Introduction •of Buddhism in China
The State of Buddhism in China Today
Fourteen countries border the people's Republic of China or mainland China in Mongolia, Russia, North Korea, Vlétnam, Laos, Myanmar, Bhutan, Nepal, India, Pakistan, Afganisthan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzistan and Kazakisthan. It stretches some 5.026 kms. across the east Asian landmark bordering the East China Sea, Korea Bay, Yellow Sea and South China Sea. It is one of the largest countries in the world. Whether the United States of China is the third largest country in the world is a disputed question. l Today China's population is 1.3 billion, the largest in the world. And Buddhism is the religion of the majority here. According to the State Bureau of Religious affairs, the number of Buddhists in China was 400 million in 1997. Liu Zhougyn from the Research Centre for Religious Culture, East China Normal University believes it has now surpassed 300 millions. Of late, many old Buddhist temples are being restored. This shows the survival of Buddhism in China today. It is however not enough to recognise that the majority of the Chinese people avow their affiliation to Buddhism. It is not enough again to point out that Buddhist temples and relics are scattered all over China. Tianqing director of the research centre for religious arts in Chinese National Academy of Arts says that "Buddhist culture is an important part of the intangible heritage of Chinese culture". In fact, the Ministry of culture of China observed in 2005 and 2008 that Buddhist influence is writ large on Chinese folk literature, traditional music, folk dance and drama. This is not all.
China has been a cenfre of Buddhist studies. Fresh interpretation of Buddha's life and work has been done there. Besides, China has been one of the source countries wherefrom Buddhism was disseminated to the countries like Japan and Korea. Thus China is one of the major Buddhist countries in the world. It is needless to say, that Buddhism reached China thousand of years back from India. Gradually its influence was felt in the blood and heart of Chinese culture. Popular history points out that long time ago in the first century. A.D. there was a Han king named Ming. He saw a golden man in a vision hovering in the air in front of his palace. Waking up from dream he enquired of this man and learnt that it was no one else than Lord Buddha. He at once sent emissaries to Central Asia to get more information about the Lord. For our purpose we need not pin our faith on the magic element of the story. But it tells us the hard fact that knowledge of Lord Buddha and his message had reached China even before the regin of Ming. Or else how could the countries recognise the golden man of Ming's vison as Lord Buddha?
The Geographical Barrier
The Geographical barrier between China and India is formidable. Tibet stands between India and China. On the South Tibet is bounded by the Himalayas, on the North by a broad mountain system. Kashmir of India is in the west of Tibet. India, Nèpal and Bhutan are in the South of Tibet. And China proper is in its North and East. The mighty Himalayas stand aloft between India and Tibet. Tibet is one of the highest inhabited lands in the world with an average elevation of 4570m. A broad mountain system separates it from China. In fact, crossing the roof of the world by land and reaching China from India or India from China was simply next to impossible in olden times as its today also. And one wonders how could Buddhism reach China, as early as during 1st Century B.C. or even before that. But however difficult Tibet might be to cross, some scholars presume that the Sichuan fabric and qiong bamboo from Yunnan that reached Bactria in the 2nd century B.C. should have gone on the shorter easier way via Tibet. The Chinese emperor king Wu wanted to directly contact the North East India. But the ruler or Yenan stood in his way. According to Taranath, during the attack of Bakhtiyar Khilji, in the 12th Century. Brahmins and Buddhists from Bihar and Bengal fled to the East and many of them took refuge in countries as far as South China and Combodia. This shows that there was traditional land route from North-east India to South China even before the Middle Ages.
The Chinese province Yunan is in the East of Assam. And people therefrom seem to have migrated to India long before B.C. 1000. They are the Kiratas of ancient Sanskrit literature. The Mahäbhärata refers to Kiratas as the people who reside in the Himalayas or at the borders of the then known world. It is highly probable that the people of Chinese origin were the Kiratas. The Yogini tantra (Post 18th cent.) refers to the shrine of Kamarupa as kairaateya a testimony of Kirata culture. This shows that the intercourse of North-east India and China has been through the ages dating back to centuries prior to birth of Christ. Silk we know, was first made by China. Curiously enough, Assam was famous for its silk as early as Kautilya , The king of Pragjyotispshpur sent a gift to Harshavardhana that consisted of silk. This shows that by the 6th Century Assam had learnt the art of silk making from China. Proficiency in silk making of Assam surely needed centuries of intercourse with China. The passage to China via North-East India was in vogue from the 2nd century B.C. to the 7th century and after. During the second or third century A.D. 20 monks came to the heartland of India through Si-chuan and North-East India. Sri Gupta, it is said, built a temple for them. Again, the Taiping Miscellary tells us of Indian monks passing through Chang-du during the Xiao Tong period (A.D. 860-874). These monks preached Buddhism in China. The figures of Lord Buddha and the monks in the Jui-chuang grottoes bear testimony to that. Xuan zang reached Kamarupa. There he met the king Bhaskarvarma, who told him about the popularity of Chinese song in Assam. 10
Thus the route to China through North East' India and Sichuan, was in use since time immemorial. And of course Buddhism was disseminated in the Southern China, through this route.
But, the ceascless flow of Buddhist monks and scholars up and down China, from India seems to have taken place along the silkroad. The stuc Route Since time immemorial, there were several routes from Rome to China along which merchandise and ideas travelled to and fro. The German geographer, Baron Ferdinand Von Richtofen coined the word silk road to mean all the routes from Rome to China. ll The overland northern route from China started from the capital Chang-an (Present Xian) in the province of Shansi and crossed the Gobi desert to the oasis of Dun-huang. There the route bifurcated into two. While the northern one passed through Hami Thrfan, Krashahra, Kucha, Aksu, Thumsuk and Kashgar, Samarkand and onwards the Southern route traversed via Miran, Cherchen, Keriya, Khotan and Yarkand to Kabul
10. Kumarraja said.....Now, through the kingdoms of Indias there are many persons who sing about the victories of the Tsin king of the Mahachina countrv. I have long heard of this. And is it true that this is your honourable birth place?" Beal, Samuel, (Si-Yu-ki) Buddhist records of Western World, Motilal Banarasidass publishers pvt. Ltd, New Delhi, 1983, pp. 197-198.
11. Thanks to the imaginative nineteenth century German Scholar, Baron Ferdinand Von Ritchtofen, we have a romantic symbol coined by the Garman word 'Seidenstransen'. It is meaningless to argue whether 'Silk Route' or 'Silk Road' is a better English translation. Rahman, A. (Ed.) India's Interaction with China, Central and West Asia, Oxford University press, New Delhi, 2002, p. 137 and onwards. Travel along these routes was in no way easier than that via Tibet or North East. Fa-hien came to India via Khotan. He dwells on crossing the desert. There was not a bird to be seen in the air above nor an animal on the ground below. Though you look around most earnestly to find where you can cross, you know not where to make your choice, the only mark and indication being the dry bones of the dead, left upon the sand. Fa-hien tells us that there were many evil demons and hot winds.
Be that as it may, Fa-hien came to India via Central Asia. And his experiences in the Central Asia is worth noting. It took 17 days for Fa-hien to reach Shen-Shen. Historians cannot identify, the country. But in all probabilities. Shen-Shen was a kingdom near Lake Lob. The country, Fa-hien tells us, was rugged and hilly with a thin barren soil. The people spoke barbarous language there. But there were more then four thousand Buddhist monks there. They practised Hinayana. And they were students of Indian books and spoke Indian language. Fa-hien observes that in Shen-Shen as well as in the neighbouring states everyone from the common man to the king and the monk practised Buddhism.
From Shen-Shen Fa-hien went to Khotan. Fa-hien says "Khotan is a pleasant and prosperous kingdom with a numerous and flourishing population. The inhabitants all profess our law and join together in its religious music for their enjoyment. The monks amount to several myriads most of whom are students of Mahayana. Fa-hien set out from Khotan and travelled for twenty five days to reach the kingdom of Tze-hoh. Tze-hoh is not identified. S. Beal thinks that it was Yarkand. Fa-hien talls us that the king there was a strict follower of the law. There were more than a thousand monks, mostly students of Mahayana around the king. Fa-hien, there went on among the hills for twentyfive days and reached Kucha. The king there held a great quinquennial assembly of monks where he gave away wealth. Fa-hien says that the monks there came in throngs like clouds. The country was in the midst of the Onion range Fa-hien says that as one went forward from these mountains the plants trees and fruits were different from those of the land of Han.
Then Fa-hien went westwards towards North India after being in the way for a month. It was in A.D. 398 that Fa-hien started from China for India. His travelogue shows that as early as during the 4th century A.D. the whole of Asia lying between North-West India and China were Buddhist countries and the elite there were students of Indian books and Indian language. It follows from this logically that Buddhism reached China via Central Asia. The Chinese texts provide the names of Buddhist saints and scholars from Bactria, Sogdia and Parthia contributing in terms of theological treatises and translations of original Buddhist texts into China. It seems that it was from Central Asia indeed that the message of Lord Buddha in the shape of translations of Buddhist texts and art and literature was carried to China.
Hence, to know how Buddhism reached China, it will not be out of place to dwell on how and when Central Asia was alight with the message of the Lord. B. N. Puri observes the term Buddhism in Central Asia connotes the Tarim Basin as well as the Oxus region and Badakshan. On the north it is bounded by Tein-Shan on the Celestial Mountain range. The snow-capped mountain range Kunlun separates it from the Tibetan plateau. To the west there is the pamirs. The Eastern and Western limits of Central Asia are not properly defined. In the east the Great Wall of China could provide an approximate line. While in the West it perhaps extends upto Iran. In fact modern Mongolia, Kazakhistan, Uzbekistan, Turlimenistan, Afganisthan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzistan, could be said to have composed the Central Asia of ancient times.
Buddhism nowadays in Central Asia.
Total Buddhist Population
Afganisthan 2% 63,780
Kazakhistan .55% 84,067
Kyrgyzstan .35% 18.495
Mongolia 94% 2.774679
Tajikistan 0.1% 7076
Turkmenistan 0.1% 50970
Uzbekistan 0.2% 55.560
Central Asia is chiefly grassland and it was very difficult to practise agriculture there. Hence for thousands of years together Central Asia was haunted by pastoral people moving here and there for fresh pastures to feed their cows, goats, camels etc. Things were however a little different in Bactria of Central Asia.
Ancient Bactria had its capital at modern Balkh of Afganisthan. The Bactrian territory however comprised of the plain between Hindukush mountain range and the river Amu Darya or Oxus. was annexed to Persian empire by Cyris the great in 6th Century B.C. Persian empire however fell when Alexander the great showed up and after two years of war Bactria became the province of the Macedonian empire. After Alexsander's demise the Macedonian empire eventually divided Consequently Bactria became a part of Selucid empire. Ptolemy Il of Egypt attacked the Selucid empire. This gave an opportunity to Didodis (B.C. 256) the then Satrap of Bactria to revolt against Selucid empire and Antiochus became independent.
While, Bactria in Central Asia was passing through political turmoil, King Asoka, the Maurya, convened the third Buddhist council in 250 B.C. at Pataliputra. And he sent the message of Buddhism to Antiochus Il Theos of Seleucid kingdom (B.C. 261-246) Ptolemy Il Philadelphos of Egypt (B.C. 285-247) Antigonas Gonatas of Macedonia (B.C. 276239 ) and other kingdoms. So it is recorded that the message of Lord Buddha first reached Bacffia of Central Asia during the reign of Asoka in the third century B.C. But we donot know what impact it had on the king and people of Central Asia. According to a legend in Pali however two merchant brothers, named Tapassu and Bhallika hailing from Bactria visited Lord Buddha and became his disciple. Then they returned to Bactria and built temples to the Buddha.
The history of Wei by Wei-Shou compiled shortly after A.D. 520. states that China first came to know about Lord Buddha and his teachings during Zhang Qiang's wide wanderings. Presently after Qiang's return emperor Wu sent a military expediüon against the Huns who lived in the north of China. During that expedition "a golden man"-an image was passed by the Chinese army. A Hun leader used to worship it. It is said that the image was installed by Emperor Wu with great reverence. Historian Wei Shou opines that this was the modest beginning of the spread of the Way of Buddha in China. Tradition says that the first Buddhist monastery in Khotan was raised around B. C. 270. Some thirty years after, in the year B. C.
240 as per tradition Asoka's son Kustana set up a kingdom in Khotan21 in the North west of Tibet. Tan Cheng and Cheng-Yeng-Zen observe that probably silkworm reached India through Si-chuan in 4th century B. C. Historical records show that China established contact by sea. with Indian state HuangZhi22 in B. C. 156-87. Zhang Qiang who has been already referred to sent emissaries to India in B. C. 119, at the instance of emperor WII. The provinicial govt. of Jin-quan sent missions to India in B.C. 104.23 Contacts between China and Kashmir started in B.C. 32.
21. "Khotan (Sanskrit and Prakrit Kustana or Kustanaka; Khotamina, Khodana or Khotana, Chinese; Chien-tun, Chu-sa-tan-na, Chu-tan, Ho-tien, Huanna, Huo-tan, Yo-tien and Yun-tan, Manchu;Ho-thian, Mongal ; Hu-tan, Oduan, Wa-duan, Wu-duan, Tibetan ; Li-yul, U-then, has a long history. The information from the Chinese Annals on the history of this place confirms the Tibetan account. A local dynasty which used the title ofVijaya had been ruling in Khotan since very early times. This dynasty was of Indian origin, as is evident from the names of its members. Buddhism was introduced in Khotan during the reign of king Vijaya Sambhava, grandson of Kustana, its founder (For a comprehensive account of Khotan in all aspects, see Stein, Aruel, Ancient khotan, oxford, 1907. Puri, B.N, op.cit. p. 20. fn. 23.
22. "The famous passage reffering to Huang-Chih or Huang-Thi in one of the earliest historical works entitled Han-Shu, Written by pan-ku (A.D. 32—92) has given Indian historians more searching questions than ascertained historical data. The Han Chinese rulears from many centuries before christ up till the time of Pan Ku had intimate contact with or ancient kingdom in the Indian Ocean recorded by the Chinese Chronicles as Huang-Thi. So far Scholarly opinion about the indentification of Huang-Zhi Varies Substantially. There are three schools of Thought.
(1) Huang Zhi was Kanchipuram.
(2) Huang Zhi was a kingdom in the delta of the Ganga.
(3) Huang-Zhi was not in India at all." Ray, Haraprasad, op.cit, p. 15.
23. "Here, I must mention the famous 'Chinese discovery of India in the Second century B.C. by Zhang Qian, Personal envoy of Han emperor Wu to the Central Asian Kingdoms. When he was in 'Daxia' , he saw Silk fabrics, the products of southwestern Chinese province of Sichuan, in the market place. He was told that the fabrics were re-exported by the Indian merchants to the hinterland of Central Asia. the likely Route of the Sichuan Silk's entry into India would be either through Tibet, or through Yun-nan and Myanmar, Given the close cultural contacts between Yun-nan and India, the latter route was a higher possibility. This closeness, perhaps was reflected in Kautilya's familiarity with and information about Chinese Silk, due to the very early trade by Indian merchants in Chinese Silk." Rahman. A. (ED.) op.cit. p. 140.
Be that as it may let us recount the story of Emperor Ming. Presently after, emperor Ming sent envoys to India to enquire of Lord Buddha and his message he learnt that his half brother was already a votary of Lord Buddha. It is said that he was fond of meeting wandering knights and traders in his youth. May be, he met some monks and merchants from foreign counü•ies who gave him the information about Buddhism. In his later years it is said that he made offering and worshipped Fou-Tu or Lord Buddha. The Chinese official met Kasyapa Matanga and Dharmaratna/Dharmaraksha in Yue-zhi24 (Kushana empire) and escorted them to the then Chinese capital Chang-an. A monastery was specially. built for them, known as White Horse monastery(Baima-si). There two Indian's officially pioneered the Buddhist Studies in China.
In fact the Bactria of the 2nd Century B.C. was over run by the Sakas. The Sakas were later vanquished by Kushanas or the Yuchi people. Kujul Kadphis, may have led the Kushanas from A.D. 25 to 50. It seems that he was a satrap under the Bactrian ruler Harmeus. His coins show that he had great respect for Buddhism. His son Vim Kadphis is considered to be the first conqueror of India. He conquered Bactria, Gandhar, and extended his kingdom as far as Jamuna. And his coins have the images of Lord Siva on them. We must not argue herefrom that Kujul or Vim were converted into Buddhism or Hinduism only after they had conquered India. It must be remembered that the influence of Buddhism or Hinduism had already reached the homeland
24. Samuel Beal writes in this context, we are told in the annals, thatthemission, numbering in all eighteen man, arrived in India and came as far as the country of the Yue-Chi. It is probable that the district reffered to under this name was the country of the Vajjis or Vrijjis, who were in all probabilityan off shoot of the northern tribe of the Yue-Chi, or White Huns of whom we have already spoken. Beal, Samuel, Buddhism in China, Asian Educational Seavice, New Delhi, 1996, p. 52.
of the Scythians. Kanishka (A.D. 76-106) inherited from Vim a vast empire that stretched from the Väkhshu to Ganges. The inscriptions of Kanishka has been found as far as in Mathurä Sãfichi and Särnath in Northern India. On the other hand excavations of Khawarizm have proved beyond doubt that his empire spread over the whole of modern Uzbekistan and Tazikistan. Thus the extent of Kanishka's empire shows that Northern India and a large part of Asia belonged to the same state. And hence, movement of ideas, religions, along with merchandise from India to Central Asia and vice versa became simply easy during his üme. The Kushana kings could be called secular in the sense, that they had great veneration for every religion whatever they knew. Kushana coins have Persian god like Mithra and Greek heroes like Herculers inscribed on them, besides that of Siva. The coins also show their high regards for Lord Buddha also. This was singularly essential for a king who rules peoples of different courfries cultures and religions. But despite his reverence for every religion, it seems that Kanishka had special leaning towards Buddhism. This is evident from the many stupas that he erected. And it was at his court that the finest luminaries of the then Buddhist world assembled.
There was Asavaghosh Parshva and Vasumitra were Kanishka's teachers. The great master of the therapentic system, Charak also adorned his court. And it was at the instance of Parshava and Vasumitra that Kanishka summoned a Buddhist Council. It was here that the texts and commentaries on SarvãstiVäda were compiled. The venue of the conference was held in Kashmir valley. Kashmir is the northern most province of modern India. Cenfral Asia begins just in its neighbourhood. The Buddhist conference in Kashmir points out that it was in fact held at a central point of the then Buddhist world where monks and scholars from Central Asia could join. At the same time, the conference helped to give a further feedback to Buddhism in Central Asia.
The Kushana empire vanished from India with the advent of the Guptas. But they continued ruling Tokharisthan till the middle of the 5th Century. Thereafter the Turks ruled over the land. They were Buddhists also. Xuan Zang had crossed Tokharistan on his way to India. And he found Buddhism vibrant with life there. Towards the eighth century the Arabs came upon the scene and Buddhism gradually waned to the vanishing point.
This Tokharian region was the hub of discussions on Buddhism A scholar named Aryachandra translated the vast work Maitreyasamititi into Tokharian Language. And there were two great scholars of Tokharistan during the Kushan period. One of them was
Ghosaka , who participated in the Buddhist conference at Purushpur Ghosakas original treatise on Abhidharma, Abhidharma Mitra by name is preserved in a Chinese translation of the 3rd century. Another scholar of the Tokharian region during Kushan era was Dharmamitra of Vinaya suü•a fame. As we have already mentiond, the first two missionaries to visit China, Kãsyapa Mâtanga and Dharmaratna were met by the Chinese envoy at Tokharistan only. Lokaksema a Buddhist monk of Tokharian origin, went to Luo-yang China in A.D. 147. He translated quite a few important texts of the Buddhist canon into Chinese. His disciple Che-Kien who was also of Tokhara continued the work of his guru in China even after the latter's demise. He translated over a 100 Buddhist Texts 49 of which still exist.
Dharmaraksa, a monk born of Tokharian family went to China in A.D. 284. He translated nearly. 200 Buddhist texts into Chinese 90 of which still exist. Another Tokharian monk named Shen Lun went to China in A.D. 384, and a number of works into Chinese. Dharmanandi from Tokhara also translated number of works . It shows that fresh waves of Buddhist thoughts continued to flow into China till the 4th Century A.D.
Kashgar in Eastern Turkestan, Situated at the junction of two routes, one leading to Khotan region and another to Kucha played a significant role in transmiting culture in ancient times. It experienced the rule of different dynasties, of different races till it was over run by the Arabs in the beginning of the 8th century. Both Fa—Hien and Xuan Zang saw Buddhism in a prosperous state here. The latter saw the predominance of Sarvïstiväda here. A great Buddhist scholar Buddhayasa came here from Kashmir. He developed a life-long friendship with Kumarjiva of Kucha. Like the latter he also went to China and worked together with Kumarjiva there. A Buddhist monk from Magadha, went to China via Kashgar in A.D. 730.
IThotan has a •unique history. It is said that a child was born to Ashoka, when he came to Khotan. On hearing a prophecy, Ashoka abandoned his child who was looked after by the Mother Earth herself. His name was Kustana. The child was eventually adopted by a Chinese king. Later the child had quarrel with his Chinese father. The child marched to Khotan with an army and founded an empire there. An erstwhile minister of Ashoka named Yasa, being estranged from Asoka also marched towards Khotan. Kustana and Yasa settled between them selves and the rule of the descendants of king Ashoka continued there in the eastern part of the country, east of the Khotan river. Curiously enough the west of the Khotan wing was under Chinese rule. The river, between the two kingdoms was jointly administered both by the Indians and the Chinese. Thus as early as in B.C. 240 Indian culture and China were next door neighbours. It is observed by ancient history of Khotan that during the rule of king Vijaysambhaba (a) the grandson of Kustana that Buddhism was spread in Khotan. It is further observed that the monk Arya Vairocana who was an incarnation of Maitreya came to Khotan and settled in a grove there. He became the kalyanamitra of the then king. Since then Khotan went through many vicissitudes of history till in the 11th Century it was conquered by the Arabs. About eight generations later than Vairocana's visit to Khotan, three arhats in Buddhaduta, Khagat0 (b) and Khegadrod (C) went from India and settled in Khotan. It seems that there were marriage alliances between Indian kings of Khotan and the Chinese royal families. Three generations after the immigration of the three arhats, the Chinese princes who was the queen of king Vijayajaya31(d)
built two monasteries for the sake of her kalyanmitra, Arya Samghaghosa.31 (e) All these show that there was constant feed back of Buddhism in Khotan from India. Very early in the history, India started exchange of ideas and culture with China through Khotan. It is said the king of Khotan had a fight with the king of Kashgarh in which the king of Kashgarh was defeated and imprisoned. Later on the king of Kashgarh was released. He became a Buddhist monk and the king of Khotan raised a monastery in his honour. Thus Khotan was a hub of Buddhism where from the message of the Lord was disseminated in Central Aisa as well. The inmates of Gosira monastery there were all Mahayanists. This has been testified by Xuan Zang as well as the Chinese translation of Buddhist text named Süryagarbha sütra 310
Embassy from Khotan went to China under emperor Wu ti China for the first time in the history of Khotan in B.C. 140-87. Then Khotan had fight with the Chinese kings. Any battle between two cultures is always a kind of communicaüon. Khotan sent embassies to China during A.D. 202 to A.D. 230, and again during A.D. 632 and A.D. 635. In A.D. 643-649, the Indian King of Khotan himself went to China in A.D. 756-757, his successor went to help China with his army. Thus the instances of coumunication between Indian rulers of Khotan and China could be multiplied.
31.(d) Ibid., pp. 51-53.
31.(e) Ibid., p. 51.
31.0 Ibid., p. 53.
A Chinese monk named Chu-She-hing came to Khotan to learn Buddhism in A.D. 259. He sent 90 bundles of Buddhist texts from Khotan to China, The texts sent home to China by Cha She hing were into Chinese by a Khotanese Buddhist scholar Moksala, who went to China in A.D. 291. An Indian monk, Sukla-räha by name perhaps, helped him in his work, Which included Pañchavimsati Sahašrikä Prajñä Päramitã, Vimalakirtinirdeša and Surar)gama sütraall canonical texts of Mahäylna. A Buddhist scholar of Mahäylna Dharmaksema hailing from Magadha was working in China. He learnt that the whole of Prajñäpäramitã sütra was available in Khotan. He went to Khotan and brought a large part of it to China. A Chinese disciple of Dharmakšema went to Khotan to study with an Indian teacher. On his return to China, he translated the texts that he had read in Khotan. They were Mahlyäna texts on dhyäna. In A.D. 439 eight Chinese monks went to Khotan for Chinese texts. A Chinese monk named Fa-ling took to China from Khotan a manuscript of Avatamshaka sütra, Another Chinese monk carried a of Saddharma Pundarika sütra to China from Khotan. Sikšãnanda (g) a scholar went from Khotan to China in A.D. 695. He translated 19 texts into Chinese, Mahãvaipulya or Avatamshaka sütra being one of them. Kuchi :
Eastern Turkistan comprised of Kuchi and its neighbouring states belonging to the same cultural milieu. The Vaibhäsika Acharya Kalyänasena wrote an important text in Kuchi language. Famous scholars Buddharalqhita, Sarvarakihita, Asokarak$ta—all of them famous Buddhist writers belonged to this region. Kuchi had intimate relation with China till A.D. 1000. Earlier, a Chinese princess was married to a Kuchi king. Often Kucha and China fought among them. In one of the battles, the Chinese general had a decisive victory over Kuchi. Consequently the Chinese general brought captives from Kuchi to China, Significantly enough one of the captives was the great scholar Kumarjiva. The kingdom of Karashar, in the neighbourhood of Kuchi which had a similar history like that of Kuchi was annexed to Tibetan empire in 8th century and then it was heard no more. Another kingdom neighbouring Kuchi, in Turfan had also a sociocultural history like that of Kuchi. It was finally annexed to China. Many of the names of the kings and people and localities in the region are Sanskrit names. For example, the kingdom, of Akini or Agni has been mentioned by the Chinese choronicles. Its kings are mentioned as Agni Maharaja. A Kuchian king's name was Suvarnadatta. His fathere was swarna. His brother had the name Hariputra and so on. We donot know when exactly Buddhism was introduced in the Kucha region. But records tell us that during 3rd century the region was vibrant with Buddhist thought and philosophy. So it can be surmised that Buddhism was introduced there not later than in the 1st century
A.D. Po-yen who was perhaps a member of the Kuchian royal family became a monk and went to China in A.D. 256-260. He translated six Buddhist text into Chinese. PO Srimitra also went from Kuchi region to China and then to South China and ü•anslated there Buddhist text between A.D. 335 and A.D. 342. The 4th century was a period of great Buddhist activites in Kucha. Kumarjiva, the great scholar was also born in Kucha during this time. His father hailed from India. But his mother was a native of Kuchi. Ironically enough he went to China as a captive. He became a great light that made China alight with the message of Lord Buddha. The above account about Central Asia shows that by the 1st Century
A.D. Central Asia in the main was swayed by Buddhism, crowded with Buddhist monks, laymen and monasteries. And it continued there till the 10th century more or less till the advent of Islam. And, when the missionaries from Central Asia went to China to desseminate Buddhism, scholars from China thronged around them to learn Buddhism. Furthermore, since the states in Central Asia were as much Buddhist as the states in India were, it was not difficult for either Indian missionaries to go to China or Chinese pilgrims to visit India. History records that a great number of missionaries went to China during the first millenium and some one hundred fiftyfour pilgrims came to India during this period. Naturally Buddhism in China and India updated each other with the passage of time during these thousand years, Let us now have a birds eye view of the philosophical and cultural state of China, when Buddhism entered there. Philosophical and Cultural State of China before the advent of Buddha
The written history of China traces back to Shang dynasty (B.C.
1700—B.C. 1046) the origins of culture, literature and philosophy of China should be fraced back to Zhou dynasty (B.C. 1045 to B.C. 256). The Zhou dynasty was the longest one in the annals of China. The Zhou were a people who lived west of Shang and a Zhou leader was appointed
as the Western Protector of Shang. The rule of the Zhou king Wu in collusion with his brother managed to defeat the Shang. He then became the king. He claimed that he had the mandate of heaven. The concept of mandate of heaven lingered in Chinese history hence. Whenever a king became unpopular, it seemed that he had been deprived of the mandate of heaven. Hence he could be removed through revolts or popular uprising. The history of Zhou dynasty passed through what the influential Chinese annal earmarks as the Spring and Autumn periods of China. It lasted between B.C. 770 and B.C. 476. The barbarians during the wake of this period attacked and ransacked the Zhou capital. Consequently the Zhou monarch now had to flee eastward. And they had to depend on a few underlords. These underlords became very powerful in course of time and the Zhou monarchs although remained the de jure monarchs, in fact they became non•fnal heads of the kingdom.
This period however was singularly significant because of the efflorercence of most of the sophisticated philosophical thoughts. The hundred schools of thoughts of Chinese philosophy showed up during the period. They include Confucianism and its different schools, Legalism, School of Yn and Yang, and other schools. Let us have a birds eye view of them.
Confucianism and its derivatives :
Confucius (a) or Kungzi looked back to the early days of the Zhou dynasty in search of an ideal socio-poliücal order. He believed that a stable and sustainable society could be set up only when the relationship between a person and another is well defined. Let the ruler be a ruler and the subject be subject. Of course he opined that the king must be virtuous. With him stratification of the society is a fact of life. And it is to be maintained by propagating ethical values. The ideal human was the Xunzi or gentleman in the light of Confucius.
Confucius claimed that his teachings were derived from the ancients, whose wisdom was enshrined in the five classics (Wu-jing).
The five classics are .
1. I-Ching or the book of changes.
2. Su-jing or Boòk of history.
3. Shih-jing or Book Odes.
5. Chun-Chin or Spring and Autumn annalect.
Confucian philosophy is best expressed in the four books Ssu-Chu: They are—-
Analect (Lun Yu)
The Docü•ine of the mean. Yong-zhu. The great learning Ta-such/Lao-tzu
The central concept in Confucian thought so far as metaphysics is concerned alludes to— Dao or Tao, the way. It speaks of the ultimate, or the one underliying power. Yin-yang—They are the dual expression of the Dao. Heaven is Yang and earth is Yin in relation to each other. But the earth has its Yin and Yang in itself and the heaven has its Yin and Yang in itself. When the earth or the heaven is studied exclusively—
Yin is female dark cool, wet, passive and negative.
Yang is male bright, hot, dry active and positive.
In most philosophies other then in Chinese philosophy dualism implies conflict. But in Chinese philosophy Yin and Yang active hermony. Sheng-Ti or god is supposed to be the original ancestor. Heaven or Tian is the divine realm. After death the forefathers live in Tian or heaven. There is always a relation between the ancestors in heaven and those who live on earth. There are good spirits Shen and evil spirits-Gui. With Confucianism human nature is inherently good. But it needs cultivation through education. With Confucianism development and perfection of human nature can be achieved only within the social and political milieu. With Confucius people suffer as because they do not follow the way of the forefathers. There is the conflict between heaven and earth. Man can get rid of his sufferings only when the harmony between the earth and the heaven in restored. Confucius's main objective was to establishe order harmony peace and happiness in this life here on earth.
Confucius underlines the moral and political purposes of earth and of music in particular. The kernel of Confucian philosophy is ethics. Because he felt the exigencey of morals and intelectual virtues in the rules and government servants.
Confucius speaks of Xun-zi or the ideal of the noble man. He must be virtuous and perfect. Confucius speaks of Chun-Tzu in which the ideals of Yi, Ren, Li, Hsiao, find consummation. Confucius says that every one should work for the common good and for universal human well being. This is man's unconditional moral obligation. It is objective and not subjective. It is absolute; it is Yi or righteousness and appropriate conduct. Ren or Virtue implies cultivation of positive feeling for all humanity.
A man must cultivate respect, sympathy, kindness and love for his fellowman. Confucius speaks of the rectification of names, or Li He tells that the peasant should be peasant and the nobility should remain noble enough. Li implies proper conduct in regards to the five constant relationship, viz.,
1. The relation between parents and child.
2. The relation between husband and wife.
3. The relation between elder brother/sister and younger brother/ sister.
4. The relation between friends.
5. The relation between king and the subject.
Confucius believes that family is the foundation of a civilized society. And the family is all right when the children respect their parents and when there is respect for experience and wisdom.
Li also implies proper practise of traditional rites. That is one should worship god ancestors, heaven, earth and spirit. One must observe the funeral services in honor of parents.
Confucius underlines the urgent need of studying and learning and specially learning music to develope culture in an individual. Right culture creates and maintains a well ordered society. Confucius wants the realization of Te or the Union of Power and Virtue in the king and his servants. The king and the servants should have lhoral goodness, rationality moderation and benevolence.
Mencius (B.C. 372—B.C. 289) or Mengzi interpreted Confucius' thought in his own way. He opined that man is innately good and a ruler cannot rule without the tacit support of the subjects. The penalty of despotic rule is the loss of the mandate of heaven. If the arbitrary rule of a king makes his subjects poverty stricken. Mencius said that the rular should be deposed. He eschewed war. War he thinks necessary only in the interest of a country's defence. Mencius also prescribed land reforms.
Mencius synthesised and developed the thoughts of Confucius and dwelled on how they could be applied. The combined work of Confucius and Mencius sank deep into the collective mind of the Chinese people and they are still the guiding principle of Chinese life, mind and behaviour even after the passage of more than two thousand years.
XunZi (B.C. 300—B.C. 237) however interpreted Confucius from a standpoint that was diametrically opposed to that of Mencius. According to Xun Zi man is at bottom selfish and he must be purged through education. Education, he says teaches one the conduct befitting one's status. With him the best govt. is authoritarian. It need not be obsessed with ethical or moral values Xun Zi's unsentimental and authoritarian leaning was the fountainhead of Legalism or the School of Law as delineated by Hun Fei Zi (d. B.C. 233) and Li (B.C. 200) They felt that man is incorrigibly selfish. Hence strict laws must be imposed upon them from above. The legalist looked upon the state as the final authority and they wanted that the state should be militarily and economically powerful, if necessary, at the cost of the people. Legalism thus served as the philosophy of imperialism.
Legalism believed that the king should rule his subjects, according to the following three ideas.
1 Fa-or the law. The law must be clearly written and made public.
Everyone should be equal before law. During the Zhou rule, in practice, there was one law for the rich and the nobility and another law for the poor. Legalism felt that this was wrong. It advised that those who obey the laws, no matter to which social strata they belong, should be rewarded. And those who break the law should be given exemplary punishment. According to the legalists it is the law that runs the state. If the law is enforced properly in a state, the king of the state will naturally be strong and powerful.
2. Legalism focusess on Shu or control. Unlike other Chinese philosophies legalism does not pin its faith on ethics and morality. Confucius wanted man to be moral. Thereby they would be law abiding. To that end Confucius emphasised the need of education. But thé legalists say that man is innately evil : so the king must have strict control over his subjects. If an officer, according to the legalists, performs more than what he has been asked to perform, he should be punished.
3. Shi or Legitimacy is emphasised by legalism. As we have already observed, with legalism it is the law and not the Idng that runs the state, so the king must have legitimacy or else he does not have the right to rule. Legalism was the guiding force of Government of the Qin dynasty. Legalism and Confucianism together developed a framework mainfest during the Han dynasty which continued till the 19th century in China. Daoism (Taoism) also developed during the Zhou period. It seems that its propounder Lao Tse was an older contemporary of Confucius, While Confucius' chief concern was man in the society, Lao Tse's concern was the individual. He showed man the way or Dao (tao) to live in harmony with nature and the supernatural world Thus Lao Tse was opposed to the rigid moralism of Confucius.
The beginning of Daoism is rather shrouded in mystery. Although tradition claims that Lao-tzu was its founder, there are scholars who wonder whether there was any man Lao-tzu by name at all. According to the tradition however Lao-tzu was born in B.C. 604 (a) The name Lao-tzu means "Old Master". He worked as a librarian. In course of time he became disgusted with the corruption of the government. He took three days to write "Tao-Te-Ching". After that he left his town for unknown destination. Tao-te-Ching has eightyone short chapters. They are loaded with paradoxes and profound teachings exhorting to live in harmony with nature. According to Daoism, Dao is the origin of everything in the Universe. Besides, Dao is the impelling law of the Universe. Dao has two components Yin and Yang. Unlike Confucius Dao does not look upon moral values as absolute. Dao avoids absolute moral judgement. With Dao moral values are relative. Daoism is not scared of death. With Daoism death is merely a transformation from one state to another. Dao looks upon nature as a harmony between Yin and Yang. Man is a part of nature. Men must live in harmony with the Dao as he seeks to thrive. The second founder of Daoism was Chuan-ju (B.C. 369 to B.C. 288). He is famous for his sense of humour, profound lessons, and stories. With him relativity of things is the central theme; every thing and every idea depends on the particular context that generates it.
The virtues as advocated by Daoism are
1. Wu-wei
2. Humility and non-competition
3. Naturalness
4. Non-aggression and passive rule.
The Daoists were not much bothered with the society, unlike Confucius. Daoism is more concerned with the individual and his happiness. The secret of happiness according to Daoism depends on how far man lives in harmony with nature. Thus while ConfuciQDisrn is a system of thought that upholds conventional values with Daoism values are relative. The main focus of Confucianism was the society, it wanted to develop social minded individual who are of high moral standard and who are humen and righteous. Family ethics and rituals are very important with Confucius. Confucius looked foreward to a sage king who could establish social and political order Xun-zi or the gentleman can help rule the state and no wander a good government can bring about good society. Daoism on the contrary does not believe in rituals and conventions. Daoism acorss government and fears progress and civilizations. Naturallism is its ideal. Unlike Confucius, Daoism does not glory in education. Education might interfere with the naturalness of man.
The wise among the Chinese, lived two hundred precent. Hundred percent the Confucian way and hundred precent according to the Dao (Tao). When they were in the society they lived a Confucian life. But when left to themselves they would cultivate the dao (tao). The dao (tao) or the path is the path of the recluse.
Mohisnt
Another philosophy diametrically opposed to Confucianism was
Mohism, that showed up during the Spring and Autumn period of
Chinese history. While Confucius believed that a man is good if he observes the prescribed behaviours. Master MO (B.C. 470-B.C. 391) said No to it. He said that whether one shows off one's grief or not, in the right manner is not the point, one must grieve at heart. The foundations of all human motives, according to him was measureless love.
Mohists pinned their faith on equality of man. They should pursue good work impelled by the right reason. Master MO said that no man is superior to another in the eyes of heaven. And everyone of us should imitate, heaven, being impartial to all and loving to all. The poor people should be honest and the rich people according to him should be benevolent. He discarded abstract logic and was all for sense perception.
Yin and Yang School
The Yin and Yang school of Philosophy dwells on how apparently opposite forces are interconnected and interdependent in the natural world. The Daoist posit that the two opposites leaped forth from the primodial emptiness. The opposites Yin and Yang are bound together as parts of a mutual whole. One cannot have the back of his hand without the front. A world with only man or only woman in impossible. Where Yin stands for the northern slope of a mountain, Yang stands for the southern slope of the mountain. Yin is female and Yang is male. They make together the family. Any cursory glance at the different schools of classical Chinese philosophy will show that they were not that much interested in any probe into the metaphysical questiony regarding life and universe. They were more interested in the do's and dont's in social life. And one of their chief concerns was human nature. Some argued that human nature is apriorily good. Others say that it is at bottom evil. A third group observe
that human nature is neither good not bad; it depends on how the society grooms him or her. Consequently, the philosophical systems flourished to the end of forging a brave new society and state where individuals are sublated. In other words their sole concern was how to raise a healthy state and society where individuals are the only valuable components. On the surface when juxtaposed with these philosophies, Daoism is a little defferent; it speaks of partial withdrawal from the society. In fine however none of these philosophies ask the individual to delve inward in order to explore the highest ü•uths of life being pent up in a cave, far from the madding crowd's ignoble strife. The great philosophers of ancient China never the less paid their respect to nature deifies and ancestors. The Gods in ancient China since, the philosophies of ancient China didnot enquire into the metaphysical fruths of the existence. They never repelled in arguments whether there are many gods are or not.
The China man's relationship with gods was rather utilitarian; no one took to spritual paths for its own sake. Here the observation of Charles Eliot is relevant—"This attitude implies not only a certain want of conviction but also a utilitarian view of religion. The Chinese visit a temple as much as they visit a shop or a doctor, for definite material purpose, and if it be asked whether they are a religious people in the better sense of the word, I am afraid the answer must be in the negative. It is with regret that I express this opinion and I by no means imply that there are not many deeply religious persons in China, but whereas in India the obvious manifestations of superstition are a superficial disease and the heart of keenly sensitive to questions of personal salvation and speculative theology, this cannot be said of the masses in China, where religion, as seen, consists of superstitious rites and the substratum of thought and feeling is small " (a)
that human nature is neither good not bad; it depends on how the society grooms him or her. Consequently, the philosophical systems flourished to the end of forging a brave new society and state where individuals are sublated. In other words their sole concern was how to raise a healthy state and society where individuals are the only valuable components. On the surface when juxtaposed with these philosophies, Daoism is a little defferent; it speaks of partial withdrawal from the society. In fine however none of these philosophies ask the individual to delve inward in order to explore the highest ü•uths of life being pent up in a cave, far from tTö madding crowd's ignoble strife. The great philosophers of ancient China never the less paid their respect to nature deities and ancestors. The Gods in ancient China since, the philosophies of ancient China enquire into the metaphysical ü•uths of the existence. They never repelled in arguments whether there are many gods are or not.
The China man's relationship with gods was rather utilitarian; no one took to spritual paths for its own sake. Here the observation of Charles Eliot is relevant—"This atütude implies not only a certain want of conviction but also a utilitarian view of religion. The Chinese visit a temple as much as they visit a shop or a doctor, for definite material purpose, and if it be asked whether they are a religious people in the better sense of the word, I am afraid the answer must be in the negative. It is. with regret that I express this opinion and I by no means imply that there are not many deeply religious persons in China, but whereas in India the obvious manifesíations of superstition are a superficial disease and the heart of keenly sensitive to questions of personal salvation anu speculative theology, this cannot be said of the masses in China, where religion, as seen, consists of superstitious rites and the substratum of thought and feeling is small " (a)
During the Shang Dynasty which dates back to B.C. 2000, the people in China worshipped different gods such as the weather gods, and the sky gods. People who lived in those days also believed that their forefathers who passed away were also like gods. And they must be worshipped. So each family used to worship its ancestors. And of course there was a higher god who ruled over all the other gods. His name was Shang-Ti. Around B.C. 500 people began to use oracle bones. Priests used them to tell the future. The earliest Chinese literature that we know probably dates back to B.C. 800 when the western Chou or Zhou dynasty was at the helm of China. It was written on silk. This is the I-Ching a fortune telling book reminding one of the oracle bones.
Around B.C. 600 under the Eastern 'Chou' dynasty and for the next two hundred years there were a tide of fresh ideas in Chinese religion. Lao-Tse or Lao-The was there he said that the people should not try to get their way by force. Instead they should learn the art of compromise and they should use natural forces in their favour. Daoists believe that there is a universal force flowing through all thoughts and all objects of all thoughts. The Daoists exhorted that a reverence for this force is essential to a happy life. But it must be noted here that Daoism is not that interested in exploring the real nature of the force. It does not elaborately dwell on how an individual could communicate with this force. The Chinese scholar Confucius we have already noted disagreed with Daoism. Confucianism holds that people should do their duties and follow their leaders and gods with all devotion. With Confucius order is synonymous with peace. If everyone does what he is told their will be no fighting. No one will be upset.
We have also already referred to two other philosophical schools of this period. One of them was the school of Mou-tzu. It prescribed that one should treat and felloman the way one treats his own family members, will bring about happiness in the society. There will I e happiness fc: everyone. The other was Legalism. It believed that people are all basically bad.
So they need to be controlled line by strict laws and harsh punishments. That is how peace and orded could be established. The Ching/Qin Dynasty (B.C.220) governed largely pinning is faith on legalism. But these philosophies didnot end the old religious practices. Everyone went on worshipping their ancestors and the Chinese gods; they kept on believing in the mandate of heaven.
The Chinese gods included the sun and the rain. There is goddess 'Ba'. She is the daughter of Heaven and the presiding deity of drought Yo-huang is the sky god. Fei-lian and 'Feng-po' are the wind gods. 'Lei-kung' and 'Laigi' are deities of thunder and lightning. 'HengO', is the moon goddess. 'Gong-gong' is the god of flood. Besides there are the river gods, each presiding over a particular river. Each mountain has a presiding deity. Millet is an important food in northern China. Houzi is the god of millet. Also ideas have their presiding gods. Thus Caishen is the god of prosperity. It helps one in business activities. Fankui is the god of butchers. Sunpi is the god of shoe makers. Thus there is a god for each profession. Then there is the god of happiness 'Fuxing' and there is the goddess goodluck Gong-de-tian.
The name of the god of teaching is 'Wei-tou'. There is the god that looks after your house. Some gods are based on Daoist ideas. Such as 'Ba-xian'. Other Daoist gods include the goddess of dawn and child birth and a god of the dead. While such religious practies had originated thousands of years before the birth of Christ, as we have alrady observed, the different philosophies of China shot forth during the warring states period.
members. That will bring about happiness in the society. There will be happiness for everyone. The other was Legalism. It believed that people are all basically bad. So they need to be confrolled line by strict laws and harsh punishments. That is how peace and orded could be established. The Ching/Qin Dynasty (B.C.220) governed largely pinning is faith on legalism. But these philosophies didnot end the old religious practices. Everyone went on worshipping their ancestors and the traditional Chinese gods; they kept on believing in the mandate of heaven.
The traditional Chinese gods included the sun and the rain. There is goddess 'Ba'. She is the daughter of Heaven and the presiding deity of drought Yo-huang is the sky god. Fei-lian and 'Feng-po' are the wind gods. 'Lei-kung' and 'Laigi' are deities of thunder and lightning. 'HengO', is the moon goddess. 'Gong-gong' is the god of flood. Besides there are the river gods, each presiding over a particular river. Each mountain has a presiding deity. Millet is an important food in northern China. Houzi is the god of millet. Also ideas have their presiding gods. Thus Caishen is the god of prosperity. It helps one in business activities. Fankui is the god of butchers. Sunpi is the god of shoe makers. Thus there is a god for each profession. Then there is the god of happiness 'Fuxing' and there is the goddess goodluck Gong-de-tian.
The name of the god of teaching is 'Wei-tou'. There is the god that looks after your house. Some gods are based on Daoist ideas. Such as 'Ba-xian'. Other Daoist gods include the goddess of dawn and child birth and a god of the dead. While such religious practies had originated thousands of years before the birth of Christ, as we have alrady observed, the different philosophies of China shot forth during the warring states period.
China Presentsly Before the Advent of Buddhism
The warring states period (B.C. 476-221) followed the Spring and Autumn. It was the period where seven powerful states continuously fought with one another. The warning state period was followed by Qin Dynasty, which lasted for 15 years only from B.C. 221 to B.C. 296. But during this time, Emperor Qin managed to subdue great parts of what constitutes the Han Chinese homeland. He united them under a strict legalist system.
The advent of Li-ssu to power as the prime minister of Qin state was significant. Li-ssu was a legalist and he persuaded Qin Shi-huang to suppress intellectual dissent. A few Confucian scholars protested and four hundred fifty of them were buried alive. At the instance of the Lissu the king ordered the destruction of historical records and literature in B.C. 213. The Confucian texts were also Because they thought that the Confucian texts would stand in the way of the absolute power of the king. Only books on agriculture, medicine and prophecy were ignored; they were not desfroyed.
The Qin dynasty fell but since many of the books were already destroyed, the task upon Han dynasty that followed the Qin Dynasty was to reconstruct the old philosophies. And Tung-Chung-shu (B.C. 179144) was the most important figure in this context" His thought integrated Yin-Yang cosmology into a Confucian ethical framework. In fact the Han philosophies seemed to be a-bit eclectic. Liushun a Confucianist said that the good for all the philosophical systems was the same. The stand point of the philosophies were however different.45
44. Raju, RT., Introduction to Comparative philosophy, Motilal Banarasidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi, 2007, p. 134, 45. Ibid., p. 135.
It was Tung-Chung-shu who was mainly responsible for initiating the Han emperors into Confucian lore. He worked for setting up institutions on the basis of Confucianism. It was he who helped to introduce the Chinese system of examinations for appointment in Government service. Earlier the nobility would be in the Government. But now the commoner can rise to high status by doing well in the examinations. Tung was the exponent of the New Text school. It considered Confucius as a divine figure and the spiritual ruler of China. It upheld that Confucius started the evolution of the world towards universal peace. In contrast there was the Old Text school. It refuted the assumption that Confucius was god like figure. It considered Confucius as the greatest sage but simply a human and mortal. Wang-Chung (A.D. 207 to 100) the most powerful philosopher of the 'Old Text School' argued against supersitions. Wang was not in favour of referring to past and the ancient sages. He thought that the present is always better than the past. He believes in fate. Often good conducts do not bring about happiness to the man who behaves. This is because of fate. If fate so decress a man who is responsible for bad conduct may not be punished in the life on earth. During the Han dynasty Daoism also revived. Chronological Table : Below we give the Chronology of the development of Chinese thought till the advent of Buddhism in China in the 1st Century A.D.
King Year
Huang Ti, Yellow Emperor, c. 2697 B.C.
Yao, Emperor c. 2357 B.C.
Shun, Emperor
Yu, Emperor
Chou Kung, Duke of Chou
Confucius, Interest in human relationships.
Yang Chu, Absolute affirmation of man.
Lao, Tzu, date uncertain, Founder of Taosim.
MO Tzu, Founder of Mohism.
Shang Yang, Legalism.
Shen Pu-Hai, Legalism.
Shen Tao, Legalism
Mencius, Confucian ethical idealism.
Chuang Tzu, Taoism.
Hsun Tzu, Confucian realism.
Han Fei Tzu, Regorism and legalism.
Hui Shih, Dialectician.
Tsou Yen, Yin-Yang School.
Li Ssu, Regirism and Legalism.
Burning of Books, 213 B.C.
Tung Chung-Shu, Confucian Old Text School.
Liu Hsin, Confucian Old Text School.
Wang Chung, Naturalist and critic.
Elffi•y of Buddhism, 1st century.
c. 2255 B.C.
c. 2205 B.C.
c. 1200 B.C.
c. 551 B.C.
c. 500 B.C.
c. 479 B.C.
4th century B.C.
4th century B.C. 4th century B.C. c. 372-289 B.C.
c. 369-286 B.C. c. 298-238 B.C.
3rd century B.C.
3rd century B.C.
3rd century B.C.
3rd century B.C. 179-104 B.C.
c. 1st century B.C.
c. 27-100 A.D.
The Han dynasty came upon the scene in B.C. 202. It was during Han dynasty that the teachings of Confucius was assimilated into public
Emperor Wu, repelled the Hun attacks. He sent expeditions to Caspian Sea. He sent embassies to befriend Central Asian powers. He opened the silk route to the West. It was during his period only that the news of Lord Buddha came to China. It was emperor Wu, who conducted an imperial examination for recruitment of the officials. This is how Chinese bureaucracy started as early as in the B.C. 140 along Confucian lines.
In A.D. 9 there was an uprising against the Han dynasty. But the rebel government didnot last long. Emperor Guan-gun revived the Han dynasty with the help of land holding families and this Eastern Han dynasty lasted upto A.D. 220. It was during the rule of emperor Ming the second son of Emperor Guan-gun, that Buddhism entered China with royal approval.
