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INTOXICATION AS TRANSCENDENCE: ALCOHOL IN TANTRIC BUDDHISM AS A TOOL OF ENLIGHTENMENT AND WINE IN SUFISM AS A SYMBOL OF DIVINE INTIMACY

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INTOXICATION AS TRANSCENDENCE: ALCOHOL IN TANTRIC BUDDHISM AS A TOOL OF ENLIGHTENMENT AND WINE IN SUFISM AS A SYMBOL OF DIVINE INTIMACY

Kayla Jenkins


REL 751 Intoxicating Religions: Wine and Beer in Christianity, Judaism and Islam December 11, 2017  



Perhaps one of the most mysteriously powerful substances throughout history is that of alcohol—a moral vice, cultural marker, social lubricant, form of medicine, and religious symbol—and above all a seemingly complicated issue to address in connection with religious traditions throughout history. Alcohol has functioned as a staple of life for numerous civilizations throughout history and yet has been understood to have positive and negative effects on society, the body, and one’s moral compass. The study of alcohol and religion raises dense questions regarding its purpose as something spiritually significant and yet at the same time

morally dangerous. The goal of this paper is to describe the functions and philosophies surrounding alcohol consumption and intoxication in Tantric Buddhism and Sufism, through investigating poetry, hagiography, commentaries, and ritual manuals. The specific type of alcohol being referred to is important to note, due to the deeply embedded significance in specific substances such as wine in religious history and tradition. In particular, wine is the conclusive common denominator in studying Tantric Buddhist and Sufi sources on intoxication and alcohol consumption. The symbolic value of wine throughout religious histories is visible in

almost every dimension of religious and cultural literature, law and art. As Roderick Phillips suggests, “in many ancient and classical cultures, gods were associated with various alcoholic beverages,” specifically beer and wine, and alcohol “elevated the drinker to sensory dimensions that were understood as having spiritual or religious dimensions.” Such a symbol must hold value when incorporated into deeply mystical, personal, and sacred rituals and literature. Though

wine has been identified with highly religious meanings and transcendental themes, it also is universally understood in religious traditions to be something that causes a state of drunkenness, which is morally and socially prohibited. In comparing Tantric Buddhism and Sufism, it is important to note that they are

situated as inner dimensions of religious traditions that teach self-control or complete abstinence in consuming alcohol. Yet in these inner dimensions of religious practice, the use of alcohol transcends institutional regulation and prohibition to allow the practitioner to acquire a higher state of spiritual consciousness. This paper will investigate the use of wine and its effects of intoxication in both the Tantric Buddhist and Sufi examples, exemplifying the way that wine functions as a tool of enlightenment for Tantric Buddhists, and a symbol of divine intimacy among Sufis.


Situating Tantric Buddhism


The contexts of Buddhism and Islam are vital to the themes and ideas of this paper. First, one must recognize the multidimensional practices and forms of Buddhism. Within the umbrella of Buddhism, one finds two general schools of thought, or vehicles of Buddhist practice: Theravada and Mahayana. The distinctions between the two are in some areas not easily defined, yet in others there are stark differences. Ethnographical and anthropological works on Theravada Buddhism, have shown that Buddhism materializes itself uniquely in each country, nation, or community it resides within. Mahayana Buddhism, the umbrella under which

Tantric Buddhism resides, has historically been understood as more ritualistic and under the conviction that the opportunity of spiritual liberation is open to all beings. The difficulty of differentiating between Mahayana and Theravada schools of Buddhism eludes to the complexity and diversity found in Buddhist practice. Without discussing the challenges of the term “Buddhism” in too much depth, for the purpose of this paper, Buddhism will be defined as an expression of religious and social practice which adheres to or sees the world in connection to the teachings of Gautama Buddha, and the subsequent literature, depending on one’s geographical or cultural context.


Tantric Buddhism, or in some cases referred to as Vajrayana Buddhism, in its various forms and schools, ultimately occupies an inner space within the larger, institutionalized Buddhist tradition. Tantric Buddhists emphasize discipline, religious rituals involving meditation and other means, ascetic living, and share the goal of reaching enlightenment in this lifetime. Enlightenment, for Tantric Buddhists, reveals itself in a realization of the interdependence and

nothingness of existence. Throughout history, Tantric Buddhism has been portrayed in various ways. Christian Wedemeyer’s Making Sense of Tantric Buddhism discusses forms of interpretation of Tantric Buddhism as a historical object or trajectory. Wedemeyer points to the differing opinions of Tantric Buddhism as a factor in the decline or fall of Indian Buddhism, while some voices assume its role in the achievement and preservation of the tradition. For this paper, the

understanding of Tantric Buddhism will follow the current discourse, which considers Tantric Buddhism to be a medieval phenomenon, yet one should note that its presence predates what one considers “medieval” and continues to exist in modern Buddhism. As Wedemeyer notes in his project of interpreting Tantric Buddhism,

“in all historical inquiry, the interpretation of Tantric Buddhism in India unavoidably involves a complex dialectic of content and context.” Therefore, this paper will investigate the dimensions of understanding associated with practice, ritual, poetics, and underlying philosophy in each example given. Tantric Buddhism is understood by its adherents to be a faster path to Buddhahood, which is to become awakened or enlightened. Its allure rests in its ability to hasten one’s spiritual achievements and its sense of exclusivity.


Buddhism: Addressing Alcohol


This paper’s investigation of alcohol use in an inner dimension of Buddhism deems it important to recognize the common Buddhist teachings focus on right living, conduct, intention, speech, and other virtues, which have been understood and interpreted in most contexts to warn against the use of alcohol, and in many cases, prohibit drinking, due to the possibility of one’s actions or thoughts being corrupted by intoxication. Recognizing Buddhism’s emergence from Indian

civilization, and grounded in Hindu and Vedic principles culturally and religiously, it is valuable to note that the traditional function of alcohol in Indian society has been generally understood as related to the caste system. For centuries, alcohol use “was prohibited for certain castes and permitted for others, just as other social functions were specialized according to caste,” according to David G. Mandelbaum. Yet around the rise of Buddhism, the “social meaning” of liquor and intoxication changed, and became understood as “polluting to those who sought to follow the edicts of scripture,” reflecting Buddhism’s disdain for

ritual and the ritual use of alcohol. After Buddhism’s effect, Indian society still allowed for alcohol among the Kshatriya caste, or the warriors and rulers of the state—therefore prohibition was never considered. The Brahman caste, or religious priests and leaders, are allowed to imbibe occasionally, but must “abstain when they seek to be in a state of ritual purity.” In the Tibetan Tantric Buddhist text, the Samvarodaya Tantra, evidence is found for the use and necessity of

liquors in sacrifices held during festivals and rite ceremonies. Though Buddhism’s central tenets forbid drunkenness and even drinking of any amount, some communities throughout history and even in modern Buddhist communities today, alcohol is used in specific festivities and rituals. This is surely residual evidence of early cultural tribal identities continuing to thrive in some ways, unwaveringly, throughout centuries of religious and cultural change.


Situating Sufism


In addition to contextualizing Tantra within Buddhism, one must acknowledge the context of Sufism within Islam. It is vital to recognize the multidimensional materializations of the Islamic tradition. Islam centers itself around the teachings of Mohammad and moral living, looking to various ahadith laws which can be interpreted in numerous ways depending on the imam or scholar addressing the particular issue. Islam is commonly divided into two groups, Sunni and Shi’i,

differentiated in general by their disagreements over political and religious legitimacy of leaders in early Islamic history. During various times in history, the relationship between the two groups has been tense, and at other times peaceful. Mansoor Moaddel claims that there is “no serious difference in articles of faith between the two sects,” and have recognized each other’s “political differences.” Ultimately, Islam emphasizes missionary activity and “intensive penetration of social life,” according to Said Amir Arjomand.


Sufism, in its various orders, is situated with the larger Islamic tradition. In addition to the somewhat inadequate use of the terms “mysticism” and “esotericism” at least in an exclusive way, one can understand Sufis as those who participate in “the intensification of Islamic faith and practice.” Regarding Sufism’s origins, John Voll and Kazuo Ohtsuka describe Sufism as “coextensive with Islam,” and claim that “wherever there have been Muslims, there have been Sufis.” Specifically, Sufism has been understood to have emerged among Iranian, Iraqi and Egyptian Muslim communities. Sufism emphasizes experiencing the

divine, living moral lives according to the Qur’an, and rooting their religious ritual in experience. Annemarie Schimmel writes that “many of the later Sufis invented complicated systems to draw closer to the mystery of the divine, the Absolute Being, the Pure Existence, or whatever names they might find.” Sufis also “meticulously” follow the “injunctions” laid out for moral living found in the Qur’an. An additional aspect, connecting to Arjomand’s description of Islam as

one of missionizing and involvement in one’s social life, Arjomand notes that “Sufism became the instrument to spread Islam both into the geographical periphery of the Muslim world and into the lower ranks of Muslim society.” In addition, Arjomand describes Sufism as “a distinct variant of Islam that was in many ways the opposite of the scriptural fundamentalism of the Hanbalites.” Traditionally, Sufis have been separated into organizations called tawa’if or turuq,

congregations centered on a particular master or teacher and having meetings. As will be discussed throughout this paper, the goal of Sufism is “union with God (ittihad) or the realization of the Oneness of God (tawhid).” To achieve this, particular Sufi practices hold value: dhikr, which is a type of meditation and repetition chanting, prayer, the study of Qur’anic scriptures, and jinn, or meditative dancing.


Islam: Addressing Alcohol


The relationship between Islam and alcohol is a complex one, yet the overarching and indisputable conclusion today is that Muslims are not to drink intoxicants. In the Qur’an, while listing gifts that God has given to man, it includes wine: “And the fruits of the palm and the vine, from which you derive intoxicants and wholesome food. Surely in this there is a sign for men of understanding.” (Qur’an 16:67). In the initial phases of Islamic growth and institutionalization, wine was not completely prohibited, but as Matthew Long suggests, it was instead “condemned for the power it possesses to lead to sin,” and gradually through the

production of ahadith, or additional Islamic laws which predominantly quote this verse in their absolute prohibition of alcohol (or only wine made from dates, grapes, etc., which is debated). Even today, debates continue on whether there are differences between levels of intoxication, substances that produce such a state of mind or consciousness, and the chemical basis of alcohol. Yet ultimately, intoxication, specifically that deriving from wine, is not permitted for Muslims to partake in on this earth and in this life—they are to reserve such an experience in Jannah, or heaven. The condemnation of consuming earthly wine

stems on concerns over its negative effects on humans which include its ability to cover, or veil, one’s senses and mind. One is not to allow their senses to be inhibited or veiled because this could lead to sin against Allah. One is to keep their clear-mindedness and focus in order to partake in daily prayers and religious responsibilities. Alcohol is understood not only to be spiritually dangerous but also to be spiritually impure. The controversial status of alcohol, and specifically wine, sets the precedence for this paper’s discussion on the function of such a taboo substance in Islam’s mystical dimension.


Complex Encounters


The historical contact between Tantric and Sufi influences and sources is an undeniably important aspect of this paper’s comparisons between the two traditions. Cyril Glasse notes that “Sufism freely makes use of paradigms and concepts from Greek, Buddhist, and even from Hindu sources” and “that it resembles other esoteric doctrines is certainly not accidental.” The research of Robert C. Zaehner makes a detailed case for Indian influence on Islamic mysticism, and other

scholars have drawn connections between “Islamic mystical tales and Buddhist stories.” During the Classical Period in Indo-Pakistan, Schimmel suggests that “spiritual contacts between the Muslims and the small Buddhist minority” is evident. Roger Jackson, through his work in translating tantric poetry has noted that even after Indian Buddhism had almost disappeared in the thirteenth century, “their criticism of the status quo and their celebration of a mystical ecstasy

attainable through the human body and the grace of a guru helped to set the tone for a variety of later religious movements, including…certain aspects of Sufi Islamic mysticism.” However, Sufism’s emergence and continuation cannot be solely attributed to the influence of “other, ubiquitous mystical teachings.” The relationship between Tantric Buddhism and Sufism is one of complex encounters, but does allow one to consider comparing similarities in ideas, philosophies, and practices.


Comparing Mystical and Esoteric Traditions


A comparison of Tantric Buddhist and Sufi philosophies exhibits diverse differences; however, the dominant themes and characteristics within each tradition are similar in many ways. Their similarities lie in their esotericism, mysticism, and philosophies of the body. Tantric Buddhism and Sufism are considered esoteric or mystical traditions. Esoteric traditions are understood to be advanced and maintained through oral teachings or obscure methods. Ronald Davidson, in Indian Esoteric Buddhism, suggests that the “central argument of the esoteric method” is that “a person with superior capabilities can employ dangerous methods for

transcendental ends.” The use of the worddangerous” could in some cases be exchanged with simply “peculiar”, “unconventional”, or “experimental”. Esoteric practices are in many cases considered mystical, which refers to a complex array of cryptic or secret practices and philosophies. However, using these terms, “esoteric” and “mystical” has led to misinterpretations of such practices. Glasse suggests that “esoterism claims to be that of transcendent wisdom and mystical

union, of realization through direct knowledge of the Divine.” Jason N. Blum defines “mysticism” as consisting “broadly of practices, texts, and beliefs related to, and experiential reports of, an encounter between a mystic and ultimacy,” yet it is also helpful to include recognition of these practices and encounters which are initiated through movement between binaries. Mysticism has been described as a set of binaries that relate to one another in mystical ritual practice and philosophy by Georges Bataille, discussed in Jeffrey J. Kripal’s analysis:


. profane order sacred order
. discontinuity of being continuity of being
. life death
. individuality mystical union or absorption
. law and taboo transgression and sin
. work day holy day
. rational thought mystical thought
. rationalism mysticism

In order for one to move from one column to the other, ritual practices are performed with “transcendental significance.” Alcohol consumption, whether in a literal or metaphorical sense, is used in the movement between binaries in various ways in Tantric and Sufi practice.

A theory in approaching the comparative study of mystical traditions will be Randal Studstill’s “mystical pluralistthesis suggesting that

mystical traditions initiate common transformative processes in the consciousness of mystics. Though mystical doctrines and practices may be quite different across traditions, they nevertheless function in parallel ways—they disrupt the processes of mind that maintain ordinary, egocentric experience and induce a structural transformation of consciousness.

In this way, Tantric Buddhism and Sufism can be compared due to their use of alcohol or philosophy of intoxication as an action that “disrupts” normalcy of the mind and body and transforms their consciousness—into a state of nondual gnosis, or a unifying of oneself and the ultimate. Alcohol, or wine, could be

considered, with Studstill’s theory in mind, to be a “common characteristic” involving a “common transformative process,” which does not suggest that it brings a “universally identical experience.” Ultimately, Studstill frames the methodology of this paper by concluding that “mystical pluralism is fully compatible with the heterogeneity of mystical doctrines, practices, and experiences.” This paper acknowledges the differences between mystical experience and practice, but recognizes that in some ways they can be compared due to a number of similar characteristics—and using this method to approach the function of alcohol brings similarities and differences between the traditions to light.


In another sense, Tantric Buddhism and Sufism adhere to similar philosophies about the human body partaking in religious ritual. For Sufi practitioners engaging in active meditation, such as whirling, spinning, or dancing (jinn), the body becomes a tool in mystical spiritual experience. One uses body movements and rhythms to transcend into a higher state of meditative consciousness, which leads one to a form of union with God. For Tantric Buddhist practitioners, the human body consists of a kind of power that, according to Hugh B. Urban, “flows through the human body, the social order, and the cosmos.” In this way, the body is

not of a dual reality, separate from cosmic and universal concerns. Tantric Buddhist ritual and practice relies on the use and incorporation of bodily fluids, functions, and activities. Yet at face value, such bodily practices as eating and having sexual intercourse do not seem to have transcendental relevance, and instead are a part of a mundane, human experience. Particularly in Buddhist thought, such activities, and the body itself, is considered inherently impure—Buddhist monks are taught to feel disgust towards the female body, and are to not enjoy eating or drinking. Here lies the importance of the body in Tantric Buddhism: it is an example of yet another paradox, denying the traditional Buddhist view of modesty and self-control and fully embracing unmentionable and shocking practices and images which surprisingly, when practiced according to Tantric scripture, do not pollute, but purify oneself. The more relevant aspect of Tantric Buddhist and Sufi understandings of the human body are simply that both traditions consider the body to have a ritual agency which leads to transcendental experiences, or “out-of-body” experiences. The body exists in a plane where it can fully immerse itself in both worldly and other-worldly concerns and situations.


Bataille’s work on transgressive practices are helpful in imagining the power of using one’s body to partake in a taboo or forbidden act, in the case of this paper this would refer to consuming alcohol. Urban describes Bataille as suggesting that “the ultimate or ‘infinite transgression’…is the transgression of the

very boundaries of the self through mystical experience, the complete dissolution of the finite ego into a state of ‘divine continuity.’” Therefore, in the case of Tantric and Sufi practices, transgressive practices are vital to transcending and dissolving the bodily self in order to arrive at a much higher state of

existence, in union with a greater being or essence. The question arises, however, whether theories of transgressive practice can be applied to examples that are understood to have been most likely metaphorical or symbolic, as in the Sufi case. I would suggest that ultimately, a similar effect can be experienced in either literal or metaphorical self-visualization methods. The inherent essence of mystical experience, however, is not available to those on the peripheral, studying the subject from the outside.


Altered States of Consciousness


In Sufism and Tantric Buddhism, altered states of consciousness are vital to religious practice and experience. Intoxication as a state of consciousness can be found in both Tantric and Sufi paths to the highest spiritual goal. Intoxication, for Sufis, “is the obliteration of self-awareness and of the thoughts and motives connected to the ego; ultimately it is annihilation in God,” which is described as a blissful and intense experience. In Sufi spirituality, the ultimate end is to only experience God, and to lose oneself within the divine in a form of mystical intimacy. Likewise, the Tantric Buddhist understanding of the purpose and function of various rituals which include intoxication is the annihilation in the realization of interdependence and nothingness, which when fully understood can lead to a blissful, enlightened experience.


Carl W. Ernst notes how Sufi writings echo “the language of drunkenness, which has served as a potent symbol for the transformations of consciousness found in mystical states.” Yet in stories of Tantric gurus and Sufi masters, one cannot ignore the societal fears and discomfort when dealing with a “wise fool,” who according to Ernst “have an intimate relationship with God but who flout the conventions of society.” A strong comparison between Tantric Buddhist and Sufi histories is their common appearance in Meher Baba’s accounts from the early 20th century, classifying “spiritual intoxication and drunkenness” among Muslim and Hindu communities. Through the studying of philosophies and practices that have survived centuries and can be still observed today in both Tantric Buddhist and Sufi spirituality, one must recognize that in the Tantric Buddhist and Sufi case, altering one’s state of consciousness, through alcohol or other means, is a central aspect of religious practice.


Tantric Buddhism: The Metaphorical vs. Literal Debate


For Tantric Buddhist traditions, one can find both manifestations of metaphorical and literal use, depending on the specific example. It is first important to recognize the two seemingly invisible strands of Tantric practice to have materialized according to scholarship. In order to fully participate in this metaphorical or literal debate, one must recognize that two divisions—difficult to define and differentiate between—have emerged in interpreting Tantric traditions. Urban notes that there is a distinction between “right-handed” and “left-handed” forms of worship and practice in Tantric Buddhism—and the “left-handed” schools are said to “involve a literal use of substances that are normally prohibited by mainstream social and religious standards,” yet the mode of deciding which texts and practitioners adhered to the right-handed or left-handed paths can be seen as complex or even trivial in light of Wedemeyer’s thesis mentioned above. Davidson claims that most practices taught in various tantras and sutras, or scriptural teachings and collections of such teachings “could be internally visualized, rather than physically enacted, and this was the path eventually chosen by most Tibetan traditions;” however, it would be accurate to say

that in some instances, Tantric practitioners would literally participate in sexual intercourse, imbibe in indulgent eating and drinking of taboo substances, among other revolting acts. David Snellgrove suggests that since “central to tantric practice is the refusal to distinguish between the everyday world,” many rituals and practices must have been performed literally, and even more commonly, than simply metaphorically. Their literal approach is legitimate, but a deeper symbolism must be present in such acts, to which one can refer to Wedemeyer’s thesis. Wedemeyer addresses this issue by clarifying that traditionally,

scholarship has attempted to discuss tantra in terms of either literalism or “figurativism,” which do not suffice. He instead argues that Tantric literature induces a form of “connotative semiotics,” or “mythic speech,” which “presupposes the conventions of natural language, and uses them to indicate complex ideas.” In this explanation, one can approach Tantric literature with the appreciation of creative literary means in which the authors of such shocking texts and rituals may in fact be using such words and images to describe something much greater and much more complex. In this way, looking at what Davidson calls “coded language” of esoteric Buddhist literary history, one might see a form of symbolism, but even deeper within that symbolic or figurative code is an explanation of a complex

action or idea, such as the use of madhya, Sanskrit for “wine,” which has been described in this coded language as meaning madana, or “intoxication.” Davidson and Wedemeyer therefore debate the depth of certain coded language. It is highly plausible for intoxication’s meaning to refer to a complex state of higher consciousness that cannot be wholly described by simply “intoxication.” Therefore, as a tool of enlightenment, alcohol quite possibly could have been literally consumed, but that is most likely not the point of its presence in ritual and literature, according to both Davidson and Wedemeyer’s conclusions. Snellgrove’s

thesis on the matter is vital in concluding: such “outer practices were certainly performed” even if later on, most Tibetans “have since ceased to perform most of them.” Ultimately, literal practice did and does occur in tantric practices, as well as possibly a more complex “connotative semiotics.”


Sufism: The Metaphorical vs. Literal Debate


Within the Sufi repertoire, wine is a commonly used symbol or metaphor for a mystical union with God, therefore in the mass of literature and poetry on the subject, one can assume in such literature that wine consumption and intoxication are metaphorical for an unexplainable spiritual state of consciousness. In a similar way that Tantric Buddhists are organized in general thought to be either right-handed or left-handed, Sufis throughout history have been considered

either “sober” or “drunk” mystics as well, known as followers of the “path of intoxication” (sukhr) or of “the way of sobriety” (sahw). Yet the way that one would determine such categories is once again complex and difficult—and also somewhat trivial. Wine and intoxication have been foci of Sufi poetry and mystic literature for centuries, emerging under the Omayyad caliphate during the eighth century and truly coming to light in the first great Sufi poet’s work, Sanai, around 1150 C.E. Sufi literature utilized the influence of Arabic and pre-Islamic literary themes, such as love, wine, women, and cosmology. Long notes that

through the adoption of pre-Islamic symbols surround wine, “images of intoxication and wine were transformed from literal to metaphorical, mystical expressions of love and union with the Divine,” yet “some Sufis retained their physical desires for wine as a means of initiating states of transcendence.” Debates between Sufi teachers and scholars have occurred throughout the tradition’s history over the various ways one can understand wine and its consumption, purpose, and function. Two prominent Sufi teachers are known for their debates over sober and intoxicated spiritual practice. Abu-l-Qasim ibn Muhammad al-Junayd was a Sufi

teacher in Baghdad who formulated a “systematic and sober” doctrine, speaking against Sufis who seemed to be “wandering mendicants.” Abu Yazid Tayfur al-Bistami was known as one of the first “drunken Sufis” due to his ideas on humanity’s relationship with divinity which caused some to critique as madness. Yet the evidence we have for these teachers and others discussing drunken and sober mysticism do not clarify the literal or metaphorical practices between the two “hands” and their followers.


In both Tantric Buddhist and Sufi examples of two paths one could follow in connection to literal or metaphorical use of alcohol, one can see that ultimately the realness or figurativeness of such practices do not matter and do not affect the end result of such spiritual practice. The evidence available suggests that there may be literal alcohol consumption more commonly practiced among Tantric Buddhists, but it is evident as well that many Tantric schools participate in

metaphorical or allegorical rituals involving self-visualization. In the Sufi case, the general consensus among scholars is that the majority of Sufi orders have related to wine and intoxication as metaphorical or symbolic in value, and have not commonly consumed literal alcohol as prescribed in ritual. However, it is

also evident in this case that some individuals and particular groups of Sufis have historically imbibed in real wine consumption. In each tradition a dominating theme appears, as the examples will bring to light, and yet paradoxical evidence is found as well. The end result is a realization that the literal or

metaphorical stance is not the core meaning or function—it is the philosophical or theological meaning within the wine as a tool or the wine as a symbol.


Tantric Buddhism: Wine as a Tool of Enlightenment


The majority of sources attributed to Tantric Buddhism’s long history are collections of hagiographies belonging to important teachers and ritual manuals, yet some poetic verses and songs written by Tantric teachers have been preserved, including those of Saraha, whom Roger Jackson claims is “the greatest single

individual in the history of Indian tantric Buddhism, famed as its most eloquent poet,” among other characteristics, and yet we do not know exactly where or when the historical Saraha existed. In Saraha’s poetry, much of it is influenced by the Yogini Tantras, which are considered “to be at or near the pinnacle of the tantric path.” One of the common ideas that one would find in nearly all Yogini Tantras, and would agree with the fundamentals of most Tantric manuals and

teachings, is described by Jackson in this way:



The work of transformation requires overcoming dualistic aversion to notions of pure and impure, a willingness on occasion to transgress conventional moral norms, and skillful manipulation of one’s mind and energies so as to bring them to a standstill within certain nodes or centers (cakra) within the central channel of the subtle body. In order to harness one’s energies, one must be willing on occasion to ingest “impure” substances such as alcohol, semen, and blood…the result of controlling one’s energies is the production—or revelation—within the central channel of a blissful, enlightened gnosis.


This illumines the central philosophy behind alcohol consumption in a literal sense for Tantric Buddhists, and even in some cases where only self-visualization is occurring, the goal is still of realizing non-duality and experiencing bliss from this revelation. In verse 24 of Saraha’s Treasury of Couplets, the theme of transgressive practices involving eating and drinking taboo substances is described as a way to transcend the mundane world:


. Eating and drinking, enjoying bliss, . Ever filling the cakras again and again: . By such practices you perfect the transmundane; . The master’s foot crushes mundane existence.



The vast collections of tantras are useful in bringing to light common themes and ideas regarding alcohol in Tantric Buddhist practices. Some tantras specifically prescribe drinking alcohol in practices: the Guhyasamaja Tantra, Mahakala Tantra, Hevajra Tantra, Laghusamvara Tantra, and the Herukabhidhana Tantra. Themes of rites involving “nondual transcendence” are found in these texts, and developed especially in the Guhyasamaja Tantra. In chapter five of the

Guhyasamaja, the Lord Buddha Vajradhara teaches that those who transgress the five Buddhist precepts—those who are “sex-maniacs,” eat forbidden food, or drink forbidden intoxicants—are “fit for the sadhana.” When those listening to the teacher are shocked by his words, they are told that this is “the pure teaching of all the Buddhas,” to which they then respond by going unconscious, and are brought back to consciousness through “light rays” illuminating the nondual Vajra teachings. Here, even the realization that one can partake in such practices, under correct teaching, and can reach a nondual state of blissful consciousness is too much to bear for these mere amateur tantric students.


An interesting angle to approach drinking and mystical traditions is to consider hagiographical sources and the subsequent ways that certain Tantric gurus or Sufi masters have been received and understood throughout the history of the traditions. In both Tantric Buddhist and Sufi literature, few infamous individuals stand out in literature, and interestingly it is due to their supposed relationship to the literal drinking of alcohol. Virupa was a Tantric saint known for

“excessive imbibing of alcohol,” through the recitation of tales and fables. Davidson claims that “Virupa’s legendary alcoholic proclivities are so important to the normative hagiography that his iconography relies on a drinking episode.” Virupa’s Drinking Song is a famous and humorous nod to Virupa’s tendencies towards drinking and spending time in bars rather than religious places:


All alone this barmaid serves two at her home, preparing the rot-gut with neither yeast nor shredded bark. The booze is brewed naturally strong, making my body tough—no old age or death for me! I saw the sign at the tenth door, so I came as a customer, to get myself some. There’re sixty-four jugs set out up on the shelf. Once I make it in as a consumer, I may not leave! Hey! There’s one bottle with a real thin neck—Virupa says: pour me a strong one!

The most well-known commentary on this particular tale of Virupa is that of Mundatta, who reinterpreted this song as using coded words for spiritual terms and experiences—considering the desire to drink as the desire to experience awakened bliss.


One last insightful example of alcohol in Tantric Buddhist practice is that of the songs of the “beer of enlightenment” in Tibetan Tantric Buddhist literature. An excerpt from a much longer song is as follows, showing the function of drinking as leading one to a higher spiritual state:


And now one drinks the beer of yoga. With the first [drink] he clarifies and purifies himself as Diamond Body; With the second he perfects his Buddhahood as Enjoyment Body; With the third he appears visibly as Emanation body. The suitable man will drink of this unending flow of beer, which becomes [for him] nectar; There is no chance for the unsuitable to drink it.

In this verse of song and others in its collection, Ardussi interprets beer to symbolize “the refined essential teachings or contemplative experiences,” and describing “yogic endeavor.” The value of this drinking song is that it uses beer as symbolizing spiritual experiences and growth, leading to the ultimate embodiment of Buddhist truth.


In the examples of Sarah’s poetry, prescriptions of the Guhyasamaja Tantra, Virupa’s Drinking Song, and songs of beer in Tibetan literature, one can see that alcohol has been understood as a tool used in order to reach enlightenment. Saraha’s poetry discusses the action of drinking as a way to overcome dualities. In the Guhyasamaja Tantra, those who imbibe in transgressive practices are praised, and the realization of the use of such practices, including drinking alcohol, illumines the listening students to a new truth of reality. In Mundatta’s interpretation of Virupa’s Drinking Song, the literal and crude-sounding song is reworked as an explanation of Virupa’s spiritual wisdom and skill on the path of Tantra. In Tibetan drinking songs, beer symbolizes (or presents a literal account in laymen terms) the yogic path to enlightenment.


Sufism: Wine as a Symbol of the Divine


The greatest example of wine’s symbolic function in Sufism is its presence in numerous poetic works. The genre of wine poetry existed in pre-Islamic times, and grew in scope and influence under early Islamic rule, the Omayyad and Abbasid caliphates. During this time, poets discussed themes of reluctance to Islamic legal principles of abstinence from wine and used the ode, or kasidah, as a “religious protest,” with Abu Nuwas becoming “the most renowned wine poet of the Abbasid

period and of all Islamic literature,” through this form of resistant literature. During this time, an Omayyad caliph, al-Walid ibn Yazid, “enjoyed wine” and “there appears to have been a small yet significant number of Muslims throughout the ages who have continued to drink wine in open opposition to Islamic law,” which was scandalous, but appears to have happened. Therefore, it is probable that in the early stages of Sufism, emerging a couple hundred years after the

Omayyad and Abbasid caliphates, some Sufis would have used this resistant literature as foundation for literal wine consumption in their mystical experiences. Sufi wine poetry’s thematic characteristics include the passionate relationship between two lovers (the Sufi adherent and God) and their blissful union. Emil Homerin describes the way in which wine functions as a symbol in Islamic mystical verse, noting that the Sufi mystical experience causes one to first

experience a form of intoxication “due to his loss of self-consciousness and reason,” and annihilation in God’s presence—then afterwards becoming sober—which in many cases is considered even more important than the state of intoxication. Homerin summarizes: “wine became a symbol of the powerful and intoxicating mystical love passing between God and His worshipper, and Sufi manuals often cite wine verse to illustrate this loving relationship.” Al-Hallaj was a Sufi teacher under the Abbasid caliphate, and adhered to an extreme and complete understanding of annihilation through intoxication in God’s presence, eventually securing his execution. He writes:

. Your spirit is mixed in mine . just as wine is mixed in purest water. . So if something touches you, it touches me, . since you are me in every state.

Here one can see the idea of the mixing of spirits, or essences, symbolized by wine mixing with pure water. Complete annihilation occurs between the divine and the Sufi mystic. Wine is also symbolized as an “encounter” between the lover and God, such as in Yahya al-Suhrawardi’s verse: “Always the spirits long for you; union with you is their sweet basil and wine. The hearts (qulub) of your worthy lovers yearn for you; the delicious taste of your encounter will please them.” Later in al-Suhrawardi’s poem, Homerin describes the “beloved’s presence where they lose all sense of self and fall into ecstasy before the beatific vision,” which is brought about by a “spiritual wine that will be found in religion.” Here, an obvious line is drawn between metaphorical and literal—al-Suhrawardi clarifies that the wine he is speaking of is spiritual, “not a wine crushed by a peasant!”


Wine not only symbolizes the annihilation of beings, but the act of unveiling of a greater truth or understanding of God, such as this verse penned by Sufi poet Ibn al-Shahrazuri: “He was veiled, but when its cup came to his hand, he was revealed!” In other poetry, this mystical union defeats the darkness of the lack of knowledge or the sadness of separation between the lover and God and shines “illuminating rays” of “divine light”—therefore in this state of intoxication (union), one is revealed or illumined to the reality of God’s glory or reality.


. Ibn al-Farid’s al-Khamriyah describes an “immortal wine” that is drunk through mystical experience in verses 25 and 26: . But they said: “You have drunk sin!” . No, indeed, I drank only that whose abstention is sin to me. . So cheers to the monastery’s folk! . How often they were drunk with it . Though they never drank it, . But only longed to,


Here one can see that al-Farid addresses the accusations he or other mystics have faced when speaking of intoxication in an Islamic context. He claims that he is blameless and has drunk the same wine that ascetic monks have drunk—one that seems to not be an earthly wine made from grapes. Homerin’s analysis of the entire poem notes that Ibn al-Farid “underscores the heavenly nature of the cup and its contents” by comparing them to “astral images,” once again seemingly proving al-Farid’s references to solely mystical, heavenly wine of a metaphorical sense. An additional interesting aspect of al-Farid’s al-Khamriyah is the mention of this particular wine being “not easy to find, and to drink it may be impossible,” existing in hidden places not found by the common seeker. This exclusivity and

hidden aspect of the mystical wine makes sense in light of Sufi orders’ tendency to be within a more secretive dimension of Islam, not materializing their practice in public, and holding to a strong sense of inner community, not accessible to all. The wine is impossible to drink, however, because one must be skillful in Sufi practices, and must be a valued member of the exclusive community. Dawud al-Qaysari’s commentary on al-Farid’s poetry is one of the oldest and most influential commentaries on his work. Al-Qaysari describes this “wine of Paradise” to rid the drinker of “all traces of human volition, selfhood, and

duality,” eluding to a sense of wine as a symbol of not only union with the divine but one of nondual gnosis, where any sense of individuality is erased. This creates an undeniable comparison between Tantric Buddhist philosophies of realizing non-duality within the experience of bliss.


A later important figure, Jalal al-Din Rumi, or “Rumi”, a 13th century Persian poet and Sufi mystic, is historically recognized for his poetry on love and intoxication. Rumi distinguishes between three types of wine, which are important to Sufism’s metaphorical understanding of wine and intoxication. Chittick describe these types as such: “besides the kind made from grapes there are also sensuality, which brings about blindness and removes him who drinks it from God’s favor; and Love, which tears away the veils separating man from God and brings about union,” and he indicates that Rumi devoted much of his poetry to “praising the third kind and encouraging its consumption.” Therefore, the “kind made from grapes”, or earthly grape wine does not seem to be the source of union with God—that intoxicant must be of another substance or realm. As seen in al-Hallaj’s poetry on annihilation, al-Farid’s poetry on mystical intoxication, and Rumi’s poetry on the three kinds of wine, and other examples discussing the illuminating qualities of wine, one can see that wine has symbolized the Sufi experience of divine intimacy and union. Al-Hallaj uses

wine and intoxication as symbolizing the “mixing of spirits” between the human lover and God. Al-Suhrawardi talks of a “spiritual wine” found in the religious experience. Al-Shahrazuri uses wine as a symbol of an illumination of a knowledge of God and one’s union with the divine—wine does not deafen the senses, as taught in Islamic law, but instead heightens the senses to a realization of the brightness of truth. Al-Farid’s Wine Ode has been an influential masterpiece

presenting the connection between wine and Sufi spirituality. Lastly, Rumi’s more modern take on the Islamic mystical experience still influences the religious literary scene today, and describes not only the forbidden earthly wine but the heavenly wine of a higher realm, which one should strive to be intoxicated with. Sufis throughout history have encouraged the use of wine, more commonly in a symbolic way, to represent the Sufi’s mystical union with God.


As has been presented, intoxicating substances are in both traditions a vital aspect of their metaphorical or literal religious practice, with alcohol functioning as either a tool of enlightenment (Tantric Buddhism), or a symbol of divine intimacy (Sufism), both of which deepen their respective spiritual knowledge and experiences. In these intimate or enlightening experiences, alcohol leads to or takes part in unifying body and the divine or ultimate, in a form of nondual gnosis. In these examples, one can see the usefulness of investigating “common characteristics” which are “transformative,” in the religious mystical experience, in the words of Studstill. Ultimately, the value of wine and alcohol’s presence within mystical experience highlights the emphasis of human experience within religion. Wine is a physical substance that creates an effect on the human body and mind, leading one to open up to new thought processes. Wine and alcohol seems to create an opportunity for contact with something other-worldly or transcendent, which can be experienced by an exclusive group within religious traditions. The value in the Tantric Buddhist and Sufi comparison centers on their situating within Buddhism and Islam, which adhere to stricter

policies regarding the consumption or having contact with alcohol. Ultimately, inner dimensions of religious practice must still recognize the transformative qualities found in alcohol, as do most religions in the world that are known. Optimistically, this paper contributes to the discussion on the role of alcohol in religious studies, and its physical or transcendental properties and functions, which, as has been presented, can be found in religious traditions that in general focus on the dangers of alcohol and do not emphasize its spiritual value in the context of the general community.


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[[Category:]Vajrayana] [[Category: Tantras]]