PANDANUS ’13/1 Nature in Literature, Art, Myth and Ritual PANDANUS ’13/1 Nature in Literature, Art, Myth and Ritual Volume 7, No. 1 Special Issue to Commemorate the 150th Anniversary of the Birth of Moriz Winternitz (December 23, 1863–January 9, 1937) Publication of Charles University in Prague, Philosophical Faculty Institute of South and Central Asia, Seminar of Indian Studies Prague 2013 ISSN 1802-7997 his journal is published as a part of the Programme for the Development of Fields of Study at Charles University, Oriental and African Studies, sub-programme “he process of transformation in the language and cultural diferentness of the countries of South and Central Asia”, a project of the Philosophical Faculty, Charles University in Prague. Pandanus ’13: Nature in Literature, Art, Myth and Ritual Volume 7, No. 1 (2013) © Editor-in-chief Editor-in-chief: Jaroslav Vacek Deputy Editor: Martin Hříbek Members of the Editorial Board: Giuliano Boccali (University of Milano, Italy) Alexander Dubianski (University of Moscow, Russia) Daniele Feller (University of Lausanne, Switzerland) Adalbert J. Gail (Freie Universität, Berlin, Germany) Oldřich Král (Charles University in Prague, Czech Republic) Dagmar Marková (Prague, Czech Republic) Cinzia Pieruccini (University of Milano, Italy) Tiziana Pontillo (University of Cagliari, Italy) Chettiarthodi Rajendran (University of Calicut, Kerala, India, rtd) Danuta Stasik (University of Warsaw, Poland) Lidia Sudyka (Jagiellonian University of Krakow, Poland) Anna Trynkowska (University of Warsaw, Poland) Eva Wilden (EFEO, Paris, France) Gyula Wojtilla (University of Szeged, Hungary) Reviewed by Prof. Daniela Rossella (University of Potenza, Italy) and Prof. Gyula Wojtilla (Univeristy of Szeged, Hungary) English correction: Dr. Mark Corner (HUB University, Brussels, Belgium) Institute of South and Central Asia, Seminar of Indian Studies Philosophical Faculty, Charles University in Prague Celetná 20, 116 42 Praha 1, Czech Republic, http://iu.f.cuni.cz Publisher: Stanislav Juhaňák – TRITON http://www.triton-books.cz, Vykáňská 5, 100 00 Praha 10, IČ 18433499 Cover Renata Brtnická Typeset Studio Marvil Printed by Sprint Publication periodicity: twice a year Registration number of MK ČR E 17677 ISSN 1802-7997 Contents Address of His Excellency Mr. V. Ashok, Ambassador of India in Prague . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Address of Prof. MUDr. Jan Škrha, DrSc., MBA, Vice-Rector, Charles University . . . . 9 Adalbert J. Gail: Moriz Winternitz – Indian literature spreads from Prague to the world . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Edeltraud Harzer: Moriz Winternitz as the father of the critical edition of the Mahābhārata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Danielle Feller: Ecology in the Mahābhārata? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 Moreno Dore, Tiziana Pontillo: What do Vrātyas have to do with longstalked plants? Darbha, kuśa, śara and iṣīkā in Vedic and Classical sources . . . . . . . . . 35 Chettiarthodi Rajendran: Untimely spring: Forbidden emotions in Kumārasambhava . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 Hermina Cielas: he eight-petalled lotus lower pattern in Sanskrit igurative poetry. A study. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 Lidia Sudyka: he git-of-the-body motif in South Indian narrative tradition and art. he Śibi legend in Andhra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 Edeltraud Harzer: Nature images in Umāpatidhara’s poetry. A stone inscription of late classical Sanskrit poetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 Ewa Dębicka-Borek: Born in the mountains, living in a forest. Some remarks on Narasiṃha in Andhra with special reference to Ahobilam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 Adalbert J. Gail: Hayagrīva or the making of an avatāra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 Reviews and Reports. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 Signless Signiication in Ancient India and Beyond. Ed. by Tiziana Pontillo & Maria Piera Candotti. Anthem Press, London, New York 2013 – Reviewed by Moreno Dore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 Frank KöHLER, 2011, Kaví im Ṛgveda. Dichtung, Ritual und Schöpfung im frühvedischen Denken. Shaker Verlag, Aachen – Reviewed by Jaroslav Vacek . . 166 DevADAttīyAM. Johannes Bronkhorst Felicitation volume. Ed. by François Voegeli, Vincent Eltschinger, Danielle Feller, Maria Piera Candotti, Bogdan Diaconescu & Malhar Kulkarni. PETER LANG, Bern, Berlin 2012 – Annotated by Jaroslav Vacek . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 Hayagrīva or the making of an avatāra Adalbert J. Gail, Freie Universität Berlin SUMMARY: he origin of the Hayagrīvāvatāra can be found in the idea of the submarine ire. he Mahābhārata, Śāntiparvan 335, seems to be the oldest text that turns Viṣṇu into that horse-headed igure destined to save the Vedas from the demons Madhu and Kaiṭabha. he Viṣṇudharmottara I,32 adds important hydrological observations. he Bhāgavata II,7,11 goes a step further and declares the avatāra Viṣṇu-Hayagrīva (replacing Brahmā) as the creator of the Vedas. Although Viṣṇu-Hayagrīva was already depicted in the Kuṣāṇa period (2nd/3rd century AD), he was not accepted as one of the ten basic avatāras. Images of Hayagrīva are comparatively rare. In many regions of India they seem to be missing completely. he main area of Hayagrīva worship appears to be Karnataka. he sun is a form of the ire god Agni, the most important deity of the Ṛgveda. As can be daily observed, the sun is born from the waters (Fig. 1). his visual fact may well be the reason that Agni is also adressed as Apām Napāt, child of the waters, in the Ṛgveda. Hymn II, 35, 3 says that the rivers ill the common ocean (see below). he post-Vedic commentator Sāyaṇa (14th century AD), commenting on that verse, makes use of a later idea that is nowhere alluded to in the original Ṛgvedic text. He mentions the head of a mare (vaḍavā) located amidst the waters and producing ire that drinks the waters of the ocean.1 here is neither the space nor the need to provide here an elaborate historical sequence of all the texts that might have contributed to the development of the Hayagrīva avatāra of Viṣṇu. So I will conine myself to the most decisive steps.2 he Ādiparvan of the Mahābhārata connects the origin of that ire with the ṛṣi Aurva, a member of the clan of the Bhārgava Brahmins, in the 1 2 I think that the emission of ire and the process of drinking is the same act. See Gail 1977, p. 72. A more elaborate version of the epic-Purāṇic textual history was provided by me earlier (Gail 1977, pp. 70–72); a survey of most textual sources can be found in Nayar 2004. 140 PANDANUS ’13/1 Aurvopākhyāna (169–172). he plot of the narrative concerns Aurva’s ire of wrath (krodhāgni) that he throws into the ocean. Here it becomes a horse’s head that drinks water by emitting ire. A Purāṇic version of that story presupposes a mare-headed ire in the ocean to which Aurva should resort following Brahmā’s order.3 he Mahābhārata (MBh) joins the horse-head with explicit Vaiṣṇava mythology. Mbh XII, 335 reports that the demons Madhu and Kaiṭabha had stolen the Vedas that had been created by Brahmā. he creator god is helpless and asks for assistance against the demons from Viṣṇu. Viṣṇu fashions a horse-head that brings him into the subterranean world. here he liberates the Vedas and returns them to Brahmā. He transfers the horsehead to the northeastern ocean and kills Madhu and Kaiṭabha. Tripathi thinks “that Hayagrīva here is not an i n c a r n a t i o n of Viṣṇu” (1979– 1983, p. 497). he question, however, is whether incarnation is an applicable term at all (see below).4 A more detailed account about the ocean-ire gives the ViṣṇudharmottaraPurāṇa (Vdh) I,32, a chapter from which I quote the most signiicant point in connection with Viṣṇu.5 Aurva’s krodhāgni is entered by Viṣṇu as a marefaced igure (vaḍavā-vaktra). Beginning with the month of caitra (March/ April) this ire drinks for eight months water from the ocean. Later, in the cold season, the wind blows for four months, i.e. from the middle of November to the middle of March. he wind produces snow that it throws on the Himālaya. Obviously the verses of the Vdh try to explain two hydrological phenomena: 1. the fact that the level of the ocean remains equal although being permanently illed with the waters of rivers, 2. the origin of the Himalayan snow. 3 4 5 For the references in Harivaṃśa, Matsya- and Padmapurāṇa see Gail 1977, p. 73. He does not discuss the topic of the submarine ire. he origin of the ‘submarine mareire – Aurva’ is analysed by Doniger O’Flaherty (1980, pp. 226–233). he same author studies the submarine mare, particularly in connection with Śiva (Doniger O’Flaherty 1971). – I owe these references to Cinzia Pieruccini. See also Gail 1977, pp. 70–72, an analysis of Vdh I,32. Hayagrīva or the making of an avatāra 141 For our basic question – the origin of the aśvamukha-avatāra – this text, following Mbh XII, 335 is important as it clearly identiies the vaḍavāgni with Viṣṇu. he Viṣṇupurāṇa (ca. 6th century AD) lists animal forms including the horse as Viṣṇu’s forms (rūpa)6 in contrast to human forms such as Kṛṣṇa and his brother Ananta/Balarāma who came down to the earth (avatīrya V,1,1; avatīrṇa V,10,13). So there is good reason to assume that development towards the elaboration of the comprehensive term avatāra and the elaboration of lists of (ten or more) avatāras is still on the way.7 he Vdh predominantly uses the term prādurbhāva (manifestation) denoting both the animal forms, fulilling a limited purpose, and the human forms of Viṣṇu who descended to earth by birth. Chapter I,172 on the nature (svabhāva) of the manifestations (prādurbhāva) uses the term prādurbhāva eight times and avatāra once. he term rūpa, however, means just image in the pratimālakṣaṇa section Vdh III, 45–858 (see below). he Bhāgavatapurāṇa (BhP, ca. 8th century AD) stands at the end of this conceptual development. he text replaces prādurbhāva by avatāra irrespective of the nature of the manifestation, whether an animal or a human form, whether for a limited purpose or lifelong. he text presents three diferent lists of avatāras, two of which include Hayagrīva. List X,40,17–22 that forms part of the Kṛṣṇāyaṇa is of particular interest as it deines the relation between the avatāras and the vyūhas. Hayagrīva is inserted between Matsya – the irst avatāra according to the list of the daśāvatāras – and the second one, Kūrma. he 9th avatāra is Sātvatāṃ pati (=Kṛṣṇa) and his vyūhas vāsudeva, Saṃkarṣaṇa, Pradyumna, Aniruddha. He is followed by Buddha and Kalkin, altogether eleven avatāras. BhP II, 7 enumerates 21 avatāras: the 7th one is Hayaśiras (vs. 11), followed by Matsya and Kūrma (vs. 12 and 13).9 6 7 8 9 matsya-kūrma-varāhāśva-siṃhādibhiḥ sthitam V,17,11a. hat avatāra is the more advanced term has been convincingly pointed out by Hacker 1960, pp. 67f. E.g. Ch. 78 Nṛsiṃha-rūpa-nirmāṇam, Ch. 79 varāha-rūpa-nirmāṇam, Ch. 80 Hayagrīvarūpa-nirmāṇam Here Hari as the saviour of the king of elephants (gajendramokṣaṇa) is inserted as the 11th avatāra between Narasiṃha (10th) and Vāmana (12th; verses 14–17). 142 PANDANUS ’13/1 BhP II, 7, 11 changes the aśvamukha narrative in a very signiicant way. satre mamāsa Bhagavān Hayaśirasātho sākṣāt sa yajña-puruṣas tapanīya-varṇaḥ/ chando-mayo makha-mayo ’khila-devatātmā vāco babhūvur uṣatīḥ ’sya nastaḥ// (Brahmā speaks:) at my (Soma-)sacriice (satre) the Exalted One (Bhagavān) was present with a horse head, (he) evidently the soul of sacriice (yajña-puruṣa), goldencoloured; consisting of the (Vedic) hymns and of the sacriices (makha-maya), the inner self of all deities; from his exhaling nose the delightful Vedas (vācas) originated.10 he text states that it was Hayagrīva (not Brahmā) who created the Vedas his is the third major instance of a mythical motif that originally was connected with Brahmā being shited to another deity: 1. Prajāpati was the original androgynous god. he motif was transferred to Śiva and constituted his Ardhanārīśvara-mūrti (cf. Gail 1981). 2. According to taittirīya texts it was Prajāpati Brahmā who, shaped as a boar, took the earth from the primeval waters and allowed her to expand on the surface of the ocean. Hence she was the broad or extended one: pṛthivī (Gail 1977 (2), p. 129). 3. In the context of the Hayagrīva narrative, the BhP now deprives Brahmā of his foremost function in the Hindu period: the creation of the Vedas. A very important contribution to the development and popularization of the Hayagrīva avatāra in the South goes back to the hymns of the Alvars where Hayagrīva “having the form of the Vedas” is mentioned several times (Nayar 2004, pp. 128–130). Disguised as a vaticinium ex eventu the BhP refers to those bhaktas in the country of the Draviḍas (XI,5,38–40; cf. Gail 1969, p. 13). he Sātvata-Saṃhitā, a Pañcarātrāgama text, enumerates no less than 38 vibhavas, among them Baḍabāvaktra (no. 11) and vāgīśvara (no. 13) (Nayar 2004, p. 89). Nayar’s opinion that the latter vibhava denotes Hayagrīva is hardly credible. he connection between Vaḍavāvaktra and Hayagrīva appears in all the epic-Purāṇic references, Vāgīśvara, however, more probably denotes Brahmā who is a form of Viṣṇu inter alia according to Viṣṇupurāṇa III,17,16. he Devībhāgavata, a Śākta countertext of the Vaiṣṇava Bhāgavata, invents a completely new narrative independent of mainstream epic-Purāṇic 10 he grammatical construction is slightly diferent. According to Śrīdhara’s commentary on BhP II,7,11, I translate uṣatyaḥ … babhūvuḥ instead of muñcato … uṣatīḥ: asya śvasataḥ śvāsaṃ muñcato nasto nāsā-puṭād uṣatīr uṣatyaḥ kamanīyā veda-lakṣaṇā vāco babhūvuḥ Hayagrīva or the making of an avatāra 143 tradition. Since it has nothing to do with our subject, the making of an avatāra, I will leave it aside. In our context I also leave aside the problem of a demon called Hayagrīva as well as all Buddhist testimonia.11 Let us proceed now to pictorial versions of Hayagrīva. Hayagrīva occurs relatively rarely within temple niches. he doctrine of his role as an avatāra of Viṣṇu seems not to have been accepted everywhere in India (see below). Depictions of Viṣṇu-Varāha12 and of ViṣṇuHayagrīva13 are earlier than any other manifestations of Viṣṇu. Both come from Mathura, Kuṣāṇa period (2nd/3rd century AD). he tiny Hayagrīva, originally forming part of a railing, holds a club (gadā) and a disc (cakra) in his upper two arms, the lower right is empty while the let seems to carry a book. Joshi ponders that the object could be also a bottle (kamaṇḍalu) or conch (śaṅkha), but I think his reference to the book held by a Jaina Sarasvatī from Mathura is convincing (cf. Joshi 1972–1973, p. 37). Historically the next Hayagrīva image is some 500 years later. A unique stela, shaped like a liṅga-like block (Fig. 2), assembles four Vaiṣṇava igures: Viṣṇu, and clockwise Varāha, Hayagrīva, and Narasiṃha. Hayagrīva is four-handed: the lower right touches cakrapuruṣa, the embodied disc, the upper right exhibits abhaya, the upper let holds a book (in the same manner as Fig. 1), the lower let rests on gadādevī, the embodied club. A specimen from Kashmir (ca. 9th century AD) is a metal frame (parikara) with Vaiṣṇava igures, among them Hayagrīva preceded by viṣṇu Jalaśayana and followed by Viṣṇu killing Madhu and Kaiṭabha (Figs. 3–4). With eight arms he exhibits clockwise varada, padma, sruc, Sūrya, Candra, sruva, gadā, śaṅkha; in other words: his uppermost arms show cosmic symbols, the next pair of hands presents symbols of Brahmā, the lowermost four arms refer to Viṣṇu. Hayagrīva’s position between Jalaśayana and Madhu-Kaiṭabha-vadha precisely marks the mythological event as desribed in the Mahābhārata, Śāntiparvan 335. Ater the birth of Brahmā from Viṣṇu Jalaśayana, Viṣṇu as Hayagrīva saves the Vedas (who had been 11 12 13 Tripathi 1979–1983; Zin 2003, pp. 228–233. Joshi 1965, Fig. 1. – Whether we are entitled to use the term avatāra in the 2nd/3rd century AD is rather doubtful (see above). Joshi 1971, Figs. 345–346; 1972–1973, Fig. 1. 144 PANDANUS ’13/1 stolen by Madhu and Kaiṭabha) and returns the holy scriptures to Brahmā (see above). Khajuraho appears as a center of the Hayagrīva cult (cf. Desai 1993). We ind a few specimens in northern temple niches, the most prominent one in the northern niche of the garbhagṛha of the Lakṣmaṇa temple (Figs. 5 and 6). In the south and western niche Varāha and Narasiṃha are located. A four-headed Viṣṇu, whose arms and emblems are broken, is exhibited in the Khajuraho Museum (Fig. 7). Here a human head is lanked by a lion’s and a boar’s head. he rear head appears to be shaped as a horse head (Fig. 8).14 his coniguration of a four-headed Viṣṇu can hardly be interpreted in the context of the vyūha doctrine, but rather as a depiction of prominent avatāras assembled in one igure.15 he earliest image from South India known to me is a panel in the western corner of the ardhamaṇḍapa of the Vaikuṇṭha Perumāḷ in Kāñcīpuram (Fig. 2). Meister 1983, pp. 68–73 erroneously identiies the main igure as varāhāvatāra, a wrong attribution in view of the multitude of Varāha images from all over India.16 he side igures cannot be identiied since a stucco layer hides all details. More distinctly than Khajuraho the area of Karnataka proved to be the homeland of the Hayagrīva cult. he Vdh III,121 gives an answer on the question of in which country (deśa) which particular incarnation of Viṣṇu (prādurbhāva) is worshipped. As for Hayagrīva the text mentions Karnataka (Karṇāṭe Aśvaśirasam 4b); yet it does not forget to mention the ocean as the home of the submarine ire that could be called the Ādi-Hayagrīva (sāgare vaḍavāmukham 3b).17 14 15 16 17 R.C. Agrawala 2009, pp. 231f. discusses the four-headed igures of Brahmā with a rear head of a horse. Regarding the relation between avatāras and vyūhas the BhP declares the four vyūhas as being identical with the Kṛṣṇa-avatāra – see above. Considering spatial and temporal distance the nearest Varāha is that in the Varāhamaṇḍapa at Māmallapuram (Srinivasan 1964, p. 146f., pl. XLI). See also Gail 1977 (2). he whole passage reads: Sindhu-kūle varāhaṃ ca Śāligrāme trivikramam / Kāśmīreṣu tathā Matsyaṃ Sāgare vaḍavānalam // 3 // Ayodhyāyāṃ tathā Rāmaṃ Naimiṣe Dharmaṃ eva ca / Karṇāṭe cĀśvaśirasaṃ Madra-deśe Nṛkesarim // 4 // Hayagrīva or the making of an avatāra 145 Gulik 1935 and, more particularly, Gangadhar 1972 collect more images of Hayagrīva from that area than the number of images known from all other places in India: seated and standing, four-armed and eight-armed, in stone and in metal. he most remarkable igures can be found in Hoysala temples. he Lakṣmīnarasiṃha temple (founded 1246 AD) at Nuggehalli (Dhaky 1996, pp. 401f.) exhibits an eight-armed marching deity holding in clockwise formation gadā, bāṇa, cakra, khaḍga, kheṭaka, śaṅkha, dhanus, padma (Gulik 1935, Pl. I, no. I; Gangadhar 1972, pp.78f., Fig. II). he fourarmed version from the same temple, seated in sattvaparyaṅka, exhibits only peaceful emblems such as – viewed in a clockwise manner – vitarka, akṣamālā, pustaka, (sita-)phala. Some hundred years later the Vidyāśaṅkara temple (16th century AD) at Sringeri, near the headwaters of the Tungabhadra, presents on its northern wall a beautiful image of Hayagrīva. Equipped with a high crown the god sits in sattvaparyaṅka and exhibits the Vaiṣṇava emblems cakra and śaṅkha with his upper arms, while his lower hands present the priestly (Brāhma) emblems akṣamālā and pustaka (Fig. 9; Gangadhar 1972, pp. 79f., Fig. IV). he same group of manifestations that we found in Mathura (Fig. 2) and Khajuraho appears on the facade of a 17th century Viṣṇu temple in Pāṭan, Kathmandu Valley (Gail 1984, pp. 30–43, Taf. XVI-XXVI; Gail 2011, Fig. 1–2). he four wooden struts carrying the lower roof above the entrance exhibit the carved igures and names of Ādinārāyaṇa, Narasiṃha, Varāha and Hayagrīva (Fig. 10). Hayagrīva is eight-armed. In his four right hands he carries the classical four emblems of Viṣṇu cakra, śaṅkha, padma (gadā lost), in his let four hands he holds the four tiny embodied Vedas.18 18 Following the title of the chapter, i.e. Śrī-viṣṇu-deśādhideśa-prādurbhāva-pūjā-varṇano…adhyāyaḥ, there appears a diference between the main site (adhideśa) and the (normal) site (deśa). Related to our text the ocean (Sāgara) seems to represent the original or main site of the submarine ire (Vaḍavānala), while horse head images (aśvaśiras) can be found (preferably) in Karṇāṭaka. his is the only image of Hayagrīva that appears in full accordance with the description of the Vdh pratimālakṣaṇa section III, 80 that enumerates the classical attributes of Viṣṇu and the embodied Vedas (catvāraś ca karāḥ karyā vedānāṃ deha-dhāriṇām 4 b). 146 PANDANUS ’13/1 Whether we encounter (1) a Viṣṇu garbhagṛha with three niches framing Varāha, Narasiṃha, and Hayagrīva (Khajuraho), or (2) a stela with igures of Viṣṇu, Varāha, Hayagrīva, Narasiṃha (Mathura), or (3) a igure of Viṣṇu with a central human head and additional heads of Varāha, Hayagrīva, and Narasiṃa (Khajuraho), the structure of these compositions is basically identical: Viṣṇu accompanied by three avatāras. G.C. Tripathi mentions “a beautiful wall-paiting in the audience hall of the temple of Lakṣmī in the Jagannātha Temple of Puri. Hayagrīva is sitting on a lotus in the midst of Ocean and the four Vedas in form of tiny children whom he is protecting with his four arms are shown trying to climb into his lap” (1979–1983, p. 500). A painting from the Pahari area (Mankot 1720 AD) is falsely labelled as Kalkyavatāra in Indian and Southeast Asian Art 1996 (Fig. 13).19 Hayagrīva exhibits śaṅkha, gadā, cakra, and padma with his four hands. Hayagrīva is a minor avatāra of Viṣṇu, not represented in all regions of India. From Himachal Pradesh, Bihar / Bengal, Gujarat / Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala not a single image of Hayagrīva is known to me. In one or another area an intensive search might be fertile. From the large temple halls in South India with thousands of sculpted columns I expect more material. Although elevated to the status of a form of Viṣṇu most probably already in the 2nd/3rd century AD, he was not included in the list of ten classical avatāras who later, from the 7th century AD onwards, characterize Viṣṇu in temple art. In this respect he can be compared with Gajendramokṣaṇa who appears in a beautiful relief in the 6th century,20 but also missed the rank of one of the daśāvatāras. Why Hayagrīva, the saviour and – according to the BhP – even the creator of the Vedas was less respected than the mass murderer Paraśurāma, is an enigma that can, at least at the moment, hardly be solved. 19 20 Kalkin, however, although riding a horse, is never depicted as a horse. Northern panel of the Viṣṇu temple of Deogaṛh, see Zimmer 1955, Pl. 110. Hayagrīva or the making of an avatāra 147 References Agrawala, R.C., 2009, Horse-head on the back on medieval icons. In: Kalādarpaṇa. he Mirror of Indian Art. essays in Memory of Shri Krishna Deva. Ed. by D. Desai and Arundhati Banerji. Aryan Books International, New Delhi, pp. 230–232. Bhāgavata-Purāṇa, 1956, with the commentary of Śrīdharasvāmin. Pandit-Pustakalay, Varanasi. Desai, D., 1993, Hayagriva in the Vaikuntha pantheon of Khajuraho. In: viṣṇu in Art, hought and Literature. Ed. By G. Kamalakar and M. Veerender. Birla Archaeological & Cultural Research Institute, Hyderabad, pp. 47–50. Desai, D., 1996, he Religious Imagery of Khajuraho. Vakil & Sons Ltd., Mumbai. Dhaky, M.A., 1996, encyclopaedia of Indian temple Architecture. South India. Upper Drāviḍadeśa. Later Phase, A.D. 973–1326. American Institute of Indian Studies, indira Gandhi national Centre for the Arts, New Delhi. Donaldson, T.E., 2001, he Iconography of vaiṣṇava Images in Orissa. D.K. Printworld (P) Ltd., New Delhi. Doniger O’Flaherty, W., 1971, he Submarine Mare in the mythology of Śiva. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, No. 1, pp. 9–27. Doniger O’Flaherty, W., 1980, Women, Androgynes, and Other Mythical Beasts. he University of Chicago Press, Chicago and London. Gail, A., 1969, Bhakti im Bhāgavatapurāṇa. Religionsgeschichtlichr Studie zur Idee der Gottesliebe in Kult und Mystik des viṣṇuismus. Otto Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden. Gail, A., 1977, Paraśurāma, Brahmane und Krieger. Untersuchung über Ursprung und entwicklung eines Avatāra viṣṇus und Bhakta Śivas in der indischen Literatur. Otto Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden. Gail, A.J., 1977 (2), Viṣṇu als Eber in Mythos und Bild. Beiträge zur Indienforschung. ernst Waldschmidt zum 80. Geburtstag. Ed. H. Härtel. Veröfentlichungen des Museums für Indische Kunst 4, Berlin, pp. 127–168. Gail, A.J., 1981, Die Zweigeschlechtliche Gottheit in Indien. Kunsthistorisches Jahrbuch Graz, Bd. 17. Akademische Druck- und Verlaganstalt, Graz / Austria, pp. 7–19. Gail, A.J., 1984, tempel in Nepal (Band I). Ikonographie hinduistischer Pagoden in Pāṭan Kathmandutal. Akademische Druck- u. Verlagsanstalt Graz / Austria. Gail, A.J., 2011, Bisexual Viṣṇu. he evidence reconsidered. Pandanus ’09, pp. 119–140. Gangadhar, P., 1972, he cult of Hayagrīva in Karṇāṭaka. he Quaterly Journal of the Mythic Society LXII/1–4, 1972. pp. 77–84. Gulik, R.H. van, 1935, Hayagrīva. Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie. Ed. F. Boas et al. Suppl. zu Bd. XXXIII. Brill, Leiden. Hacker, P., 1960, Zur Entwicklung der Avatāralehre. Wiener Zeitschrit für die Kunde Südund Ostasiens, Vol. XX, pp. 47–70. Indian and Southeast Asian Art, 1996, Sotheby’s New York, hursday, September 19, New York, no. 182. Joshi, N.P., 1965, Kuṣāṇa Varāha sculpture. Arts Asiatiques, tome XII, pp. 113–117. Joshi, N.P., 1971, Early Brahmanical Sculptures in Bharat Kala Bhavan. In: Chhavi – Golden Jubilee volume. Bharat Kala Bhavan 1920–1970. Ed. A. Krishna. Bharat Kala Bhavan, Banaras Hindu University, pp. 178–182. PANDANUS ’13/1 148 Joshi, N.P., 1972–1973, Hayagrīva in Brahmanical iconography. Journal of the Indian Society of Oriental Art, New Series, Vol. V. Dr. Vasudev Saran Agrawala Commemoration Volume, Part II. Ed. U.P. Shah. he Indian Society of Oriental Art, Calcutta, pp. 36–42. Meister, M., ed., 1983, encyclopaedia of Indian temple Architecture. South India. Lower Drāviḍadeśa 200 B.C. – A.D. 1324. American Institute of Indian Studies, University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia. Nayar, K.E., 2004, Hayagrīva in South India. Complexity and Selectivity of a Pan-Indian Hindu Deity. Brill, Leiden. Reitz, F., 2000, Ein ikonographisch bedeutendes Kultobjekt der Vaishnavas aus dem Museum für Indische Kunst. Indoasiatische Zeitschrit 4, pp. 35–41. Srinivasan, K.R., 1964, Cave-temples of the Pallavas. Archaeological Survey of Temples, Number 1. Archaeological Survey of India, New Delhi. Tripathi, G.C., 1983, Hayagrīva as Demon and God in Indian mythology. ṛtam. Journal of Akhila Bharatiya Sanskrit Parishad, Vols. XI-XV, July 1979 – July 1983. Ed. J.P. Simha. Lucknow, pp. 493–503. viṣṇu-Purāṇa, 1882, with the commentary of Śrīdharasvāmin, ed. J.V. Bhattacaryya. Sarasvatī-yantre, Calcutta. viṣṇudharmottara-Purāṇa, 1923, Veṅkaṭeśvara Press, Bombay. Yaldiz, M., et al., 2000, Magische Götterwelten. Werke aus dem Museum für Indische Kunst Berlin. Staatliche Museen zu Berlin – Preußischer Kulturbesitz, Museum für Indische Kunst, Berlin. Zimmer, H., 1955, he Art of Indian Asia. Its Mythology and transformations. Two Volumes. Ed. By J. Campbell. Bollington Series XXXIX, Pantheon Books, New York. Zin, M., 2003, Ajanta. Handbuch der Malereien 2: Devotionale und ornamentale Malereien. Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden. List of Figures Fig. 1 Apollo fountain, Versailles (photo A.J. Gail). Fig. 2 Vaiṣṇava stela, Museum für Indische Kunst Berlin (photo MIK). [above let:] a Viṣṇu [above right:] b Varāha [below let:] c Hayagrīva [below right:] d Narasiṃha Fig. 3 parikara from Kashmir, ca. 9th century AD (photos: vide Hartig 2008). [above let:] a ind spot of parikara [above right:] b parikara [below let:] c Hayagrīva [below right] d Madhu-Kaiṭabha-vadha Fig. 4 Lakṣmaṇa temple from southeast, Khajuraho, 954 AD (photo A.J. Gail). Fig. 5 Hayagrīva, Lakṣmaṇa temple, north niche of garbhagṛha (photo A.J. Gail). Fig. 6 Viṣṇu with four heads, Khajuraho Museum, ca. 11th century AD (photo A.J. Gail). Fig. 7 ditto, backside: Hayagrīva (photo R.C. Agrawala). Fig. 8 Hayagrīva, Vaikuṇṭha Perumāḷ temple, north side, west corner of ardhamaṇḍapa, Kāñcīpuram, latter half of 8th century AD (photo A.J. Gail). Fig. 9 Hayagrīva, Vidyāśaṅkara temple, north wall, Sringeri, 16th century AD (photo C. Gilge). Hayagrīva or the making of an avatāra 149 Fig. 10 Varāha (let) and Hayagrīva (right), west side of Svathanārāyaṇa temple, Pāṭan, Kathmandu Valley, 1666–1674 AD (photo A.J. Gail). Fig. 11 Hayagrīva, miniature from Mankot, Himachal Pradesh, ca. 1720 AD (photo Indian and Southeast Asian Art 1996). Fig. 1 Apollo fountain, Versailles (photo A.J. Gail). a b c d Fig. 2 Vaiṣṇava stela, Museum für Indische Kunst Berlin (photo MIK). a) Viṣṇu b) Varāha c) Hayagrīva d) Narasiṃha a b d c Fig. 3 parikara from Kashmir, ca. 9th century AD (photos: vide Hartig 2008). a) ind spot of parikara b) parikara c) Hayagrīva d) Madhu-Kaiṭabha-vadha Fig. 4 Lakṣmaṇa temple from southeast, Khajuraho, 954 AD (photo A.J. Gail). Fig. 5 Hayagrīva, Lakṣmaṇa temple, north niche of garbhagṛha (photo A.J. Gail). Fig. 6 Viṣṇu with four heads, Khajuraho Museum, ca. 11th century AD (photo A.J. Gail). Fig. 7 ditto, backside: Hayagrīva (photo R.C. Agrawala). Fig. 8 Hayagrīva, Vaikuṇṭha Perumāḷ temple, north side, west corner of ardhamaṇḍapa, Kāñcīpuram, latter half of 8th century AD (photo A.J. Gail). Fig. 9 Hayagrīva, Vidyāśaṅkara temple, north wall, Sringeri, 16th century AD (photo C. Gilge). Fig. 10 Varāha (let) and Hayagrīva (right), west side of Svathanārāyaṇa temple, Pāṭan, Kathmandu Valley, 1666–1674 AD (photo A.J. Gail). Fig. 11 Hayagrīva, miniature from Mankot, Himachal Pradesh, ca. 1720 AD (photo Indian and Southeast Asian Art 1996).