 735 741 748 752 759 764 768 777 782 787 791 795 800 806 810 814 818 826 833 839 844 Korea: Chinul......................................................................................................................................................................... Hyujŏng ..................................................................................................................................................................... Ich’adon ..................................................................................................................................................................... For use by the Author only | © 2019 Koninklijke Brill NV 853 860 864 viii Contents Kihwa ......................................................................................................................................................................... Kim Sisŭp .................................................................................................................................................................. Kyŏnghŏ..................................................................................................................................................................... Kyunyŏ ....................................................................................................................................................................... Muhak Chach’o ........................................................................................................................................................ Musang (see East Asia) Pou .............................................................................................................................................................................. Tosŏn .......................................................................................................................................................................... Ŭich’ŏn ....................................................................................................................................................................... Ŭisang ........................................................................................................................................................................ Wŏnch’ŭk .................................................................................................................................................................. Wŏnhyo...................................................................................................................................................................... Yi Nŭnghwa .............................................................................................................................................................. 869 873 877 882 887 891 895 900 903 908 913 918 Japan: Amaterasu Ōmikami .............................................................................................................................................. Annen......................................................................................................................................................................... Benzaiten (see South and Southeast Asia: Sarasvatī) Dōgen ......................................................................................................................................................................... Dōhan......................................................................................................................................................................... Eisai (see Yōsai) Eison ........................................................................................................................................................................... En no Gyōja .............................................................................................................................................................. Enchin ........................................................................................................................................................................ Ennin .......................................................................................................................................................................... Ganjin (see East Asia: Jianzhen) Genshin ..................................................................................................................................................................... Hachiman ................................................................................................................................................................. Hakuin ....................................................................................................................................................................... Hōnen ........................................................................................................................................................................ Ikkyū Sōjun ............................................................................................................................................................... Ingen (see East Asia: Yinyuan Longqi) Ippen Chishin .......................................................................................................................................................... Jakushō ...................................................................................................................................................................... Jiun Sonja .................................................................................................................................................................. Jizō (see East Asia: Dizang) Jōjin............................................................................................................................................................................. Jōkei ............................................................................................................................................................................ Kakuban .................................................................................................................................................................... Keizan Jōkin ............................................................................................................................................................. Kōmyō ........................................................................................................................................................................ Kūkai .......................................................................................................................................................................... Kūya ............................................................................................................................................................................ Menzan Zuihō ......................................................................................................................................................... Monkan ..................................................................................................................................................................... Mugai Nyodai ........................................................................................................................................................... Mujaku Dōchū ......................................................................................................................................................... Musō Soseki .............................................................................................................................................................. Myōe ........................................................................................................................................................................... Nichiren ..................................................................................................................................................................... Nōnin.......................................................................................................................................................................... For use by the Author only | © 2019 Koninklijke Brill NV 923 930 933 941 944 951 956 961 967 971 976 980 987 991 995 998 1002 1006 1011 1016 1020 1026 1036 1041 1047 1057 1062 1066 1071 1076 1088 Contents Raiyu........................................................................................................................................................................... Ryōgen........................................................................................................................................................................ Saichō ......................................................................................................................................................................... Saigyō ......................................................................................................................................................................... Shinran....................................................................................................................................................................... Shōtoku Taishi ......................................................................................................................................................... Tenjin ......................................................................................................................................................................... Tenkai ......................................................................................................................................................................... Yōsai/Eisai ................................................................................................................................................................. Zaō .............................................................................................................................................................................. ix 1094 1097 1102 1107 1111 1117 1122 1128 1134 1139 Tibetan Cultural Sphere Atiśa and the Bka’ gdams pa Masters ................................................................................................................ Ge sar of Gling ......................................................................................................................................................... Gter ston: Tibetan Buddhist Treasure Revealers ............................................................................................. Gtsang smyon Heruka ........................................................................................................................................... Lcang skya Rol pa’i Rdo rje ................................................................................................................................... Mi la ras pa................................................................................................................................................................ The Mongolian Jebdzundamba Khutugtu Lineage ....................................................................................... Padmasambhava in Tibetan Buddhism ............................................................................................................ The Sa skya School’s Five Forefathers................................................................................................................ Spirits of the Soil, Land, and Locality in Tibet ................................................................................................ Ston pa Gshen rab: The Bön Buddha ................................................................................................................. Tibet's Crazy Yogins ................................................................................................................................................ Tsong kha pa and his Immediate Successors .................................................................................................. Worldly Protector Deities in Tibet ..................................................................................................................... 1145 1159 1165 1171 1175 1181 1191 1197 1213 1226 1233 1239 1246 1254 Appendix To Volume I: Buddhist Narrative Literature in Japan ............................................................................................................. Poetry: Japan ............................................................................................................................................................ Korean Sŏn Literature............................................................................................................................................ For use by the Author only | © 2019 Koninklijke Brill NV 1269 1286 1294 Gter ston: Tibetan Buddhist Treasure Revealers The Tibetan gter ma (treasure) tradition is primarily, but not exclusively, associated with the Buddhist Rnying ma school. The practice is also a central feature of the Tibetan Bon tradition which possibly has earlier precedents (Achard, 2004, 2008; Kvaerne, 1997; Martin, 2001). Legendary accounts drawn from the hagiographies (rnam thar) of gter ston (treasure revealers) relate that they receive an inventory, sometimes from a mythical figure, deity, or protector of the treasure. Such scrolls present instructions on where to find gter ma (→BEB I: Gter ma) and, if needed, a key to unlock those encoded in magical language or symbols. Treasure revealers are marked early on in their lives as unique, often as child prodigies with an uncommon affinity for dharma teachings. At some point in their childhood or early teens, they experience magical visions which guide them towards their gter ma lists. If the conditions are right and auspicious, they can proceed to discover caches of both tangible sacred objects as well as vast visionary cycles of practices and teachings. Revealing gter ma is often contingent upon the support of a gsang yum (spiritual consort) whose presence catalyzes the process. There is ongoing contestation surrounding whether gter ma texts represent the authentic words of the Buddha or are merely creative apocrypha (Doctor, 2005; Germano, 2002). The primary intention of the gter ma tradition is to bring forth relevant sacred teachings or objects according to specific needs, times, and situations. Treasure revealers are paradoxically both innovators and traditionalists; they modernize and yet are also crucial links to the earlier figures of imperial Tibet (Hall, 2012, 196–201; Mayer, 2015). The 8th-century mahāsiddha →Padmasambhava is at the heart of this visionary tradition within the Rnying ma school. He functions as a bridge between teachings transmitted to him – from a primordial buddha – which he then teaches verbally to his disciples and then conceals to be revealed at a later auspicious time. The Role of the Gter ston and the Purpose of Their Myths and Legends A gter ston’s role is to act as an intercessor on behalf of sentient beings, creating a direct link with past Buddhist figures of importance. The authority to access a revelatory cache as well as reanthologize and develop preexisting material derives from this connection. The purpose of gter ma is as a means to maintain Buddhist doctrine and to ensure that the blessings and instructions of the faith do not fade. Additionally, of prime concern to a gter ston are the concomitant circumstances required for gter ma to emerge. Without the necessary conditions, gter ma cannot issue forth. Further, although gter ma is conservative regarding its content, the method by which new texts, practices, and rituals emerge can be considered innovation, in the sense that they introduce new material and rearrange material in a new way. The hagiographies of gter ston tend to be somewhat formulaic, beginning with conception and birth accompanied by miraculous signs such as flowers falling from the sky, multitudes of rainbows appearing, and similar kinds of marvelous demonstrations. The lifestory of a gter ston encompasses all aspects of their liberation and presents a spiritual “map” to enlightenment. Historical events are not considered relevant unless they highlight a spiritual process or serve as religious allegory. There are aspects of these legendary accounts which naturally invite skepticism from a conventional viewpoint; for example, epiphanic visions, lifespans which far exceed the life expectancy of an average human, descriptions of logic defying miraculous occurrences, and encounters with magical beings. These stories can prove elusive when it comes to determining whether they represent “history” and are better understood via a complementarity of emic and etic approaches. Gradually, contemporary scholarship is becoming more expansive when considering these “transhistorical” accounts. (Achard, 2008, 15). The myths and legends of gter ston function as instructional and inspirational devices invoking outer, inner, and secret (phyi, nang, and gsang) Buddhist concepts and teachings, comprehended on multiple levels, dependent upon the spiritual propensities, qualities, and accomplishments of the reader. Often in hagiographies, personal relationships are less meaningful than spiritual authority. Throughout the narrative accounts of gter ston, Padmasambhava and various Buddhist figures and deities © Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, 2019 Also available online – www.brill.com For use by the Author only | © 2019 Koninklijke Brill NV BEB, vol. II 1166 Gter ston: Tibetan Buddhist Treasure Revealers appear in visions to issue teachings or directives. In these stories, gter stons often experience extreme difficulties. They may be met with scorn or disbelief by their families and their broader community, they can suffer many trials and tribulations during their lives and in the process of revealing gter ma. A notable example is in the biography of the 17th-century gter ston associated with the Dpal yul Rnying ma sect, Gnam chos Mi ’gyur rdo rje (1645– 1667) who began revealing gter ma at the age of 13 and tragically died in his early twenties. Accounts from his outer biography, Sprul sku mi ’gyur rdo rje’i rnam thar kun khyab snyan pa’i ’brug sgra, relayed by his teacher the renowned Bka’ brgyud scholar Karma chags med, (1613–1678) describe obstacles the young man experienced, including epileptic fits, skin diseases, and falling into comatose states for days on end (BDRC W21578, 10: 169.6–191.4; Sonam & Amtzis, 2008, 71–81; Hall, 2007, 25). The legends of treasure revealers include accounts of waking up from dreams holding texts that disappear once they are read, reaching into rock faces to draw out ritual items, texts, and religious statues, and meeting with →ḍākinī (mercurial beings who ameliorate spiritual practice). Often a gter ston’s biography will feature a prophecy (lung bstan) issued from Padmasambhava predicting the subject’s divine birth and describing signs which indicate the treasure revealer’s special powers. Prophecies are a form of legitimizing device utilized to show that gter ma texts are not authored by the discoverer, but formulated by Padmasambhava in the past, proving that the discoverer is, in fact, the designated person to reveal the treasure. Gter ma is also legitimized by the spiritual powers of the gter ston, evident in these biographical and sometimes autobiographical details of the individual discoverers’ visionary gter ma adventures (Gyatso, 1993, 97–134). Significant Figures of the Tibetan Buddhist Treasure Tradition There are numerous accounts of gter ston ranging from lesser known figures to those of critical importance to the culture found in all the primary schools of Tibetan Buddhism. A famous collection of gter ston biographies complied by ’Jam mgon kong sprul blo gros mtha’ yas (1813–1899) the Gter ston brgya rtsa’i rnam thar found in the Rin chen gter mdzod chen mo (BDRC W1KG14, 1: 341–765; W20539) contains myths and legends surrounding some key gter ston, including the five kingly treasure revealers (gter ston rygal po lnga). Nyang ral Nyi ma ’od zer (1136–1204 or 1124–1192) First of the five kingly treasure revealers and considered to be a physical emanation of Padmasambhava, Nyang ral Nyi ma ’od zer was born in the southern Tibetan region of Lho ’brag. According to hagiographic accounts (in the Rin chen gter mdzod chen mo, BDRC W1KG14 1: 427–433; Dudjom et al., 2002, 755–759), he learned to read at a very young age and was able to memorize many advanced teachings and practices, and experienced auspicious dreams and visions from a young age, most significantly of Padmasambhava, who confirmed his identity and destiny as a gter ston. He is said to have first remembered sequences of past lives beginning with the 8th-century Tibetan king Khri srong lde btsan, (c. 742–800). He constructed a small hermitage in Lho ’brag and remained there, eventually encountering in a vision a mysterious yogic figure, who provided him with an inventory of treasures to be revealed. Determining that this was an emanation of Padmasambhava, he understood the list to refer to a rock formation close to his hermitage. There he recovered his first significant treasure cache from a hidden cave. He found several essential cycles later known as the Ma ṇi bka’ ’bum. This collection includes foundational narratives for Tibetan myths, establishing Avalokiteśvara as the patron bodhisattva of Tibet, promoting his cult and the practice of the six-syllable mantra oṃ maṇipadme hūṃ (Kapstein, 1992). He is best known for revealing the Bka’ thang zangs gling ma (BDRC W4CZ20868; Hirshberg, 2016), a primary hagiography of Padmasambhava which introduces foundational narratives of his conversion of Tibet in the 8th century. Nyang ral Nyi ma ’od zer also revealed the Bka’ brgyad bde gshegs ’dus pa (in BDRC W1KG14, 14: 393–1043; W22247). Chos kyi dbang phyug, also known as Gu ru chos dbang (1212–1270) The second of the five kingly treasure revealers, Chos kyi dbang phyug or Gu ru chos dbang, was born in Lho ’brag and was considered a speech emanation of Padmasambhava, that is, a reincarnation of one of three aspects of the primal Padmasambhava (the others being his body and mind). Biographical For use by the Author only | © 2019 Koninklijke Brill NV Gter ston: Tibetan Buddhist Treasure Revealers accounts (in BDRC W1KG14. 1: 436–442; W23802, 1. 65–151; Dudjom et al., 2002, 760–770) state that he was a precocious child, who learned to read and write at an early age and displayed immense knowledge of texts, practices, astrology, and divination. His career as a treasure revealer began at the age of 13 when he came into possession of a treasure inventory that was supposedly so dangerous that other ‘false’ treasure revealers had nearly died trying to follow it. His father hid the list from him, but when he was 22, he retrieved it and, with a further, supplementary inventory, followed it to reveal a vast trove of treasure texts and objects. Chos kyi dbang phyug was an early chronicler and eloquent defender of the treasure tradition, which enabled the practice of treasure revelation to become widely accepted (BDRC W23802, 2:75–193; Gyatso, 1994, 275–287). His spiritual consort was Jo mo sman mo (13th cent.), herself a gter ston (in the Rin chen gter mdzod chen mo, BDRC W1KG14. 1: 538–543). He revealed 18 troves of earth treasures (sa gter) as well as scriptural cycles. Among the most influential is the treasure cycle of Padmasambhava called the Bla ma gsang ’dus (in BDRC W1KG14. 6: 17–170). Rig ’dzin Rgod ldem dngos grub rgyal mtshan (1337–1408) Also known as Rgod kyi ldem ’phru can, Rig ’dzin Rgod ldem dngos grub rgyal mtshan is considered a mind emanation of Padmasambhava, and known as the progenitor of the northern treasure (byang gter) tradition, in contrast to the southern treasure (lho gter) tradition of Nyang ral nyi ma ’od zer and Gu ru chos dbang. Like other gter ston, he demonstrated impressive understanding and practice of the Buddhist teachings from a very early age. According to legendary accounts (in BDRC W1KG14. 1: 561– 564; W27866. 1: 53–152; Dudjom et al., 2002, 780–783; Herweg, 1994), when he was around 12 years old, three growths appeared on the top of his head; by the time he was 23, there were five of them. These growths had the appearance of vulture feathers, and after that, he gained his name “the one with vulture’s feathers” (rgod kyi ldem ’phru can). The story of the revelations of the northern treasure is detailed and elaborate, involving the discovery, in a mountain cave, of a richly decorated casket guarded by a blue and yellow serpent. With elaborate decorations on each side corresponding to the cardinal directions, this gter ston opened the various sides of the casket to expose a vast cache of revelatory 1167 material (BDRC W27866, 1: 84–90). Included in this cache were numerous gter ma including texts of the primary Rdzogs chen teachings of the northern treasure tradition, as well as scripts relating to the wrathful Vajrakīla practice (Boord, 2013). He organized the folios of these teachings and then taught them to his close students. He also revealed guide books (gnas yig) to various hidden lands (sbas yul) located along the shifting borderlands of Tibet (BDRC W00KG01; Ehrhard, 1999). He eventually settled in Sikkim in 1373, and is said to have performed several miracles there. He passed away at the age of 71 in 1408. Rdo rje gling pa (1346–1406?) Third of the five kingly treasure revealers, Rdo rje gling pa was born in 1346 in Grwa nang dben rtsa. At the age of 15, he disclosed a large number of caches including the Bla ma bka’ ’dus (in BDRC T1117: 14, 279–316). By the age of 20, he had revealed many treasure teachings. He seems to have originated the practice of khrom gter, public revelation of treasures in front of many witnesses. He was a wild figure, considered mad by some, and spent three years in the southern ‘barbaric’ regions of the Tibetan borderlands revealing treasures and giving teachings. He passed away at the age of 60, and his corpse is said to have remained without decomposing for three years (in BDRC W1KG14. 1: 486–491; Dudjom et al., 2002, 789–792; Karmay, 2000). Pad ma gling pa (1450–1521) The fourth of the five kingly treasure revealers, Pad ma gling pa was born in the Bhutanese area of Bum thang. While still young, he was sent to live with his grandfather, a blacksmith. At the age of nine, he began to apprentice with him, and he continued to fashion items out of iron throughout his life. According to biographic accounts (in BDRC W1KG14. 1: 497–501; W20827, 1:466–470; Aris, 1989; Dudjom et al., 2002, 796–800; Harding, 2005; Tshewang, 1995) as a child, he would pretend to be seated on a throne, giving initiations and teachings, and performing ritual dances. In his twenties, he had a critical, visionary experience. Having fallen asleep, a voice awakened him, and a scruffy monk appeared, gave him a scroll, and then disappeared. The paper instructed him to gather five friends and go to Sna ring brag on a full moon to reveal gter ma. The manuscript contained a code to unlock the treasure. He followed the instructions, and together For use by the Author only | © 2019 Koninklijke Brill NV 1168 Gter ston: Tibetan Buddhist Treasure Revealers with his five companions, went to the prophesied site on the allotted night. Then, naked, he dove into the small lake and swam to an underwater cave containing a throne and a stack of texts. He was given one document by the guardian of the cave, and was propelled upward to the surface. No one could read it, but using the code from the scruffy monk’s scroll, he understood that the text was called Klong gsal gsang ba snying bcud (BDRC W26042). Having decoded the entire treasure, Pad ma gling pa offered the teachings publically. Later, he had to prove himself to skeptics by diving once more into the lake holding a burning butter lamp, which he claimed would continue to burn when he returned with more treasure. He resurfaced holding a small box, sculpture, and the still burning butter lamp (BDRC W1KG14. 1: 497.6–498.6). Many additional gter ma revelations followed, but despite his discoveries, he was considered a controversial figure (see esp. Aris, 1989). ’Jigs med gling pa (1729–1798) ’Jigs med gling pa was born in the Yarlung Valley. According to hagiographical and autobiographical accounts (in BDRC W1KG14. 1:736–744; Dudjom et al., 2002, 835–841; Goodman, 1992; Gyatso, 1999), when he was 28, he entered a three-year retreat during which he had many visionary experiences, most famously one in where he found himself at the great stūpa in Boudhanath, Nepal. In this vision, a ḍākinī gave him the legendary Rdzogs chen mind treasure Klong chen snying thig (BDRC W21024). According the secret autobiographical account of this vision, the Rtogs pa brjod pa ḍākki’i gsang gtam chen mo, ’Jigs med gling pa recounts that the ḍākinī demanded that he eat the texts, which he did, swallowing them whole so as not to destroy them (in the Klong chen snying thig, BDRC W1KG1358, 1: 5–17) Between 1794 and 1798, ’Jigs med gling pa oversaw the printing of an edition of the Rnying ma rgyud ’bum a compilation of all Rnying ma tantras, in 28 volumes. He passed away in 1798, at the age of 69. ’Jam dbyangs Mkhyen brtse’i dbang po (1820–1892) ’Jam dbyangs Mkhyen brtse’i dbang po was born in 1820, in the village of Dil mgo in Eastern Tibet. As a young boy, he visited Rdzong sar dgon, an ancient Sa skya monastery where his family had connections. Later he came to be identified as the mind incarnation of ’Jigs med gling pa. He is famous for having studied with many of the leading lamas of his time, and in particular for his collaboration with ’Jam mgon kong sprul blo gros mtha’ yas (1813–1899), and Mchog gyur gling pa (1829–1870). ’Jam dbyangs Mkhyen brtse’i dbang po embodied a ris med (nonsectarian) ideal of appreciating and exploring multiple traditions of Buddhism in Tibet. Due to his prodigious treasure revealing activity, ’Jam mgon kong sprul counted him as the last in the group of five kingly treasure revealers. In 1892, ’Jam mgon kong sprul conducted the funeral of ’Jam dbyangs Mkhyen brtse’i dbang po, washing his body and preparing it for cremation (in BDRC W1KG14. 1: 676–693; Dudjom etal., 2002, 849–858). Contemporary Gter ston The reemergence of gter ma revelation in Eastern Tibet in the 20th century demonstrates that these modern visionary revelations are a means to reestablish ritual authority, codify new identities, and encourage the continuation of ancient Tibetan religious narrative. Gter ston activity in present day Eastern Tibet shows the continuity of an unbroken chain of transmission, via a fluid and adaptable method (Germano, 1998; Terrone, 2009; Gayley, 2016). Padmasambhava and other imperial Tibetan figures are a critical link in the transmission of treasure teachings; they are also part of the authoritative pantheon conferring legitimacy on the discoverer’s revelation. Drawing upon that previous material provides a distinct link to imperial figures of the past as well as ensuring that the teachings are regularly updated and refreshed. This connection to the past has played a significant role in the comprehensive revitalization of the gter ma tradition in Eastern Tibet and plays an integral part in the understanding of national pride and associations with an idealized Tibetan past. Significant 19th- and 20th-century gter ston include Bdud ’joms gling pa (1835–1904; BDRC W20534; W20534; W20205; Lingpa, 2011) and his successive incarnation, Bdud ’joms ’jigs bral ye shes rdo rje (1904–1987; BDRC W8LS20851; W29259; Dongyal, 2008). Another important figure was Mkhan po ’Jigs med phun tshogs (1933–2004; BDRC W1PD76232; Germano, 1998). Prominent female gter ston of this era include Se ra mkha’ ’gro kun bzang bde skyong dbang mo (1892–1940; BDRC W3JT13368; Jacoby, 2014) and Ta re lha mo gnam mkha’i bu mo (1938– 2003; Gayley, 2016). Gter ston active in western For use by the Author only | © 2019 Koninklijke Brill NV Gter ston: Tibetan Buddhist Treasure Revealers cultures include Chögyam Trungpa (1939–1987; Trungpa, 2000; Midal, 2005); ’O rgyan sku gsum gling pa (1934–2009), Kun bzang bde chen gling pa (1928–2006; Hall, 2012), and Chos rgyal gnam mkha’i nor bu (1938–). Yet to emerge is any particularly credible nonTibetan or Himalayan gter ston. Despite the fact that reincarnate Tibetan Buddhist figures from a variety of countries around the globe are increasingly common, it may be some time before they begin to reveal widely accepted articulations of gter ma. As much as there may be a resistance, it is probable that at some point in the future, there will be the recognition of non-Tibetan reincarnations of treasure revealers who will eventually reveal mind treasure (dgongs gter) and pure vision (dag snang) in other parts of the world. 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