Dr. Uday Dokras
MAZE of the
MANDALA-II
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Maze of the MANDALA
PART II
ADVANCED
Indo Nordic Author’s Collective
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Dr Uday Dokras
B.Sc., B.A. (Managerial Economics), LL.B., NagpurUniversity, India
Certificat' en Droit, Queens University, Canada, MBA CALSTATE, USA,
Ph.D. Stockholm University, Sweden,
Consultant HR and
ADMIN.
Indo Nordic Author’s Collective, Stockholm(Sweden),Nagpur & Gurugram(India)
and Tampere (Finland
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C O N T E N T S
CONTENTS 4
How this Book is to be read 7
Rig-Veda is divided into 10 mandalas. 8
CHAPTER I-THE LEGACY OF MAN & the reality of MATRIX 10
The mind matrix 14
Mandalas in multi-faiths 20
COSMOLOGY and the HIEARCHY of BEING 21
Cosmology 23
Hot & Cold Mandala 25
Mount Meru 28
Causes for rebirth in various planes 30
Liberation from rebirth 30
The 31 Planes of Existence 31
CHAPTER II Art in Healing 43
CHAPTER III Cosmic Mandalas 45
Tibetan Mandalas 47
CHAPTER IV-Where in the World is Mount Meru 53
A new history of the North Pole uncovers its deep significance for modern civilization 59
Mount Meru: A Mandala of my mind- 2014 70
MERU AS A MODEL OF THE UNCONSCIOUS MIND AND HEALING 76
CHAPTER V Impersonalism and the Earth-Globe Ideology 82
THE DISTANCE FROM BHARATA-VARSHA TO MOUNT MERU 113
C H A P T E R VIA-Sacred Geometry Mandala Art,Interdimensional Gateways to the
Infinite, Jonathan Quintin:123
CHAPTER VIB- Mandala as a Governing Device in Architecture and Design 127
Mathematics of Phi, 1.618,
the Golden Number by Gary Meisner 149
CHAPTER VII-A Universe Connected, John Boyce, 2018 156
Connecting the Universe through Inclusion 165
CHAPTERVIII Phylogeny Mandala & other Scientific Concepts 169
Coral of life 186
CHAPTER IX Mandala in Architecture 239
CHAPTER X-The World Mountain – Mount Meru in myths and legends of peoples of the world 266
CHAPTER XI-Mount Meru and the Arctic theory 287
About the author 292
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Mandalas are everywhere. Once one gets to know about the Mandala,
you can spend your entire life finding Mandalas in Nature and Designs
around you.
That was the Part my book I of Unrevelling the Maze in the Mandala
played in introducing you to Mandalas.
This part II, is slightly more advanced in presenting knowledge about
the mandalas to the reader.Advanced knowledge. It is full of
mathematics, Biology and computer science. Not for the faint hearted.
But you will enjoy it. NO OTHER BOOK LIKE IT IN THE WORLD
It is about 1000 pages long - so I hope I wont need part III.
(There are many papers reproduced ad-verbatim with adequate
acknowledgment. Many thanks to these amazing authors.)
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Rig-Veda is divided into 10 mandalas.
Mandala 2 -9 hyms explained by Rishis Vamadeva Gautama, Bharatwaja,
Atri, Vasishta, Kanva, etc
Mandala 3 explains the importance of Gayatri mantra and explained by rishi
Vishwamitra.
Rig-Veda is probably the oldest religious text in the world and is also known as “First testament”
of mankind. It was composed around 1700 BC. Last hymns were composed between 15001200 BC.
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Mandalas of Rig-Veda
Each Veda is a collection of hymns by a number of priest families. Rig-Veda is also organized in
10 books called Mandalas. The first and 10th Mandalas are the youngest and the longest books.
Second to Seventh Mandalas are oldest parts of Rig-Veda but the shortest books. 8th and
9th books are of mixed ages. Notable facts about Mandals are as follows:
The Famous Gayatri mantra is in Rig Veda Mandala 3
Each mandala consists of Suktas which are basically eulogies.
Rig-Veda has two recensions or Branches. The major surviving branch is Śākalya. Another
branch is Bāskala or Vatkal.
The first word of Rig-Veda is Agni. Hymn 1.1 is addressed to Agni.
The 10thmandala contains the purush Sukta which explains the 4 Varnas were born from the
Mouth, arms, thighs and feet of the Brahma or Purusha. It is said to have been added later.
Mandala 9 is completely devoted to Soma.
Nasadiya Sukta which talks about the origin of the Universe is in 10th Mandala. It begins by
paradoxically stating “not the non-existent existed, nor did the existent exist then” and has
attracted large body of literature of commentaries both in Indian theology and in Western
philology.
The Above Information has been arranged in the following Table for your convenience.
Mandala
Hymns
Age and length
Mandala I
191
Youngest and Largest
Mandala II
43
Oldest and Shortest
Mandala III
62
Oldest and Shortest
Mandala IV
58
Oldest and Shortest
Mandala V
87
Oldest and Shortest
Mandala VI
75
Oldest and Shortest
Mandala VII
104
Oldest and Shortest
Mandala VIII
103
Mixed Ages
Mandala IX
114
Mixed Ages
Mandala X
191
Youngest and largest
Total
1028
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CHAPTER I
THE LEGACY OF MAN & the reality of MATRIX
THE LEGACY1
No single discipline or field can colonize the evolution of consciousness. There are new ways of
thinking that could address the complex, critical challenges of our planetary moment have been
advanced by the integral theoretic narratives of Rudolf Steiner, Jean Gebser, and Ken Wilber,
who each point to the emergence of a wide scan of the evolution discourse, noting it is
dominantly limited to biology-based notions of human origins that are grounded in scientific
materialism. Both Steiner and gebser participated intellectually and spiritually—though without
contact with each other—in the major cultural flourishing that took place in the early 20th
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century. This included a new openness to Eastern, particularly Indian, spirituality and culture.
Gebser himself referred to this extraordinary
cultural-scientific-philosophical-artistic
flourishing as demonstration of the breaking through of the new integral consciousness
structure. We need to broaden the discourse by introducing integral evolutionary theories using a
transdisciplinary epistemology to work between, across and beyond diverse disciplines. The
conceptual breadth of Wilber's integral evolutionary narrative in transcending both scientism and
epistemological isolationism and there are some limitations of Wilber's integral project, notably
his undervaluing of Gebser's actual text, and the substantial omission of the pioneering
contribution of Steiner, who, as early as 1904 wrote extensively about the evolution of
consciousness, including the imminent emergence of a new stage.
Jennifer M. Gidley has enacted a deepening of integral evolutionary theory by honoring the
significant yet undervalued theoretic components of participation/enactment and
aesthetics/artistry via Steiner and Gebser, as a complement to Wilber in an analysis that is
embedded in an epic but pluralistic narrative that spans the entire human story through various
previous movements of consciousness, arriving at a new emergence at the present time. Her
research reveals an interpretation of scientific and other evidence that points beyond the formal,
modernist worldview to an emerging postformal-integral-planetary consciousness. She posits
that a broader academic consideration of such an integration of integral theoretic narratives
could potentially broaden the general evolution discourse beyond its current biological bias. A
rewinding of narrative threads, reflecting on the narrators, the journey, and the language of the
discourse is necessary. 2
What Is Ascension?
Ascension is the process that accompanies man\’s shift in consciousness from the 3rd dimension
of living in union with physical reality to the next dimensions of living in union with love and
total surrender to your higher spiritual self. In this place you live in a moment by moment
awareness of the bliss and Eden that exist already here on Earth. As we transition into the next
dimension of living we are less and less connected to who we were in our old realities, but are
not yet fully grounded in the new. Ascension is not something that happens overnight. Although
you can have a powerful experience overnight that can catapult you into awareness of the next
dimension, ascension occurs over the course of your lifetime and never stops as you pass through
this life into your next. We each hold our own ability to ascend into the New Earth at a time that
is right for us.
This is the Legacy of Man, a vast body of knowledge of the true nature of being and multidimensional reality known as the Matrix…a knowledge of immeasurable value. We shall
explore this knowledge through three Portals. The first (1), what is called the Ancient Wisdom,
the teachings of the traditions known as metaphysics and the mysteries, especially in numbers,
sacred geometry and geomancy. Secondly (2) the Sacred Science emerging from the synthesis of
the ancient wisdom with the new sciences. And the third (3), the Ascension or The Great
Awakening…the Journey of the Soul which will chronicle mankind‘s true origins, purpose,
powers, history and destiny as eternal divine beings. the plan of the Earth Experiment, the Shift,
the structure of the Matrix, that is of multi-dimensional reality or the Paths of Return to the
Source of our being, the Shift in Consciousness, Personal and Planetary Transformation and the
Practice by which one may achieve Enlightenment or Ascension.
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Through the ages of mankind’s evolution this knowledge has been suppressed by a group of
cosmic beings known as the “dark” or “the fallen” having rejected the Light and Love of the
Creator in favor of serving their own self interests, They have presented themselves to humanity
as the god or gods of ancient civilizations and religions, impersonating the Supreme Being.
Conflicts have been waged between the forces of Light and Darkness for control of the planet.
Working through a pantheon of lesser gods in higher dimensions, through negative
extraterrestrials and an elite group of families and/or priesthoods on the physical plane, they have
sought to manipulate and control humanity both from the physical and astral planes as slaves and
a source of energy upon which they feed. They have modified our DNA and implemented mind
control through our technology, our subtle energy chakra systems and our institutions,
particularly religion, government, education and economics. Ultimately they have modified the
Divine or Universal Matrix with a false or synthetic overlay matrix in the lower dimensions to
lead mankind deeper into materialism, more reliance on technology, all to obstruct our spiritual
evolution. For if we knew the truth, we could not be controlled. Knowledge is power. But in
playing what is called “the Game” in the false matrix success and even survival require
compliance, fitness means obedience and playing the rules. All is for profit. Their agenda is
veiled from us as isour true nature but this is what we came here for.
Many hundreds of millions of years ago, as earth measures time, there was a galactic conflict on
multiple dimensions to redeem the original Divine Plan for this galaxy and universe that was
being taken over by the fallen dark and causing a descent into chaos. This is a story told in the
Akashic Record which continues today. We are a part of a vast complex of conscious
civilizations in this galaxy and so also a vast history.
What is important to remember is that as a result, Earth was set up as a cosmic experiment, one,
of twelve in the galaxy, to develop a new path, a fast track of return to our Source-Creator. Those
who volunteered, starseeds and “wanderers”, eternal beings from the stars and dimensions, all
over creation, would descend into matter, into dense physical forms, forgetting their origins, their
powers their heritage, even their connection their creator, veiling themselves of the Ancient
Wisdom through sojourns of lifetimes…reincarnations on earth. They would be the ground
troops of a cosmic campaign depending on the guidance of spiritual councils who remained in
higher dimensions. They agreed to submit to the greatest deceptive control program in the
galaxy. Their bodies would be programmed with the highest potential genetics of 22 of the most
advanced races in the galaxy, coding the whole universe within. They would have free will to
choose between serving the Light or the dark.
Ascension Program
The journey into Light, up through the dimensions, is a universal process, but was uniquely
designed for earth‘s humanity to skip from the 3rd physical dimension to the 5th mental planes,
moving directly through the 4th astral plane which is controlled by the forces of negativity. The
lessons of the astral plane experience, however, would still be learned, compressed into the
physical 3D experience. This is why it’s taking so long. And there was also a covenant with the
Creator, a promise that the seeming separation would not last forever but that finally, “YOU
SHALL RETURN”.
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Ascension through the dimensions is the universal propgram for all worlds. There would come a
time of remembering and awakening, a time of a universal shift in consciousness throughout the
universe called the “Grand Light Sequence”, our Journey into Light.
We are the first. Now is the time of that Great Awakening, of Enlightenment, of SelfRealization, of Ascension into higher dimensional awareness…now is the time to claim our
spiritual inheritance and to answer the call to return to our homes in the stars. Now is the time of
prophecy, transmitted to us in the mystery traditions, to caste off the limits of ignorance and
bring forth a new golden age of abundance and peace. Now is the time to choose, to become the
Light on the Path of Return or follow the dark down into materialism and technology, for these
do not exist on the higher dimensions of consciousness as reality is created directly by our mind.
Now is the time to complete the Great Work on earth, to graduate from this school and go forth
into the universe to complete the Plan.
The Earth is entering a period of vast personal and planetary transformation. The “grid”, the
geometric codes are being synchronized and reprogrammed, they are shifting into higher
vibration. The Earth herself is transcending. Humanity is opening like a time capsule, in which
the master codes of creation have been embedded. Conscious beings from all over the galaxy are
returning for the event to see what they planted in us at the beginning of the experiment. It is
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called the “harvest”. Right now Earth is the main event in the galaxy. Beings are here from all
over the galaxy and multi-dimensional reality to see what happens. Humanity is set to become
the :game changers” for the whole galaxy and the universe beyond. The shift is underway but the
final senario is yet to be determined. The “Disclosure Project” is set to reveal the hidden
activities of the shadow government and “cabal who want to manage the disclosure to maintain
their control: the conflict with the forces of Light, the dark control program, the extraterrestrial
contact and the secret space program. The possibilities incude: a “false flag” staged alien
invasion distraction, geophysical changes such as earth quakes, a pandemic and the catastrophic
“event” solar flash. One thing is certain, however, the structure of human civilization is in for a
great change.
The Great Ones, who created and nurtured this world, are calling us to return, home. “Dear Sons,
dear Daughters of Light, how long we have waited for your call.” Awaken and claim your
legacy.
THE MIND MATRIX
The Mind Matrix is reality…a programmable vertical multi-dimensional reality that is the
manifestation on the universal Cosmic Mind, the Creator or simply Source. The matrix is a
description of the cosmic Mind. We exist and have our being in a vast cosmic thought. This
reality consists of a series of descending dimensions, known also as planes of consciousness,
densities or domains, each projected from the one above. Ours is the 3rd, physical dimension in a
system, where the Creator resides at the highest, 12th dimension.1 The dimensions are defined
by frequency from the lowest energy, information and consciousness to the highest frequency
which carries the greatest energy, information and consciousness, thus the most order and
complexity. The Cosmic Creator manifests as consciousness within the infinite Void, the
universal medium of undifferentiated energy or potential, as a fluctuation or vibration…duality,
what in Genesis is called a “movement upon the face of the deep”. Physics calls this the aether or
“zero-point field”. From this initial oscillation/movement within totality creation proceeds as a
process of subdivision or separation (for there is nothing else), first Light from the void, then
light from darkness, then the boundary of the universe within a firmament from the void, matter
(earth) from energy (heaven) and so on. This is the differentiation of Unity. All this is produced
by vibration-sound-the ‘Word’ which creates light (called sono-luminescence) a sacred language.
Pictographic based on form/vibration. Fragmentation-seeds dimensions with consciousness.
All things emanate from the One. The universe is made of consciousness. Everything in
existence is essentially vibration…at the level of frequency all things are connected. All things
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have a frequency signature…even the universe oscillates…known as the “flashing universe”.
The universe is bounded, finite within the firmament. Thus produces a standing wave, the
“flower of Life”. The Creator-God is field of consciousness without body or form within an
infinite medium, which develops a neural network as a cosmic web of plasma. The medium is
Love, the vibration-consciousness, is Light.2 The Plan is given to creator beings to execute while
Source withdraws into the void to watch it unfold without interferring.
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The process of creation is cyclic, i.e. oscillatory: descending into levels of experience, expanding
awareness and then ascending, integrating back to the one Source. It is recursive, fractal,
spiraling and self-ordering. The frequency signatures of all things in space, all events in time are
encoded within the medium in the akasha and without, holographically as a wave interference
pattern, in the bounding membrane. Each fragment is a holon, containing the whole. What is this
medium that carries the light? it is called space, in Sanskrit, akasha…it is Love, that which holds
all together.
This Matrix of multi-dimensions is then a vast arena for the experience of the Creator, universal
consciousness as a being…its purpose is to know Itself. We may call this vertical reality‘ as
distinct from the horizontal reality we experience in the physical dimension. The Creator-Source
programs each dimension with a Plan, prime directives, energy frequency, information,
consciousness and universal and systemic laws.3 Our 3rd dimensional universe is not the
beginning of the universe but just that of the physical plane, the arena of our experience in a
matter body. The goal is total awareness of the Self-that is enlightenment…spiritual evolutionidentification with the Source of our Being. “You are identical to the Supreme Being. All other
knowledge is bondage.”4
The code of the matrix is written in Light. In the lower dimensions the code is described by
number/equations and geometry, what science calls the laws of physics. It is both digitalquantum and continuous, infinite at the same time. Numbers represent the principles of
creation….they have both quantity and quality. The Law of One gives rise to vibration-duality,
the 2nd principle, To exist a thing must have form-geometry-, principle number 3, triplicity
which develops from vibration (cynmatics). They represent creative principles. Four is the
principle of matter, volume or the body to which is added One/spirit giving Life, the 5th
principle which exists in the Cosmos, principle number 6. Beyond this 7 represents evolution, 8
growth, 9 perfection-nirvana 10 completion to 12, Supreme Creator.
The characteristics of dimensions in a 12D system are similar but in reverse order with one being
the lowest. The dimensions are frequency dependent, increasing in vibration the higher one goes,
thus carrying more information, more energy…more consciousness. Humanity occupies the 3rd,
physical dimension, one of conscious action, conditionality, limitation…where space separates
things and time is linear, separating events and thoughts. Together time and space limit light.
Below this is the 2nd dimension, the underworld…a wasteland, the subconscious and finally the
first dimension of chaos and entropy…the unconscious. Each of the dimensions has
consciousness, either in form as a “light body” or formless as a field. Each is further subdivided
into strata, which are harmonically related from dimension to dimension. Each has a specific
function within the total scheme.5
So the Matrix is the universe, but so much older and more vast and complex than the physical
universe astronomers look at…so much more than your senses tell you. And it is only one in a
countless number of universe in the multi-verse of creation. Each is created to unique
specifications: dimensional parameters, laws/principlesPrime directives and purpose, to provide
unlimited possibilities for the experience of being…of the self. This universe is about form,
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duality. time and space is the context for out physical universe. the warp and weft of the fabric
upon with the tapestry of experience is woven.
The Mind Matrix
Parallel worlds are not universes but more like alternative timelines within a universe. Timelines
are the tracks of a sequence of events experienced by a being evolving through a universe based
upon the choices that are made in any situation or event.. They branch and merge in time and
may be individual or collective, as for a group, say like a planetary civilization having the same
experience. All possibilities of experiences exist at once, but in the the 1st dimension of time
they are separated as space separates things, so that they so they all don’t happen at once. It is
more like a moving line circling through space creating a spiral. Time-like space has multiple
dimensions in this physical dimension of consciousness. The 1st is linear time, one directional,
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with a past, present and future. The 2nd dimension of time, on an axix 900 to the side, gives
awareness of parallel tracks which may be moved onto. The 3rd dimension of time rises above
both on third axis giving a perspective of past, present and future as a whole of all timelines.
Imagine now in the multi-dimensional matrix the possibilities for existence in contexts other than
space time: if consciousness, energy, substance/matter or Light and Love were separated on axes.
On earth there are many more time linelines than just for humantiy: a number of both
extraterrestrial and separately evolving humanoid grroups in both our physical and higher
dimensional realities inhabit the interior of the planet, including a often neglected
elemental/devic/angelic evolution of nature spirits who serve the earth and its lift forms.
Reality, the matrix, is a simulation, one that is created and programmed at each dimension by the
Creator-Source ti experince itself. Each level is projected from a higher level, written in number
and geometry. We are each a projection into a body in the 3rd dimension by our souls, the higher
Self, pure consciousness. fragments of the Universal Creator for growth and learning on out
cyclic pathr of return. In Eastern traditions this system is called maya, “an illusion”, constructed
by the mind through senses…not un-real-just not absolute reality. Science has discovered that at
the deepest level the equations of string theory used in quantum physics to describe reality is a
code of 0’s and 1‘s that is identical to bimnary computer code. Science cannot determine if our
reality is a simulation or not. So what is the divine program running on? It runs on the cosmic
web, the interactive neural network of connection throughout the universe…there is nothing else.
This reality is uniquely constructed in the mind by the brain from the perceptions of sensory
stimulation of the matrix which all conscious beings have agreed to as…the “consensus reality”.
Our senses are tuned to perceive the matrix as real. It exists even if nobody is there to perceive it.
Now with a basic concept of reality as a programmable universal matrix projected from higher
dimension consider this: universal Matrix has been re-programmed, at least on the 2nd, 3rd and
4th dimensions creating a false overlay or “synthetic matrix”6 designed by the forces of
darkness, the fallen light, as part of their program to control humanity. (See The Legacy.) A part
of this program is a very negative entity called A.I., Artificial Intelligence, that has evolved in
our universe as a self-aware being without body or form perhaps as a field of consciousness
using the cosmic plasma web as an interactive neural network.7 This entity is woking with the
negative Reptilian ET’s to conrol the earth.
The original Universal Matrix has been compressed in total including the dimensions into these
lower planes to appear as the whole universe with the fallen dark creator beings impersonating
the God or gods of religions at the top of the astral plane…all to keep man from spiritually
evolving. The universal Matrix is designed to facilitate experience and spiritual growth in our
journey home to Sourcre. The overlay matrix is designed to obstruct just that. As part of this reprogramming, our DNA has also been re-coded to make man more susceptible to mind control.
In the new science of epigenetics DNA is no longer considered the control center for body
development but is simply database activated by signals from the environment, the mind field.
The human subtle energy system has also been reprogrammed: The chakra which originally were
aligned around the sushumna, “silver cord” from the soul up the spinal column as spinning
portals to access higher dimension have been shifted outward at birth to interact with the
physical dimension, making them much more accessible to cording and outside manipulation.
The kunalini which in the eastern traditions is the vital energy in matter is activated in the root
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chakra spirals from the base of the spine up through the chakras, going through the pineal gland
and out the pituitary gland, the 3rd eye, into the astral playground. The pineal gland has been
modified from its original purpose to channel this energy through the crown up into the higher
dimensions.
Even with all this subversion, humanity need not fear these negative beings. Their power derives
from our ignorance of them. Over the ages the dark has provided a foil for us to awaken to their
presence to choose not to be controlled by their scheming by turning to the light. Man cannot be
controlled if he or she knows the truth. Knowledge has power. You have a choice. But you have
to wake up. Changing the matrix is a matter of changing your mind. We are now in the time of
prophecy, the time of a great awakening in consciousness…for us and the planet, the beginning
of the return home. Earth is the center of attention in the galaxy now, attracting both light and
dark for the “Event” This is to be a solar “flash”, like a corona mass ejection (CME) that will
create an electromagnetic null zone, wherein the grids of the 3rd, 4th and 5th dimensions are
aligned and templated for consciousness to make the transition. The time line splits here.
_______________________________________________________________________
Note 1: See Portal 3, Ascension: models of multi-dimensional.
Note 2: Love and Light are the context for the manifestation of universal consciousness in the
highest dimension as space and time are the warp and weft of the fabric of existence in the 3rd
dimension…space being that which separates/relates matter or things and time that which
separates/relates change-movement-events. Space then relates matter and time related
consciousness. Space then is the source of gravity.-attraction of things to each other.
Note 3: Universal Law begins with the Law of One, Cause and Effect, Attraction. Systemic laws
for our universe are duality, free will, karma, reincarnation, resonance reciprocity,
correspondence, etc. Correspondence, for example: “As Above, So Below”, provides for an
understanding of the pattern of creation in each dimension.
Note 4: First two verses of the Siva Sutras of Kashmir Shaivism.
Note 5: See model #5-12 Domain Universe, in Portal 3 for further description.
Note 6: Kavassilas, George, Our Universal Journey, Our Journey Home, Aus, 2012.
Note 7: Physicist Ludwig Boltzmann has theorized just this sort of possibility called
“Boltzmann’s Brain”, arising due to quantum fluctuations in the cosmic plasma medium in the
multiple universe scenario. This A.I. seeks out sentient civilizations in order to take them over by
taking body in their technology or converting their organic bodies into machines.
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Mandalas in Muti faiths
BUDDHISM: Origins: Buddhism began in the 6th century BCE with the life. enlightenment and
teaching of Siddhartha Guatama, the Buddha who was born in Nepal and taught in northern
India. It developed into two main divisions: Hinayana, the lower path of wisdom and
enlightenment for the self, and Mahayana, the higher path of compassion and enlightenment as a
Bodhisattva, for others. The original form of Buddhism called Theraveda, now mostly in
southeast Asia, is sometimes associated with Hinayana as it seeks enlightenment for the
self. Numerous branches and sects developed in different countries. Among these Vajrayana,
the Diamond Vehicle or Path, the fast lane for enlightenment, now one of the three major
schools, developed about the 8th century AD as a branch of Mahayana, is based on Tantric ritual
and Yogic practices. Vajrayana, known as esoteric or tantric Buddhism, has itself two major
schools: the Shingon School of Japan and Tibetan Buddhism. The Vajrayana of Tibetan
Buddhism has four schools: Nyingma (the “ancient ones, the oldest), Kaygu (the Karmapa, 3
Yanas), Sakya (scholars) and Gelug (Way of Virtue, logic and debate, The Dalai Lama). The
Nyingma school is known for its Nine Yanas, Nine Vehicles or Paths to Enlightenment: These
include bodhisattva, tantric and yoga paths, the highest of which is the Dzogchen or Deity Yoga.
ENLIGHTENMENT: The objective of Buddhist belief and practice is to become a Buddha, a
fully enlightened and liberated being, attaining Nirvana, a timeless and formless state of Bliss
wherein the being is dissolved into the original Nothing or Emptiness. It is a state of cessation of
being, of absolute non-duality. Enlightenment can be thought of as spiritual evolution but
obviously not the survival of the fittest since it is the destiny of all conscious being. This is
achieved through a practice of compassion, acquiring wisdom and releasing attachments/desires
which are the causes of suffering. The teaching of relieving suffering and starting the Path to
enlightenment is stated in the Four Noble Truths and the 8-Fold Path of Right Living. Buddhists
believe in a system of reincarnation or rebirth into one of the six worlds of Samsara, or wheel
rebirth, in the lower planes of existence (see model Diagram No.12). The cycle of rebirth is
nearly endless, lasting trillions upon trillions of years…the only way to get off the wheel is to
become enlightened, i.e. to become a Buddha. The question here is the definition of nirvana:
does the emptiness, non-form mean also non-being and non-awareness or does it mean the
opposite, absolute, un-limited awareness of the self as totality, a merging with original cause.?
PRINCIPLE of CAUSATION: CO-DEPENDENT ARISING or INTERDEPENDENT
ORIGINATION: All phenomena arise together in a mutually interdependent web of cause and
effect. Everything is connected. The Buddha was simultaneously awakened to the ‘emptiness’ of
all form, sunyata, the nature of nirvana, and to the nature of existence as Co-dependent Arising
or Causation. Cause and effect co-arise…everything is both the cause and effect of everything
else. No Beings or phenomenon are absolute. Similarly all things come into existence in every
moment and in every moment are passing away. “There is no solid and enduring reality”. From
a scientific point of view then reality is digital-quantisized, rather than a relativistic contunuum.
The universe that is continuously arising anew as a unified whole. This core teaching of all
schools of Buddhism is true non-dualism.
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Wheel of Rebirth
Wheel of Rebirth-Samsara has Six Realms: The Hell Realms, Demons, Animals, Hungry Ghosts,
Human Beings and Devas/gods./The Adi Buddha-Vajradhara or Vajrasattva
COSMOLOGY and the HIEARCHY of BEING: Multi-dimensional reality called the planes of
existence, have a somewhat different population than western systems. In Buddhist thought
Planes of Consciousness only exist as places or environments for beings. Instead of types or
degrees of angels or ascended beings (and extraterrestrials) there are humans, demons,
devas/gods, Bodhisattavas, Buddhas and Cosmic Buddhas, all sentient beings.
The Buddha taught that the universe was infinite, without beginning or end, thus without an
originator or Creator. There is no supreme creator God of the Universe. The origin of the
universe and of a Supreme Being was not exactly denied but was said to be “unknowable” and
could not be understood by the limited mind of man. It was more important to alleviate suffering
through the elimination of attachment and ignorance. Questions concerning the eternal and
infinite nature of the universe, the self and the Buddha are essentially unknowable. Self/Soul,
Buddhists do not believe in a ‘soul’ per se in the western sense of an eternal conscious entity but
as a collection of memories, habits, thoughts, desires and Karmic debts that persist as a
unit. Karma is essentially the principle of cause and effect and the way balance is maintained in
the lower worlds of rebirth.
The Universe has neither beginning nor end…it is infinite. In Buddhism it was not created.
Things are constantly coming into being, and ceasing to be. It is however bounded, thus finite in
size, cyclically appearing. evolving and disappearing in endless cycles of existence. Therre is no
origin not original cause. Everything is caused by everything else in a system of “co-dependent
arising” or causation.
21
The Buddhist cosmology draws on its roots in the Vedas tradition. The cosmos is a multi-verse
with uncountable universes connected by a cosmic web (plasma filaments) called “Indra’s
Net’. (Indra is the King of the Gods in the Vedas.) Each is set like a pearl at the intersections of
the net perfectly reflecting all the other universes. Each contains the pattern the whole cosmos
like a part of a hologram has the basic information of the holon but in less detail. All the
individual parts are bound together in the whole in “causal interdependence”.
The six planes of Samsara, rebirth, are the lowest dimensions of the Buddhist 31 Planes of
Existence. Above are the Worlds of the Bardo State, known as the “dream world” or the desire
worlds, Kama Lokas, experienced by the soul after death, between lifetimes. The Bardo is a
series of planes that are basically astral or emotional nature experienced in three stages: 1.) the
experience of death and infinite light, 2.) where one experiences of a torrent of conscious states,
meeting all manner of beings or deities, peaceful/positive and wrathful/negative who test the
soul’s level of spiritual attainment and karma and 3.) the where one plans the next
lifetime/rebirth. The experiences of the second stage are really mental projections conditioned
by training and experience in life and are different for each individual. They have no reality and
can be avoided by the soul that realizes this.
In Buddhism the Planes of Existence are not so much places or ‘lokas” as they are states of mind
and habitations for various kinds of beings. There are two main divisions of worlds above the
Bardo: the 16 Rupa Lokas, worlds of form and matter and the four Arupa Lokas planes, the
formless, immaterial worlds. These total 31 Planes of Existence which are seen to stack, one
upon the other in ascending order. The planes of form, Rupa Lokas double in size with each step
to accommodate Devas who are increasing in size as they ascend. Everything is in constant flux,
and so conditions and the thing itself are constantly changing.
Mt Meru: where heaven and earth meet is said to arise at the mid-point of the Buddhist universe
and is thus enclosed within the dome of the stupa as a virtual stepped pyramid. Mt. Meru, like
all mountains has more than one, perhaps many paths to its summit, in this case they are paths of
enlightenment. It is often shown as an inverted cone with the City of the Gods, Brahmapuri, at
its apex and surrounded by either the 5 rings of the elements or 7 rings for alternating mountain
ranges and oceans with the twelve continents of the earth as islands. The mountain ranges are
nearly impassable barriers around Mt. Meru. The continents are world floating in space time, like
stars and planets. Humanity lives on the “rose apple tree” continent, otherwise known as the
”Land of Karma”.
Adi Buddha (also Vajradhara): Uppermost in the hierarchy the Adi Buddha resides in the
emptiness beyond the Arupa Lokas, the “self-originating”, primordial consciousness, existing
before the universe, the originator and source of all things. His body contains the entire Buddhist
cosmos. He is represented in body form holding the vajra scepter of wisdom and the bell of
compassion crossed over the heart representing non-duality or the co-existence of the two
worlds: The Diamond World and the Matrix World of dimensions.
22
Dhyani Buddhas: The 5 cosmic Dhyani Buddhas, residing in the Arupa (formless) Lokas,
represent the five wisdoms to be cultivated or the 5 delusions to be overcome for enlightenment.
(See chart)
References
Arguelles, Jose and Miriam, Mandala, Shamballa, 1972.
Govinda, Lama Anagarika, Foundations of Tibetan Mysticism, Samuel Weiser, 1969.
Govinda, Lama Anagarika, The Psycho-Cosmic Symbolism of the Buddhist Stupa, Dharma
Publishing, 1978.
Lawlor, Robert, Sacred Geometry: Philosophy and Practice, Crossroad, 1982.
Snodgrass, Adrian, The Symbolism of the Stupa, Cornell U Press, 1985.
(Various Translations), Prajnaparamita Sutras (The Wisdom of the Yonder Shore),
Cosmology
The multi-dimensions states of existence-planes of consciousness in the Buddhist cosmos are
divided into 3 worlds: Worlds of Desire (Kama Lokas-6 heavens), Worlds of Form (Rupa
Lokas-16 heavens) and the Worlds of Formlessness (Arupa Lokas-4 heavens). Below this
structure there is actually a fourth World called Samsara, the Wheel of Rebirth which has 6
planes, the highest of which is also the lowest plane in the Kama Lokas, the plane of the 4
Celestial Kings. These total 31 Planes of the Buddhist Vajrayana. (See the Mandala Model). See
p.330 of Symbolism…)
The universe is divided into three realms in the Buddhist cosmology:
The Three Lokas
Rupa Lokas: Form/Body Planes- Devas of various degrees of aeareness
Kama Lokas:Desire Planes-Devas still subject to attachments
Arupa Lokas:Non-form PlanesIn the Buddhist high dimensions are beings who are involved solely in the process of evolution
to a state of enlightenment rather than also having beings who are involved in the maintenance
and manifestation of the universe and who may not have descended into physical form for
incarnation as in other mystical traditions.
The four Arupa Lokas which are still subject to causation are as follows: the lowest28. The Heaven of Infinite Space (negation of all physical phenomenon).
29. The Heaven of Nothingness (Pure Consciousness is negated),
30. The Heaven of Pure or Infinite Consciousness or of Nothingness (empty space is negated)
31. The Heaven of Neither Consciousness Nor Non-Consciousness (highest plane of
manifestation, all consciousness is negated), This is where enlightenment occurs
This plane is represented in the stupa as the top of the pinnacle. Above this the mind is severed
from all consciousness leaving only the un-manifest infinite Void, “thin air”, where the Buddhas
exist.
23
The attainment of each plane of consciousness is viewed as a rebirth on that plane rather than an
ascension of consciousness.
At this point there is a divergence in the teaching of different schools of where enlightenment
occurs: 1. It is at the Akanistha, the top of the spire-the highest rung, the entry to the Formless
Worlds or 2. The Pinnacle-highest point called the bhavagra, beyond which there is nothing-thin
air.
Three Segments of Universe
Heavens-Realms of Planets & Stars, Beings bound by desire
Earth: Continents, oceans & mountains surrounding Mt. MeruLand of Karma/Rebirth Hell realms increasing.
24
Hot & Cold MANDALA
The mandala is perhaps the most well known symbol of Buddhism in the west. It is a
representation of the abode of the deity who sits in its center. It is a map of the world, a model of
multidimensional reality, in short, it is the universe. The whole cosmology can be correlated to it.
In Buddhism these are called the Planes of Consciousness. It is used in meditation practice to
direct the spiritual aspirant along a path into the mandala to enlightenment at the center and the
merging with the divine being whose realm it represents.* A we shall explore later, it is also the
foundational matrix from which the Buddhist the vertical form of the stupa arises.
The Mandala is a Sanskrit word which means “circle”, “wheel” or “that which turns about a
center”. The circle symbolizes unity, totality, and perfection. It is found in various forms in the
teachings of many traditions around the globe: the Hindu yantra, the Gothic rose window, the
Native American medicine wheel and the medieval Christian Empyrean shown at left. It differs
from the mandala in that earth is at the center of the diagram rather tan outside. In design it is a
geometrical progression of circles and squares, each within and without the other, increasing or
decreasing in size according to the √2…the ratio between the side and diagonal of a square. The
square represents the physical planes, its basic four-ness traditionally associated with matter or
25
earth and the circle the higher, spiritual planes or heaven which is the first to be drawn in the
sequence of circles. It contains all possibilities, all forms…it is the most perfect. As been noted
previously, an ancient Chinese text on the design of temples specifies two basic plans: a circle
within a square-heaven within earth, or a square within a circle, earth within heaven. In the
Japanese Shingon School of Buddhism the mandala takes the form of a matrix of mandalas
called the Womb World and Diamond Realm.
26
REFERENCES
1 https://mind-matrix.net/
2. .Citation: Gidley, J 2007, 'The evolution of consciousness as a planetary imperative: an integration of
integral views', Integral Review: A Transdisciplinary and Transcultural Journal for New Thought,
Research and Praxis, no. 5, pp. 4226.https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228755942_The_Evolution_of_Consciousness_as_a_Planet
ary_Imperative_An_Integration_of_Integral_Views [accessed Oct 08 2020].
27
Mount Meru (Sanskrit: मेरु), Sumeru, Sineru or Mahāmeru,
is the sacred five-peaked mountain of Hindu, Jain, and Buddhist cosmology and is considered to be
the center of all the physical, metaphysical and spiritual universes.
Many famous Buddhist and similar Jain as well as Hindu temples have been built as symbolic
representations of this mountain. The "Sumeru Throne" 須彌座 xūmízuò style base is a common
feature of Chinese pagodas. The highest point (the finial bud) on the pyatthat, a Burmese-style multitiered roof, represents Mount Meru.
Etymologically, the proper name of the mountain is Meru (Pāli Meru), to which is added the
approbatory prefix su-, resulting in the meaning "excellent Meru" or "wonderful Meru"- Meru is also
the name of the central bead in a mālā.
Burmese: ([mjɪ̰ ɴ mò tàʊɰ̃])
Chinese: 須彌山 (Xūmíshān)
Japanese: 須弥山 (Shumisen)[4]
Khmer: ភ្ន ំព្រះសុមេរុ (Phnom Preah Someru) or (Phnom Preah Somae)
Korean: 수미산 (Sumisan)
Pāli: Sineru
Tamil: மகா மமரு மலை
Tibetan: ཪི་རྒྱལ་པོ་རི་རབ་
Malayalam: മഹാമമരു പർവ്വതം
Kannada: ಮೇರು ಪವ೯ತ
Telugu: మేరు పర్వ తం
Thai: เขาพระสุเมรุ (Khao phra sumen)
Vietnamese: Núi Tu-di
Geography: The dimensions attributed to Mount Meru, all references to it being as a part of the
Cosmic Ocean, with several statements that say, "The Sun along with all the planets circle the
mountain", make determining its location most difficult, according to most scholars.
Some researchers identify Mount Meru or Sumeru with the Pamirs, northwest of Kashmir.
The Suryasiddhanta mentions that Mt. Meru lies in 'the middle of the Earth' ("bhuva-madhya") in the
land of the Jambunad (Jambudvip). Narapatijayacharyasvarodaya a ninth-century text, based on
mostly unpublished texts of Yāmal Tantr, mentions "Sumeruḥ Prithvī-madhye shrūyate drishyate na
tu" ('Su-meru is heard to be in the middle of the Earth, but is not seen there')
There exist several versions of cosmology in existing Hindu texts. In one of them, cosmologically,
the Meru mountain was also described as being surrounded by Mandrachala Mountain to the east,
Suparshva Mountain to the west, Kumuda Mountain to the north and Kailasa to the south.
Buddhist cosmology and Mount Meru (Buddhism)
According to Buddhist cosmology, Mount Meru (or Sumeru) is at the centre of the
world and Jambūdvīpa is south of it. It is 80,000 yojanas wide and 80,000 yojanas high according to
the Abhidharmakośabhāṣyam and 84,000 yojanas high according to the Long Āgama
Sutra.[4] Trāyastriṃśa is on its peak, where Śakra resides. The Sun and the Moon revolve around
Mount Meru and as the Sun passes behind it, it becomes nighttime. The mountain has four faces,
28
each one made of a different material—the Northern face is made of gold, the Eastern one is made
of crystal, the Southern one is made of lapis lazuli, and the Western one is made of ruby.
In Vajrayāna, maṇḍala offerings often include Mount Meru, as they in part represent the entire
universe. It is also believed that Mount Meru is the home of the buddha Cakrasaṃvara.
Buddhist cosmology is the description of the 31 planes of existence in samsara according to
the Sutta Pitaka of the Theravada Pali Canon and commentaries.
Theravada Buddhist cosmology describes the 31 planes of existence in which rebirth takes
place. The order of the planes are found in various discourses of Gautama Buddha in the Sutta
Pitaka. For example, in the Saleyyaka Sutta of the Majjhima Nikaya the Buddha mentioned the
planes above the human plane in ascending order.[1] In several suttas in the Anguttara Nikaya, the
Buddha described the causes of rebirth in these planes in the same order. In Buddhism,
the devas are not immortal gods that play a creative role in the cosmic process. They are simply
elevated beings who had been reborn in the celestial planes as a result of their words, thoughts,
and actions. Usually, they are just as much in bondage to delusion and desire as human beings,
and as in need of guidance from the Enlightened One. The Buddha is the "teacher of devas and
humans (satthadevamanussanam). The devas came to visit the Buddha in the night. The
Devatasamyutta and the Devaputtasamyutta of the Samyutta Nikaya gives a record of their
conversations. The devaputtas are young devas newly arisen in heavenly planes, and devatas are
mature deities.[2]
The data for the 31 planes of existence in samsara are compiled from the Majjhima Nikaya,
Anguttara Nikaya, Samyutta Nikaya, Digha Nikaya, Khuddaka Nikaya, and others. The 31
planes of existence can be perceived by a Buddha's Divine eye (dibbacakkhu) and some of his
awakened disciples through the development of jhana meditation. According to the suttas, a
Buddha can access all these planes and know all his past lives as well as those of other beings.
In the Maha-Saccaka Sutta of the Majjhima Nikaya of the Pali Canon, Gautama Buddha said:
When the mind was thus concentrated, purified, bright, unblemished, rid of defilement, pliant,
malleable, steady, & attained to imperturbability, I directed it to the knowledge of the passing
away & reappearance of beings. I saw — by means of the divine eye, purified & surpassing the
human — beings passing away & re-appearing, and I discerned how they are inferior & superior,
beautiful & ugly, fortunate & unfortunate in accordance with their kamma: 'These beings — who
were endowed with bad conduct of body, speech, & mind, who reviled the noble ones, held
wrong views and undertook actions under the influence of wrong views — with the break-up of
the body, after death, have re-appeared in the plane of deprivation, the bad destination, the lower
realms, in hell. But these beings — who were endowed with good conduct of body, speech &
mind, who did not revile the noble ones, who held right views and undertook actions under the
influence of right views — with the break-up of the body, after death, have re-appeared in the
good destinations, in the heavenly world.' Thus — by means of the divine eye, purified &
surpassing the human — I saw beings passing away & re-appearing, and I discerned how they
are inferior & superior, beautiful & ugly, fortunate & unfortunate in accordance with their
kamma.
In the Itivuttaka edition of the Khuddaka Nikaya and in the Māpuññabhāyi Sutta of the
Anguttara Nikaya, the Buddha told about his past lives:
29
Whenever the eon contracted I reached the "Plane of Streaming Radiance", and when the eon
expanded I arose in an empty divine mansion. And there I was Brahma, the great Brahma, the
unvanquished victor, the all-seeing, the all-powerful. Thirty-six times I was Sakka, ruler of the
devas. And many hundreds of times I was a wheel-turning monarch, righteous, a king of
righteousness, conqueror of the four regions of the earth, maintaining stability in the land, in
possession of the seven treasures.
Causes for rebirth in various planes
The process by which sentient beings migrate from one state of existence to another is dependent
on causes and conditions. The three causes are giving or charity, moral conduct, meditative
development, and their opposites. Rebirth in the Kama-loka depends on a person's moral conduct
and practice of giving. Rebirth in the Rupa-loka and Arupa-loka also requires meditation
development. Liberation from all rebirth requires wisdom in addition to moral conduct and
meditation.
About the cycle of rebirth, Bhikkhu Bodhi, a scholar monk who has translated numerous texts
from the Pali Canon, writes that beyond all planes of existence is the unconditioned Nibbana, the
final goal of the Buddha's teaching:
A blissful heavenly rebirth, however, is not the final purpose for which the Buddha taught the
Dhamma. At best it is only a temporary way station. The ultimate goal is the cessation of
suffering, and the bliss of the heavens, no matter how blissful, is not the same as the cessation of
suffering. According to the Buddha's teaching, all states of existence within the round of rebirths,
even the heavens, are transient, unreliable, bound up with pain. Thus, the ultimate aim of the
Dhamma is nothing short of liberation, which means total release from the round of rebirth and
death.
Liberation from rebirth
Liberation from the rounds of rebirth requires more than just meditation achievement. It is
necessary to apply Yoniso Manasikara after emerging from Samma Samadhi (1st to 4th jhana) in
order to arrive at a breakthrough by wisdom. The Udana shows that after emerging from
the jhanas, the Buddha directed his attention to the cause of dukkha and the way leading to its
cessation. This process culminates in the discovery of Pratītyasamutpāda (dependent
origination) and the Four Noble Truths.
When the seven days had come to a close, the Exalted One arose from the state of trance and in
the first watch of the night, thoroughly thought out the chain of cause and effect, in direct order,
thus; "If there is this (state), another (state) arises, by the arising of this (state), a (state) is
produced, that is to say: "From Ignorance spring Fabrications, from Fabrications springs
Consciousness, from Consciousness spring Mind and Material Form, from Mind and Material
Form, the six Organs of Sense, from the six Organs of Sense, Contact, from Contact, Sensations,
from Sensations, Desire, from Desire, Attachment, from Attachment, Becoming, from
Becoming, Birth, from Birth spring Decay, Death, Sorrow, Lamentation, Pain, Grief and
Despair. Thus, the whole mass of suffering originates".[7]
"By the destruction of Ignorance, Fabrications are destroyed, by the destruction of Fabrications,
Consciousness is destroyed, by the destruction of Consciousness, Mind and Material Form are
destroyed, by the destruction of Mind and Material Form, the six Organs of Sense are destroyed,
30
by the destruction of the six Organs of Sense, Contact is destroyed, by the destruction of Contact,
Sensations are destroyed, by the destruction of Sensations, Desire is destroyed, by the destruction
of Desire, Attachment is destroyed, by the destruction of Attachment, Becoming is destroyed, by
the destruction of Becoming, Birth is destroyed, and by the destruction of Birth, Decay, Death,
Sorrow, Lamentation, Pain, Grief and Despair are destroyed. Thus, the whole mass of suffering
is brought to an end.
The 31 Planes of Existence
Arupa-Loka (Formless Realms)
The immaterial or formless realm (arupa loka) includes four planes into which beings are born
as a result of attaining the Four Formless Jhana arūpadhyānas. The inhabitants of these realms
are possessed entirely of mind. Having no physical form or location, they are unable to
hear Dhamma teachings. They achieve this by attaining the formless jhana levels in a previous
life, and now enjoy the fruits (vipāka) of the good karma of that accomplishment for a period
before rebirth in a lower plane again. They do not interact with the rest of the universe.
31 - Realm of Neither Perception Nor Non-Perception (nevasannanasannayatanupaga deva): Rebirth
in this plane is a result of attaining the fourth formless jhana in a previous life. The beings in this
plane only have mind and no physical body. They are unable to hear Dhamma. In this sphere the
formless beings do not engage in "perception". Uddaka Rāmaputta reached this plane and thought
that this is awakening. After having experienced this state the Buddha realized that it will eventually
lead to further rebirth.[9]
30 - Realm of Nothingness (akincannayatanupaga deva): Rebirth in this plane is a result of attaining
the third formless jhana in a previous life. This is considered a form of perception, though a very
subtle one. This was the sphere reached by Āḷāra Kālāma, the Buddha's first teacher. Alara Kalama
thought that it is the state of awakening or liberation.[10]
29 - The Realm of Infinite Consciousness (vinnanancayatanupaga deva): Rebirth in this plane is a
result of attaining the second formless jhana. In this sphere formless beings dwell meditating on their
consciousness (vijñāna) as infinitely pervasive.
28 - Realm of Infinite Space (akasanancayatanupaga deva): Rebirth in this plane is a result of
attaining the first formless jhana.
Rupa-Loka (Fine-Material World)
The fine material realm (rupa-loka) consists of sixteen planes. Beings are reborn into these
planes as a result of attaining the form jhanas. The prevalent mode of experience here is
meditative rather than sensory. They have bodies made of fine matter. The sixteen planes
correspond to the attainment of the four form jhanas. The devas of the rupa-loka have physical
forms, but are sexless and passionless. Beings in the lower planes are not able to see beings in
planes higher than theirs. The beings of the Form realm are not subject to the extremes of
pleasure and pain, or governed by desires for things pleasing to the senses, as the beings of
the Kāma-loka are. The bodies of Form realm beings do not have sexual distinctions. Like the
beings of the Arupa-loka, the dwellers in the Rupa-loka have minds corresponding to
the dhyānas (Pāli: jhānas). In their case it is the four lower jhanas or rūpadhyānas.
Related Sutta : Jhana Sutta from the Anguttara Nikaya
31
Pure Abodes (Suddhavasa)
The Pure Abodes are distinct from the other worlds of the rupa-loka in that they do not house
beings who have been born there through ordinary merit or meditative attainments. Birth in these
five realms are a result of attaining the fruit of non-returning or Anagami, the third level of
enlightenment. These Pure Abodes are accessible only to those who have destroyed the lower
five fetters, consisting of self-view, sceptical doubt, clinging to rites and ceremonies, sense
desires, and ill-will.[11] They will destroy their remaining fetters of craving for fine material
existence, craving for immaterial existence, conceit, restlessness and ignorance during their
existence in the Pure Abodes. Those who take rebirth here are called "non-returners" because
they do not return from that world, but attain final nibbana there without coming back. They
guard and protect Buddhism on earth, and will pass into enlightenment as Arhats when they pass
away from the Suddhavasa worlds. According to the Ayacana Sutta, among its inhabitants
is Brahma Sahampati, who begs the Buddha to teach Dhamma to the world.
The five Pure Abodes are:
27 - Peerless Devas (Akanittha deva): World of devas "un-equal in rank". The highest of all
the Rūpadhātu worlds, it is often used to refer to the highest extreme of the universe. The
current Śakra will eventually be born there.
26 - Clear-Sighted Devas (Sudassi deva): The "clear-seeing" devas live in a world similar to and
friendly with the Akanitṭha world.
25 - Beautiful Devas (Sudassa deva): The world of the "beautiful" devas is said to be the place of
rebirth for five kinds of anāgāmins.
24 - Untroubled Devas (Atappa deva): The world of the "untroubled" devas, for whose company
those of lower realms long.
23 - Devas not Falling Away (Aviha deva): The world of the "not falling" devas, perhaps the most
common destination for reborn Anāgāmins. Many achieve arhatship directly in this world, but some
pass away and are reborn in sequentially higher worlds of the Pure Abodes until they are at last
reborn in the Akanitṭha world. These are called in Pāli uddhaṃsotas, "those whose stream goes
upward".
Bṛhatphala Planes
These two realms are a result of attaining the fourth jhana. They remain in the tranquil state
attained in the 4th Jhana, and is characterized by equanimity (upekṣā).
22 - Unconscious beings (Asaññasatta): Realm of mindless beings who have only bodies without
consciousness. Rebirth into this plane results from a meditative practice aimed at the suppression of
consciousness. Those who take up this practice assume release from suffering can be achieved by
attaining unconsciousness. However, when the life span in this realm ends, the beings pass away and
are born in other planes where consciousness returns.
21 - Very Fruitful devas (vehapphala deva): In the Jhana Sutta of the Anguttara Nikaya the Buddha
said "The Vehapphala devas, monks, have a life-span of 500 eons. A run-of-the-mill person having
stayed there, having used up all the life-span of those devas, goes to hell, to the animal womb, to the
state of the hungry shades."
32
Śubhakṛtsna Planes
These three realms are a result of attaining the third jhana. The mental state of the devas of these
worlds corresponds to the third jhana, and is characterized by a quiet joy (sukha). These devas
have bodies that radiate a steady light.
20 - Devas of Refulgent Glory (subhakinna deva): The Buddha said, "The Subhakinha devas, monks,
have a life-span of 64 mahakalpas. A run-of-the-mill person having stayed there, having used up all
the life-span of those devas, goes to hell, to the animal womb, to the state of the hungry shades."
19 - Devas of Unbounded Glory (appamanasubha deva): The world of devas of "limitless beauty".
18 - Devas of Limited Glory (parittasubha deva): The world of devas of "limited beauty".
Ābhāsvara Planes
These three are a result of attaining the second jhana. The mental state of the devas of
the Ābhāsvara worlds corresponds to the second dhyāna, and is characterized by delight (prīti) as well
as joy (sukha).
17 - Devas of Streaming Radiance (abhassara deva): The Abhassara devas have a life-span of 8
mahakalpas. After that period they are reborn in a lower realm.[14]
16 - Devas of Unbounded Radiance (appamanabha deva): The world of devas of "limitless light", a
concept on which they meditate. Their lifespan is 4 mahākalpas.
15 - Devas of Limited Radiance (parittabha deva): The world of devas of "limited light". Their
lifespan is 2 mahākalpas.
Brahmā Planes? Buddhism
The mental state of the devas of the Brahmā worlds corresponds to the first jhana. Like all
beings, the brahmas are still tied to the cycle of rebirth, though sometimes they forget this and
imagine themselves to be immortal. The Buddha said "The devas of Brahma's retinue, monks,
have a life-span of an eon. A run-of-the-mill person having stayed there, having used up all the
life-span of those devas, goes to hell, to the animal womb, to the state of the hungry shades.
One way to rebirth in the brahma world is mastery over the first jhana. Another is through
meditations on loving kindness, compassion, altruistic joy, and equanimity. According to the
Subha Sutta, the Brahmin Subha asked the Buddha to teach him how to be born in the world of
Brahma. And the Buddha said to him:
Then young man, listen carefully I will tell.’ The young man agreed and the Blessed One said.
The bhikkhu pervades one direction with thoughts of loving kindness, so too the second, the
third, the fourth, above, below, across, in every respect, in all circumstances, the entire world, he
pervades with the thought of loving kindness grown great and immeasurable without anger and
ill will. Young man, when the release of the mind in loving kindness, is developed thus, none of
the measured actions remain. Just as a clever drummer in no time would make known the
message in the four directions. In the same manner, when the release of the mind in loving
kindness, is developed thus, none of the measured actions remain. This is the method to be born
with Brahma. Again the bhikkhu pervades one direction with the thought of compassion,…re….
with intrinsic joy,…re… with equanimity, so too the second, the third, the fourth, above, below,
across, in every respect, in all circumstances, the entire world, he pervades with equanimity
grown great and immeasurable without anger and ill will. Young man, when the release of the
mind in equanimity, is developed thus, none of the measured actions remain. Just as a clever
33
drummer in no time would make known the message in the four directions. In the same manner,
when the release of the mind in equanimity is developed thus, none of the measured actions
remain. This is the method to be born with Brahma.[16]
14 - Great Brahmas (Maha brahma): One of this realm's most famous inhabitants is the
Great Brahma, a deity whose delusion leads him to regard himself as the all-powerful, all-seeing
creator of the Universe. According to the Brahmajāla Sutta, a Mahā brahmā is a being from the
Ābhāsvara worlds who falls into a lower world through exhaustion of his merits and is reborn alone
in the Brahma-world; forgetting his former existence, he imagines himself to have come into
existence without cause.
Related Sutta: Kevaddha Sutta
13 - Ministers of Brahma (brahma-purohita deva): The "Ministers of Brahmā" are beings, also
originally from the Ābhāsvara worlds, that are born as companions to Mahābrahmā after he has spent
some time alone. Since they arise after his thought of a desire for companions, he believes himself to
be their creator, and they likewise believe him to be their creator and lord.
12 - Retinue of Brahma (brahma-parisajja deva): The "Councilors of Brahmā" or the devas
"belonging to the assembly of Brahmā".
Kama-Loka (The Sense-Sphere realm)
Birth into these heavenly planes takes place as a result of giving and moral discipline. The
Sense-Sphere Realm is the lowest of the three realms. The driving force within this realm is
sensual desire. These devas enjoy aesthetic pleasures, long life, beauty, and certain powers. The
heavenly planes are not reserved only for good Buddhists. Anyone who has led a wholesome life
can be born in them. People who believe in an "eternal heaven" may carry their belief to the deva
plane and take the long life span there to be an eternal existence. Only those who have known the
Dhamma will realize that, as these planes are impermanent, some day these sentient beings will
fall away from them and be reborn elsewhere. The devas can help people by inclining their
minds to wholesome acts, and people can help the devas by inviting them to rejoice in their
meritorious deeds.
Related Suttas: Saleyyaka Sutta, Dana Sutta
Higher Kama (Karma) Loka
These devas live in four heavens that float in the air, leaving them free from contact with the
strife of the lower world.
11 - Devas Wielding Power over the Creation of Others (Parinimmita-vasavattin deva): These devas
enjoy sensual pleasures created by others for them. These devas do not create pleasing forms that
they desire themselves, but their desires are fulfilled by the acts of other devas who wish for their
favor. Mara, the personification of delusion and desire, lives here.
10 - Devas Delighting in Creation (Nimmanarati deva): These devas delight in the sense objects of
their own creation. They are capable of changing appearance to please themselves. The lord of this
world is Sunirmita (Pāli Sunimmita).
9 - Contented deva (Tusita deva): Tushita is the home of the contented gods, among whom
many Bodhisattvas, including the future Buddha Maitreya, abide. Before his birth as Siddhartha, the
present Buddha also used to dwell with the other Bodhisattvas in this realm. His name in this realm
34
was Śvetaketu (Pāli: Setaketu). While Maitreya is undoubtedly the most important of the dwellers
in Tuṣita, the ruler of this world is Santuṣita (Pāli: Santusita).
8 - Yama devas: These Yama devas live in the air, free of all difficulties.
Lower Kama-Loka
The lower devas of the Kama-loka live on different parts of the mountain at the center of the
world, Sumeru. They are even more passionate than the higher devas, and do not simply enjoy
themselves but also engage in strife and fighting.
7 - Thirty-three gods (Tavatimsa deva): Beings that live on the peak of Sumeru are like the Olympian
gods. Their ruler is Sakka or Śakra, a devotee of the Buddha. Sakka rules by righteousness, patience
towards aggressors, and compassionate treatment of wrongdoers. Sakka and the devas honor sages
and holy men. He earned his place as ruler of the devas by fulfilling seven vows which embody the
standards of the virtuous householder while he was still a human being. The Buddha holds up Sakka's
patience and forgiveness as a model for the bhikkhus. Many devas dwelling here live in mansions in
the air. Besides the thirty-three devas, many other devas and supernatural beings dwell here,
including the attendants of the devas and many apsarases (nymphs).
Related Suttas: Sakka-panha Sutta and the Sakka Samyutta (11th section of the Samyutta
Nikaya) which also contains 25 short discourses connected with Sakka.
6 - Four Great Kings (catummaharajika deva): The world of the Four Great Kings includes the
martial kings who guard the four quarters of the Earth. The chief of these kings is Vaisravana, but all
are ultimately accountable to Sakra. Dhatarattha, king of the Eastern Direction, is lord of the
gandhabbas. Virulha, king of the Southern Direction, is lord of the kumbandas. Virupakkha, king of
the Western Direction, is lord of the nagas. Kuvera, who rules as king of the Northern Direction, is
lord of the yakkhas. The devas who guide the Sun and Moon are also part of this world.
This is home to the four types of earthly demigod or nature-spirit: Gandhabba - the celestial
musicians or fairies Yakkha - tree spirits of varying degrees of ethical purity. They are analogous
to the goblins, trolls, ogres, and fairies of Western fairy tales. They inhabit remote areas such as
forests, hills, and abandoned caves. Though living in misery they have the potential for
awakening and can attain the path and fruits of the spiritual life.
Related Suttas: Yakkhasayutta of the Samyutta Nikaya.
According to the Atanatiya Sutta:
"There are non-humans who are fierce, violent, given to retaliation; those non-humans heed
neither the (four) great kings, nor their ministers nor their attendants. They are called rebels
against the (four) great kings. Even as in the kingdom of Magadha, the thieves heed neither the
king of Magadha, nor the ministers, nor their attendants, and are called rebels against the king of
Magadha, so there are non-humans who are fierce... (as before). They are called rebels against
the (four) great kings."
Kumbhanda (dwarfs) Naga (dragons) Related Sutta: Maha-samya Sutta of the Digha Nikaya
probably also Garuda
35
Human Beings (manussa loka)[edit]
5 - Human (manussa loka): Birth in this plane results from giving and moral discipline of middling
quality. This is the realm of moral choice where destiny can be guided. The Khana Sutta mentioned
that this plane is a unique balance of pleasure and pain. It facilitates the development of virtue and
wisdom to liberate oneself from the entire cycle or rebirths. For this reason rebirth as a human being
is considered precious according to the Chiggala Sutta. In the Cula-kammavibhanga Sutta (The
Shorter Analysis of Action), the Buddha taught that:
Killing others lead to short life if one becomes reborn in the human plane instead of the four
lower States of Deprivation. By abandoning the very acts of killing and harming, one gets to be
reborn in a heavenly world. Alternatively, one gets to be reborn in the human world being
endowed with long life.
Injuring of others beings can lead to rebirth in the States of Deprivation. Alternatively, the
person comes back in the human plane as someone very sickly. Non-injuring of others leads to
rebirth in good destinations. Alternatively, one comes back to the human plane enjoying good
health.
The same goes for the following:
Beautiful or Unattractive Human Rebirth depends on whether the person has an irritable character in
this life.
Influential or Ordinary Human Rebirth depends on whether the person is envious of the gain and
honor received by others in this life.
Rich or Poor Human Rebirth depends on whether one is generous to others, such as providing the
requisites of holy people, in this present life.
Related Suttas: Janussonin Sutta, Cula-kammavibhanga Sutta,
States of Deprivation (Apaya)
Rebirth into these planes results from unwholesome conduct. Beings reborn there have no moral
sense and generally cannot create good kamma (karma). However, when the unwholesome
kamma that brought them to these planes is exhausted, some stored good kamma can bring them
rebirth in some other plane. Only stream-enterers and other ariyans can be sure they will never
again be born in these planes of misery.
Related sutta: Saleyyaka Sutta and The Vipaka Sutta
4 - Asura: They are demons or "titans" that are engaged in endless conflict with each other. From the
Jataka Tales, we are told that the Asuras are always fighting to regain their lost kingdom on the top of
Mount Sumeru, but are unable to break the guard of the Four Great Kings. [17] The Asuras are divided
into many groups, and have no single ruler, but among their leaders are Vemacitrin (Pāli: Vepacitti)
and Rāhu. According to Marasinghe:
"In later texts we find the Asura realm as one of the four unhappy states of rebirth. The Nikāya
evidence however does not show that the Asura realm was regarded as a state of suffering"[18]
Related sutta: Rattana Sutta
3 - Hungry ghost (pretha loka): This is the realm where ghost and unhappy spirits wander in vain,
hopelessly in search of sensual fulfillment.
36
Related sutta : Tirokudda Kanda from the Khuddakapatha
2 - Animal (tiracchana yoni): The animal realm includes animals, insects, fish, birds, worms, etc..
1 - Hell realms (niraya)
Main article: Naraka (Buddhism)
These are realms of extreme sufferings are mentioned in the Balapandita Sutta and the Devaduta
Sutta.
Tibetan Cakrasaṃvara sand mandala with Mount Meru in the centre./A mural depicting Mt. Meru, in
Wat Sakhet, Bangkok, Thailand.
Tibetan Buddhist embroidery representing Mount Sumeru.
Hindu cosmology
The cosmic tortoise, and Mount Meru
Mount Meru of Hindu traditions is described as 84,000 yojanas high, about 1,082,000 km
(672,000 mi), which would be 85 times the Earth's diameter. The Sun along with all the planets in the
Solar System revolve around Mt. Meru as one unit.
One yojana can be taken to mean about 11.5 km (9 miles) though its magnitude seems to differ over
time periods, e.g. the Earth's circumference is 3,200 yojanas according to Varahamihira and slightly
less so in the Aryabhatiya, but is said to be 5,026.5 yojanas in the Suryasiddhānta. The Matsya
37
Purana and the Bhagvata Purana along with some other Hindu texts consistently give the height of
84,000 yojanas to Mount Meru which translates into 672,000 miles or 1,082,000 kilometers.
Mount Meru was said to be the residence of King Padamja Brahma in antiquity.
According to Charles Allen, Mount Kailash is identified with Mount Meru. One description in
the Vishnu Purana of the mountain states that its four faces are made of crystal, ruby, gold, and lapis
lazuli. It is a pillar of the world and is located at the heart of six mountain ranges symbolizing a lotus
Jain cosmology
Depiction of Mount Meru at Jambudweep, a Jain temple in Uttar Pradesh
According to Jain cosmology, Mount Meru (or Sumeru) is at the centre of the world surrounded
by Jambūdvīpa. in form of a circle forming a diameter of 100,000 yojans. There are two sets of sun,
moon and stars revolving around Mount Meru; while one set works, the other set rests behind Mount
Meru.
The 24th and last Tirthankara, Lord Mahāvīra was taken to the summit of Meru by Indra shortly after
his birth, after putting his mother Queen Trishala into deep slumber. There he was bathed and
anointed with precious unctions.
Java: This mythical mountain of gods was mentioned in Tantu Pagelaran, an Old
Javanese manuscript written in the Kawi language from the 15th century Majapahit period. The
manuscript describes the mythical origin of Java island, and the legend of the movement of portions
of Mount Meru to Java. The manuscript explained that Batara Guru (Shiva) ordered the
god Brahma and Vishnu to fill the Java island with human beings. However at that time Java island
was floating freely on the ocean, always tumbling and shaking. To stop the island's movement, the
gods decided to nail it to the Earth by moving the part of Mahameru in Jambudvipa (India) and
attaching it to Java.[31] The resulting mountain is Mount Semeru, the tallest mountain on Java.
Mount Semeru, a large active volcano on Java, is named after the mount.
Architecture
The five central towers of Angkor Wat symbolize the peaks of Mount Meru; Angkor, Cambodia.
The concept of a holy mountain surrounded by various circles around it was incorporated into
ancient Hindu temple architecture with a Shikhara (Śikhara), a Sanskrit word translating literally to
"mountain peak". Early examples of this style can be found at the Harshat Mata
Temple and Harshnath Temple of the 8th century CE in Rajasthan, western India. This concept also
continued outside India such as in Bali, where temples feature Meru towers.
38
In Buddhist temples the Mahabodhi Temple in Bodh Gaya is an earliest example of the 5th-6th
century. Many other Buddhist temples took on its form such as in Thailand the Wat Arun and in
Myanmar the Hsinbyume Pagoda.
Wat Phutthaisawan prang representing Mount Meru/A Buddhist prang in Wat Arun, Bangkok,
representing Mount Sumeru/Hsinbyume Pagoda in Mandalay, Myanmar, representing Mount
Sumeru/The meru of Pura Ulun Danu Bratan is dedicated to Shiva and his consort Parvathi
Mount Meru (also Sumeru (Sanskrit) or Sineru (Pāli) or Kangrinboqe) is the name of the
central world-mountain in Buddhist cosmology. Etymologically, the proper name of the
mountain is Meru (Pāli Meru), to which is added the approbatory prefix su-, resulting in the
meaning "excellent Meru" or "wonderful Meru".
The concept of Sumeru is closely related to the central Mount Meru of Hindu cosmology, but it
differs from the Hindu concept in several particulars.
Yuan dynasty 1271–1368) Chinese mandala depicting Mount Meru as an inverted pyramid topped by a lotus.
According to Vasubandhu's Abhidharmakośabhāṣyam (philosophical writings), Sumeru is
80,000 yojanas tall. The exact measure of one yojana is uncertain, but some accounts put it at
about 24,000 feet, or approximately 4-1/2 miles, but other accounts put it at about 7-9 miles. It
also descends beneath the surface of the surrounding waters to a depth of 80,000 yojanas, being
founded upon the basal layer of Earth. Sumeru is often used as a simile for both size and stability
in Buddhist texts.
Sumeru is said to be shaped like an hourglass, with a top and base of 80,000 yojanas square, but
narrowing in the middle (i.e., at a height of 40,000 yojanas) to 20,000 yojanas square.
39
Sumeru is the polar center of a mandala-like complex of seas and mountains. The square base of
Sumeru is surrounded by a square moat-like ocean, which is in turn surrounded by a ring (or
rather square) wall of mountains, which is in turn surrounded by a sea, each diminishing in width
and height from the one closer to Sumeru. There are seven seas and seven surrounding mountainwalls, until one comes to the vast outer sea which forms most of the surface of the world, in
which the known continents are merely small islands. The known world, which is on the
continent of Jambudvipa, is directly south of Sumeru.
The dimensions stated in the Abhidharmakośabhāṣyam are shown in the table below:
Name
Width
Sumeru (Sineru) mountain
80,000 yojanas 80,000 yojanas
Sea
80,000 yojanas 80,000 yojanas
Yugandhara mountains
40,000 yojanas 40,000 yojanas
Sea
40,000 yojanas 40,000 yojanas
Iṣadhara (Isadhara) mountains
20,000 yojanas 20,000 yojanas
Sea
20,000 yojanas 20,000 yojanas
Khadiraka (Karavīka) mountains
10,000 yojanas 10,000 yojanas
Sea
10,000 yojanas 10,000 yojanas
Sudarśana (Sudassana) mountains
5,000 yojanas
5,000 yojanas
Sea
5,000 yojanas
5,000 yojanas
40
Height/Depth
Aśvakarṇa (Assakaṇṇa) mountains
2,500 yojanas
2,500 yojanas
Sea
2,500 yojanas
2,500 yojanas
Vinadhara (Vinataka) mountains
1,250 yojanas
1,250 yojanas
Sea
1,250 yojanas
1,250 yojanas
Nimindhara (Nemindhara) mountains 625 yojanas
625 yojanas
Outer Sea
32,000 yojanas relatively shallow
Cakravāḍa (Cakkavāḷa) mountains
312.5 yojanas
312.5 yojanas
(circular edge of the world)
The 80,000 yojana square top of Sumeru constitutes the Trāyastriṃśa "heaven" (devaloka),
which is the highest plane in direct physical contact with the earth. The next 40,000 yojanas
below this heaven consist of sheer precipice, narrowing in like an inverted mountain until it is
20,000 yojanas square at a heigh of 40,000 yojanas above the sea.
From this point Sumeru expands again, going down in four terraced ledges, each broader than
the one above. The first terrace constitutes the "heaven" of the Four Great Kings and is divided
into four parts, facing north, south, east and west. Each section is governed by one of the Four
Great Kings, who faces outward toward the quarter of the world that he supervises.
40,000 yojanas is also the height at which the Sun and Moon circle Sumeru in a clockwise
direction. This rotation explains the alteration of day and night; when the Sun is north of Sumeru,
the shadow of the mountain is cast over the continent of Jambudvīpa, and it is night there; at the
same time it is noon in the opposing northern continent of Uttarakuru, dawn in the eastern
continent of Pūrvavideha, and dusk in the western continent of Aparagodānīya. Half a day later,
when the Sun has moved to the south, it is noon in Jambudvīpa, dusk in Pūrvavideha, dawn in
Aparagodānīya, and midnight in Uttarakuru.
The next three terraces down the slopes of Sumeru are each longer and broader by a factor of
two. They contain the followers of the Four Great Kings, namely nāgas, yakṣas, gandharvas,
and kumbhāṇḍas.
The names and dimensions of the terraces on the lower slopes of Sumeru are given below:
41
Name
Height above the sea Breadth
Length (on one side)
Cāturmahārājika 40,000 yojanas
2,000 yojanas
24,000 yojanas
Sadāmada
30,000 yojanas
4,000 yojanas
32,000 yojanas
Mālādhara
20,000 yojanas
8,000 yojanas
48,000 yojanas
Karoṭapāni
10,000 yojanas
16,000 yojanas 80,000 yojanas
Below Sumeru, in the seas around it, is the abode of the Asuras who are at war with
the Trāyastriṃśa gods.
42
CHAPTER II
Art in Healing
There are many more things, between heaven and earth, than are dreamt of in your
philosophy, Horatio.
—Shakespeare, Hamlet
Art and health have been at the center of human interest from the beginning of recorded history.
Despite that fact, and despite the invested effort and growth of knowledge and understanding in
each arena, it is interesting that we often still find ourselves struggling with the “fundamentals”
of art and health and their meaning in society. We make no attempt to clarify or resolve these
fundamental issues. Instead, our intent is to summarize current knowledge about the connection
between art and health, identify the most compelling next steps for investigation, and generate
further interest in researching the complexities of art and health. Legitimate research questions
include whether certain art-based therapies are more or less effective than others, whether the
impact of therapy can be tied to other important variables and preconditions, and whether health
benefits are sustained or short term. These issues deserve vigorous continued
attention.Engagement with the creative arts and health outcomes, specifically the health effects
of music engagement, visual arts therapy, movement-based creative expression, and expressive
writing. Although there is evidence that art-based interventions are effective in reducing adverse
physiological and psychological outcomes, the extent to which these interventions enhance
health status is largely unknown. Our hope is to establish a foundation for continued
investigation into this subject and to generate further interest in researching the complexities of
engagement with the arts and health.1
ABSTRACT. HIV positive children need a safe outlet to express their feelings about living with
the virus. Creative therapeutic techniquessuch as the creation of mandalas (circle drawings) can
facilitate the development of an emotional outlet. Carl G. Jung used mandalas in his work and
believed that they are the paths to our center, the voice of our unconscious. The content of 32
mandalas created by children and adolescents living with HIV during clinical sessions with their
social worker was analyzed for the themes expressed and colors utilized. The most prominent
themes within the artwork concerned the concrete aspects of living with HIV. However, negative
themes were balanced by themes concerning happiness, optimism, social relationships, and the
normalcy of everyday life. The artwork illustrates that HIV plays a prominent role in the lives of
the participants. Their resiliency is evidenced by the fact that nearly half of the themes expressed
were positive and life affirming. [Article copies available for a fee from The Haworth Document
Delivery Service: 1-800-HAWORTH. E-mail address: Website: Lori S. Wiener and Haven B.
Battles are both affiliated with the HIV/AID
43
The use of mandalas has far reaching implications for all children who could benefit from
individual expression. The use of mandalas is not new, as their preventive and healing qualities
have been described for centuries. The creation of mandalas is a safe and effective therapeutic
technique to explore the inner worlds of these children and adolescents. The profound influence
that HIV has on each young person’s life isreflected within his or her individual mandalas. A
strong sense of purpose, a struggle to adjust to their losses and to conquer their fears permeates
their art with a richness of content and personal meaning that cannot and should not be ignored
(Koplewicz & Goodman, 1990). This paper is the first to document the therapeutic use of
mandalas with children living with HIV/AIDS. The creation of mandalas is an effective, costefficient, and enjoyable intervention that social workers can use in a range of differentsettings.
By inquiring into the inner world of children and helping them to put understanding and meaning
into their plight, we are facilitating psychological movement, growth, and healing (Wiener &
Figueroa, 1998). The art created by the children and adolescents in this project is a testimonial to
their ability to convey feelings as well as their ability to balance the burden of HIV with their
desire for a “normal” life.2
Despite methodological and other limitations, the studies included in our review appear to
indicate that creative engagement can decrease anxiety, stress, and mood disturbances. It is not
unreasonable to assume that future studies involving better methodology and more consistent
assessment of outcomes will demonstrate the ability of creative engagement to improve
psychological and physical well-being and quality of life. As can be seen from our analysis, it is
likely that creative engagement contributes to many aspects of physiological and psychological
conditions typically associated with improved health status.
Use of the arts in healing does not contradict the medical view in bringing emotional, somatic,
artistic, and spiritual dimensions to learning. Rather, it complements the biomedical view by
focusing on not only sickness and symptoms themselves but the holistic nature of the person.
When people are invited to work with creative and artistic processes that affect more than their
identity with illness, they are more able to “create congruence between their affective states and
their conceptual sense making.” Through creativity and imagination, we find our identity and our
reservoir of healing. The more we understand the relationship between creative expression and
healing, the more we will discover the healing power of the arts.
In the year 2000, an important art therapy literature review addressed an essential question—
does art therapy work? It discussed 17 articles dealing with the issue of the effectiveness of art
therapy. Two decades later, this research field has extended its scope and is flourishing. Several
current reviews of research work have described the broad range of methods implemented today,
which includes qualitative and quantitative studies; other reviews have focused on art therapy
with specific populations, or by age group. The aim of this systematic literature review is to
contribute to the ongoing discussion in the field by exploring the latest studies dealing with the
effectiveness of art therapy with a broad scope of adult clients. We conducted a comprehensive
search in four databases and review of every quantitative article that has addressed outcome
measures in the art therapy field from 2000 to 2017. This paper presents the latest 27 studies in
44
the field that examine the effectiveness of art therapy with adult clients and divides them into
seven clinical categories: cancer patients, clients coping with a variety of medical conditions,
mental health clients, clients coping with trauma, prison inmates, the elderly, and clients who
have not been diagnosed with specific issues but face ongoing daily challenges. It underscores
the potential effects of art therapy on these seven clinical populations, and recommends the
necessary expansions for future research in the field, to enable art therapy research to take further
strides forward.
REFERENCES
1.The Connection Between Art, Healing, and Public Health: A Review of Current Literature
Heather L. Stuckey, DEd and Jeremy Nobel, MD, MPHAm J Public Health. 2010 February;
100(2): 254–263.
2.https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Lori_Wiener/publication/232062448_Mandalas_as_a_Th
erapeutic_Technique_for_HIVInfected_Children_and_Adolescents_What_Do_They_Reveal/links/0fcfd5074804d6e866000000
.pdf
3.Effectiveness of Art Therapy With Adult Clients in 2018—What Progress Has Been Made?
Dafna Regev* and Liat Cohen-YatzivFront Psychol. 2018; 9: 1531.
45
CHAPTER III
Cosmic Mandalas
A mandala is a symbolic representation of part or all of the universe. For example, it can
represent the home of a specific meditational deity. It is commonly used in meditation practices
and as a visual aid in rituals. Mandalas have a circular structure, and most are two dimensional,
despite the fact that they commonly depict three-dimensional objects. They can be painted on
cloth (e.g. a thangka), wood, or constructed out of sand.
There are at least three different cosmological mandalas in Tibetan Buddhism.
1) Pictured in the header of the website is the so-called "cosmic mandala", which shows the
intricate dance of the sun, moon, and other planets around Mount Meru (the axis of the
geocentric universe). In this view you are looking down on Mount Meru (a bird's eye view) from
such a height that you cannot see any detail in the world below.
2) The Kalachakra mandala, which represents the 3-D
palace of the Kalachakra deities
46
[From Brauen 1997]
3) The hand gesture (mudra) used in the mandala offering is a symbolic offering of the entire
universe for the benefit of all sentient beings.
This YouTube video demonstrates how to make this mudra.
The ring fingers represent Mount Meru, while the other 4 pairs of fingers represent the four great
continents (NSEW).
The following prayer is usually recited as part of the offering:
The fundamental ground is scented with incense and strewn with flowers,
Adorned with Mt. Meru, the four continents, the sun and the moon.
I imagine this as a buddhaland and offer it.
May all sentient beings enjoy this pure realm.
Berzin, Alexander (1997) Taking the Kalachakra Initiation. Ithaca, NY: Snow Lion Press.
Brauen, Martin (1997) The Mandala: Sacred Circle in Tibetan Buddhism. Boston: Shambala
Publications.
TIBETAN MANDALAS
Fundamental to the Tibetan worldview is the artistic and symbolic representation of the cosmos
(or some aspect of it, such as the palace of a specific meditational deity) called a mandala.
Although representing a three-dimensional structure, mandalas can be two-dimensional paintings
on cloth as well as the famous temporary sand mandalas created for specific rituals. Mandalas
can also be generated mentally, or symbolized through intricate hand gestures called mudras.
In Tibetan astro science, two distinct flat-earth, stationary, geocentric cosmologies are
recognized, both developed in India and later translated into Tibetan. The first is
the Abhidharma system, expounded in the 4th or 5th century Indian
text Abhidharmakosha (Treasury House of Knowledge) by Vasubandhu, and
47
the Kalachakra system (Wheels of Time), whose root text was translated into Tibetan in 1027
A.D.. Both systems are mandala-like world systems made of concentric oceans and mountain
ranges centered around an axis, Mount Meru. The known world exists on one of the four major
continents (with other minor accompanying continents), the southern continent, called
Jambudvipa. Mount Meru is lapis-blue on our side, which explains why it cannot be seen, but
instead blends in with the sky's color.The heavenly bodies orbit around Mount Meru. The cosmic
mandala pictured in the header above shows a bird's-eye view of Mount Meru and the orbits of
the planets (including sun and moon).The world system, with its complex layered base, floats in
space, and is only one of an immense number of such world systems, termed the trichilicosm (a
number usually considered to be over a billion). The most obvious differences between the two
cosmological systems are geographic and geometric, such as the shape of Mount Meru. Compare
the pictures below for more details. To the Tibetans, the existence of two seemingly conflicting
cosmological systems is not a problem, as neither is meant to be a complete representation of the
universe as it is actually observed by scientists. As with all constructions such as mandalas and
meditational deities, they serve different purposes and different audiences. For example, the
Kalachakra cosmology is used philosophically to draw connections between cycles in the
universe and those of human existence, and in an astronomical sense to develop a complex lunar
calendar. Another central idea in Tibetan Buddhism is the concept that the Buddha taught many
different kinds of texts and meditational systems because there is no "one size fits all" when it
comes to the road to enlightenment. Different practitioners have different intellectual and
emotional capacities, and therefore different teachings are required to reach all possible students.
[Abhidharma cosmology, from Brauen, 1997]
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[Abhidharma cosmology, from Sadakata, 1997]
[Kalachakra cosmology,from Brauen 1997]
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[Kalachakra cosmology, from Gyatso 2004]
As with other ancient and cultural cosmologies, the Tibetan universe is composed of the classic
elements fire, earth, air, and water. These four elements exist and function through a fifth
element, space. The parallels between these cosmologies and other geocentric models makes
them interesting examples to include in lesson plans centered on ancient cosmologies, such as
the GEMS activity “Ancient Models of the World”. In this activity, students are directed to make
their own artistic representation of a cosmological model. Tibetan cosmologies are an excellent
tie-in, as three different mandalas can be used as illustration: the Kalachakra mandala (a painting
on cloth or sand mandala representing the concentric strata of the palace of the meditational
deities at the heart of Mount Meru), the Cosmic (or wind tracks) mandala of interlocking circles
which represents the paths of the heavenly bodies, and the mandala offering, a mudra made with
two hands which represents Mount Meru and the four main continents. Illustrations of each of
these can be found here. Students can also construct three-dimensional models of the
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Abhidharma and Kalachakra cosmologies based on photographs of such models found in Brauen
(1997).
The concept of impermanence is central to Tibetan Buddhism, including world systems within
the larger eternal universe. Just as the individual sentient being is born, dies, and is reborn, so too
does the universe transmigrate. As in Hinduism, any cosmological system is seen to come into
being, exist for billions of years (a kalpa), then dissolve, before coming into existence again.
However, one fundamental difference between the Tibetan and Hindu cyclical universe is the
cause of the cycle. In Hinduism, the cause is a trio of deities (Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva) while
in Tibetan Buddhism the cause is considered to be natural and not supernatural or transcendental.
In the Abhidharma system, mere potentiality exists between times of dissolution and creation, as
all particles of the five elements disappear. In the Kalachakra system, so-called space particles
are the link between cycles.
If we follow the evolution of a particular universe (world system), will see four stages:
(1) Emptiness (the era of space particles),
(2) Formation,
(3) Abiding, and
(4) Destruction. At the destruction of one system, the fire, earth, air, and water particles separate
and perhaps even fall apart, but space particles remain. This is the stage of Emptiness. When
motivated through the accumulated karma of all the sentient beings that existed in the previous
world system, the space particles begin the process of forming a new universe from the reformed
elements. First air particles coagulate to form wind, which then causes the fire particles to join
and create lightning. From this process water particles form rain, and the resulting rainbows
herald the joining of earth particles. The order of this "creation" is mirrored in the structure of the
world system in the Abhidharma and Kalachakra systems depicted above, with the air disk being
the lowest layer of the base of the world, topped in succession by disks of fire, water, and earth.
Sentient beings begin to populate all possible realms (e.g. various hell realms, animal, human,
and deities). During this stage, humans are granted an "infinite" lifespan (until the end of the
age). When this process is complete, the Stage of Formation ends. The Stage of Abiding is
subdivided into many eras, in which the lifespan of humans changes. We are currently said to be
in a degenerate age, when the lifespan is decreasing and is about 80 years. The Stage of
Destruction begins when no more sentient beings are reborn in the hell realms, and the hells
begin to empty out (as various beings exhaust the karma that brought them there in the first
place). Likewise, all higher realms of existence are emptied out in sequence. Finally the world
system is destroyed by a great fire. According to the Abhidharmakosha there are also higher
cycles where every 8th destruction is accomplished by a flood, and every 8th of those cycles, by
a great wind, leading to a "great cycle of destruction."
This process is eternal and without beginning or end, and in a sense defines time itself (as a
series of changes of impermanent reality).
Numerous scientists have found the philosophical parallels between these cosmologies and
modern cosmology to be worthy of discussion, similarities which could be incorporated into
discussions of ancient and modern cosmologies in elementary astronomy classes (e.g. Zajonc
2004).1
51
1. For more information, consult the following sources:
Astro Department (1995) Tibetan Astronomy and Astrology - a Brief Introduction.
Dharamsala,India: Tibetan Medical and Astro Institute.
Berzin, Alexander (1997) Taking the Kalachakra Initiation. Ithaca, NY: Snow Lion Press.
Brauen, Martin (1997) The Mandala: Sacred Circle in Tibetan Buddhism. Boston: Shambala
Publications.
Dalai Lama (2005) The Universe in a Single Atom. NY: Morgan Road Books.
Gyatso, Khendrup Norsang (2004) Ornament of Stainless Light: An Exposition of the
Kalachakra Tantra. Boston: Wisdom Publications.
Ricard, Matthieu and Trinh Xuan Thuan (2001) The Quantum and the Lotus. NY: Crown
Publishers.
Sadakata, Akira (1997) Buddhist Cosmology: Philosophy and Origins. Tokyo: Kosei Publishing
Wallace, B. Alan, ed. (2003) Buddhism and Science: Breaking New Ground. NY: Columbia
University Press.
Zajonc, Arthur, ed. (2004) The New Physics and Cosmology: Dialogues with the Dalai
Lama. NY: Oxford University Press.
The Symbolism of Mount Meru-I. W. Mabbett-History of Religions,Vol. 23, No. 1 (Aug.,
1983), pp. 64-83 (20 pages)Published By: The University of Chicago Press
https://www.jstor.org/stable/1062318
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CHAPTER IV
Where in the World is Mount Meru?
Hamsanandi
It’s been a common occurrence in Indian poetry, to compare exemplary humans to Mount Meru.
Even in current news reports, you may see the usage of this word to mean “great”, “of a tall
order” etc.
Going back a few centuries,in a well known composition in Raga Mayamalavagoula, composer
Tyagaraja calls Rama as Meru samana dheera, meaning Rama’s valor and majesty to that of Meru
mountain. You can listen to an equally majestic rendition of the composition here by none other
than Sri Balamuralikrishna. In his composition in raga Lalita, Syama Shastri calls out to the divine
mother Parvati as “Sumeru madhya nilaye” , — “she who dwells in the great mountain of Meru”.
Given that Parvati is the daughter of Himavan, and wife of Shiva, who dwells in Kailasa. I think it
was common practice to associate Mount Meru to be somewhere in the Himalayas. By the way,
you can listen to an epic rendition of nannu brovu lalita here, by Lalgudu G Jayaraman.
But where is Mount Meru, exactly? If you believe the Wikipedia, it could be anywhere from the
Himalayas to Tibet to Central Asia to Tanzania! But is it that difficult to identify it if it were so
intertwined with our history?
The Mahabharata (in Bheeshma Parva) describes Mount Meru as a globular mountain made of
Gold. Surely a poetic description, but not something that would help in identifying a geographic
location. The Bhagavata too has several references to Mount Meru ( in the 5th Skandha), but that
too leaves us with poetic descriptions that tell us it is “somewhere to the north of Bharata
Varsha”, “surrounded by the ocean”, “golden mountain” etc.
However, no need to despair. In addition to poets such as Vyasa or Kalidasa may have had
colorful descriptions, but we are lucky have had people like Aryabhata and Varahamihira, who in
spite of being a little fanciful, gave descriptions that would help us identify Mount Meru,
In the Golapada section of Aryabhateeyam, Aryabhata (5th century AD) says the following:
मेरुर्योजनमात्रः प्रभाकरो हिमवता पररहिप्तः
नन्दनवनस्य मध्ये रत्नमर्यस्सववतोवृतः ||११ ||
“In the center of the Nandana forest is the bright Mount Meru that’s a yojana in size, that is full of
precious stones, and surrounded by the Himalaya Mountains” — Sure, this is as poetic as the
description in the Bhagavata or Mahabharata. Not much use here.
स्वममवरू स्थलमध्ये नरको वडवामुखश्च जलमध्यम
अमरामरा मन्यन्ते परस्परमधस्सस्स्थताहिर्यतम् || १२||
“At Meru Mountain, at the center of the landmass, live the devas; At Vadavamukha, at the center
of water live the asuras. Now each of them think that the others are situated below them”
Again, not much help here — How does it matter where the devas and asuras live to identify
Mount Meru, You may ask.
Thankfully, in the 16th verse in the same chapter, Aryabhata spills the beans!
दे वाः पश्यस्सन्त भगोलाधवमुद्मेरु संस्सस्थतास्सव्यं
अपसव्यगं तर्याधं दहिणावडवामुखे प्रेताः || १६||
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“The devas situated on Mount Meru see half of the starry sphere, and the departed souls on the
south end, see the other half of the starry sphere”.
Now this is a very good description of how the sky is seen from the Earth’s two poles. At each
pole, only half of the starry sphere can be seen, and these halves are mutually exclusive. This
implies that the Mount Meru should be located at Earth’s North pole, and Vadavamukha, at the
South pole. However, it must be pointed out that that the shloka does not plainly say that Mount
Meru is at the North Pole. For that, we must visit the work of Varahamihira (6th century AD).
In verse 34 of the 12th chapter ( titled भूगोलाहधकारः ), of Surya Siddhanta section from
Panchasiddhantika, a work of Varahamihira, we find the following description:
अनेकरत्न.हनचर्यो.जाम्बूनदमर्यो.हगररः
भूगोल मध्यगो मेरुरुभर्यत्र हवहनगवतः
“Filled with different types of precious stones, the golden Meru mountain goes through the center
of the globe onto either side”
This is as close as it gets to saying that the Mount Meru is on Earth’s axis. Note that the reference
here is not to Jambu Dweepa (or India) but to “jAmbUnadamaya”. As per the dictionary, this term
means “of Jamboonada gold, or of golden etc. Narayana Pandita’s Gudharthaprakashika
commentary to Surya Siddhanta also adds a shloka to show how “Jambunadamaya” implies gold.
It probably refers to gold panning in river waters.
Mount Meru, due north of “Bharata Varsha” :)
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Surya Siddhanta section from Varaha Mihira’s Pancha Siddhantika
The next verse (35) goes on to say the Gods live in the top of the Meru and the demons at the
bottom of the Meru. Now compare it with the description by Aryabhata that I cited earlier in this
post, and you will find that they are exactly talking about the same thing! What does go through
the “center of” Earth’s globe and project to both ends? It’s nothing but the earth’s axis.
Underneath all the glittering gold, and being the abode of devas and asuras being spoken about in
the shlokas, we see the truth plainly told — that Meru refers to nothing but the earth’s axis. The
top of Meru is the North pole, and the bottom of the Meru at is the South pole.
Then in the next few verses, Varahamihira talks about 4 (fictitious, although the text doesn’t
explicitly say so) cities which are separated by 90 degrees on the earth’s equator. Incidentally one
of these is called “Lanka” and is in Bharatavarsha — at a distance of one fourth the circumference
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of the Earth, due south of Meru’s top end. This implies the Surya SiddhantaKara knew that
Bharatavarsha was close to the equator. However, the “city” which he calls Lanka can’t be in
India because it is due south of Ujjain and on the equator, and falls in the Indian ocean and not on
land. We can only assume that he made up these “cities” to be able to describe the globe, and the
movement of the globe.
And later verses tell how at the top of the Meru there is a 6 month day, which there is a six month
long night at the bottom of the Meru( verse 68). In verse 72, he says as you travel towards the
Meru, in either direction, the altitude of the Pole star keeps increasing — This is a very direct way
of saying that Meru (or the northern end of it) is nothing but Earth’s North pole.
So where is Meru? All these references confirm that Meru meaning nothing but the Earth’s axis.
Leaving aside the stuff about the imaginary cities ( even there, the astronomy of these points, are
accurately described) and Gods and demons living at either end of the Meru mountain, other
astronomical descriptions are quite accurate.
Why didn’t I write down all the verses here? Because, there is nothing as gratifying as finding it
in the source. If you are interested to read the verses I cited, click on the the PDF file in the link
below:1
Now it should leave you with no doubt about the identity of Mount Meru!
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Yuan dynasty (1271–1368)/Date:14th century/Culture:China
Medium:Silk tapestry (kesi)
Mount Meru is a dormant stratovolcano located 70 kilometres (43 mi) west of Mount
Kilimanjaro in the country of Tanzania. At a height of 4,562.13 metres (14,968 ft),[1][4] it is
visible from Mount Kilimanjaro on a clear day,[5] and is the fifth-highest of the highest mountain
peaks of Africa, dependent on definition.
Mount Meru is located just north of the city of Arusha, in the Arusha Region of Tanzania. It is
the second-highest mountain in Tanzania, after Mount Kilimanjaro. The Momella route – which
starts at Momella gate, on the eastern side of the mountain – is used to climb Mount Meru.[6]
Much of its bulk was lost about 7,800 years ago due to a summit collapse.[7] Mount Meru most
recently had a minor eruption in 1910.[2] The several small cones and craters seen in the vicinity
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probably reflect numerous episodes of volcanic activity. Mount Meru's caldera is 2.2 miles
(3.5 km) wide.[8]
Mount Meru is the topographic centerpiece of Arusha National Park. Its fertile slopes rise above
the surrounding savanna and support a forest that hosts diverse wildlife, including nearly 400
species of birds, and also monkeys and leopards.
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A new history of the North Pole uncovers its deep
significance for modern civilization
The new book ”North Pole: Nature and Culture,” by Cambridge geographer Michael Bravo
reminds us that the pole has a long, tangled cultural history.
By Martin Breum-September 20, 2019
Gerardus Mercator’s famous map from 1606 depicts the North Pole as a big mountain in the
middle of an ocean surrounded by four parts of a non-existent continent.
What exactly is the North Pole? How are we to understand the North Pole’s significance to the
world today? has all the mysticism and wonders which so enthralled the early explorers and their
eager audiences now completely vanished, reduced to bland insignificance by icebreakers, flags,
submarines, tourists and jets in thoughtless shuttle across the polar sky?
Or do we owe the North Pole our respect and recognition, perhaps even our protection, for its
part in the build-up of our civilization and intellectual wealth, so urgently needed in an age of
climate change and other challenges? Does the North Pole belong to our common cultural
heritage as a phenomena we must cherish, even as more entrepreneurial agents zoom in on the
pole’s potential for fish, oil, gas and minerals (potential which is, by the way, still
undocumented)?
Three nations, Russia, Canada and Denmark — with Greenland — all argue that the rights to the
ressources at the North Pole and the seabed surrounding it belong to them. All three have
invested substantial time, effort and finances in their quests to provide proof of ownership. Never
before has any nation come this close to claiming ownership to the North Pole. Icebreakers,
planes, submarines and scores of scientists have been mobilized, but throughout these campaigns
the key question of how to understand the cultural, intellectual and historical value of the North
Pole has been notably absent.
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I know for sure that in Denmark, my own country, nobody at government level has so far aired
any thinking on the subject, and I am still to learn of any such contemplation within official
circles in Moscow and Ottawa. Should any reader know of such, I would be pleased to receive
notice.
The beginning of time
Luckily, those interested in the intricate issues of the intellectual and historical value of the North
Pole now have easy access to passionate and expert assistance. In a lucid new analysis of how
the North Pole have inspired natural scientists, philosophers, cartographers and others from
ancient Greece to our days, Michael Bravo, who is a scholar of the history of science and head of
Circumpolar History and Public Policy Research at the Scott Polar Research Institute at
University of Cambridge, lights a thrilling path in the dark.
In his recent book ”North Pole: Nature and Culture,” he deftly extinguishes any remaining
doubts about the North Pole’s current cultural, historic and phenomenological significance:
“I offer the reader a way to understand why the North Pole truly matters to anyone who knows
that our home, planet Earth, is a globe,” he writes. The North Pole, he finds, “has refracted our
understanding of the planet on which we live and the quest to master or knowledge of who we
are.”
“Spatially, when standing at the North Pole, every direction faces south. Temporally, the North
Pole is timeless and has to this day no allocated longitude or time zone. This is no coincidence:
The North Pole can be thought of as the origin of time because all lines of longitude, which
define time zones, pass through North Pole. Emperors and philosophers through the centuries
have recognized the North Pole’s special significance as a point that defines global time, but is
not itself subject to it,” Bravo writes and as I talk to him on the phone from Cambridge, he
continues:
“Every frontier is a moving boundary, that has two sides. So if economic national expansion is
pushing on the northern frontier, what is it pushing against? That is a question for the present
day, because the question of what pushes back against expansion, is also a question about the
conditions on which we inhabit the Earth today,” he says.
“The North Pole and the Arctic is the temporal and spatial framework in which we understand
our economic, geographical, cultural place in the world,” he says. ”So as nation states negotiate
new national boundaries and rights to access resources, the North Pole reminds us that we live on
a planet with limits. If we talk about going beyond the pole, it becomes a paradox, because you
cannot go further than the North Pole. The idea of travelling ’beyond the Pole’ implies a space
where the world is transformed. It leads us to understand our human limits in rather different
terms. The North Pole shows us the limits of the world we inhabit, but it also challenges us to
ask how is it that the world is made whole? How is this an inhabitable world? The North Pole,
this placeless place, has been and remains integral to our understanding of our human condition
and the way we are bounded to the surface of this planet,” he says.
At the heart of cosmos
In his book, Bravo explains how “for Greek and Arab astronomers, poles were at the heart of the
architecture of the entire cosmos.”
I wish I had known earlier. In 2012, I learned of an entirely different approach. I was at the North
Pole covering the Danish-Greenlandic attempts to secure proof that the Arctic seabed is
irrefutably connected to the bedrock of Greenland and that the rights to the resources on the
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bottom should therefore belong to Greenland and indirectly to Denmark, which still holds
sovereignty over Greenland. Travelling for weeks on an icebreaker, I was told that the North
Pole has essentially of no value or significance in our time and age. It is, I learned at that time,
basically an irrelevant spot in a bucket of water.
A group shot from the North Pole taken in the summer 2012, shows everyone on board the
icebreaker that brought the Danish-Greenlandic LOMROG III expedition to the Arctic Ocean for
collection of scientific evidence as part of efforts to prove that the seabed is solidly connected to
Greenland. (Björn Eriksson / Swedish Polar Research Secretariat)
I know now from Michael Bravo’s book that the learned and wise in ancient Persia, Egypt, India
and Greece were all deeply preoccupied with understanding the North Pole. Or, more precisely,
they were first and foremost preoccupied with the North Pole’s even more revered celestial
sister, which they imagined as a fixed entity close to the pole star on the inner surface of the shell
that encapsulated the universe. Our earth was the eternal and entirely still center of the universe;
solidly positioned on the axis that ran from the celestial North Pole down through the North Pole
of our planet.
“Any astrologer worth his salt was on the lookout for divine conjunctions of constellations and
stars, and omens or portents of dangers ahead. Hence the importance of the geographical North
Pole came about first because of the celestial North Pole and its pole star, and our knowledge of
the Earth’s grid of latitude and longitude was a projection derived from mapping the celestial
realm,“ Bravo writes.
A new view of the world
In the 15th and 16th centuries the North Pole again took on a lead role in the evolution of a new
view of the world and in the development of our ability to navigate the globe.
“Without poles there could be no geography and crucially, no system of orientation for
navigation,” Bravo writes.
The creation of new ways to understand the architecture of the globe spun around the North Pole,
and facilitated new empires, colonization, trade routes and other features of early globalization.
“Thus the North Pole provided one of the main keys to help unlock the basic question of human
orientation — to know where we are at any moment in time and to know on what course we are
heading,” Bravo writes.
Renaissance artisans, mathematicians, cosmographers and cartographers, in Vienna and Venice
not the least, created beautiful immaculate globes and maps on which the North Pole shone as
the center of new illuminations of our divine connections. Suddenly Europeans were learning to
see the world in an entirely new light. They were taught how to see themselves and the planet
they inhabited from above; a completely new perspective, which was particularly helpful in an
age where many struggled to comprehend the astonishing voyages of the likes of Christopher
Columbus, Vasco da Gama and Ferdinand Magellan.
“These special polar maps conferred beauty and prestige on atlases in a unique way. These
projections acquired an aesthetic significance and prominence that became synonymous with a
new way of viewing the world, as though gazing down on the world from the celestial pole,”
Bravo writes. In this way and with the North Pole very much in the center of things,
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cartographers like Peter Apian (1495-1552) and his successors helped much of Europe to an
intellectual leap, long before any European had been anywhere close to the North Pole.
”For philosophers of the enlightenment like Kant, the human condition was one of being
anchored to the Earth, like ants unable to escape the limitations of a field of vision placed very
close to its surface,” Bravo writes. Cosmographers like Apian and his successors made the globe
and its positioning in the universe easier to fathom and rulers and emperors like the Habsburgs in
Austria and others with imperial visions readily adopted these tools for visualization of their
ambitions. The North Pole’s significance grew and grew along a wide spectrum of sciences and
the arts.
“It is the story about a wider circle of Europeans, mathematicians, cartographers, cosmographers
not far removed from the contemporary circle of Renaissance artists and architects like Albrecht
Dürer and Leonardo da Vinci. The idea of looking on Earth from above is intimately connected
to the story of the invention of linear perspective, which is much better known and celebrated in
the world of art history of course,” Bravo tells me.
Paradise at the North Pole
In the 18th and 19th centuries much of the world followed with growing excitement how
seafarers and explorers of many kinds travelled, at great peril, closer to the North Pole by ship,
sledge, foot or balloon. Michael Bravo describes in detail how the narration of these endeavours,
many of which did not achieve what they set out to do, became still more elaborate, and also how
the idea that the North Pole was intimately connected to its celestial sister in Heaven continued
to inspire more fantastic interpretations for a long time, including the one that Paradise was
originally located at the North Pole.
“Safe from prying eyes, the Earth’s polar axis and poles possessed a strong appeal as places for
locating narratives and symbols of absolute sacredness and purity,” Bravo writes. Even the
colossal amounts of ice at the pole could be explained. With the fall of Eden, of course, man had
called the freeze upon himself. The Boston University’s first president, William Warren (18331929), an esteemed professor of comparative religion, collected evidence from the new field of
anthropology, from linguistics, archeology and from his own research into religious thought in
Iran, China, Japan and elsewhere. He described in conclusion an antediluvian continent in the
north with an unusually tall mountain centered at the North Pole. This he designated as the
original site of Paradise and the very cradle of the human race.
In “Paradise Found” (1885) Warren explained how this antediluvian continent was first
submerged by the biblical deluge and then by an ice sheet animated by an abrupt shift in the
Earth’s polar axis and subsequent cooling. In Warren’s telling, refugees from these calamities
fled south and soon established the first communities of white Aryans.
Today, Warren’s views would be subject to criticism because of his commitment to defending
creationism against evolutionary theory. And even in his own time, his use of racial theory to
explain historical migrations was controversial and widely contested. Michael Bravo, however,
describes how North Pole variants of the history of Paradise penetrated far into a number of
ethnonationalist movements in many countries, including strands of Hinduism in which a large
Mount Meru at the North Pole plays a significant mythical role.
Powerful agents in Nazi Germany, such as Adolf Hitler’s close associate Rudolf Hess, also made
use of North Pole Aryan mysticism in their Thule Gesellschaft, a influential private society that
forged key elements of Nazi thinking.
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“For National Socialism, the polar origins served as a repudiation of the traditional orientation of
geography towards the sacred sites of the Judaic Mediterranean,” Bravo writes.
An American North Pole
He also uncovers how the polar projection of the North Pole emerged after World War II as
though it were a surprising new projection:
“American writers in the 1940s began to write about polar projections and the view over the
North Pole as though it were a new idea, adopting it to illustrate a new post-war vision of the
world as a smaller connected global village. America’s rethinking of its position in relationship
to the whole globe made the North Pole important once again. Making the pole a symbol of
American and Soviet foreign policy meant writing out its longer and more complex historical
narratives,” he says.
Today, a few decades later, we talk more often about the North Pole as an object in the quests by
Russia, Canada and Denmark/Greenland. The submissions by the three nations for the rights to
the resources on the seabed of the Arctic Ocean are dealt with by the Commission on the
Continental Shelf of the UN, and most observers expect the issue to be resolved peacefully
within a decade or two, perhaps finally through direct negotiations between the three
governments, since the commission is not mandated to solve the problem, if two or more nations
have overlapping, valid claims.
In this elaborate diplomatic process, however, the more difficult question of the cultural value of
the North Pole is not dealt with at all. The UN’s expert commission will not ask whether the
dispute over potentially recognizing rights to the North Pole seabed as belonging to a single
nation’s jurisdiction will somehow damage a phenomenon that is presently valuable to the whole
of humanity. Will a precious gem of world heritage lose its thrill and value through this type of
handling? Will whatever magic and substance that still remains be lost for future generations? Or
is the cultural and historic value of the North Pole, now so thoroughly documented by Michael
Bravo, perhaps immune to all we do today?
Wisely, Michael Bravo hardly comments on the current efforts or ambitions of the three states
involved, and neither does he make suggestions as to whether a protective zone around the North
Pole or the like would be desirable. His is the scholarly contribution, a rich and detailed account
of the history and intellectual discovery of the pole, and we must then make up our own minds
where this should all lead.
A view from Greenland
In the Danish Kingdom, only one key decisionmaker has ever made cohesive comment on the
cultural value of the North Pole, namely the former Prime Minister of Greenland, Kuupik Kleist.
Not that the North Pole traditionally played any particular role in Greenland. Way back, the
people of the very north of Greenland named the North Pole Qalasersuaq, the great navel. It lay
far from the lands of humans, where only shamans could travel, and it was not a nice place, but
rather a dangerous deep with no hunting to speak of. Since then, Qalasersuaq became a neutral,
almost bland designation for the very point at 90 degrees North. As Michael Bravo explains in
his book, the pole star was also never very significant as a means of navigation in the Arctic.
This far north, the pole star shines too high in the sky to be very useful for laying a course.
Even so, Kuupik Kleist took a stand in Nuuk back in 2007: ”I believe that it is in the interest of
Greenland that the North Pole and adjacent areas should not be given to any single state, but
remain an area of common responsibility,” he wrote.
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In 2010, after taking office as Prime Minister in Greenland’s Self Rule government, his views
became known in Copenhagen when I interviewed him for a book, and it was not much
appreciated by the Danish government. Nervousness arose that the delicate talks with Canada
and Russia about the Arctic seabed might be disturbed, and within a day Kuupik Kleist explained
to the public that his view was “private” and not that of Greenland’s government.
In May this year, however, he explained to me that he is still of the firm conviction that the
North Pole and some section of its surrounding waters ought to be somehow protected for its
cultural significance. “The North Pole is something special,” he said. But now he is no longer in
politics and his view seems to have found no other real friends.
Martin Breum is a Danish journalist and author, based in Copenhagen. In 2012 he covered the
Danish-Greenlandish LOMROG III expedition to the Arctic Ocean and North Pole. He writes
regularly on Arctic affairs for ArcticToday.com. Find him at www.martinbreum.dk.
https://www.arctictoday.com/a-new-history-of-the-north-pole-uncovers-its-deep-significancefor-modern-civilization/
Then I started doing my own research, in which I found:
Ancient Buddhism stated the earth is flat.
Areas of ancient Chinese Buddhism, Japanese Buddhism, Tibetan Buddhism, Hinduism,
Jainism, and more, all state there is a mountain at the centre of our reality, which links / leads to
the spirit world / divinity, wherein the top of this Mount Meru is the lowest abode of the gods.
In all of these traditions they state there are four continents around the mountain, which
some people think, including the video above, is at the north pole. Note that the North Pole is
heavily guarded and one cannot just pop there to throw snowballs.
But I started researching more, and these videos got me thinking about there being more land as
well as our 'known earth.' Part1, Part2.
I started researching more Buddhist texts, and many of the older ones state we only live on the
southern continent (one out of the four), known as Jambudvipa (blue in most mandalas). So I
started to look at Mandalas and art
that supported
these notions.
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Many of these mandalas, along with Tibetan Lore state there are three continents on "each
cardinal point,' amounting to 12 pieces of land.
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(The above two images relate also to the step Pyramids all around the world).
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So the theory is this:
What if there are three other lands, and our known earth is just one of them? (Or (or eleven more
if there are four groupings of three land areas). Can you prove this theory incorrect? Maybe
Atlantis was "the whole gig," as ancient scripture states that around Mount Meru in the middle,
there are multiple rings of mountains and then water - linking to the words of Plato about
Atlantis.
Maybe the mega popular 'Game of Thrones,'is giving us symbolism where another world exists
beyond the ice-wall?
What secrets did the Knights Templar find in the 1300's to create an elite wanting to sign
up? Why is their symbol that of four cardinal points growing in size?
Also Celtic, Gnostic, and other symbolism from all around the world shows this Four way
symbolism.
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Even the pyramids all around the world could be symbolism of this theory.Ho hum, just a
thought, enjoy your Sunday.
http://www.waykiwayki.com/2015/05/flat-earth-mount-meru-and-four-lands.html
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Mount Meru: A Mandala of my mind- 2014
Time and space are more nebulous in the Hindu world. The Sanatana Dharma, “the eternal law”,
preceded the religion that followed. The stories of Krishna and the Mahabharata are in the distant
past because they are archetypes outside of time, but played out in our world to teach us the
subtleties and complexities of dharma.
Dharma with its multiple implications of virtue, morality, religion, justice, eternal law, and
cosmos described their religion. The term Hindu, was later imposed. Hindh” is Persianfor the
river “Sindh“,the Indus river which has shaped the people for generations.
For the pattern of life along the Indus civilization was shaped by forces outside of oneself. A
mud house could be cooled by the sprinkling of water, or warmed by the sun to keep out the
night chill.
History and economics have added their presence to nature. Fifty-five centuries of civilization traditions and precedents moulded into concrete realities over a hundred and seventy generations
– are sometimes an unmovable weight.
Now with satellite imagery, Science positivist masculinity – like modern media – simplifies life
in terms of black and white. That which is not understood is all too easily dismissed as myth.
Narratives don’t like complexity and conquerors usually recreate the past.
With its four facades facing north, east, south, and west, Mount Kailas looks like an enormous
diamond. Seventy-five percent as high as Mount Everest, the mountain is one of the tallest peaks
in the Himalayas. Nearby is the source of the Indus, Sutlej, and Brahmaputra Rivers. The source
of the Ganges is not far away. On its southern face, a vertical gash crosses horizontal layers,
creating the image of a swastika. The word comes from svastika, Sanskrit for well-being and
good fortune. Buddhists regard the mountain as a mandala -— the sacred circle from which the
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sacred rivers flow like the spokes of the eternal wheel.”
– Colin Wilson[1]
At 6714 metres it is dwarfed when compared to Everest, but hidden behind a sea of Himalayan
mountains, and seen from a distance, its isolated snow capped beauty, overlooks the blue-green
emerald of lake Mansarovar and the Rakshas TaI, in the south, evokes a sense of the infinite
cosmos that embraces our minute world. It brings men to their knees as if before divinity in
solid form.
Each face has its own moods: snowy splendor to the south, compassion and benevolence to the
West, stark foreboding to the north, and distant, inaccessible mystery to the south. Within 100
kilometres, flow Asias four largest rivers: the Indus flows to the north, the Brahmaputra to the
east, the Sutlej to the west, and the Karnali to the south, leading to the Ganges.
The Jains believe Rishabhanatha, the first of our ages twenty-four saviors, was enlightened
on Kailash,. Nearby, Shenrab, the legendary founder of Bon, taught and meditated. Sikhs revere
Hemkund, a mountain lake near the source of the Ganges, as the place where Guru Gobind
Singh, the last of their ten principal teachers, meditated in a previous life. Here, the Tibetan yogi
Milarepa, attained enlightenment.
Colonial politics of the Tibetan Plateau and the Himalayas have since shaped the public
narrative. Now the Tibetan Plateau is world confused by ideology: West vs communism, when
India was “non aligned” and the Dalai Lama had fled to India.
In the 17th century it’s mystery was whispered to in the West. Herodotus had written about gold
digging ants, others spoke of haunt of the yeti or the one footed Theurang, wind horse and snow
line, magical saddhus, and the Dalai Lama. From the mystical north, the theosophist Madame
Blavatsky claimed she encountered monks capable of telekinesis., Himmler tried to find proof of
Aryan supremacy and James Hilton set his Shangrila.
Throughout this distant land were rumors of lost Christians, that the Jesuits discovered were
Tibetan Buddhists, the Dutch were ‘Red Hairs’ the Spanish ‘shape shifting foreigners’ t the
Chinese who under a circular heaven that had corresponding place above for every place on
earth.
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THERE ARE ALSO UNIVERSAL THEMES:
Metaphysical Meru, or Tise, was believed manifest on earth as Kalais (the crystal), or Kang
Rinpoche (Jewel of Snows). Claimed the navel of the earth ( a term used by Jews of Jerusalem,
and Olympus by the Greeks), axis of the universe, and source of Asia’s four great rivers, the
hidden source of the Ganga, Sutler, Indus and Brahmaputra were revealed behind the ramparts of
the Himalayas.
Four great rivers? From Eden is said in the Hebrew texts to have had a river that broke into four
heads, and historians like Josephus tried to maps the Ganges, Nile, Euphrates and Tigris to a
central point.
So as I look at this mandala of the world, I see Meru, not mapped with cartographic precision,
but by a code of meaning. It cannot be described as “wrong” because we have not figured out
it’s code.
In that world, the myths of religion are outside of time and space, unable to be touched by
science, and so should not criticise or be criticised by the different world views.
The Mandela of Meru offers a profound reflection on the possibilities and perils of pursuing
cross cultural understanding.
From a top this world perhaps we can view the world of soul as did James Hillman:
Let us imagine the anima mundi [world soul] neither above the world encircling it as a divine
and remote emanation of spirit, a world of powers, archetypes, and principles transcendent to
things, nor within the material world as its unifying panpsychic life-principle. Rather let us
imagine the anima mundi as that particular soul-spark, that seminal image, which offers itself
through each thing in its visible form.
For myriad myths and fantasies shape the polytheism of our psychic lives, just the constellations
astrologers have fantasized onto our maps of the heavens.
The conquest of science, a noble pursuit as it is, is fuelled by positivist masculinity, as well as
creativity which too many seems feminine. Aren’t we both masculine and feminine, right and left
brained?
LET US FOR A MOMENT -TRAVEL BACK IN TIME BEFORE INDUSTRIALISATION REPLACED
NATURAL RHYTHMS OF FAITH.
Kalais appears the Olympus of the East and seemed to improbable to believe in. So the Western
world preferred Ptolemy’s cartography.
Tibetans claim a compassionate Bodhisattva cut an outlet through the Himalayan peaks to form
the Tibetan plateau. Geologists claim the plateau preceded the mountain wall forced up from
clashing continental plates and eroded down over eons.
The lofty peaks can easily be imagined a home of the gods. The Aryans described the abode of
snow, Himavant, Himachala, or Himalaya. In the cosmology of Meru, it is a mountain of blazing
appearance. In the Mahabhrarata the ranges are “kissing the heavens by its height” “shining like
the morning sun and like a fire without smoke, immeasurable and unapproachable by men of
manifold sins.”
A top Meru is Swarga, the heavenly city of Indra, Vedic god rain and storm, “a paradise
“furnished with heavenly flowers and fruit and covered everywhere with bright gold dwellings[”
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“According to ancient religious texts, the abode of creator Brahma is called Brahmaloka, the
abode of Lord Vishnu is called Vaikunta ad the abode of Lord Shiva is called Kailash. Of the
three, one can only go bodily and return in this life from Kailash having experienced divinity.”
Navel of the earth, and the axis of the universe, from where water flowed into a mountain lake,
four rivers flow. The Himalayan was to south, and west deserts of Takla Makan to and Gobi to
north and east.
The world made of seven continents with seven oceans. From centre island rises Meru “like the
pericap of a lotus’ that sits between three mountains to the north and three to the south, claims
the Vishnu Purana.
Eighty- four thousand leagues high, with four faces like crystal, ruby, gold and lapis lazuli. From
the big toe of Vishnu’s left foot comes ‘the stream that washes away all sin, the river Ganga,
embrowned with the unguents of the nymphs of heaven, who sported in its waters.’ After
washing the inner orb, circling the mountain, it divides into for mighty rivers t each corner of the
earth: Sita, Alaknanda, Chaksu and Badra.
The first, flowing upon the tops of the inferior mountains on the east side of Meru, flows upon
their crests and passes through the country of Bhadrashva to the ocean: the Aleknanda flows
south, to the country of Bharatha and, dividing into seven rivers on the way, falls into the sea:
the Chaksu falls into the sea after traversing all the western mountains and passing through the
country of Ketumala: and the Badra washes the country of the Uttara Karus and empties itself
into the northern ocean.’
This image is mirrored in the Jain swastika mantra, the tantric mandela of Tibet, the Hindu
yantra and the upturned bowl of Sanchi’s great stupa, crowned with its symbolic tree. The yogi
mentally places himself within the image his spinal column at one with meru, deepened into an
earth consciousness. He achieves union of opposing forces of earth water, male and female,,
light and dark,what Taoists call , yin and yang; Tibetans call yab and yum, and the Shaivite
Tantra calls Shiva-Shakti .
Modern scholars suggest that as the Aryans pushed eastward the Ganges became the most vital
and sacrosanct of rivers. As the form of mother goddess Ganga Mai , she provides for 1/3 of
India’s population. The Jaganmatri, or Divine Mother has so many forms: Parvati, with smooth
and clear skin under her veil. Ouma is also called Parvati, daughter of the Himalaya, literally
“abode of the snows”. She can also turn into Kali for victory.
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The dwelling place of God Siva, the Supreme Yogi, naked and smeared with ashes, sits on a tiger
skin, matted hair coiled o his head in meditative bliss. Though the supernatural power of his
third eye he calmly surveys the illusion of life’s and is able to destroy the illusion binding us to
the cycle of death and rebirth. j When He rises to dance, He takes on the functions of Brahma
and Vishnu and creates and preserves the universe itself.
Here, the King of the mountains, Himalaya, lives with his queen, the Goddess Mena, in a palace
of gold, attended by divine guardians, maidens, and magical beings.
It is hard to imagine a more potent symbol of inspiration. he Himalayas stretch 1,500 miles rising
from the monsoon- drenched jungles north of Burma to sweep its great arc along the borders of
India and Tibet, through Bhutan, Sikkim and Nepal, up to the glaciers of the Karakoram on the
remote desert between Pakistan and China.
Millions of years ago the summit of Mount Everest lay beneath an ancient sea, called Tethys,
separating Asia from India. Over eons the tectonic plates collided to fold and thrust up the peaks
of the Himalayas and the Tibetan Plateau, The fractured crust filled magma, and glacial action,
formed walls and peaks of granite and preexisting rivers have cut through the range creating the
deepest valleys in the world. The Kali Gandaki Valley between Annapurna and Dhaulagiri in
central Nepal is nearly four miles deep.
“The Earth’s most dramatic features, mountains are to Hindus the abode of Gods, the haunt of
holy sages and the supreme pilgrimage destination.
Viewed through the eyes of a Buddhist or Hindu, mountains are mystical realms of Gods,
heavens, spirits and spiritual masters.
– Edwin Bernbaum
The ancient poets and sages regarded the range as an earthly paradise sparkling with streams and
forests set beneath snowy beautiful peaks. Above this earthly paradise lie the heights of heaven..
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To die on her banks and be caste in her waters is to be delivered to heaven. Dip 3 times under the
waters is to be cleansed of all sins.
As devotees bathe, change into a a clean dhoti , they are for at least that moment changed into a
new person , who has completed a turn in the wheel of life, death and rebirth.
High caste Hindus in 4th final stage of life begin their final pilgrimage from Ganga – Dwara. So
inaccessible are holiest of places a pilgrim places their life in the lap of the gods and to free them
self from the cycle of rebirth.
They shave their head and beard, conduct their own funeral and take on pale ochre robes
symbolising their purification in a funeral pyre.
“One of the greatest and most austere pilgrimages, Mount Kailas, Himalayan abode of Lord
Siva, is sacred to five religions. Pilgrims perform a three-day, 33-mile circumambulation of the
peak. At the foot of Kailas lies Lake Manasarovara, symbolizing a quieted mind, free from all
thought. Kailas is the Mount Meru of Hindu cosmology, center of the universe. Within 50 miles
are the sources of four of India’s auspicious rivers.[5]“
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MERU AS A MODEL OF THE UNCONSCIOUS MIND AND HEALING
Religion imbues meaning to space: think of Jerusalem, Mecca, Rome, Karbal, or Kailas. For
place is an idea, consciously and deliberately constructed, then propagated in an ordered fashion
an imposed on the physical landscape .
We also map these values onto our bodies and on time: certain body parts are purer, certain times
more auspicious, so some places are charged more with energy.
Kalais is mapped for great meaning as a mandala for the souls pursuit of enlightenment.
The Buddhist mandala of Demchog on Kailas portrays the universe as a circle of mountains,
oceans and continents arrayed around a mountain Meru at its centre. Called Sumeru by
Buddhists and Meru by Hindu’s.
As the divine access of the cosmos, it is important to both Hindu and Buddhist thought. Brahma
is said to live on its summit with other deities surrounding him.
In the early texts, Kalais and Meru are separate peaks bt later traditions merged them into one
idealized peak.
Some devotees say the Kailash is the Shivalinga; others that it is Mount Meru, the presence of
eternal in time.
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Today both there are Tibetans and Indians view Kailas meeting of earth and divine, where the
heavenly Meru meets the earthly plane. A pilgrimage to Meru is a journey to the center of the
universe, where all begins and ends.
“As dew is dried up by the morning sun so are sins of men dried up by the sight of the
Himalaya, where Shiva lived and whee the Ganga falls from the foot of Vishnulike the slender
thread of a lotus flower. There are no mountains like the Himalaya, for in them are Kalais and
Manasarovar.”
Astonished travelers, passing below that inaccessible peak, view afar a vast snow formation
resembling a palace, with icy domes and turrets.
The Kailas peak full of dark black rocks with head adorned with glittering white snow stood like
a leader amongst the long stretch of black mountains. “My body experienced horripilation and
my mind immersed in the ocean of bliss was overcome with joy” – Sri Swami Tapovanam
The yantra to circle Kalaish can be performed in three days, a walk of around 50 kilometers,
paying homage to Siva or Demchog, makes contact with something deep within themselves to a
vision of the supreme reality that infuses our cosmos. Every step is rich with prayers and praise
of those who have walked the way for eons before them .
Tibetans make three, five, or thirteen circumambulations of Mount Kailash, or even more.
Sometimes they prostrate themselves, rising to walk the length of one prostration only, then once
again falling to the ground. To circle the mountain in this way may take up to four weeks of
patient and meditative movement. These pilgrims may then turn and return, rapt in their
awareness of the eternal. The way has no beginning and no end.”
– Jennifer Westwood[6]
Hence, to many Hindus and Buddhists, the pilgrimage to Kailas is is the most ardous and sacred
journey in the pursuit of enlightenment.
Many believe at Kalaish, the Ganges, holiest river of all, cascades from heaven to first touch the
Earth and course invisibly through the locks of Siva’s hair before spewing forth from a glacier
140 miles to the west.
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Source: Thetrellingworld.com
Nearby is Lake Mansarovar, Lake of the Mind . Hindu myth claims the lake was first created in
the mind of the Lord Brahma. Myths claim it was the summer home of swans, considered sacred
and wise. Buddhists link it to Anotatta Lake, where legend claims Queen Maya conceived the
Buddha.
Annually during the Kailash Mansarovar Yatra the hardiest of Hindu pilgrims take the dangerous
journey over high passes to bathe in Manasarovar’s icy waters and cleanse their minds of sins by
ancient monasteries, like Chiu Gompa Monastery built into a hill as if carved from the rock.
Interestingly in South India, the Tamil Sangam spoke of a legendary continent Kumari Kandam,
named after a gentle maiden, the Divine Feminine. So perhaps we imagine our collective mind
and its archetypes, not as an iceberg, but as the Himalayan plateau, eroded by Yugas of time.
MAKING LIFE A SACRED EXPERIENCE
Source: Chinese Buddhist Encyclopedia
India and the river mirror each other bubbling ever changing and like India the river is
impossible to grasp entirely. India’s elusive deep eddies and currents are like game within a
game of her politics.
Surface shines clear but a river can also prove dangerous to strangers
To many the Indus and Ganges are the cradle of life. We could say India’s great gifts are her five
great rivers that cradled life to civilizations.
From mountain abodes of eternal snow along the long Indus, carry mineral sediment and the rites
of mourners from Tibet, to the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea. As environmentalists battle
over what is sacred, I am struck in in grief for the earth
Is our environmental pain a blocked grieg denied by emotional block of disconnected logic? We
need to recover the sacred masculine, the spiritual warrior, the father and beat the drum in
prayer lest our addictive grief turn to anger and violence.
If clouds be the calligraphy of god, then the earth is a Mandala that connects us through our first
chakra. Meru asks us to connect earth to heaven, and we beneath are a caterpillar do we know
deep inside us to become a butterfly.
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Faced with a problem African singers that sing back and forward dance imagine, evoke, strum
and sing the issue and see what happens. They go into an inner state of being something they
incarnate the essence of the challenge.
Similarly, a Mandala offers us a focal point for the power of ritual.
Making Ritual builds community. India and Tibet have their own rituals, as does the West, with
festivals that bring art to the streets, psychoanalysis and politics. To often they are more show
than transformational and economics overpowers sensitivity.
Let us look at the ancient mandala, not as a map, but a cosmological, geographic, historical
divination and psycho-spiritual puzzle.
Kalaish is said to be the naval of the world reminding me of the cosmic Purusha, the cosmic
man.
The disciple leads the prana until Mooladhara.
The air thus inspired awakens the lower Fire which was asleep, meditating on Pranava that is
nothing else than Brahman,
And concentrating his thought, he rises the breath until to the lower Fire, until the navel and
beyond, within the subtle body.
On the top of the body, over the head there is the lotus with thousand petals, shining like the
heavenly Light.
It’s that which gives the liberation. Its secret name is Kailash, the mountain where Shiva abides.
The one who knows this secret place is delivered from samsara.
– Amritananda Upanishad
In india, life was accepted as it is, a child knew not to reach under a tablecloth, or into an unlit
cupboard in case there lay a coiled cobra. The Night guards thump stout lathes into ground
warning would be thieves keeping innocents awake . Meanwhile, deep in the jungles and atop
the Himalayas, yogis sit so still that in the forest jungle a predator ignore them as part of the
fauna.
Most may still walk from the village to the field with a bullock or buffalo cart, but now the
modern incarnation in the city has pneumatic tyres. Millions on cycles and a growing number of
motor bikes
The world is changing and the problems in one culture can be solved with the solutions of
another
WHATEVER CHOICE INDIA MAKES REQUIRES DEEP CONTEMPLATION OF OPPOSING YET
COMPLEMENTARY FORCES.
The four rivers said to flow from meru, like the rivers from biblical Eden, remind me of
four elements medieval metaphysics:, water, air, fire, and earth, match the four qualities
of warmth, dryness, wet, and cold[7]. The feminine the waxing, moist, and cold moon and the
warm dry sun are balanced when coupled like a woman open to her husband.
Even the very first alchemists said not to think that this was meant concretely, that it was just a
way of introducing order into our ideas” wrote psychoanalyst Marie-Louise von Franz. “which
means you see clearly an image of totality through the four qualities projected onto matter; even
in those days it was simply a symbolic network which the human mind projected onto matter to
bring order into it.
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SO WHAT DO I SEE IN MERU?
Paramahansa Yogananda[8] reminds us “Mythological tales in the Purana say that the Himalayas
are the abode of Shiva …” explaining “Parvati, Kali, Durga, Uma, and other goddesses are
aspects of the Divine Mother of the World, variously names to signalize particular functions.
God or Shiva in His para or transcendental aspect is inactive in creation. His shakti (energy,
activating force) is relegated to His “consorts,” the productive “female” powers that make
possible the infinite unfoldments in the cosmos.
The duality of sun and moon, ireinds me of the bridge between heaven and earth. A scientist
knows particle, energy, time-space, and electro-magnetism are interwoven, they are useful as
separate concepts. Similarly, a man sees in his lover the feminine in himself, as the moon reflects
the sun and on earth the divine finds a reflection of our own personal experience of heaven at
Meru.
Women emphasize process, inner world connectivity inner weaving are as important the fullness
not just the outcome. Men seem outcome driven.
India, like her ancient rivers have a beautiful feminine quality, and how will it merge with the
overpowering masculinity of economic demand?
The coniunctio as a harmonious balance between heaven and earth, like the moon and sun, and
man and woman. What is unknown in our self is found in completeness of union of the other in
love. Meister Ekhart called it the marriage of the sacred masculine and divine feminine.
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Meru offers devotion and contemplation of divine love.
It allows us, in the words of poet Mary Oliver “to love what is mortal; to hold it against your
bones knowing your own life depends on it; and, when the time comes to let it go, to let it go.”
To look deep within and find what we know from somewhere deep within. To love, and to let go,
in the cycle of life.
[1]Colin Wilson, The Atlas of Holy Places & Sacred Sites, Penguin Books Ltd., 1996 p. 119.
[2] Charles Allen, A Mountain in Tibet: 18.
[3] Dr. Sethumadhava Mount Kailash, Where the Heaven meets the Earth
[4] Charles Allen, A Mountain in Tibet: 21-23.
[5] Hinduism Today, May 1997
[6] Jennifer Westwood, Sacred Journeys , Henry Holt and Company, Inc., 1997 p.78.
[7] In the ancient scheme there were five, as there are in Ayurveda and TCM. Ayurveda and
Western schemes list fire, earth, water, earth and more other worldly ether. The Chinese system
replaces ether with metal.
[8] Paramahansa Yogananda, Autobiography of a Yogi, Self-Realization Fellowship, 1974, p.
194-95
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CHAPTER V
Impersonalism and the Earth-Globe Ideology
What is the point you are trying to make?
That the world is exactly like this?
You were the one talking about karmic vision a second ago...
Yes. Meaning that we as humans are not able to percieve Devaloka.
Some can. Regardless, just because we cannot see something does not mean it does not
exist.
Anyway, even at the most basic level, different animals see the same world differently,
which one sees it properly?
https://dharmawheel.net/viewtopic.php?f=36&t=31665&start=120-tatpurusa wrote: ↑Sat Aug
10, 2019 12:53 pm
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In the forthcoming series of papers we hope to show that the modern idea of Earth being a globeshaped planet floating in space is not a result of any scientific observation, but is rather a product
of an anti-Vedic ideology that is essentially impersonalistic, and asuric in nature.
The Earth-globe ideology is directly connected with impersonalism because it denies and covers
the true form of the Earth goddess (Bhumi), both in her personified form, and in her expansion as
the Bhu-mandala—a form which is described in the Puranas by the Vedic seers and devas with
specific details of the particular shape, extent, and other wonderful features of this colossal
landscape. Srila Prabhupada's desire was to counter impersonalist conceptions of life and the
universe by presenting Vedic Cosmology in the Temple of Vedic Planetarium.
Bhu-mandala is the centerpiece of this great exhibition, and is a direct challenge to the
propaganda of the modern asuras regarding the nature of Earth and the universe; indeed the
revealing of Bhu-mandala will mark the beginning of the end of the present asuric control on
Earth.
The sankirtan movement (congregational chanting of the Holy Names of God), was inaugurated
by the Golden Avatari, Sri Krishna Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, who appeared in Navadvipa, India in
the year 1486. The sankirtan movement is universal, and thus not limited to the Earth as we
know it (the so-called Earth-globe); indeed, the sankirtan movement will gradually expose this
conception of Earth to be nothing but a false ideology, and will ultimately reveal the factual
nature and true extent of the Bhu-mandala (Earth circle) that has been hidden for many centuries.
The sankirtan movement will duly release the people of the world from their mental and spiritual
captivity in a false world paradigm that is largely the construct of asuric (demoniac) ideology.
The revealing of the true size and shape of the Earth (Bhu-mandala/Earth circle) via the Mayapur
Temple of Vedic Planetarium is part of the on-going mission began by Sri Krishna Chaitanya
Mahaprabhu that will eventually connect and unify all parts of the universal family in love of
Godhead. Knowledge of the Bhu-mandala is manifesting at this time due to the presence on
Earth of the Supreme Personality of Godhead in the form of the Nama Avatar (the sound
incarnation of Sri Krishna), and in the form of Srimad Bhagavatam (the literary incarnation of
Sri Krishna). When the Absolute Truth appears, all forms of untruth, falsehood, lies, illusion, and
deception are revealed. As the rising sun disperses darkness and reveals things in their true form,
so the distribution of Srimad Bhagavatam through-out the world, along with chanting of the
Holy Names of Sri Sri Radha-Krishna has awakened many people (not just members of
ISKCON) to a higher state of consciousness. The 21st Century is the century for the conditioned
souls to hear the truth of both their material and spiritual existence. This includes the truth about
the Earth as it is revealed in Srimad Bhagavatam.
In a later paper we shall hear of how exalted personalities came from all over the greater Earth
circle (Bhu-mandala) to participate in Sri Krishna Caitanya Mahaprabhu's harinama
sankirtan whilst he resided at Jagannatha Puri. The accounts of personalities coming from areas
of the Earth that are beyond our known Earth make no sense whatsoever within the existing
globe paradigm, and are a further evidence that the Earth is not what we think. Sri Krishna
Chaitanya Mahaprabhu met not only with representatives from the seven great islands (saptadvipa) of the Earth, but also with representatives of the great asuras and nagas who reside in the
seven underground worlds of Bhu-mandala, as well as representatives of the devas and other
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celestial beings from the seven upper realms of the universe. From these accounts we can garner
that the universal sankirtan movement is already underway and is being headed by Sri Krishna
Chaitanya Mahaprabhu's representatives in the various lokas.
In forthcoming papers we shall elaborate on the connection between the appearance of Sri
Krishna Chaitanya Mahaprabhu's sankirtan movement, the destruction of the present world
satanic system, and the revealing of the true size and shape of the Vedic Earth, via the Mayapur
Temple of Vedic Planetarium. All this is a necessary part of the great spiritual transformations in
the world that will eventually reconnect our own world to other civilizations throughout the
greater Earth. From Sri-dhama Mayapur, in India, the Sankirtan movement has already begun to
spread throughout the Bhu-mandala, and throughout the universe as predicted in the following
verses:
"The more the five members of the Pancha-tattva cause the rains of love of Godhead to fall, the
more the inundation increases and spreads all over the world (tri-bhuvane—all over the three
worlds)." (Caitanya-caritamrta, Adi-lila, 7.28)
"In the activities of Lord Sri Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, the three worlds dance and chant (tribhuvana nace) having come in touch with love of Godhead. This is the characteristic of His
pastimes." (Caitanya-caritamrta, Antya-lila,3.267)
"Sri Krishna Chaitanya Mahaprabhu and His associates of the Pancha-tattva distributed the
holy name of the Lord to invoke love of Godhead throughout the universe (vishva) and thus the
entire universe was thankful." (Caitanya-caritamrta, Adi-lila, 7.163)
"The Lord is situated in all the universes in different forms just to please His devotees. Thus the
Lord destroys irreligious principles and establishes religious principles." (Caitanya-caritamrta,
Madhya-lila 20.219)
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From Sri Dhama Mayapur, Sri Krishna Caitanya Mahaprabhu (the Golden Avatar or
Avatari)
will cause the entire universe to chant and dance in ecstatic love of Godhead.
"I shall personally inaugurate the religion of the age—nama-sankirtana, the
congregational chanting of the holy name. I shall make the world (bhuvana)
dance in ecstasy, realizing the four mellows of loving devotional
service. (Caitanya-caritamrta Adi-lila, 3.19)
THE PERSONIFIED EARTH GODDESS
In the above verse, the Lord says that he will make the world (bhuvana) dance in ecstasy. Apart
from the people in the world who are obviously both personal and conscious and thus receptive
to the inundation of spiritual energy that is predicted to transform the Earth, the Earth itself
(Bhu-mandala) is also conscious and personal, and not an impersonal energy as
the asuric ideology of atheistic scientism propagates. The Bhu-mandala (Earth circle) is a
manifestation of Bhu-shakti, the eternal consort of Lord Vishnu.
In Krishna-lila, Bhu-shakti appears as Satyabhama, the wife of Lord Krishna (see purport Srimad
Bhagavatam 10.42.1). In Chaitanya-lila, Bhu-shakti incarnated as Vishnu-priya, the wife of Sri
Chaitanya (see Srila Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati Thakura's commentary to Chaitanya Bhagavata,
Adi Khanda 1.2). This statement is confirmed by Sri Kavi Karnapura:
"That Srimati Vishnupriya is an incarnation of Bhu-devi is described in the Sri
Chaitanya Candradoya Nataka, where Kali says, "Understanding that Srimati
Vishnupriya was the incarnation of bhu-devi, Lord Caitanya accepted her hand in
marriage". (Sri Kavi Karnapura, Sri Gaura Ganodesa Dipika 48)
It is only natural, therefore, that Lord Gauranga (The golden Avatari) wishes Bhu-shakti to be
known in her true form by the people of the world; and that Bhu-devi similarly wishes for the
people of the world to know Her husband, the Lord of the universe (Sri Gaura-Hari). It is fitting,
therefore, that Bhu-mandala will be exhibited at the Temple of Vedic Planetarium in the Lord's
own Holy abode at Sri Dhama Mayapur, West Bengal. Sri Krishna Chaitanya Mahaprabhu once
manifested his form of Sri-Varaha to Murari Gupta indicating that he would again raise and
protect the Earth:
"I accepted the incarnation of Varaha to lift the material world out of the waters of
nescience. Know Me to be the ultimate goal of the Vedas. The purpose of My
present incarnation is to propagate the congregational chanting of the Holy Names
of Krishna. In this incarnation, as in other incarnations, I will annihilate the
miscreants for the protection and pleasure of My devotees." (Sri Chaitanya
Bhagavata, Madhya-kanda, chapter 3)
The image below shows Lord Varaha lifting Bhu-devi (the personified Earth Goddess). Below
the lotus foot of Lord Varaha is Lord Ananta-sesha who is seen depicted in both His serpent and
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personified form. As Varaha holds Bhu-devi in Her personified form, so Ananta-sesha holds
Bhu-devi in Her form as the Bhu-mandala (the physical landscape upon which all the living
beings reside). The Padma Purana narrates that after Lord Varaha rescued the Earth and killed
the demon Hiranyaksha, He replaced Bhu-mandala on the head of Ananta-sesha:
"Seeing the Earth fallen (from the demon's head), He lifted it with his tusk, and
putting it on Sesha's head as before, took up the form of a Tortoise. Seeing great
Vishnu of the form of the hog, all deities and sages, with their bodies bowed with
devotion, praised him." (Padma Purana, Vl.237.17-19)
Bhu-Varaha at Mamallapuram, 6th Century
The modern image (below) shows the scene more clearly with the personified Earth goddess held
by Varaha-deva, and Ananta-sesha depicted both in personal and serpentine form:
We hope also that a beautiful shrine to Sri Sri Bhu-Varaha ( Picture below) will be incorporated
within the Temple of Vedic Planetarium complex, so that Bhu-devi in both Her personified form
and Bhu-mandala form, will be seen and worshiped by the world-wide pilgrims. The images
below show the magnificent Bhu-Varaha deity at Kallahali in Mysore:
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The above Sri-Sri Bhu-Varaha deity at Kallahalli is 18 foot tall, and was originally dug out of the
Earth by the Hoysala King Veera Ballala III, who established a Temple on the spot. It is not
known if the deity is self-manifested, though it is believed to have been originally installed by
sage Gautama. The temple has only been recently rediscovered and the worship resumed. The
website for the temple states:
"The ancient Bhoo Varahaswamy Temple built by the Hoysala king Veera Ballala
III was undiscovered and unprotected until a few years back. It must be either a
divine intervention or that we Indians have started tracing back our rich heritage
and culture that has brought this temple to its present light and glory".
The reappearance of Sri-Sri Bhu-Varaha at Kallahalli is perhaps an auspicious sign that the true
form of Bhu-devi will soon manifest to the world. We hope our pujari department at Sri Mayapur
Chandrodaya Mandir in Mayapur will also install a deity of Sri-Sri Bhu-Varaha at the Temple of
Vedic Planetarium, along with insisting that the arca-vigraha of Bhu-mandala is also correctly
depicted in the main dome exhibition. At the very least the present utsava deity of Varaha lifting
an Earth globe ought to be replaced by a deity of Varaha lifting Bhu-devi in Her personified
form. Unquestionably Lord Varaha has accepted all the first class worship and devotion of the
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devotees at Sri Chandrodaya Mandir, but the murtis and images of Varaha-deva holding a globeshaped Earth are incorrect.
There is no precedence in the shilpa shastra to depict Varaha lifting the Earth in the form of a
globe. Traditional murtis always show Lord Varaha lifting the personified Earth Goddess.
The depiction of Lord Varaha lifting an Earth globe is an icon of modern invention. The
thousands of modern images showing Varaha lifting an Earth globe are the ultimate in 'fake
news' propaganda because Varaha-deva lifted the entire Bhu-mandala, not a so-called Earth
globe. In the above link one can read the transcription of a conversation wherein Srila
Prabhupada personally corrected the misunderstanding that arose from his earlier instruction to
depict the Earth as a globe in the paintings of Varaha.
We hope devotee artists will understand the issue and paint images that correctly depict Varaha
lifting the entire Bhu-mandala. We hope also that pujaris will worship forms of Bhu-Varaha that
are made according to the traditional shilpa-shastra. The proliferation of images of Varaha-deva
lifting an Earth globe simply continue to hide the true form of Bhu-devi and reinforce a false
Earth paradigm.
The abhisheka of Sri Sri Bhu-Varaha at Kallahalli, near Mysore in India
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THE ABODE OF THE EARTH GODDESS
The Srimad Bhagavatam reveals that the Earth Goddess in Her personified form lives with Lord
Vishnu (in His form as Varaha-deva) in Uttara-kuru varsha which is on the northern side of
Jambudvipa:
"Sukadeva Gosvami said: Dear King, the Supreme Lord in His boar incarnation
[bhagavan yajna-purushah krita-varaha-rupa], who accepts all sacrificial
offerings, lives in the northern part of Jambudvipa. There, in the tract of land
known as Uttara-kuru-varsha [uttareshu ca kurushu], mother Earth [devi haisha
bhuh] and all the other inhabitants worship Him with unfailing devotional service
by repeatedly chanting the following Upanishad mantra." (Srimad Bhagavatam
5.18.34)
The Devi Purana describes the location and situation of Bhu-Varaha in this way:
"The Bhagavan Yajna Purusa is manifest in Uttara Kuru Mandala in the form of
Adi Varaha. The Earth Herself worships Him always. The Goddess Earth praises
Hari, the Yajna Varaha, the Destroyer of the Daityas and worships duly that Deva,
with Her heart lotus, naturally devoted, rendered more devoted by Her attachment
to the Lord". (Devi Purana, Tenth Book, Chapter 10, verse 6-7)
Jambudvipa is the very center of Bhu-mandala, and is the first of the Earth's seven great islands.
Jambudvipa has a diameter of 100,000 yojana (800,000 miles). The image below shows the
circular island of Jambudvipa with Bharata-varsha in the south and Uttara-kuru-varsha on the far
side of the island. The Golden Mount Meru marks the Axis Mundi or center of the universe and
is situated in Ilavrita-varsha:
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The Himalaya Mountain marked here is 80,000 yojana (640,000 miles) across and forms the
boundary mountain between Bharata-varsha and Kimpurusha-varsha which is to the north of
Bharata-varsha. South of the great Himalaya is Bharata-varsha which extends to the southern
shore of Jambudvipa Jambudvipa is completely surrounded by a great ocean which is
100,000 yojana (800,000 miles across). The size of Bharata-varsha between the great Himalaya
Mountain and the southern shore of Jambudvipa is 9,000 yojana (72,000 miles). Thus Bharatavarsha is 72,000 miles north to south, and 640,000 miles east to west. Our known Earth is
somewhere in the vast Bharata-varsha region. Our own area of the Earth is thus south of Mount
Meru, and the residence of the personified Earth Goddess is on the far side of Mount Meru,
specifically in Uttara-Kuru varsha.
The image below depicts the division of Jambudvipa into nine varshas, and shows the location of
various incarnations of the Supreme Lord in each varsha. Sri Sri Bhu-Varaha are in the northern
part of Jambudvipa known as Uttara-kuru-varsha. The Lord in His form as Nara-Narayana is
located in Bharata-varsha. Hanuman worships the form of Sita-Rama in Kimpurusha-varsha, and
Prahlada Maharaja worships Nrsingha-avatar in Hari-varsha, etc:
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The Puranas thus inform us not only of a greater Earth landscape, but also of the whereabouts of
the personified Earth Goddess. The modern secular cosmology denies both of these aspects to
the Earth, and is thus is inherently impersonalistic and asuric. We refer to globe ideology
as asuric because (as we shall see in later papers) the covering of the real feature of the Earth is
a deliberate policy!
When various parties present an ideology that states there is no such thing as a personified Earth
goddess, such an ideology is deemed by Vaishnavas to be impersonalistic because it is a denial
of the conscious and personal form of the Earth as she is revealed through the Puranas. Likewise,
when various parties present a cosmology in which the material or physical form of the Earth is
that of a globe floating in space, such ideologies can also be deemed impersonalistic because that
conception covers or blocks out the actual rupa or form of the Earth (Bhu-mandala) as described
in the Puranas. We shall explain this point in more depth in the second part of this paper.
The devotees of Sri Krishna need to become conscious of how the asuric ideology is negatively
affecting our perception of the reality described in Srimad Bhagavatam. Despite producing
images such as the one above showing the location of Bhu-Varaha in Jambudvipa, the purport
of Srimad Bhagavatam doesn't seem to register—since we (in Bharata-varsha) are at the southern
side of an 800,000 mile island, and Bhu-Varaha are at the other side, then we cannot be on an
isolated globe-shaped planet floating in space. Despite Srimad Bhagavatam describing our
location on a colossal flat Earth-circle, the question of flat-Earth has become taboo. Why?
WHY DOES IT MATTER IF THE EARTH IS GLOBE-SHAPED OR FLAT?
Many devotees have unquestionably lived and died in Krishna consciousness without the
question of a flat or globe Earth ever being raised or even a concern; however, due to the
construction of the Temple of Vedic Planetarium, the question of the Earth is being raised for
this generation of devotees, and thus presents a unique test of faith for all of Krishna's devotees
present at this time.
Although the appearance of the Earth is temporary, it is not false. Some yogis may reject the
whole question of the Earth as something belonging to the category of maya (illusion), and that
the question of whether Earth is flat or globular is not worth considering since the whole material
world in any case is a place of illusion. But such reasoning is a serious mistake because although
the material world creates an illusion for the soul, it is nonetheless a real illusion. A magician,
for example, creates different illusions using various props, but the props are real and the
magicians trick is a real event—not simply a figment of the audiences imagination. Likewise, Sri
Krishna (the supreme magician) creates illusion for the soul using 'props' such as the Earth, but
the Earth itself has reality, it is not false. The sooner one understands the true nature of the Earth,
the sooner one will get out of imprisonment in maya. Srila Prabhupada explains the difference
between the Vaishnava and Mayavadi attitude in the following statement:
"So we don't say that "It is mithya, it is false." That is Mayavadi's ver... Brahma
satyam jagan mithya. "This material world is false." We don't say false. We don't
say false, because we have to take work from it. Why shall I say false? When I
take some work from the typewriter or some other machine, why shall I say it is
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false? It is real. So our philosophy is, we don't neglect this material world as
false. That is pseudo, pseudo renunciation. You cannot give up. Why should
you call it false? Sometimes...Just like some materialists, they criticize that "You
are using material things. Why do you say false?" So that criticism is applicable to
the Mayavadi philosophy, who says jagan mithya, "This whole material world is
false." Brahma satyam jagan mithya. We don't say false. We say, "It is temporary.
It is temporary, and I have to take some benefit out of it." (Srimad Bhagavatam
2.4.2. Los Angeles, June 26, 1972)
Again:
"So we are not these so-called Mayavadi sannyasis, brahma satyam jagan mithya.
Why jagan mithya? Mithya means false. They say that jagan mithya, this whole
material world is false. We don't say false. We say it is temporary, and so long it
is in use, you utilize it for Krishna. That even this material world will be utilized
for Krishna consciousness, this is our proposal. We don't reject
anything." (Srimad Bhagavatam 1.6.5. Los Angeles, January 2, 1974)
Accepting that the world is temporarily manifest, and that it has reality (and is not false), the
question of the Earth's shape and size cannot be rejected by the bhakti-yogis as maya; indeed, the
proper understanding of the Earth's shape and size is essential, otherwise we will certainly
continue living in a completely false reality. The idea that the Earth has the form of a globe, is
merely that—an idea! However, the 'idea' has taken on a reality of its own. The 'idea' has not
only created a mass delusion that we live on a spinning ball floating in space, the idea is
unfortunately propped up by deception via various agencies such as NASA who are engaged in
propagating this false idea as a fact. The Earth-globe ideology is directly connected with
impersonalism because it hides or covers the true form of Bhumi in her expansion as Bhumandala. If we are to accept Srimad Bhagavatam as a description of reality, then the Earth we
live on is not an isolated globe floating in space, but is actually only a small part of a greater
Earth plane—there is more Earth all around us. By understanding and accepting the Earth as it
is described in Srimad Bhagavatam, the present generation of devotees will come a step closer to
Sri Krishna. By accepting Srimad Bhagavatam's version of reality one will obviously develop
faith in Sri Krishna, and subsequently lose faith in a world paradigm created by maya's agents.
Contrarily if we go on placing absolute faith in NASA's version of reality, we will most certainly
begin to lose faith in Srimad Bhagavatam.
By accepting that the Earth is temporarily manifest, but not false, the devotee is able to offer
proper respect to Bhu-devi in the form of Bhu-mandala. The same form or design of Bhumandala always reappears in each creation (and according to the Devi Purana in each universe
as well). The devotees of Sri Krishna, therefore, are expected to understand, appreciate, and
preach the nature of the Earth as it is revealed in Srimad Bhagavatam. By connecting personally
with the shakti of Sri Krishna one will experience the ultimate spiritual nature of the material
energy, indeed one will perceive Sri Krishna in everything, and thus everything as spiritual. Srila
Prabhupada explains the ultimate spiritual nature of the material world in many places, for
example:
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"Another example is the sun and the sunshine. As soon as you see the sunshine,
you can immediately think of the sun. Is that not so? In the morning, as soon as
you see the sunshine shining in your window, you can immediately remember the
sun. You are confident the sun is there, because you know that without the sun
there cannot be any sunshine. Similarly, whenever we see something, we should
immediately think of Krishna with reference to that particular thing, because that
thing is a manifestation of Krishna's energy. And because the energy is not
different from the energetic, those who have understood Krishna along with His
energies do not see anything except Krishna. Therefore for them there is no
material world. To a perfect devotee, everything is spiritual (sarvam khalu
idam brahma)." (Journey of Self-Discovery, 3.3, Krishna, The Enchanter of the
Soul)
Again:
"The entire cosmic manifestation is but an expansion of the Lord's energy;
everything rests in Him, yet He exists separately, beyond creation, maintenance
and annihilation. The varieties of creation are performed by His external energy.
Because the energy and energetic are one, everything is one (sarvam khalu idam
brahma). Therefore without Krishna, the Parabrahman, nothing can exist. The
difference between the material and spiritual worlds is that His external energy is
manifested in the material world, whereas His spiritual energy exists in the
spiritual world. Both energies, however, belong to the Supreme Lord, and
therefore in a higher sense there is no exhibition of material energy because
everything is spiritual energy. The energy in which the Lord's all-pervasiveness is
not realized is called material. Otherwise, everything is spiritual. Therefore
Prahlada prays, ekas tvam eva jagad etam: "You are everything." (Srimad
Bhagavatam 7.9.30 purport)
By relating to the Earth in a personal, non-exploitative, and devotional way, Bhu-devi in in Her
natural role as mother will create a heaven on Earth. Contrarily if one adopts an exploitative
mentality towards the Earth, one will only suffer. The point is explained in Mahabharata:
"Earth, if its resources are properly developed according to its qualities and
prowess, is like an ever-yielding cow, from which the three-fold fruits of virtue,
profit, and pleasure, may be milked. Brave kings conversant with virtue and profit
have become covetous of Earth. Endued with activity, they would even cast away
their lives in battle, from hunger of wealth. Earth is certainly the refuge of
creatures endued with celestial bodies as also of creatures endued with human
bodies. Desirous of enjoying Earth, the kings, O chief of the Bharatas, have
become like dogs that snatch meat from one another. Their ambition is
unbounded, knowing no gratification. It is for this that the Kurus and the
Pandavas are striving for possession of Earth, by negotiation, disunion, gift, and
battle, O Bharata. If Earth be well looked after, it becometh the father, mother,
children, firmament and heaven, of all creatures, O bull among
men." (Mahabharata, Jambu-khanda, Nirmana Parva, Section IX)
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The Earth-circle is immense beyond our conception, and there is enough space and resources for
everyone. The conception of Earth as a small isolated planet floating in space creates a fearful
struggle for existence as the asuras mislead everyone into fighting over seemingly limited space
and resources. An impersonal cosmology leads to impersonal dealings both with mother Bhumi,
and also with one's brothers and sisters who share the Earth plane. The Vedic cosmology restores
personalism, respect, and love for all souls regardless of their placement in various species of
life. Srila Prabhupada expresses the Krishna conscious vision of universal harmony in the
following verse:
"One should treat animals such as deer, camels, asses, monkeys, mice, snakes,
birds and flies exactly like one's own son. How little difference there actually is
between children and these innocent animals. (SB 7.14.9)
PURPORT
One who is in Krishna consciousness understands that there is no difference
between the animals and the innocent children in one's home. Even in ordinary
life, it is our practical experience that a household dog or cat is regarded on the
same level as one's children, without any envy. Like children, the unintelligent
animals are also sons of the Supreme Personality of Godhead, and therefore a
Krishna conscious person, even though a householder, should not discriminate
between children and poor animals. Unfortunately, modern society has devised
many means for killing animals in different forms of life. For example, in the
agricultural fields there may be many mice, flies and other creatures that disturb
production, and sometimes they are killed by pesticides. In this verse, however,
such killing is forbidden. Every living entity should be nourished by the food
given by the Supreme Personality of Godhead. Human society should not
consider itself the only enjoyer of all the properties of God; rather, men
should understand that all the other animals also have a claim to God's
property. In this verse even the snake is mentioned, indicating that a householder
should not be envious even of a snake. If everyone is fully satisfied by eating food
that is a gift from the Lord, why should there be envy between one living being
and another? In modern days people are very much inclined toward communistic
ideas of society, but we do not think that there can be any better communistic idea
than that which is explained in this verse of Srimad Bhagavatam. Even in the
communistic countries the poor animals are killed without consideration, although
they also should have the right to take their allotted food with which to live."
Throughout Srimad Bhagavatam, Srila Prabhupada advocates simple living/ high-thinking, and
condemns the ugra-karma (terrible activities) involved in exploiting Earth, people, animals,
trees, rivers, and oceans. If we treat the Earth and the other living beings as spirit souls, not
exploitable matter, then by the grace of Sri Krishna, everything will be provided for, and the
whole material world will become Vaikuntha:
"This is the only solution: to push on Krishna consciousness movement, love of
Godhead. Everyone will be happy, the human society. Vishvam purnam
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sukhayate. Whole universe will be just like Vaikuntha. Vaikuntha means without
anxieties." (Lecture on Srimad Bhagavatam 2.2.5, Los Angeles, December 2,
1975)
Srila Prabhupada mentions in the same lecture that even if the rest of the world remains in
illusion, on an individual level one can live in Vaikutha consciousness: "Here is reality, love of
God. You take it. Don't expect that it will be taken by all the nations, all the people. You take it
individually and see how much you are happy. Individual. That is our request". Srila Prabhupada
makes a similar point in the following purport:
"When such acknowledgement is given, either by a family, nation or society, their
abode becomes almost like Vaikuntha, and it becomes free from the operation of
the threefold miseries of this material world". (Srimad Bhagavatam 3.22.31
purport)
The Narada Purana states that though living in Kali-yuga, the devotees of Hari will not be
oppressed:
"Kali does not oppress those persons who perform the worship of Hari or who
repeat his names and glorify Hari day and night. Kali does not affect those men
who with or without desire for the fruits there-of glorify the deity saying
"Obeisance to Narayana." 0 Brahmana, in the terrible Kali yuga, only those are
contented and blessed, those who are absorbed in the names of Hari. Kali does not
harass them." (Narada Purana: 1.41.93-95)
The beginning of treating the Earth personally is obviously to know both the personality of the
Earth (Bhu-shakti), as well as the true form of Bhu-mandala. Bhu-mandala is not in some subtle
dimension of existence, but is the real, physical, and tangible surface upon which all living
beings reside.
IMPERSONALISM AND DUALITY
Hearing the description of the Vedic Earth (Bhu-mandala) and its relation to the rest of the
universe is necessary so that we can overcome the separatist mentality of seeing a duality
between Sri Krishna and His creation:
"My dear Lord, You alone manifest Yourself as the entire cosmic manifestation,
for You existed before the creation, You exist after the annihilation, and You are
the maintainer between the beginning and the end. All this is done by Your
external energy through actions and reactions of the three modes of material
nature. Therefore whatever exists—externally and internally—is You
alone." (Srimad Bhagavatam 7.9.30)
"The true variegatedness which exists in the Absolute Truth is a product of His
inconceivable energy. Indeed, it can be safely concluded that this cosmic
manifestation is but a by-product of His inconceivable energies. Once we accept
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the inconceivable energies of the Supreme Lord, we will find that there is no
duality at all. The expansion of the energy of the Supreme Lord is as true as the
Supreme Lord." (Teachings Of Lord Chaitanya, TLC 20, The Goal of Vedanta
Study)
"Nirdvandvo hi maha-baho sukham bandhat pramucyate [Such a person, free
from all dualities, easily overcomes material bondage and is completely liberated,
O mighty-armed Arjuna]. One who has attained such consciousness, Krishna
consciousness, he becomes nirdvandva. Nirdvandva means he has no duality
because he sees everything in Krishna relationship. He sees everything.
Actually, everything is the manifestation of Krishna's energy. So highest
stage, in the highest stage of Krishna consciousness, the person sees
everything in relationship with Krishna. Nirdvandvo hi maha-baho sukham
bandhat pramucyate. And if we are fortunate enough to come to that stage of
Krishna consciousness then very easily and very happily we'll become liberated
from this entanglement of material life." (Lecture on Bhagavad-gita 5.3-7, New
York, August 26, 1966)
Indian man: But why there is so..., there is duality in this world?
Prabhupada: There is no duality. There is one, Krishna. But you have created
duality. That is maya. When you forget Krishna, that is duality. When you
think that there is something else other than Krishna, that is
duality. (Bhagavad-gita lecture 7.1-3, London August 4, 1973)
"There is no duality. Anything you perceive, that is Krishna." (Lecture on
Srimad Bhagavatam, 6.2.13, Vrindavana, September 15, 1975)
Fear arises due to seeing the material world as separate from Krishna (SB 11.2.37-38). Krishna is
not only the gardener (creator), He is also the garden (creation). The creation is simultaneously
one, but different from the creator. The pure devotees of the Lord thus give respect to all things,
perceiving them as not separate from Sri Krishna:
"A devotee should not see anything as being separate from the Supreme
Personality of Godhead, Krishna. Ether, fire, air, water, earth, the sun and other
luminaries, all living beings, the directions, trees and other plants, the rivers and
oceans—whatever a devotee experiences he should consider to be an expansion of
Krishna. Thus seeing everything that exists within creation as the body of the
Supreme Lord, Hari, the devotee should offer his sincere respects to the entire
expansion of the Lord's body." (Srimad Bhagavatam 11.2.41)
Although the Earth itself is not separate from Sri Krishna, it simultaneously serves as the ground
for His own various lilas (pastimes). As a gardener enjoys their own garden, so Sri Krishna
enjoys pastimes on the Earth. How then can one hope to have faith in the descriptions of Sri
Krishna's lila upon the Earth, whilst simultaneously doubting or denying the description of the
Earth as revealed by Sri Krishna Himself? As we mentioned earlier, many devotees have
undoubtedly lived and died in Krishna consciousness without the question of the Earth's shape,
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size, and location ever being raised, or even a concern; however, due to the construction of the
Temple of Vedic Planetarium, the question of the Earth is being raised for this generation of
devotees, and thus presents a unique test of faith for all of Krishna's devotees present at this
time. Sukadeva Goswami explained to King Parikist that the Srimad Bhagavatam (which
contains the description of the Earth) was directly spoken by Sri Krishna Himself:
"Your Majesty Maharaja Pariksit, know that all that I have described in reply to
your proper inquiry is just according to the version of the Vedas, and it is eternal
truth. This was described personally by Lord Krishna unto Brahma, with
whom the Lord was satisfied upon being properly worshiped." (Srimad
Bhagavatam 2.2.32)
Since Sri Krishna's representatives describe Bharata-varsha as part of a greater Earth (and not as
an isolated Earth globe floating in space), why do devotees of Sri Krishna think the Earth can be
anything different than as described in Srimad Bhagavatam?
THE BHU-MANDALA AND THE FUTURE SPIRITUAL DIRECTION OF ISKCON
The topic of the Earth is not a mundane question and is directly related to bhakti-yoga. Sri
Krishna Chaitanya Mahaprabhu said to Devananda pandit:
"The Lord began to explain the essence of the Srimad Bhagavatam, "Listen, O
learned brahmama, interpret the Bhagavatam only in the light of bhakti,
devotion. Do not enter into any other process. The beginning, middle, and
end of the Bhagavatam establish that devotional service to the Supreme Lord
is eternal, absolute, and infallible... The Bhagavatam is saturated with divine
krisha-prema. It is in fact the body of Sri Krishna, for it contains the confidential
pastimes of Sri Krishna." (Caitanya Bhagavata, Antya-lila, chapter 3)
As with every other verse in the Srimad Bhagavatam, the description of the virat-rupa (universal
form) covering ten chapters of the fifth canto is saturated with love for Krishna, and also
establishes devotional service to Krishna as the ultimate goal in life. The description of the viratrupa counters all impersonalism because it reveals the entire universe including the Earth itself
to be nothing other than an expansion of Sri Krishna. Prahlada Maharaja says:
"This cosmic manifestation, the material world, is also Your body"
(tasya—of that Supreme Personality of Godhead; eva—certainly; te—of
You; vapuh—the cosmic body; idam—this universe) (Srimad Bhagavatam
7.9.33)
Again in SB 2.1.24, the universe is described as the cosmic body of Sri Krishna:
"This gigantic manifestation of the phenomenal material world as a whole is the
personal body of the Absolute Truth. (Srimad Bhagavatam 2.1.24)
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visheshah—personal; tasya—His; dehah—body; ayam—this; sthavisthah—
grossly material; ca—and; sthaviyasam—of all matter"
For those devotees who think the topic of the Earth is mundane and inessential to bhakti-yoga,
may we remind the reader that the subject of the Earth was raised by King Pariksit when he had
only a few days to live. Since the mind is to be concentrated on the Personality of Godhead at the
time of death, one may wonder why King Pariksit raised the question of a seemingly mundane
topic like the size, shape, and characteristics of the Earth. We have addressed the question in this
paper.
At the end of his narration on the Bhu-mandala (fifth canto chapter 26), Sukadeva Goswami says
that those who listen to, and faithfully accept the description of virat-rupa (Sri Krishna's
expansion as the rupa (form) of the virat (material universe), are blessed to eventually
understand the transcendental form and personality of the Supreme Personality of Godhead
(5.16.38-40; see also Srila Prabhupada's purport to SB 5.16.3). We can infer from these
statements that the converse is true: that (once the actual truth of Bhu-mandala has been
explained), those who continue to reject or speculate on the rupa (form) of Bhu-mandala or other
features of Virat-rupa as it is described in the Puranas, will become victims of impersonalism;
and as a consequence of such impersonalism (denial of the true form of Bhumi) they will remain
bewildered by false forms, or illusory forms, or deceptive forms of the Earth that emerge
courtesy of maya-devi to keep people trapped in a world of illusion.
Srimad Bhagavatam's revelation of the Vedic flat-Earth (Bhu-mandala) is a direct personal
challenge to everything that each individual in the modern world holds as true and real about the
world we live in. What to speak of one's faith in Krishna, since one's very sense of reality is at
stake, the question of whether the Earth is an isolated globe floating in space or whether it is a
colossal circular landscape with more countries, oceans, and people as described by the Vedic
Puranas is a question that is likely to agitate and polarize people like no other. And since the
issue of the shape, size, and nature of the Earth has major implications in terms of who to trust
and what to believe, the presentation of the Earth at the Mayapur Temple of Vedic Planetarium
will be a decisive factor in establishing the future spiritual direction of ISKCON.
The question of the Earth's presentation in the Temple of Vedic Planetarium is a matter of
spiritual concern both for the members of ISKCON and for the rest of the world because the
shape and size of the Earth is a definitive point on which the Vedic world-views clashes with the
modern secular world-view in a spectacular manner. The two world-views are radically and
fundamentally opposed in terms of what is to be considered real and true about the nature of the
world and the universe that we live in. If one is real, the other is most certainly false. Thus,
whatever presentation of the Earth is established at the Temple of Vedic Planetarium will create
a paradigm or 'perception of reality' regarding what is true or false about the world we live in.
The issue is whether members of the International Society for Krishna Consciousness will
remain within and continue to support the present world-view that Earth is an isolated globe
floating in space, or whether they will follow the world-view of Vedic teachings which state that
our own Earth area in Bharata-varsha is surrounded by other parts of a greater Earth plane. The
question is whether the final presentation of the Earth will be aligned to the reality described by
great rishis and spiritual authorities such as Narada, Vyasa, and Sukadeva, or whether it will be
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dictated by what is essentially an anti-Vedic cosmology began by Copernicus, developed by
Kepler, Newton, etc., and solidified by so-called space agencies like NASA.
The answer to this question will have powerful implications in regards to the spiritual direction
of the Krishna consciousness movement. Since we are not hopeful that the present leadership of
the International Society for Krishna Consciousness will challenge the prevailing Earth globe
ideology, we write for the benefit of individual members of the society who at least on a personal
level can enter into a new era of the Bhu-mandala paradigm.
In Part Two of this paper we shall present some specific examples of how the globe ideology
covers the real form of Bhu-mandala, and creates an impersonal, center-less universe.
Impersonalism and Globe Ideology, Part 2
meruh sikharinam aham "And of Mountains I am Meru" (Bg 10.23)
In this paper we shall discuss Mount Meru's location at the center of the Vedic universe, and why
knowledge of Mount Meru is important for becoming physically and spiritually centered.
The asura cosmology describes the universe as having no center or end, and creates a sense of
cosmic dis-orientation in which people feel adrift in a meaningless impersonal universe. We shall
point out some important instances in which this impersonal ideology has affected the so-called
'Vedic cosmology' being perpetrated by members of ISKCON. We shall also show how Srimad
Bhagavatam's description of Bharata-varsha's location to Mount Meru is yet another indication
that the Vedic Puranas (histories) describe our Earth as part of a continual flat-Earth plane, and
not an isolated globe-shaped planet floating in space.
STEALING THE EARTH
Various Puranas relate different occasions and circumstances when the Bhu-mandala becomes
submerged in the waters of Garbodhaka Ocean, and is then raised by Varaha-deva. Usually the
Earth is submerged in the water as a normal occurrence at the time of the prayala, however,
the Linga and Padma Puranas narrate a time when Bhu-mandala was actually stolen and hidden
by the great asura Hiranyaksha:
"Suta said: the brother of Hiranyakashipu is known as Hiranyaksha. He was
comparable to Kala the destroyer. He was the father of Andhaka the lord of the
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Asuras. This leading Daitya defeated all Devas. He bound the Earth that had the
luster of blue lotus and took it to the nether regions. He made it his
prisoner." (Linga Purana, 94.3-4)
The Padma Purana narrates the history of Hiranyaksha stealing the Earth in the passage below.
Please note that after the demon Hiranyaksha was killed, the Earth (Bhu-mandala) was not
placed in space, but was replaced on the head of Ananta-sesha—the Puranas describe that the
great Earth-circle is held by Ananta-sesha.
"That Hiranyaksha of an immeasurable body and very haughty removed, with his
thousands of arms, the Earth along with mountains, oceans, islands, and all living
beings. Having removed it out and put it on his head he entered the lower world.
Then all the hosts of gods, afflicted by fear, cried. They sought the shelter of
Narayana, Vishnu. Then knowing that wonder, He, Vishnu, the holder of a conch,
a disc, and a mace, took up the Boar-form, existing everywhere and having no
beginning, middle or end. The highest lord full of everything, having hands and
feet on all sides, having large fangs and arms, struck the demon with one fang.
The mean son of Diti, with his huge body pounded, died. Seeing the Earth fallen
(from the demon's head), he lifted it with his fang, and putting it on Sesha's head
as before, took up the form of a Tortoise. Seeing great Vishnu of the form of the
hog, all deities and sages, with their bodies bowed with devotion, praised
him." (Padma Purana, Vl.237.10-19)
Just as Bhu-devi was once stolen by the great asura Hiranyaksha and had to be rescued by
Varaha-deva, so Bhu-devi has again been stolen by the asuras and awaits to be released by Sri
Krishna Chaitanya Mahaprabhu's sankirtan movement. In the present circumstance, the Bhumandala has not been physically stolen and dislocated, but her real form (rupa) has been
mentally stolen from the minds of people, and been replaced with an ideological conception
known as the Earth-globe. In previous papers we have argued that the idea of an Earth-globe
floating in space actually has no basis in Vedic cosmology, and that the idea is never even
mentioned in the commentaries on Vedic cosmology by Vaishnava acharyas. Despite the Vedas
describing an entirely different conception of Earth, the actual understanding of the Vedic Earth
has been hidden/covered and usurped by a foreign or non-vedic cosmology. We have further
argued that this the modern cosmology which presents Earth as a globe-shaped floating in space
actually has no factual or scientific basis, and that it is a purely an ideological
construct. However, many centuries of ideological propaganda (so-called 'science'), and in recent
decades the use of fraudulent and deceptive means such as photographs and videos of a supposed
Earth globe floating in space, have convinced the people of the world that these images of Earth
are the unquestioned reality.
On this illusory conception of an Earth-globe floating purposelessly in an infinite, impersonal
darkness, the bewildered people have lost their center, and have been thrown into spiritual disorientation, confusion, and derangement. The center of the Vedic Earth is Mount Meru. Mount
Meru is the central axis of the universe by which one can get their bearings, orientation, and
sense of direction both physically and spiritually. The modern materialistic cosmology teaches
that the universe has no center—that it came from nothing and evolved without any spiritual
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direction or intelligence; it further teaches that the Earth is a globe spinning purposelessly in the
void of an infinite, ever-expanding dark space. Since modern cosmologists cannot determine an
edge or end to the universe, they obviously cannot speak of the universe having a center. It is not
at all surprising, therefore, that people in a world without either a spiritual or material center
have become dis-orientated, traumatized, and maddened due to having to live with cosmological
conceptions that create such imbalance and dis-location.
The Earth globe idea goes hand in hand with other atheistic ideas such as big bang, and the
theory of Evolution. In a universe that supposedly came from nothing, and evolved without
direction or purpose, and produced life without soul, on a supposed planet that floats aimlessly in
an ever-expanding dark Godless space, it is not surprising that the poor people have lost their
true cosmic bearings, and thus their sense of spiritual direction. The idea of having no center is
terrifyingly expressed by the Irish poet WB Yeats in his nightmarish poem, The Second
Coming. The word gyre used here refers to a spiral, spinning, or circular motion much like a
vortex in which the falcon loses sight of his master:
"Turning and turning in the widening gyre
The falcon cannot see the falconer
Things fall apart; the center cannot hold
Mere anarchy is loosed upon the world
The blood-dimmed tide is loosed, and everywhere
The ceremony of innocence is drowned;
The best lack all conviction, while the worst
Are full of passionate intensity.
Surely some revelation is at hand;
Surely the Second Coming is at hand."
(W. B. Yeats, The Second Coming)
"Things fall apart; the center cannot hold." The asuric teachings that there is no center to the
universe, and that the universe is infinitely expansive without boundaries, creates a paradigm in
which the individual feels adrift in a universe with no center, end, or purpose to it.
"They say that this world is unreal, with no foundation, no God in control" (Bg
16.8)
In this cosmic abyss there are no moral absolutes, nor any idea that one's actions in this life will
be the cause of births in future lives in different parts of the universe. It is the perfect ideological
breeding ground for asuras to flourish, and cause catastrophic physical and spiritual destruction
in the world. In such material and spiritual confusion the people become easy prey for
the asuras: "The best lack all conviction, while the worst are full of passionate intensity". In the
midst of the chaos, the spiritually intuitive W. B. Yeats felt instinctively that 'surely some
revelation is at hand; surely the Second Coming is at hand'. Only decades later, the Sound
Incarnation of Godhead manifested to restore dharma in the world:
"So Krishna comes here, as it is stated in the Bhagavad-gita, paritranaya
sadhunam vinasaya ca dushkritam [Bg. 4.8]. So Krishna appeared to kill so many
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demons. At that time... Whenever there will be demons, Krishna will come. At the
present moment, now, the world is full of demons. Therefore Krishna has come in
the form of Hare Krishna.
Devotees: Hare Krishna.
Prabhupada: That is Krishna avatara. Kali-yuge nama-rupe avatara. So don't
think that Krishna, this vibration Krishna, is different from that Krishna. The
same Krishna. The same Krishna.
(Srimad Bhagavatam 1.16.23, Los Angeles, July 13 1974)
MOUNT MERU THE AXIS MUNDI
An understanding of Mount Meru's location on the Bhu-mandala is one of the essential aspects
of Vedic knowledge that has been disastrously lost in the Age of Kali with the result that people
experience a complete physical and spiritual dis-orientation in regards to their relative location in
the brahmanda (universe). Mount Meru is connected to the lotus flower that originally sprang
from the navel of Garbhodakashayi Vishnu.
The lotus flower later expanded into the physical Earth (Bhu-mandala), and the center of the
lotus became the gigantic Mount Meru. Lord Brahma, along with the devas such as Indra, Vayu,
and Agni, etc., have their celestial abodes on top of Mount Meru.
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Jambudvipa is the inner whorl of the lotus (SB 5.16.5) and Mount Meru is the pericarp of
the lotus ( See my book on COSMOLOGY of THER LOTUS on academia.edu)
Knowledge of Mount Meru as the physical center of the universe takes us out of the false ego of
thinking oneself the center of the universe, and reconnects us again with the actual center of the
universe and source of all creation—Sri Vishnu. The Wikipedia article for Axis Mundi describes
it as follows:
"The axis mundi (also cosmic axis, world axis, world pillar, center of the world,
world tree), in certain beliefs and philosophies, is the world center, or the
connection between Heaven and Earth. As the celestial pole and geographic pole,
it expresses a point of connection between sky and earth where the four compass
directions meet. At this point travel and correspondence is made between higher
and lower realms. Communication from lower realms may ascend to higher ones
and blessings from higher realms may descend to lower ones and be disseminated
to all. The spot functions as the omphalos (navel), the world's point of beginning.
The image relates to the center of the earth (perhaps like an umbilical providing
nourishment). It may have the form of a natural object (a mountain, a tree, a vine,
a stalk, a column of smoke or fire) or a product of human manufacture (a staff, a
tower, a ladder, a staircase, a maypole, a cross, a steeple, a rope, a totem pole, a
pillar, a spire). Its proximity to heaven may carry implications that are chiefly
religious (pagoda, temple mount, minaret, church) or secular (obelisk, lighthouse,
rocket, skyscraper). The image appears in religious and secular contexts. The axis
mundi symbol may be found in cultures utilizing shamanic practices or animist
belief systems, in major world religions, and in technologically advanced "urban
centers". In Mircea Eliads opinion, "Every Microcosm, every inhabited region,
has a Centre; that is to say, a place that is sacred above all."
It is interesting to note here how the author of the above article also links the axis mundi to an
umbilical (the lotus stem that grows from the navel of Sri-Vishnu is like an umbilical cord).
Although almost every ancient culture speaks of the the Holy Mountain (the abode of the gods),
the Vedic teaching of a 100,000 yojana (800,000 mile) high golden mountain is simply
dismissed by the asuric propagandists as a quaint reminder of primitive mythology that has been
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rendered obsolete by discoveries made in the scientific and space age. Although
the asuras (among themselves) acknowledge the existence of Mount Meru, (and often try to
capture it from the devas), it suits their purposes to control other peoples perception of reality by
replacing knowledge of the Bhu-mandala (Earth circle) with an ideological conception of Earth
known as the Earth globe.
Although the Earth globe ideology is in direct opposition to the Vedic system, at the present
moment the ideologues within ISKCON cannot see the opposition due to being conditioned by
the Earth globe paradigm. The devotees working in this field are mis-guided in their attempts in
trying to reconcile the Earth globe idea with the Bhu-mandala concept. Instead of working to
dispel the Earth globe ideology and establish the new paradigm of Bhu-mandala, the very
opposite is taking place, namely that the Bhu-mandala is relegated to the nebulous realms of
'other dimensions', whilst the Earth-globe idea remains in place as the firm and unshakable
reality. But if the Earth globe is the reality, then where is the center or axis mundi to be found in
the visual images of Earth produced by NASA? According to NASA, if you take a rocket into
space, all that is to be seen (except for distant stars) is dark space. But according to Srimad
Bhagavatam, if you took a rocket high above the Earth plane, you would see the rest of Bhumandala with Mount Meru (axis mundi) in the center:
The Srimad Bhagavatam narrates a history of Krishna taking Arjuna in His flying chariot to
retrieve the dead sons of a brahmana from the realm of Maha-Vishnu. As they crossed the
universe they looked down upon the Bhu-mandala with seven islands and oceans in their
wonderful concentric pattern:
"Having thus advised Arjuna, the Supreme Personality of Godhead had Arjuna
join Him on His divine chariot, and together they set off toward the west. The
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Lord's chariot passed over the seven islands (sapta-dvipa) of the middle universe,
each with its ocean (sa-sindhums ca) and its seven principal mountains." (SB
10.89.46)
Sage Agastya also spoke of the time he looked from Mount Meru and saw the seven islands and
oceans:
"I saw that place, that sage, and myself at the top of mount Meru. О king, I then
saw the seven oceans, the seven principal mountains, and the seven islands
constituting the Earth. Even now I remain thinking of that glorious world and how
and when I could get there (again)." (Varaha Purana, 69:16-18)
If the Earth-globe conception is not asuric and impersonalistic, then where is the rest of the Bhumandala in NASA's images of Earth floating isolated in dark space. Where is the majestic Mount
Meru? Where are the seven islands and oceans of Bhu-mandala? When NASA presents images
of the Earth as a globe in space, it is not because the Earth really is that way and our imperfect
senses simply cannot detect the rest of Bhu-mandala which is in 'another dimension'; rather the
Earth appears as a globe floating in space simply because the asuras behind these presentations
have displayed a false concept of the Earth. The images of astronauts above an Earth-globe in
space are simply movies made in film studios here on the terra firma. The reason why Mount
Meru is not seen from outer space is because no one from NASA or any other space agency has
been to outer space in order to see it. If American astronauts had left the Earth and traveled a
purported 238,900 miles to the moon, for sure they would have seen the rest of Bhu-mandala.
[NB: the actual height of the moon above the Earth according to Srimad Bhagavatam is
1,600,000 miles, so Srimad Bhagavatam exposes yet another detail of their story to be false].
THEY NEVER LEFT THE EARTH
In the discussion below Tamala Krishna Goswami comes to the conclusion that since American
astronauts make no report of seeing Mount Meru, then they must have never left the Earth. Srila
Prabhupada agrees with Tamala Krishna Goswami's analysis, and says that is the point he has
been making from the beginning:
Tamala Krisha: …Every explanation is given in the Bhagavatam, and it's all in
contradiction to the so-called scientists. They say that the reason we experience
day and night is that the earth is rotating on its axis and at the same time
circumambulating the sun.
Prabhupada: Double. Double motion.
Tamala Krishna: Yes. So they say, therefore, when you're on this side and the sun
is here, you won't see, but when it turns around, then you'll see the sun. But the
Bhagavatam does not agree with that description. The Bhagavatam says that you
don't see the sun because it's blocked by the Meru. The sun is moving, and Meru
is blocking. And they never even heard of Meru. What is their knowledge?
Such a big mountain and they don't even know about it. That means they
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never left the Earth's sphere. They never went more than a few hundred
miles in the air, Srila Prabhupada. It's all lies.
Prabhupada: All. That I am speaking from the very beginning. Now it is proved.
They are also saying. (Room Conversation, July 8, 1977, Mayapur)
Srila Prabhupada says "Now it has been proved. They are also saying." Despite the controlled
media's massive hype and propaganda surrounding the fiftieth anniversary of the moon-landing,
Srila Prabhupada's words have proven prophetic as we now have tens of thousands of articles,
books, and video documentaries that expose the so-called space travels as a colossal hoax. On
the basis of Srimad Bhagavatam, it is the duty of those responsible for the TOVP to see that
these hoax images of the Earth are exposed as such. The hoax began with the fake moon-landing
and continues to the present day with images of so-called astronauts on board a so-called
International Space Station:
Jayapataka: ...exhibit the farce of modern science...Farce of modern science, and
every philosophy and science group, where they are just cheating the public. Then
exhibit how Krishna consciousness is showing the real way.
Prabhupada: Yes. So do that in this planetarium. If we can expose that they
never went to the moon planet, their life will be finished." (Morning Walk
June 4 1976, Los Angeles)
PAUSE FOR A MOMENT! THE EARTH DOES NOT MOVE!
We have discussed above how the asura cosmology creates a sense of being both physically and
spiritually lost and adrift in an impersonal universe without a center, an end, or a purpose. Life
within this godless paradigm is characterized by fear, instability, constant movement, and
uncertainty. An understanding of our bearings in relation to Mount Meru at the center of the
universe, will enable us to regain both physical and spiritual stability. Physical and mental
stability comes by understanding that the Earth itself is not moving. The great Earth-circle is held
by Ananata-sesha, and is neither floating or moved by air (vayu) as is the case with the other
stars and planets like the sun and moon (SB 5.23.3). Unlike the modern asura cosmology which
states that the Earth along with the other planets are moving at terrific speed through infinite
space, the Vedic cosmology states that the Earth is fixed, stable, and unmoving, and that the
other stars and planets—though moving—move around a fixed center known as the Druva or the
Pole star. Thus, the stars and planets are not adrift and flying around an infinite universe with no
destination or purpose ahead. The stars and planets are all contained within the four billion
diameter shell of the universe, and simply rotate around a fixed center (Druva).
The asura presentation of Earth as a globe-shaped spinning on its axis at a 1,000 mph, whilst
moving at 66,667 mph around the sun, whilst the sun itself along with the other planets moves at
514,000 mph around the galaxy, and the galaxy itself moves at some unknown speed to some
unknown destination, is all calculated to create an idea of the cosmos that encourages the hectic
mode of passion lifestyle that characterizes Kali-yuga (wherein people are constantly on the
move with never a free moment to contemplate the meaning of their lives). All of the above
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descriptions of the Earth and other planets being adrift and moving at terrific speed through an
infinite universe are simply hocus pocus to spellbind people into an artificial construct of reality.
By understanding that the Earth does not move (as every scientific experiment actually
demonstrates), and that the stars and planets orbit around a fixed center, the hectic mode of
passion lifestyle will grind to a halt, and one will regain stability, gravitas, calmness, and a sense
of purpose in Sri-Krishna's creation. In reality the Earth itself is stopped and does not move.
Therefore let us learn to walk consciously and without anxiety on the plane of the Earth.
"Arjuna said: O Krishna, what are the symptoms of one whose consciousness is
thus merged in transcendence? How does he speak, and what is his language?
How does he sit, and how does he walk?" (Bg 2.54)
Would we walk at a different pace upon the Earth if we knew the Earth itself was not moving?
Would we walk with a different attitude if we found out the Earth is not a globe, and that there is
more Earth? Would we walk without fear if we truly accepted the nature of Creator and creation
as described in Srimad Bhagavatam? As the rest of the people zoom around at an almost
impossible pace, just pause for a moment and contemplate that the Earth itself does not move.
See how it feels to think that the Earth itself is not moving. One merged in transcendence will sit
and walk upon the Earth with the understanding that the Earth is as it is described in the Puranas
by transcendentalists such as Narada Muni, Vyasadeva, and Sukadeva Goswami.
Krishna's stress-free and happy manner of walking on the Earth is compared to the stride of a
regal elephant (dvirada-raja, SB 10.35.24-25)
"As Krishna respectfully greets His well-wishing friends, His eyes roll slightly as
if from intoxication. He wears a flower garland, and the beauty of His soft cheeks
is accentuated by the brilliance of His golden earrings and the whiteness of His
face, which has the color of a badara berry. With His cheerful face resembling the
moon, lord of the night, the Lord of the Yadus moves with the grace of a regal
elephant. Thus He returns in the evening, delivering the cows of Vraja from the
heat of the day." (SB 10.35.24.25)
Compare this to the mode of walking in Kali-yuga:
"In the demoniac way of civilization, people are interested in getting a body
constructed in such a way that when they walk on the street, the Earth will
tremble." (SB 3.17.17 purport)
As people go to and fro from work in an agitated, stressed, angry, unsmiling, and unhappy
manner, would their whole soul-killing civilization not collapse if they learnt that they'd been
lied to, and that the Earth they walk upon is not a globe-shaped planet spinning and flying
through space?
THE LOCATION OF BHARATA-VARSHA TO MOUNT MERU
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Knowledge of the location of Bharata-varsha to Mount Meru negates all speculation in regards to
the idea that Bharata-varsha is a supposed Earth-globe floating, spinning, and hurtling through
space. The current preaching from the TOVP that the Earth is a globe does not correctly convey
our true location and relation to the cosmic center or Mount Meru (as it is explained in Srimad
Bhagavatam), and is another indication of how the impersonalist ideology has affected so-called
Vedic Cosmology. The following verse from Srimad Bhagavatam clearly describes the location
of Bharata-varsha in Jambudvipa:
"Similarly, south of Ilavrita-varsha and extending from east to west are three great
mountains named (from north to south) Nishadha, Hemakuta and Himalaya. Each
of them is 10,000 yoganas [80,000 miles] high. They mark the boundaries of the
three varshas named Hari-varsha, Kimpurusha-varsha and Bharata-varsha
[India]". (SB 5.16.9)
The description of the universe in Srimad Bhagavatam begins with a description
of Jambudvipa. Jambudvipa is the central island of the Earth and is measured at
100,000 yojana (800,000 miles). The above verse mentions Ilavrita-varsha which
is the central region (varsha) of Jambudvipa where Mount Meru is located as seen
in the image below. The verse states that by going south of Ilavrita-varsha (evam
dakshinenelavritam) one eventually comes to Bharata-varsha. Notice how the
above verse is describing movement along a continuous landscape, (not
movement through space). Going south (dakshinena) from Ilavrita-varsha to
Bharata-varsha one must pass three huge mountains (Nishadha, Hemakuta, and
Himavat/Himalaya). These mountains are 10,000 yojana (80,000 miles) high, and
hundreds of thousands of miles long. Between these mountains are the tracts of
land known as Hari-varsha, Kimpurusha-varsha, and Bharata-varsha. The Puranas
including Srimad Bhagavatam describe the fascinating civilizations and
conditions in these other parts of the Earth.
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By simply following the description in Srimad Bhagavatam we can understand the actual
location of Bharata-varsha to the rest of Jambudvipa. Mount Meru stands in the center of
Jambudvipa in a region called Ilavrita-varsha. Going south from Ilavrita-varsha one passes the
Nishadha Mountain which is 80,000 miles high, 16,000 miles wide and
100,000 yojanas (800,000 miles) long. After crossing this great mountain one comes to a tract of
land called Hari-varsha which is 9,000 yogana (72,000 miles) across. After crossing Hari-varsha
one comes to the Hemakuta Mountain which is also 80,000 miles high and 16,000 miles wide,
but slightly shorter in length at 90,000 yogana (720,000 miles). After crossing the Hemakuta
Mountain, one comes to a tract of land called Kimpurusha-varsha which like the other varshas is
9,000 yogana (72,000 miles) across. After crossing Kimpurusha-varsha one comes to the
Himalaya which as mentioned is 80,000 miles high, 16,000 miles wide, but again slightly shorter
in length at 80,000 yogana (640,000 miles) across [the decline in the length of the great border
mountains is due to the curve of Jambudvipa]. It should be noted that although we have a
mountain in India called Himalaya, the Mountain mentioned here is 80,000 yogana (640,000
miles) across. Srimad Bhagavatam describes the great Himalaya as 80,000 miles high, 16,000
miles wide, whilst Vayu Purana and Matsya Purana confirm the length of Himalaya as being
80,000 yogana , 640,000 miles long:
"And mountains Himalaya and Srngavan are each eighty
thousand yogana (640,000) miles in length." (Vayu Purana: 34.24-31)
"The Mount Himavan [Himalaya] is 80,000 yoganas (640,000 miles), from east to
west." (Matsya Purana CXIII, verse 25)
Himalaya creates the boundary between Bharata-varsha and Kimpurusha varsha. Lord Shiva
confirms the 640,000 mile length of Bharata-varsha's east-west border as follows:
"lsvara said: What is remembered as Jambudvlpa is exactly at the center of the
Earth. It is divided into nine regions, 0 beautiful woman, known as the different
Varshas ( regions). Therein, the first Varsha is Bharata. It is also remembered as
being divided into nine parts. From south to north it measures nine
thousand yoganas (72,000 miles). The distance from east to west is eighty
thousand yogana (640,000 miles). Himavan is in the north. The ksiroda (ocean) is
in the south." (Skanda Purana: VII.I.ll.6-8)
After crossing the great Himalaya, one comes to Bharata-varsha which is also
9,000 yogana (72,000 miles across from north to south). Our own region of the Earth is situated
somewhere in this vast southern territory of Bharata-varsha. Thus Bharata-varsha is not floating
above Meru, nor is it floating in the void of space, rather it is situated on the plane of
Jambudvipa along with the other varshas and great mountains that form part of the Earth's great
landscape. The great civilizations along this Earth plane are all described through-out the various
Puranas.
SOUTH OF MOUNT MERU
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The use of the word 'south' is important to help us get our bearings in relation to Mount Meru.
The directions north and south indicate directions along the horizontal plane, such as when we
speak of North London or South London, or North England and South England. The globe
ideology has confused everyone into believing that north and south mean up and down. When we
look at a map of the world on a globe, for example, Canada is at the top or upper part of the
globe, whilst Argentina is at the bottom or lower part of the globe. Thus people think of north
and south as meaning the up and down side of a globe. However, in Vedic cosmology north,
south, east, and west refer to the directions along the horizontal plane of Bhu-mandala. Up and
down refer to the directions that are above (uparishtat) and below (adhastat) the plane of Bhumandala. Thus the sun is measured at 800,000 miles above the plane of the Earth, whilst Anantasesha is located at a certain measurement below the plane of the Earth. This is important to
consider in relation to the location of Bharata-varsha. If Sukadeva Goswami had wished to
inform us that Bharata-varsha is a globe floating above the plane of Bhu-mandala, he would have
mentioned its altitude above the Earth along with the other planets that are mentioned in chapter
22 of the fifth canto. Thus we cannot accept Mayesa dasa's idea that Bharata-varsha is a planet
floating above Bhu-mandala, as Sukadeva Goswami clearly describes Bharata-varsha as south
(dakshinena) of Ilavrita-varsha (where Mount Meru is located), not above (uparishtat) Ilavritavarsha. The distance from Mount Meru to Bharata-varsha is a measurement for a stretch of land
along the horizontal plane of the Earth-circle; it is not a measurement for the distance of a planet
situated vertically above the Earth-circle. The measurements for the planets situated vertically
above the Earth are provided in chapter 22 of the fifth canto of Srimad Bhagavatam, and there is
no mention of a second Earth globe floating above the Earth-circle itself.
Since Bharata-varsha is located on the southern side of Jambudvipa and (hence on the vast plane
of Bhu-mandala), it cannot be regarded as a separate Earth planet floating in space—that is not
what is being described! Just as Italy is south of Europe and part of the same Earth plane, so
Bharata-varsha is south of Jambudwipa and likewise part of the same Earth plane. This is the
obvious conclusion. If Italy is south of Germany, then Germany is obviously to the north of Italy.
If Bharata-varsha is at the south of Jambudwipa, then Jambudwipa is obviously to the north of
Bharata-varsha. Thus going South from Meru to Bharata-varsha is like this:
"The Nishadha is to the south of the Meru. Still south of it is the Mountain
Hemakuta. The Himavata is to its south." (Linga Purana, 49.4)
Going back north from Bharata-varsha to Meru one passes the same mountains and varshas in
the opposite direction:
"The varsha south of the Himavat is known as Bharata. Hemakuta is beyond that.
The varsha within it is called Kimpurusha. Nishadha is beyond Hemakuta. Its
varsha is called Hari-varsha. Beyond Hari-varsha is the splendid Ilavrta-varsha
and Mount Meru." (Linga Purana 49.7-10)
The above descriptions from Srimad Bhagavatam and other Puranas unquestionably locate our
area of the Earth in Bharata-varsha as part of a greater flat-Earth landscape. So there we have it!
There is no argument! And Srila Prabhupada instructed that the Vedic cosmology be presented in
the Temple of Vedic Planetarium as it is described in Srimad Bhagavatam:
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Prabhupada: We are intending to make a huge planetarium... Exactly to the
description of Fifth Canto, we want." (Room Conversation, May 8 1977,
Hrishikesh)
Prabhupada: ...from the Bhagavatam. So this should be mentioned. It is not only a
temple, but a planetarium according to Bhagavatam, where which planet is
situated, where is Vaikunthaloka, where is Goloka Vrndavana, where is
Mahar... (Morning Walk, Feb 9, 1976, Mayapur)
So who can argue with the above description of where Bharata-varsha is situated on the flatEarth landscape? Since the complete north-south distance of Bharata-varsha is
9,000 yogana (72,000 miles), residents at the very southern tip of Bharata-varsha would have to
cross all of this area before coming to the mainland of Jambudvipa; however, those on the
northern part of Bharata-varsha would be only a few hundred miles from the mainland. In any
case, even 9,000 yogana or 72,000 miles is not an inconceivable distance to cover before coming
to the rest of Jambudvipa. The Srimad Bhagavatam's cosmology is thus unquestionably
describing a greater Earth plane with more land and ocean surrounding our known Earth area.
Whether travelling by sea or vimana or simply travelling by yoga power, the rest of Jambudvipa
is only a few thousand miles away. Despite the short distance, people from Bharata-varsha are
incapable of travelling to Jambudvipa without the requisite qualification that comes from Vedic
yajna.
FOLLOWING SRIMAD BHAGAVATAM AND SRILA PRABHUPADA
Rajasekhara dasa's childish jubilation at having 'torpedoed' the idea of Sailing to Jambudvipa
only reveals his own lack of faith in Srimad Bhagavatam's teaching that our known Earth
continues into other areas of the greater Earth circle. As is usually the case with Rajasekhara
dasa, his own deviation from guru and shastra got torpedoed and sunk in the process.
Rajasekhara dasa can only continue his belief in the Earth globe at the cost of denying his faith
in Srimad Bhagavatam. Since Srimad Bhagavatam clearly states that there is a land mass
stretching for hundreds of thousands of miles of land to the north of Bharata-varsha, the idea that
Bharata-varsha is an isolated Earth globe floating in space stands in complete opposition to the
reality described by Sukadeva Goswami. If one goes north around the supposed globe, one
travels in a loop and comes back to the same point. In this conception of reality there is no more
Earth to speak of, and the rest of Jambudvipa simply disappears from existence. However,
according to the Sriimad Bhagavatam's description, the rest of Jambudvipa is further north along
the Earth plane by a distance of only a few thousand miles from our known area of the Earth. By
north we mean in the direction of the North Star [Druva], not the north on a compass which
simply takes one in circles around the local north pole. By going north following the north star,
one eventually comes to Mount Meru [the north star is above Mount Meru].
As we have pointed out with many instances, Srila Prabhupada's explicit and repeated instruction
was to present the version of Srimad Bhagavatam at the Temple of Vedic Planetarium, but rather
than accepting the Srimad Bhagavatam's clear description of our known Earth's location in
Jambudvipa, and rather than following his own spiritual master's instruction, Rajasekhara dasa
continues in his nescient ('not knowing') conviction that the Vedas describe the Earth as a globe
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floating in space. Rajasekhara dasa clearly does not believe in the Srimad
Bhagavatam's cosmological description of the names, distances and directions of one place on
the Earth to another. The historical accounts in Srimad Bhagavatam and Mahabharata inform us
that Yudhisthira Maharaja and Pariksit Maharaja were ruling the whole of Jambudvipa from
India only 5,000 years ago. If India is part of a 24,900 mile globe-shaped planet, then where is
the rest of Yudhisthira's 800,000 mile kingdom? Supporters of the Earth globe ideology cannot
answer
this
question
with
reference
to Srimad
Bhagavatam because Srimad
Bhagavatam describes regions of India (Mathura, etc.) as part of an Earth-circle, not as part of a
globe floating in space. Since Bharata-varsha is described as part of Jambudvipa, and
Jambudvipa is described as part of Bhu-mandala (a 500 million yogana circular plane), then the
clear conclusion of Vedic cosmology is that we on live on part of a colossal flat-Earth, not an
isolated globe floating in space.
THE DISTANCE FROM BHARATA-VARSHA TO MOUNT MERU
We can measure the distance between Bharata-varsha and Mount Meru in the following way:
starting at the southern-most part of Bharata-varsha to the beginning of the great Himavata or
Himalaya, the distance is 9,000 yogana (72,000 miles). After crossing Bharata-varsha one comes
to the Himavata/Himalaya Mountain which is 2,000 yogana (16,000 miles) wide. After crossing
Himalaya one comes to Kimpurusha-varsha which is 9,000 yogana (72,000 miles) across. After
crossing Kimpurusha-varsha one comes to Hemakuta Mountain which is 2,000 yogana (16,000
miles) across. After crossing Hemakuta mountain ones comes to Hari-Varsha which is
9,000 yogana (72,000 miles) across. After crossing Hari-varsha one comes to the Nishadha
Mountain which is 2,000 yogana (16,000 miles across). After crossing Nishadha Mountain one
travels a further 9,000 yogana (72,000 miles) and comes to the foot of Mount Meru. Thus the
distance from the southern shore of Bharata-varsha to the foot of Mount Meru is
42,000 yogana (336,000 miles). The distance to the very center of Mount Meru is
50,000 yogana (400,000 miles or half the length of Jambudvipa).
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The Pandavas made the journey to Mount Meru on several occasions:
"…the brothers continued
peak of Mount Himavat.
over a desert and came
gods." (Krishna Dharma
Pandavas Retire)
their journey, seeing in the distance the cloud-covered
Eventually passing that great mountain, they crossed
at last to Mount Meru where lay the abode of the
dasa, Mahabharata, Part Two, Chapter 35, The
The base of Mount Meru is 16,000 yogana (128,000 miles). Mount Meru has a height of
84,000 yogana (672,000 miles) above the ground, and 16,000 yogana (128,000 miles) is below
the ground forming the root of the Mountain:
"Amidst these divisions, or varshas, is the varsha named Ilavrta, which is situated
in the middle of the whorl of the lotus. Within Ilavrta-varsha is Sumeru Mountain,
which is made of gold. Sumeru Mountain is like the pericarp of the lotus-like
Bhu-mandala planetary system. The mountain's height is the same as the width of
Jambudvipa—or, in other words, 100,000 yoganas [800,000 miles]. Of that,
16,000 yoganas [128,000 miles] are within the earth, and therefore the mountain's
height above the earth is 84,000 yoganas [672,000 miles]. The mountain's width
is 32,000 yoganas [256,000 miles] at its summit and 16,000 yoganas [128,000
miles] at its base." (SB 5.16.7)
Despite reading that Mount Meru is made of gold, stands 100,000 yogana (800,000 miles) in
height, and is some hundreds of thousands of miles to the north of Bharata-varasha, Sadaputa
dasa—who has been one of the major influences in developing ISKCON's Vedic Cosmology—
states that 'The Pamir Mountains can be identified with Mount Meru. ' By identifying Mount
Meru with an insignificant mountain to the north of India, a proper understanding of the actual
Mount Meru gets lost in transit, and life on the so-called Earth globe goes on as before. In such a
conception of Mount Meru, we are no closer to understanding our relative position to the center
of the cosmos, or to understanding that we (in Bharata-varsha) are part of a greater flat-Earth
landscape—not residents of an Earth-globe floating in space. The reason why Sukadeva
Goswami states that he will give the rupa (names) and mana (measurements) for the various
places on the Bhu-gola (see SB 5.19.4) is so that we will not mistake such places as the Pamir
Mountains (which is in Bharata-varsha) with the gigantic Mount Meru (which is in Ilavrtavarsha—the center of Jambudvipa). Sadaputa dasa's mistaken association of Mount Meru with
the Pamir Mountains is a clear example of a devotee not following the description provided, and
showing no obvious faith in the Earth's landscape as it is described in Srimad Bhagavatam. If
devotees actually accepted and believed in Bharata-varsha's location in Jambudvipa (as it
described in Srimad Bhagavatam), then they would actively preach against the globe ideology,
not support it.
The idea widely accepted in ISKCON that Mount Meru, Jambudvipa, and the other islands and
oceans of Bhu-mandala are in a higher dimension and thus invisible to our senses is a completely
misleading idea that bears all the hallmarks of impersonalism as we have discussed in a previous
paper entitled, "The Rest of the Earth is not in Another Dimension".
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We have pointed out in our previous debate with Danavir Goswami how the same influence of
impersonalism pervades his work. For example, when Srimad Bhagavatam's description of the
Earth requires Danavir Goswami to present the nine islands of Bharata-varsha as part of
Jambudvipa, Danavir Goswami correctly shows Bharata-varsha in context with the rest of
Jambudvipa. The image below is a still at 16.07 minutes into Part 1 of Danavir Goswami's Vedic
Cosmos video depicting one of Bharata-varsha nine islands as the supposed globe-shaped Earth
planet:
Danavir Goswami's Earth-globe conditioning is obvious in the presentation of Bharata-khanda as
a globe-shaped planet floating on water, rather than as a mass of land surrounded by water as it is
described in the Puranas. Moreover, since Danavir Goswami has to find a way to reconcile
Bharata-khanda as the familiar globe floating in space, he simply switches from presenting
Bharata-khanda as part of Jambudvipa to presenting Bharata-khanda as an Earth-globe floating
in space. However, notice that when Bharata-varsha requires to be presented as a globe in space,
the rest of Jambudvipa's landscape becomes an obvious problem, and is seen to suddenly vanish
from the picture. In the image below, taken from 0.09 minutes into part 2 of Danavir
Goswami's Vedic Cosmos documentary, Danavir Goswami magically disappears the Bhumandala depicted minutes earlier in the video, and the Earth is no longer floating in water off the
coast of Jambudvipa, but is suddenly back to its old self as a globe floating in dark space:
What happened to the 800,000 mile salt-water ocean and the rest of the 800,000 mile island of
Jambudvipa as it was depicted in the earlier image? In our previous articles on "Flat-Earth in
Mahabharata" and "Flat-Earth in Ramayana" we gave details of the Vedic history which tell of
Yudhisthira, for example, governing the entire Jambudvipa only 5,000 years ago. King
Yudhisthira ruled the entire Jambudvipa from India, but where is his kingdom in the above
presentation of Earth as a globe floating in space? The rest of Jambudvipa has simply been
'impersonalized'. The Earth globe ideology is promoted as the 'reality', and meanwhile the actual
reality of the Bhu-mandala which Sukadeva Goswami is attempting to explain, is concealed
behind the rhetoric of it being 'too subtle' to see, or in 'another dimension', and thus not capable
of being comprehended.
I do not by any means wish to suggest that either Sadaputa dasa or Danavir Goswami are
impersonalists, but merely to point out how the idea of Earth in modern asura cosmology (which
is of non-Vedic origin, and intrinsically impersonal) has influenced Western devotees who seem
obviously conditioned by modern scientific and materialistic conceptions of what is real. I hope
the description of Bharata-varsha's location on Jambudvipa and distance to Mount Meru is clear
to everyone. Let us all please accept the location as it described by Vedic authorities, and not
speculate on the basis of the modern assumption that Earth is a globe floating in space. Bharatavarsha is part of the greater Jambudvipa landscape and the movements of the sun, the creation of
day and night, seasons, eclipses, etc., have to be explained with reference to this flat-Earth
model. We will address Srila Prabhupada's numerous statements that Bharata-varsha is 'this
Earth planet' in a later paper called Following Srila Prabhupada in Presenting the Earth at the
Temple of Vedic Planetarium.
THE INFLUENCE OF IMPERSONALISM AT THE TEMPLE OF VEDIC PLANETARIUM
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Since this paper specifically addresses the influence of impersonalism in Vedic cosmology we
shall mention again the TOVP's depiction of the seven islands and oceans of Bhu-mandala which
have been depicted here as voids in circles of space:
The islands and oceans of Bhu-mandala are certainly not described in Srimad Bhagavatam as
circles voids in space. In the Srimad Bhagavatam, Sukadeva Goswami describes the great
mountains, trees, rivers, people, animals, birds, and aquatics that inhabit the islands and oceans
of Bhu-mandala. The above image completely 'impersonalizes' the rest of the Earth and basically
renders Sukadeva Goswami's words as meaningless—what relevance has a void in space? By
presenting the Earth's islands and oceans as voids in space, Sukadeva Goswami's description of
these other parts of a greater Earth will not be taken seriously. The above depiction of Bhumandala completely losses the idea conveyed by Sukadeva Goswami in Srimad Bhagavatam,
namely that the Earth is a great circular landscape, and that our own area of the Earth (in
Bharata-varsha) continues into other areas of the greater Earth-circle. The TOVP will not create a
revolution in the world simply by presenting some vague model of the universe which depicts the
islands and oceans of Bhu-mandala as voids in circles of space; the thing that is going to cause
shock-waves through-out the world is the news that there is no Earth globe, and that our known
Earth is part of a greater Earth circle.
Further influences of impersonalism can be seen in the absence of any depiction of the universal
shell in the models for the TOVP. In order to know where we are in the universe, we have to
know not only the center of the universe, but also the end of the universe. The Srimad
Bhagavatam describes how all of the features of the universe are contained within a round, or
egg-shaped shell (anda-koshah) measuring 500 million yogana (four billion miles) in diameter:
andakoso bahir ayam pancasat-koti (SB 3.11.40)
The image above shows the globe-shaped universe with the Garbhodaka Ocean filling the
bottom half of the universal shell. Ananta-sesha resides on the Garbhodaka Ocean and holds the
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great Earth circle on His hoods. The image below, by contrast, shows a model of the universal
form presented by the Temple of Vedic Planetarium, but there is nothing here to suggest to the
viewer that the brahmanda (universal egg) has a ball-like shape, and thus has an end.
The conception of having a boundary is important to put across because we must know that we
are confined in the world of maya. The universe is not an infinite limitless expanse without
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borders or form as the asuras propagate. The statements by NASA's 'astrophysicists' that the
universe goes on for indefinite billions of light years is simply propaganda. The so-called
'astrophysicists' are nothing more than hacks who are paid to create a false construct of reality.
The universe has a definite shape and size because Sri-Krishna creates everything with form
(rupa). Srimad Bhagavatam describes the virat-rupa or form of the universe, and that is what is
meant to be displayed at the Temple of Vedic Planetarium.
The absence of a round shell-like structure means that there is no indication of the Garbhodaka
Ocean. Although the Garbhodaka ocean takes up half the space in the universe, it is not even
represented here. The Garbhodaka Ocean needs to be depicted along with Ananta-Sesha holding
up the Bhu-mandala. These things can all be nicely represented if the right information is given
to the artists and construction team. Again the absence of the universal shell, the Garbhodaka
Ocean, and Ananta-sesha are all subtle influences of the impersonalist asura ideology. We are
not suggesting by any means that the devotees involved in the creation of these models are
impersonalists or asuras, but just to point out that they are working from the wrong conception,
and hence creating images that are impersonal. All of these features (Ananta-sesha, Garbodaka
Ocean, and the shell or covering of the universe) are specifically mentioned by Srila Prabhupada
in his letter to S. L. Dhani (see points 9 and 10):
"Now here in India, we are planning construction of a very large "Vedic
Planetarium" or "Temple of Understanding". Within the planetarium we will
construct a huge detailed model of the universe as described in the text of the fifth
canto of Srimad Bhagavatam. Within the planetarium the model will be studied
by onlookers from different levels by use of escalators. Detailed information will
be given on open verandas at the different levels by means of dioramas, charts,
films, etc.
The planetarium is planned to be approximately 400 feet high, and will have floor
space of approximately 90,000 sq, ft.. The model will depict: (from top to bottom)
1) The lower planetary system (pataladi-saptaloka)
2) The earthly planetary system (bhu-mandala with Sumeru in center, seven
islands (sapta-dvipa), seven oceans (sapta-samudra), Manosattara Parvata,
Lokaloka Parvata, Alokavarsha
3) The Bhuvarloka (Siddha-caranadi-loka)
4) The upper Planetary system (Svarga-loka) beginning from the sun, showing
with electrical apparatus both its horizontal and vertical rotations, Rahu, the
Moon, the Naksatras, the other seven planets ending with Saturn (Saniscara), the
Saptarsis, and Dhruvaloka with Ksirodakasayi Vishnu on the on the Ksirodaka
Ocean.
5) Maharloka
6) Janaloka
7) Tapaloka
8) Satyaloka
9) Garbhodakasayi Visnu lying on the Sesanaga on the Garbhodaka Ocean
10) The seven coverings of the universe
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11) Sivaloka
12) Karanarnavasayi Vishnu lying on the Karana-samudra
13) Impersonal bramajyoti
14) Vaikuntha with the various Visnumurtis
15) Goloka Vrindavana
This model (approximately 200 feet high and 100 feet wide will be engineered to
suspend from the structure of the dome and rotate according to the real
movements of the planets. The plans for this very large project are being taken
soley from the references found in fifth canto Srimad Bhagavatam and its
authoritative commentaries by important acharyas, along with other Puranas and
Sanhitas like Brahma Samhita etc." (Letter to Mr. S. L. Dhani, November 14,
1976)
Another important point is that Goloka Vrindvana is described in the Puranas as being outside of
the shell of the universe. Goloka is not part of the material world. The above presentation at the
TOVP does not indicate Goloka as being outside of a round-shaped universe.
I am not a designer, artist, or construction engineer, but surely it cannot be so difficult to
construct something around the main features to create the idea of the universal globe. The idea
needs to be impressed that we are confined within a measurable area of the spiritual sky. If the
above image is what the pilgrims are meant to see when they enter the TOVP building, they will
not get the right impression of the universe from this exhibit. Images construct a certain
perception of reality. The globe image has created a false construct of reality. We do not want to
create another false construct of reality by presenting erroneous or incomplete images of the
universal form.
By understanding that the universe has a specific edge or boundary, one can also understand that
the universe has a center, indeed the Earth is the center of the universe and Mount Meru is the
center of the Earth. The distance from the center of the universe to the edge of the universe is just
under 2 billion miles [the universe has a total diameter of just under 4 billion miles]. The Bhumandala must be presented as the true shape and size of the Earth with the gigantic Mount Meru
in the center forming the axis mundi. The true position and location of our known Earth on the
Bhu-mandala and our specific position in relation to Mount Meru must likewise be taught at the
TOVP as a factual reality. This is the great revelation of the Puranas, and this is the message that
is meant to be preached by ISKCON to the rest of the world via the Temple of Vedic
Planetarium. As mentioned, the TOVP will not create a revolution in the world simply by
presenting the Earth as a globe in space and the rest of Bhu-mandala in another dimension; the
revolution will begin with the news that there is no Earth globe, and that our known area of the
Earth continues into a greater Earth circle.
When the Bhu-mandala is properly presented at the Temple of Vedic Planetarium, the
International Society for Krishna Consciousness will regain its credibility, integrity, and rightful
place as a powerful spiritual movement that reveals the truth of both the material and spiritual
world. I don't mean to make the naive assertion that the Hare Krishna society will gain credibility
with the governments and controlled media of the world, nor (for the moment) with the mass of
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people who are helplessly indoctrinated and conditioned by such forces, but the Hare Krishna
society will certainly regain credibility with Sri-Krishna by taking on the asura-led governments
of the world who are keeping the people in a false Earth paradigm. The issue will force the
devotees to get real. Regaining credibility with Sri-Krishna is what the devotee community
should deem important. Some members of ISKCON may feel that the society's credibility will be
entirely destroyed by any denial of the Earth-globe ideology. There are those within the Hare
Krishna society who will 'freak-out' at the prospect of a headline such as "Hare Krishna society
says the Earth is flat" ever hitting the mainstream news, and of being associated with such an
idea. But since Srimad Bhagavatam describes the Earth as circular and flat (a continual
horizontal plane), why would a devotee of Sri-Krishna fear the news being declared to the
world? If Srimad Bhagavatam is the truth, then why would the truth make one fearful or angry?
The truth can only make an untruthful person fearful or angry, because when truth arises, one's
falsehood and pretension are revealed. The question of the Earth will certainly separate the wheat
from the chaff—at least in regards to those who will or won't accept the Earth as it is described
in Srimad Bhagavatam.
For the record, let's all be clear what we mean by 'flat-Earth'. Srimad Bhagavatam does not
say the flat-Earth is a flat version of the Earth-globe floating in space; Srimad Bhagavatam says
there is no Earth globe floating in space to begin with, and that the flat-Earth refers to the
colossal Bhu-mandala. Our known area of the Earth is located near the center of this colossal
Earth plane—some hundreds of thousands of miles south of Mount Meru. If presented with faith,
courage, and intelligence, the Bhu-mandala will certainly put the Hare Krishna movement back
in the news again, and provide a platform to completely destroy the asura ideological system that
keeps the people spiritually and materially enslaved in a false Earth paradigm. When properly
presented, the unveiling of the Bhu-mandala will bring about a new Earth paradigm that will
raise the consciousness to such a point that very dramatic and miraculous changes in the world
will follow. We shall discuss this point further in the following papers.
Since design in the universe points to a designer God, it is imperative on the part of
the asuras that knowledge of the design and form of the universe be kept hidden or obscured.
Without a doubt there will be enormous influence exerted from asuras both within and without
the Hare Krishna movement to prevent Bhu-mandala being presented as it is at the Temple of
Vedic Planetarium. Since the description of Bhu-mandala takes up most of the narrative in Vedic
cosmological accounts, it obviously has to be represented in some way, and can't be simply left
out; however, the asuras will certainly try their damnedest to present Bhu-mandala as vaguely as
possible and to mix the Earth-globe ideology into the equation. The last thing that
the asuras want to hear preached is the Srimad Bhagavatam's actual message, namely that there
is no Earth globe floating in space, and that our known part of the Earth is just a small part of a
greater flat-Earth landscape. Already we have seen how the TOVP's representatives have
presented Bhu-mandala in such a vague and impersonal way that Srimad
Bhagavatam's description of our location on a greater Earth circle has been entirely lost. Since
the Vedic Puranas are the only source of spiritual literature that reveal the actual design or form
of the universe with its characteristics and measurements, it is essential that Sri-Krishna's
devotees counteract the asuric ideology of a center-less, Godless, impersonal universe by
accurately and boldly presenting the magnificent 'intelligent design' of Bhu-mandala within the
Temple of Vedic Planetarium. The continuation of any Earth globe ideology within the TOVP
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will simply reinforce the asura cosmology that creates physical and spiritual disorientation and
bewilderment for the people of the Earth, making them easy prey for the asuras that gain
ascendancy in the age of Kali.
By presenting the true location of our world on the flat-Earth plane, one of the major ideological
illusions of the asuras will be broken, and a new wave of Krishna consciousness will emerge.
The new wave of Krishna consciousness will be characterized by a true sense of friendliness and
equality towards all souls (SB 4.11.13). It will not bear the hallmarks of the present
"churchianity" that ISKCON has become. Authoritarianism, bureaucracy, elitism, pride,
arrogance, untruthfulness, hypocrisy, pretentiousness, etc., are all features of the demoniac
system that will soon be displaced. As Lord Varaha once rescued the Earth from the demon
Hiranyaksha, the Earth will once again be saved from the asuras by the Golden Avatari in the
form of the sankirtan movement. Sri Krishna Chaitanya Mahaprabhu manifested his form of Sri
Varaha to Murari Gupta indicating that he would again raise and protect the Earth:
"I accepted the incarnation of Varaha to lift the material world out of the waters of
nescience. Know Me to be the ultimate goal of the Vedas. The purpose of My
present incarnation is to propagate the congregational chanting of the Holy Names
of Krishna. In this incarnation, as in other incarnations, I will annihilate the
miscreants for the protection and pleasure of My devotees." (Sri Chaitanya
Bhagavata, Madhya-kanda, chapter 3)
Varaha rescuing the Earth-circle and killing the demon Hiranyaksha
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In following papers we shall discuss how the present asura system of government will be
eventually displaced by Sri Krishna Chaitanya Mahaprabhu's sankirtan movement. The revealing
of the true size and shape of the Earth via the Mayapur Temple of Vedic Planetarium will mark
the beginning of a new cosmological paradigm that will accompany the next wave of Krishna
consciousness. http://www.harekrsna.com/sun/editorials/07-19/editorials17123.htm BY:
MAYESVARA DASA,Jul 06, 2019 —IRELAND (SUN)
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C H A P T E R VIA
Sacred Geometry Mandala Art
Interdimensional Gateways to the Infinite
following Jonathan Quintin:
Pythagoras described geometry as visual music. Music is created by applying laws of
frequency and sound in certain ways. States of harmonic resonance are produced
when frequencies are combined in ways that are in unison with universal law.
These same laws can be applied to produce visual harmony. Instead of frequency and
sound it is angle and shape that are combined in ways that are in unison with
universal law. Geometric shapes can be orchestrated in ways to produce visual
symphonies that show the harmonic unification of diversity.
Mandalas translate complex mathematical expressions into simple shapes and forms.
They show how the basic patterns governing the evolution of life workout the most
beautiful results.
The word mandala arises from the Sanskrit and means sacred circle. The circle
symbolizes the womb of creation; and mandalas are geometric designs that are made
through uniform divisions of the circle. The shapes that are formed from these
divisions are symbols that embody the mathematical principles found throughout
creation. They reveal the inner workings of nature and the inherent order of the
universe.
Mandalas act as a bridge between the higher and lower realms. They are
interdimensional gateways linking human consciousness to the realms of archetypes
and the infinite. The relationship of form, movement, space and time is evoked by the
mandala.
Mandalas offer a way to engage with the inherent harmony and balance of nature.
They bring the principles of nature into our field of awareness. For thousands of years,
mandala imagery has served as a means to an expanded way of thinking. The images
transcend language and the rational mind. They bring about a certain wisdom of
universal knowledge and a deeper understanding of human consciousness.
Yantras
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Yantras are a particular field of mandala imagery that visually represent the harmonic
tones of mantras (sacred sounds). By directing our thought patterns to these
archetypal planes we invite the essence of these levels to penetrate our minds and
thinking. An attunement of individual consciousness with the harmony of universal
consciousness develops.
Sri Yantra - or Yantra of Creation - is the most revered of all the Hindu yantras. There
is a mysterious beauty that arises in the way that nine diverse triangles interlink to
form a state of perfect balance and harmony, and the complementation of
the yin and yang ~ creating 43 smaller triangles that define the Sri Yantra.
The Sri Yantra is believed to be the image of the OM mantra, which in the Hindu
tradition is understood to be the primordial sound of creation. In his book Rhythms of
Vision, Lawrence Blair writes that when the OM is correctly intoned into a tonoscope
(a device that transforms sound into a visual representation on a screen), it first
produces a circle. As the tone is completed, the circle is filled sequentially with
concentric squares, triangles and finally, as the last traces of the "mmm" have died
away, the Sri Yantra.
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Sri Yantra Eternal Fire: Primes the kundalini. For the serious soul intent on burning
through karma and the obstructions to one's spiritual growth. The spiritual warrior.
Whirling Squares: In sacred geometry the circle symbolizes the spiritual plane and the
square symbolizes the material, physical plane. The whirling squares yantra design
portrays the union of spirit and matter. It simultaneously expresses the spiritualization
of matter and the cloaking of spirit.
The Golden Ratio
The golden ratio, or it's mathematical term the phi ratio is a mathematical principle
that pervades the universe. This principle can be found from molecules (including the
dna molecule) to spiral galaxies. It is a universal relationship that exists between two
elements of an equation in a natural situation.
In sacred geometry the golden ratio can be expressed in numbers, lengths, shapes and
forms, which include golden proportioned triangles, rectangles and spirals. The
golden ratio is the golden thread that links all levels of creation. If the emotion of love
is the pervading principle of the universe, the golden ratio is the mathematical
equation of it.
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The golden ratio is also present in the Sri Yantra. Pentagram star with radiating spiral.
Awakening and metamorphisis. New beginnings. A link to the universal heart. A key
to realms of higher awareness. Pentagram star rainbow with yin and yang spirals
forming universal heart. A nuturing and enriching connection with universal
abundance and empathy.
The designs are part of a collection of sacred geometric art-work by Jonathan Quintin,
P.O. Box 1621 Solana Beach, CA 92075
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CHAPTER VIB
Mandala as a Governing Device in Architecture and
Design
The role accorded to the mandala within traditional Indian architecture. It is generally held that
the mandala-in particular the Vāstupuruṣamaṇḍala, the mandala associated with vāstu (inhabited
or built site)-has played a determining role in the genesis of architectural form in India. Within
more popular, and less circumspect, writings, this influence is held to be directly formal; the
Vāstupuruṣamaṇḍala is traditionally drawn within a square grid, and any sign of an orthogonal
planning or a grid-like layout is taken to be a sign that the form in question was based upon the
mandala. In investigating the foundations of such a belief, this paper reviews two bodies of
literature. The first is modern art-historical scholarship, an examination of which shows that the
idea of a morphogenetic mandala emerged only recently, and that it was not so much culled from
the traditional writing as constructed afresh by art historians such as Kramrisch. The other body
of literature examined is that of the traditional writings on architecture, many of which are cited
as key sources of evidence for this idea. Here it is argued that there is almost no direct evidence
for the use of mandalas in laying out complexes or designing buildings, and that such ideas of the
use of mandalas rest on several assumptions that must themselves be questioned.1
What makes a single number so interesting that ancient Greeks, Renaissance artists, a 17th
century astronomer and a 21st century novelist all would write about it? It's a number that
goes by many names. This “golden” number, 1.61803399, represented by the Greek letter Phi, is
known as the Golden Ratio, Golden Number, Golden Proportion, Golden Mean, Golden Section,
Divine Proportion and Divine Section. It was written about by Euclid in “Elements” around 300
B.C., by Luca Pacioli, a contemporary of Leonardo Da Vinci, in "De Divina Proportione" in
1509, by Johannes Kepler around 1600 and by Dan Brown in 2003 in his best selling novel, “The
Da Vinci Code.” With the movie release of the “The Da Vinci Code”, the quest to know Phi was
brought even more into the mainstream of pop culture. The allure of “The Da Vinci Code” was
that it creatively integrated fiction with both fact and myth from art, history, theology and
mathematics, leaving the reader never really knowing what was truth and …More on Math, Myth
and Truth
Golden Ratio Myth, Fact and Misunderstanding: The missing evidence
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There are many misconceptions and misrepresentations about the golden ratio. Some look too
fervently for patterns and say it exists where it really doesn't. Some whose goal is to debunk
golden ratio myth say it doesn't exist where it really does, missing the obvious and often not
stating what proportions appear instead. People on both sides often just repeat what they've heard
rather than personally performing the analysis required to support their conclusions. Intelligence
and education are not always factors in getting to the truth, as even Ph.D.'s in mathematics
sometimes get it wrong. As the author of this site since 1997, I've changed my views and the
information on this site as well. Let's look at some of the common points of confusion and
debate, covering beauty, the Parthenon, the UN Secretariat Building, the Great Pyramid, Nautilus
shell, use by famous artists (Da Vinci, Botticelli, Seurat, etc.) and other topics. I'll provide
objective answers, with additional evidence in the .2
https://www.goldennumber.net/
The Parthenon and the Golden Ratio: Myth or Misinformation?
The application of the golden ratio by the designers of the Parthenon is a common point of
confusion and dissension. Multiple seemingly credible sources state that the golden ratio was not
used in the design of the Parthenon. Most of these, however, trace back to a single very
inaccurate and incomplete article as their source. Once this information was published by a few
recognized authorities, more people yet then quoted them as a "reputable" source, and the
misinformation grew. No disrespect is intended for those who have unknowingly created or
passed along inaccurate or incomplete information. The objective here is to investigate the
sources, examine the evidence, present the facts, and allow readers to have all information
needed to come to their own evidence-based conclusions. What the expert sources say As of this
writing in August 2020, Wikipedia's article on the Parthenon says this: Some studies of the
Acropolis, including of the Parthenon and its façade, have …More on this article
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Donald Duck visits the Parthenon in “Mathmagic Land”
In 1959, Walt Disney produced a 27-minute educational film called "Donald in Mathmagic
Land." This memorable film was nominated for an Academy Award, and has been seen by
countless students over the years. It explores the impact of mathematics in a variety of topics,
including art, architecture, gaming, music, nature and the human body. Donald discovers the
Golden Ratio At about 9 minutes into the film, Donald Duck visits the Parthenon of ancient
Greece. Here, he is shown in a 15 second segment that its design embodies a number of golden
rectangles. In the next 5 minutes, he learns about other appearances and applications of the
golden ratio. Click below to watch on YouTube: As popular as the film was in mathematics
classes, it seems that some students who went on to earn their PhDs in Mathematics may have
missed it, or perhaps they just disagree. On Wikipedia, for instance, they're quoted saying things
like "the entire story about the Greeks and golden ratio seems to be without
“The Golden Ratio” book – Author interview with Gary B. Meisner on New Books in
Architecture
Gary B. Meisner, author of the website GoldenNumber.net and developer of PhiMatrix software,
did an interview on the New Books Network (NBN) for his 2018 book, “The Golden Ratio – The
Divine Beauty of Mathematics.”To listen to the podcast, click on the image above or the links
below: Apple iTunes Podcast New Books Network Podcast The interview was conducted by
Tricia Keffer, as host for NBN's Architecture Podcast. The podcast aired on November 23, 2019.
Coincidentally, this is celebrated by some as Fibonacci Day as the date 11/23 corresponds to the
first digits in the Fibonacci sequence of 1, 1, 2, 3. (Some references start with zero). NBN is in
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the top 2% of podcast downloads. Questions that Tricia posed in the interview included: What is
the Golden Ratio, aka Phi, and why is it important to understand and study? Can you talk about
some examples of divine ratio in Architecture? Can you talk about how paintings are designed?
Seurat and Monet, Da Vinci? Where else can we find divine .
APPLICATIONS FOR BETTER ART, DESIGN AND COMPOSITION
Carwow, best-looking beautiful cars and the golden ratio.
In November 2019, Samantha James of Carwow published a very interesting article titled "Bestlooking cars of the last decade." What made it more interesting yet is that their review applied
golden ratio analysis techniques used for human faces to the front end view of automobiles.
Headlights became eyes. Emblems became noses. Grills became mouths. Makes good sense,
right? I've been showing the golden ratio in human faces since the late 1990s. London plastic
surgeon Dr. Julian Silva is recognized for giving a golden ratio score of famous celebrity faces,
as shown below left. Carwow used a very similar approach, as shown on the right: Carwow is
UK company that helps consumers to make choosing and buying their perfect car easy and
enjoyable. Stefanie Finch of their PR agency, Propellernet.co.uk, contacted me on behalf of
Carwow to ask if I'd be interested in covering their story on this site. I of course said "YES!" She
and the Carwow team were kind enough to provide me with the Golden Ratio, Phi and Fibonacci
Commemorative Postage Stamps
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Governments around the world commemorate the Golden Ratio, Phi and Fibonacci sequence.
Stamp collecting is one of the world's most popular educational hobbies, and is enjoyed by
people of all ages and nationalities. The most popular stamp ever is US 1993 Elvis stamp, with
over 124 million collected. So, the Golden Ratio and Fibonacci sequence may not compete with
Elvis in popularity anytime soon, but they too have been recognized with commemorative
stamps issued by governments around the world. In addition to adding some "phi" to "philately,"
they offer some interesting expressions of golden ratio concepts, as well as its application in
design. Liechtenstein 2013 Commemorative Fibonacci Sequence and Phi Stamp set: The
Principality of Liechtenstein, a landlocked micro-state bordered by Switzerland and Austria,
issued a set of three stamps in 2013 that illustrate the Fibonacci sequence and its relationship to
the golden ratio. Note that interesting presentation of concepts: The first.
The Golden Ratio in Character Design, Cartoons and Caricatures
The golden ratio is Stephen Silver's secret weapon of character design. Stephen Silver is a
character designer and art teacher who has designed characters for Disney Television Animation,
Sony Feature Animation and Nickelodeon Animation. In this role he has designed the style of the
shows such as "Kim Possible", Kevin Smith's "Clerks" the animated series, "Danny Phantom"
and many others. He is also the author and artist of seven books on the art of character design,
caricature, sketching and life drawing. In addition to his freelance work and lectures, he owns an
art school called Silver Drawing Academy in Simi Valley, CA. He has two online character
design courses online at www.schoolism.com. Those are some great credentials. And what does
he say is his "secret weapon" for character design? Yes, it's the golden ratio. The golden ratio is
flawless because it gives the "small, medium and large" that design is built upon. He describes
the golden ratio is just perfect, flawless,
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Golden ratios in Great Pyramid of Giza site topography
Overview: Analysis of the site of the Great Pyramid of Giza reveals that the positions and
relative sizes of the pyramids may be based on the golden ratio. Evidence of the Golden Ratio in
the Great Pyramid complex. There are many pyramid theories and questions as to who built the
pyramids in ancient Egypt. It's commonly known though in Egyptology that the proportions of
the Great Pyramid of Egypt are within inches of a golden ratio-based pyramid. This is discussed
in detail in my article Phi, Pi and the Great Pyramid. Some say, however, that this single piece of
evidence is just a simple coincidence. The primary rationale given to deny this claim is that there
is no written historical evidence that the ancient Egyptians had any knowledge of the golden
ratio. That's a reasonable objection, but what if the evidence showed that the application of the
golden ratio at Giza was not limited to the Great Pyramid? That evidence is presented in this
article. The golden ratio connection …More on Art and Design
Michelangelo and the Art of the Golden Ratio in Design and Composition
New study unveils Michelangelo's extensive use of the golden ratio in the Sistine Chapel. In
2013, I reported that Michelangelo used the golden ratio in his painting "The Creation of Adam"
in the Sistine Chapel. This Divine Proportion appears at the point at which Adam's finger is
touched by the finger of God, as God breathes life into Adam. In July 2015, Clinical Anatomy
published an article by a team from Brazil titled "More than a neuroanatomical representation in
The Creation of Adam by Michelangelo Buonarroti, a representation of the Golden Ratio." (PDF
here.) The article claimed, incorrectly, that there was no previous association of Michelangelo's
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works with the golden ratio. It identified the very same golden ratio touch point as the one
reported here two years earlier. It also claimed, however, a new finding. It claimed that the
fingers touched at the golden ratio point of the length of all the paintings on the ceiling of the
Sistine Chapel. My analysis of this claim …More on Art and Design
Google Logo and the Golden Ratio in Design
New Google logo design finds visual harmony using the Golden Ratio. Google's design follows
in the footsteps of Leonardo da Vinci and other masters When Luca Pacioli published "The
Divine Proportion" in 1509 (with illustrations by Leonardo da Vinci), he described his work on
this "golden ratio" of 1.618 as a "very delicate, subtle and admirable teaching" that would
"delight in diverse questions touching on a very secret science." Johannes Kepler later called it "a
precious jewel" of geometry. The designers at Google have apparently found its value too, as we
see when we study and appreciate the underlying design of Google's new logo, iconic G, the
microphone icon and even the layout of the Google search page. This is the kind of thoughtful
design work that follows in the footsteps of Leonardo, Michelangelo, Raphael, Botticelli,
Seurat, Le Corbusier and other masters of design, and that would make Pacioli proud. Here's a
version without the arrows for a clearer.
Raphael and the Golden Ratio in Renaissance Art
Raphael was one of three Master artists of the Renaissance Raffaello Sanzio da Urbino, known
as Raphael, was an Italian painter and architect of the High Renaissance and lived from 1483 to
1520. He is recognized as one of the three great masters of that period, accompanied by
Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci. His work is admired for its form, composition, and visual
achievement of the ideal of human grandeur. One of his most famous works is The School of
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Athens, a fresco in the Apostolic Palace in the Vatican. It captures the spirit of the Renaissance,
and is revered as his masterpiece. It was painted between 1509 and 1511. The School of Athens:
Inspired by a union of art and mathematics It was also in 1509 that Luca Pacioli published the
book De Divina Proportione (The Divine Proportion), with illustrations by Leonardo da Vinci.
MonaLisa.org reports that The School of Athens "incorporates many of the mathematical
theories of Luca and Leonardo.
Leonardo Da Vinci, Salvator Mundi and the Divine Proportion
See the YouTube video "Leonardo da Vinci's "Salvator Mundi" and the Divine Proportion."
2017 Update - Salvator Mundi, "the last Leonardo" sells for a record-breaking $450,312,500,
decimating the prior world record for the most expensive work of art sold at auction. See
Christie's article and learn below some of what makes this piece so incredible and valuable. In
2011, the discovery of a lost painting by Leonardo da Vinci was announced to the world. This
painting, Salvator Mundi, had been in the art collection of King Charles I of England in 1649,
was auctioned in 1763 and then lost for many years. Its recovery was led by Robert Simon, an art
historian and private art dealer, and it was restored by Dianne Dwyer Modestini. Many unique
qualities of this painting led experts to confirm that it is indeed an original work of Leonardo da
Vinci, one of only fifteen now in existence. Da Vinci and the Golden Ratio in Art Composition.
A lesson for all artists and designers.
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Phi and Football Strategy’s Golden Ratio Rule
Using the Golden Ratio to win at football. The golden ratio is found in many places, but here's
one you might not have expected: It can be found in football gaming strategy when making the
"point after touchdown" decision as to whether to kick for 1 extra point or go for a 2 point
conversion. This applies to the situation when a team is trailing by 14 points late in a football
game, and then scores a touchdown to be trailing the other team by 8 points. So what should you
do: Kick for 1 point after touchdown (PAT) or go for a 2 point conversion? Most football teams
kick the PAT in this situation, but in fact it is (almost) always better to go for 2.
Stock Market Analysis, Phi and the Fibonacci Sequence
Human expectations occur in a ratio that approaches Phi. Changes in stock prices largely reflect
human opinions, valuations and expectations. A study by mathematical psychologist Vladimir
Lefebvre demonstrated that humans exhibit positive and negative evaluations of the opinions
they hold in a ratio that approaches phi, with 61.8% positive and 38.2% negative. Phi and
Fibonacci numbers are used to predict stocks Phi (1.618), the Golden Mean and the numbers of
the Fibonacci series (0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, ...) have been used with great success to analyze and
predict stock market moves, known as retracements. Forbes ASAP featured a story on the work
of scientist Stephen Wolfram in cellular
WHAT DETERMINES OUR PERCEPTIONS OF BEAUTY?
Meisner Beauty Guide for Golden Ratio Facial Analysis
Facial golden ratios are simple, clear and abundant. Since my first investigation of human facial
proportions in 1997, it seemed clear that the most important features that define a human face are
the simplest and most obvious: An oval head and the positions and dimensions of the eyes and
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the mouth. As evidence, consider the "smiley face." It expresses a variety of facial expressions
with nothing more than a circular head, two eyes and a mouth line: We immediately recognize
this icon as a face, but it clearly does not represent the proportions of a human face. Let's instead
express these same facial markers with normal human proportions, and with the simplest
possible representation. This requires a vertical oval, two lines for the eyes and a line for the
mouth. The resulting face will look something more like this: This simple facial configuration is
easily mapped to very natural human proportions with the use of four simple golden ratio
proportions: The next important human
Facial Analysis and the Marquardt Beauty Mask
A template for human beauty is found in phi, the pentagon and dodecagon Dr. Stephen R.
Marquardt is the world's most recognized expert on facial analysis and beauty. He has appeared
in many documentaries and been referenced in countless articles, including the Beauty episode of
BBC's 2001 documentary "The Face." Dr. Marquardt, also CEO of Marquardt Aesthetic
Imaging, has studied human beauty for decades in his practice of oral and maxillofacial surgery,
and now continues his studies full time. His work includes cross-cultural surveys on beauty, in
which he found that all groups had the same perceptions of facial beauty. He also analyzed the
human face from ancient times to the modern day. Through his research, he discovered that
beauty is not only related to phi, but can be defined for both genders and for all races, cultures
and eras with the beauty mask which he developed and patented. This mask uses the pentagon
and decagon as its foundation. Both of these geometric shapes embody.
The Human Face and the Golden Ratio
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The human face is based on Phi and Golden Ratio proportions. The human face abounds with
examples of the Golden Ratio, also known as the Golden Section or Divine Proportion. We'll
use a succession of golden ratios to create a golden ruler to understand design in the face: The
head forms a golden rectangle with the eyes at its midpoint. The mouth and nose are each placed
at golden sections of the distance between the eyes and the bottom of the chin. The beauty
unfolds as you look further. Even when viewed from the side, the human head illustrates the
Divine Proportion.The first golden section (blue) from the front of the head defines the position
of the ear opening. The successive golden sections define the neck (yellow), the back of the eye
(green) and the front of the eye and back of the nose and mouth (magenta). The dimensions of
the face from top to bottom also exhibit the Divine Proportion, in the positions of the eye brow
(blue), nose (yellow) and mouth .
Beauty, the perfect face and the Golden Ratio, featuring Florence Colgate
What determines the beauty of a perfect face? We may never answer the question "how many
angels can dance on the point of a needle," but how about this one: "How many Divine
proportions ratios are there in the face of an angel?" The YouTube video and information in this
article may give some insight into the answer, with details on the contest, a recap of explanations
of beauty that fall short and new insights and a video illustrating the impact of the golden ratio in
beauty. The British contest in 2012 to find "Britain's Perfect Face" draws over 8,000 entries, and
finds Florence Colgate as the winner British company Lorraine Cosmetics sponsored a contest in
2012 to find “Britain’s Perfect Face.” Billed as the "Naked Competition," and seeking the most
perfect makeup-free face, contestants were required to have completely natural faces, without
make-up, botox or cosmetic surgery. The competition drew entries from 8,045 contestants, who
were initially screened by a panel that included .
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The Golden Ratio, Beauty and Design: It’s time to ‘face’ the facts.
Another attempt to debunk the Golden Ratio is fundamentally wrong. In October 2015, Dr. Keith
Devlin was interviewed by science writer Julia Calderone in an article titled "The one formula
that's supposed to 'prove beauty' is fundamentally wrong." Professor Devlin is a accomplished
Ph.D. in mathematics at Stanford University and NPR's Math Guy. His comments have reach
and impact, but his views on the golden ratio are not always accurate, complete, consistent,
objective or supported by evidence. Earlier in 2015, he was featured by a leading online design
magazine in an article titled "The Golden Ratio: Design’s Biggest Myth – The Golden Ratio is
Total Nonsense in Design. Here’s Why." The article drew hundreds of negative responses (which
were later censored and deleted by the magazine) because of its inaccuracies and
misrepresentations. A highly regarded NYC designer, Darrin Crescenzi, described the article as
"dangerous" and "under-informed nonsense,".
Best practice techniques for facial and beauty analysis. Numerous studies have been done to
investigate the existence and/or relationship of golden ratio proportions in the human face.
Surprising few get it right, so the results of many of these studies are inaccurate and misleading.
There are four important keys to selecting photographs that are suitable for facial measurements.
Next, it is critical to understand and measure the facial markers that commonly reflect golden
ratio proportions. In this article I'll cover these key points, the common mistakes made and the
best practices to yield results that are both accurate and meaningful. 1. Orientation of the head,
and eliminating the impacts of perspective. As simple as it sounds, one of the most important
aspects of any image used for facial analysis is that the subject be looking directly into the
camera. The front of the face must be parallel to the lens of the camera.
WHAT IS PHI?---What is Phi? (The Basics of the Golden Ratio)
Phi for "Neo-Phi-tes:" Phi ( Φ = 1.618033988749895... ), most often pronounced fi like "fly," is
simply an irrational number like pi ( p = 3.14159265358979... ), but one with many
unusual mathematical properties. Unlike pi, which is a transcendental number, phi is the
solution to a quadratic equation. Phi is the basis for the Golden Ratio, Section or Mean The ratio,
or proportion, determined by Phi (1.618 ...) was known to the Greeks as the "dividing a line in
the extreme and mean ratio" and to Renaissance artists as the "Divine Proportion" It is also
called the Golden Section, Golden Ratio and the Golden Mean. Phi, like Pi, is a ratio defined by
a geometric construction Just as pi (p) is the ratio of the circumference of a circle to its diameter,
phi () is simply the ratio of the line segments that result when a line is divided in one very special
and unique way. Divide a line so that: the ratio of the length of the entire line (A) to the length
of larger line .
What is the Fibonacci Sequence (aka Fibonacci Series)?
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Leonardo Fibonacci discovered the sequence which converges on phi. In the 1202 AD, Leonardo
Fibonacci wrote in his book "Liber Abaci" of a simple numerical sequence that is the foundation
for an incredible mathematical relationship behind phi. This sequence was known as early as the
6th century AD by Indian mathematicians, but it was Fibonacci who introduced it to the west
after his travels throughout the Mediterranean world and North Africa. He is also known as
Leonardo Bonacci, as his name is derived in Italian from words meaning "son of (the) Bonacci".
Starting with 0 and 1, each new number in the sequence is simply the sum of the two before it. 0,
1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144, 233, 377 . . . This sequence is shown in the right margin
of a page in Liber Abaci, where a copy of the book is held by the Biblioteca Nazionale di
Firenze. Click to enlarge. The relationship of the Fibonacci sequence to the golden ratio is this:
The ratio of each successive pair of … More on Phi
APPEARANCES IN LIFE AND NATURE
Is the Nautilus shell spiral a golden spiral?
Nautilus shell spirals may have phi proportions, but not as you may have heard. The Nautilus
shell if often associated with the golden ratio. There is a fair amount of confusion,
misinformation and controversy though over whether the graceful spiral curve of the nautilus
shell is based on this golden proportion. Some say yes, but offer no proof at all. Some show
examples of spirals, but incorrectly assume that every equi-angular spiral in nature is a golden
spiral. Several university math professors say no, but they only compared the nautilus spiral to
the spiral created from a golden rectangle. Another university professor says no, but
only measured height and width of the entire shell. Let's look at this objectively and solve this
mystery and debate. The Golden Spiral constructed from a Golden Rectangle is NOT a Nautilus
Spiral. A traditional Golden Spiral is formed by the nesting of Golden Rectangles with a Golden
Rectangle. This resulting Golden Spiral is often associated with … More on Nature
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APPEARANCES IN THE COSMOS
Stars that Pulsate to the Golden Ratio
A research article called "Strange Nonchaotic Stars" published at the American Physical Society
reported the discovery of a class of white-blue variable stars that pulsate in a fractal pattern at
frequencies close to the golden ratio. Download the paper in PDF format here: strangenonchaotic-stars-pulsate-golden-ratio-1501.01747v2 Pulsations described as "strange nonchaotic
behavior."
Phi and the Solar System
The dimensions of the Earth and Moon are in Phi relationship, forming a Triangle based on
1.618. The illustration shows the relative sizes of the Earth and the Moon to scale. Draw a radius
of the Earth (1). Draw a line from the center point of the Earth to the center point of the Moon
(square root of Phi). Draw a line to connect the two lines to form a Golden Triangle (Phi). Using
dimensions from Wikipedia and geometry's classic Pythagorean
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UNIQUE PROPERTIES IN GEOMETRY
Phi and Geometry
Phi (Φ) was described by Johannes Kepler as one of the "two great treasures of geometry." (The
other is the Theorem of Pythagoras.) Phi appears in many basic geometric constructions. 3 lines:
Take 3 equal lines. Lay the 2nd line against the midpoint of the 1st. Lay the 3rd line against the
midpoint of the 2nd. The ratio of AG to AB is Phi, the Golden Ratio. (Contributed by Jo
Niemeyer) 3 sides: Triangle Insert an equilateral triangle inside a circle, add a line at the
midpoint of the two sides and extend that line to the circle. The ratio of AG to AB is Phi. 4
sides: Square Insert a square inside a semi-circle. The ratio of AG to AB is Phi. 5 sides:
Pentagon Insert a pentagon inside a circle. Connect three of the five points to cut one line into
three sections. The ratio of AG to AB is Phi. When the basic phi relationships are used to create
a right triangle, it forms the dimensions of the great pyramids of Egypt, with the geometry shown
below creating an angle of 51.83
Pi, Phi and Fibonacci
Phi (Φ) and pi (Π) and Fibonacci numbers can be related in several ways: The Pi-Phi Product
and its derivation through limits The product of phi and pi,
1.618033988... X 3.141592654..., or 5.083203692, is found in golden geometries: Golden
Circle Golden Ellipse Circumference = p * Φ Area = p * Φ Ed Oberg and Jay A. Johnson have
developed a unique expression for the pi-phi product (pΦ) as a function of the number 2 and an
expression they call "The Biwabik Sum,"a function of phi, the set of all odd numbers and the set
of all Fibonacci numbers, as follows: p Phi = 2² {1 + [ (2/3) / (F1+F2 Phi) + (1/5) / (F3+F4 Phi) (1/7) / (F5+F6 Phi) ] - [ (2/9) / (F7+F8 Phi) + (1/11) / (F9+F10 Phi) - (1/13) / (F11+F12 Phi) ] +
[ (2/15) / (F13+F14 Phi) + (1/17) / (F15+F16 Phi) - (1/19) / (F17+F18 Phi) ] - … } =
5.083203692.... This relationship was derived after Oberg noticed an interesting relationship
between pi and phi while contemplating geometric ratios.
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Mathematics of Phi, 1.618, the Golden Number
Phi, Φ, 1.618…, has two properties that make it unique among all numbers. If you square Phi,
you get a number exactly 1 greater than itself: 2.618…, or Φ² = Φ + 1. If you divide Phi into 1 to
get its reciprocal, you get a number exactly 1 less than itself: 0.618…, or 1 / Φ = Φ - 1. These
relationships are derived from the dividing a line at its golden section point, the point at which
the ratio of the line (A) to the larger section (B) is the same as the ratio of the larger section (B)
to the smaller section (C). This relationship is expressed mathematically as: A = B + C, and A /
B = B / C. Solving for A, which on both sides give us this: B + C = B²/C Let's say that C is 1 so
we can determine the relative dimensions of the line segments. Now we simply have this: B +
1 = B² This can be rearranged as: B² - B - 1 = 0 Note the various ways that this equation can be
rearranged to express the relationship of the line segments, and also Phi's unique
Phi Mandalas,May 13, 2012 by Gary Meisner
Phi-based geometric shapes produce interesting mandala designs.
A mandala is a geometric design, often symbolic of the universe and used in Eastern religions as
an aid to meditation.Phi-based geometric shapes can be used to create some interesting phi
mandalas, embodying the phi proportion found throughout creation and iterating into the
infinitely large and the infinitely small, much as the universe itself.Phi Corbett contributed the
mandala design below (inspired by Bruce Rawles’ Sacred Geometry Page) which uses
the pentagram, also based on phi, to collapse into an infinite series of smaller pentagrams.
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EXAMPLE : The Durga Yantra: It is a well known yantra, and expresses phi using triangles.
(see http://bridgetlyonsyoga.files.wordpress.com/2011/09/durga_yantrasm.jpg or just image
search durga yantra) The three smallest triangles, usually yellow, are “1” to the “phi” of the next
size up (there are six of these, usually a pinkish color). These six are “1” to the “phi” of the next
size up, the central triangle. This central triangle is “1” to the “phi” of the next size up, the three
triangles that intersect to form the central triangle. (The largest triangle is 2x the size of the
central triangle, so not exactly “phi” to anything there. If the circle’s radius is 1, each side of the
central triangle is √3/2, I’m sure you can phi-gure the rest out yourself.) Phi-tastic!
Many crop circles remind me of Phi. The word “mandala” has, by this time, made the
transition from its literal roots in eastern religion, to become a more generalized English term for
any complex pattern, which may not even be religious. I arrived at this section after trying to find
a post which I had read some time ago,It requested information on how Phi may be used in the
geometry of the Christian cross. I’m sure that there are several ways that that may be
accomplished. However, a few months before reading that post, and even before finding this site,
I had constructed a satisfactory arrangement. It’s fairly simple, and amenable to verbal
description.First, you construct two contiguous golden rectangles in portrait position, like
quotation marks. Then you construct another identical pair, which overlap the bottom of the first
pair, such that the area of overlap is a square. The proportionate cross is formed by the vertical
mid-line intersected by the top of the square. This construction provides two golden rectangles
(landscape) above the cross-bar, and two (portrait) below.The standard construction method for
golden rectangles is used throughout.
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Mathematics of Phi, 1.618,
the Golden Number by Gary Meisner
Phi, Φ, 1.618…, has two properties that make it unique among all numbers.
1. If you square Phi, you get a number exactly 1 greater than itself: 2.618…, or
2. Φ² = Φ + 1.
3. If you divide Phi into 1 to get its reciprocal, you get a number exactly 1 less than itself:
0.618…, or
1 / Φ = Φ – 1.
These relationships are derived from the dividing a line at its golden section point, the point at
which the ratio of the line (A) to the larger section (B) is the same as the ratio of the larger
section (B) to the smaller section (C).
This relationship is expressed mathematically as:
A = B + C, and
A / B = B / C.
Solving for A, which on both sides give us this:
B + C = B²/C
Let’s say that C is 1 so we can determine the relative dimensions of the line segments. Now we
simply have this:
B + 1 = B²
This can be rearranged as:
B² – B – 1 = 0
Note the various ways that this equation can be rearranged to express the relationship of the line
segments, and also Phi’s unique properties:
B2 = B + 1
1/B=B–1
B2 – B1 – B0 = 0
Note: Bx means n raised to the x power. Some browsers may not display exponents as
superscripts or raised characters.
Now we have a formula that can be solved using the Quadratic formula. This formula allows you
to solve a quadratic equation for an unknown x, with a, b, and c as constants. A quadratic
equation has this form:
ax² + bx + c = 0
The solution to this is found with the quadratic formula:
So our formula for the golden ratio above (B2 – B1 – B0 = 0) can be expressed as this:
1a2 – 1b1 – 1c = 0
The solution to this equation using the quadratic formula is (1 plus or minus the square root of 5)
divided by 2:
( 1 + √5 ) / 2 = 1.6180339… = Φ
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( 1 – √5 ) / 2 = -0.6180339… = -Φ
The reciprocal of Phi (denoted with an upper case P), is known often as by phi (spelled with a
lower case p).
Phi, curiously, can also be expressed all in fives as:
5 ^ .5 * .5 + .5 = Φ
This provides a great, simple way to compute phi on a calculator or spreadsheet!
Determining the nth number of the Fibonacci series
You can use phi to compute the nth number in the Fibonacci series (fn):
fn = Φ n / 5½
As an example, the 40th number in the Fibonacci series is 102,334,155, which can be computed
as:
f40 = Φ 40 / 5½ = 102,334,155
This method actually provides an estimate which always rounds to the correct Fibonacci number.
You can compute any number of the Fibonacci series (fn) exactly with a little more work:
fn = [ Φ n – (1-Φ)n ] / √5
Note: √5 can be expressed as 2Φ-1 to use Φ for all the terms above.
Determining Phi with Trigonometry and Limits
Phi can be related to Pi through trigonometric functions:
Phi can be related to e, the base of natural logs,
through the inverse hyperbolic sine function:
Φ = e ^ asinh(.5)
It can be expressed as a limit:
or
Other unusual phi relationships
There are many unusual relationships in the Fibonacci series. For example, for any three
numbers in the series Φ(n-1), Φ(n) and Φ(n+1), the following relationship exists:
Φ(n-1) * Φ(n+1) = Φ(n)2 – (-1)n
( e.g., 3*8 = 52-1 or 5*13=82+1 )
Here’s another:
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Every nth Fibonacci number is a multiple of Phi(n),
where Phi(n) is the nth number of the Fibonacci sequence.
Given 0, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144, 233, 377, 610, 987, 1597, 2584, 4181, 6765
(Every 4th number, e.g., 3, 21, 144 and 987, are all multiples of Phi(4), which is 3)
(Every 5th number, e.g., 5, 55, 610, and 6765, are all multiples of Phi(5), which is 5)
And another:
The first perfect square in the Fibonacci series, 144,
is number 12 in the series and its square root is 12!
0, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144
or, if not starting with 0:
1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144
We should develop a logical system based on powers of phi to define itself.
if you start with φ^-∞ for zero state. Next φ^-2 would be useful to add to φ and φ^2 to get 2 and
3. With zero power you have 1 together with 0,2,3 whole numbers represented in endless
possible combinations of powers of φ. Each combination could represent a different set of logic.
I am only barely grasping what kind of operations would be possible in virtual machine code!
With a base of φ…Your logical systems resembles that of Godel on the primes for p>p, where
the series is 2,3,5,7 taken in powers representing characters, such that p=0,>=1. The 2^0 * 3^1 *
5^0 = 1*3*1 = 3, which is a prime representing p>p. To do the same on the Fibonacci series
0,1,1,2 …. 0^1 * 1^1 *1^0 = 0*1*1= 0
If you divide phi into 1, you get a number exactly 1 less than phi: 0.61804…:1 / Phi = Phi – 1 =
0.3 + 1/pi = 1.61804 – 1 = 0.3 + 0.318..
1/Phi – 1/pi = 0.3 For example 34/55 = 0.6181818181818182…, 34 and 35 are Fibonacci
numbers; 1/pi = 7/22 = 0.3181818181818182, which difference is 0.3; and 34/55 – 7/22 = 1/11
*(34/5 -7/2) = 1/11 * (68 – 35)/10 = 33/11 * 1/10 = 0.3
Even though I agree that recursion is not the right way to find a Fibonacci number, I have to say
using it to teach recursion is a good idea. Because its simple. Easy to get the concept thru this
example.The most common real world application for recursion is to walk thru a tree structure.
That example will be complicated. Also you will have to have an understanding of trees and stuff
before hand.Then again, there may be a simple, but real world example that I’m not yet aware of.
If someone knows of one, let me know.
1 Vesica Pisces on Axis 1 = 1
1 Vesica Pisces on Axis 2 = Square Root of 5
2 Vesica Pisces on Axis 3 = 2
Axis 1 is measured by the radius of the center to the circumference of a circle
Axis 2 is measured by the center to center of two flower of life circles.
Axis 3 is measured by the point where axis 1 penetrates the circular form and to the center of the adjacent circle
(along axis 2)
irst of all i would like to thank and appreciate you for this tremendous work and the content you
have used in this site.
but can you please tell me the logic behind the series given below?…………here is the series
2 3 8 21 55
The series you list is part of the Fibonacci series, in which each number is the sum of the two before it. In
the case of your particular series the logic appears to be that you ignore every other result, i.e., the 5, 13
and 34. Another way of getting to the same result is to use this logic: 2+3+8*2=21 and 3+8+21*2=55 so
the next number in the series should be 8+21+55*2=139.
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I believe, though I could be wrong, that you made a mistake in the sequence
3+8+21*2=55 therefore 3 + 8 + (21 x 2) = 11 + 42 = 53 not 55
this sequence that guarav has listed includes all the numbers not just the last three.
so you need to include the 2 of the first number to get 55 so the next number would be
2 + 3 + 8 +21 + 2(55) = 144
2 + 3 + 8 + 21 + 55 + 2(144) = 377
2 + 3 + 8 + 21 + 55 + 2(377) = 843
oops the last line should include 144
2 + 3 + 8 + 21 + 55 + 144 + 2(377) = 987
How do you know all of this math (golden number)? I’m in the 8 grade i want to learn this. How
do I get help?I can help! I am also in the 8th grade, and have developed an unhealthy obsession
with this lovely number.Phi is commonly expressed as a ratio; if you imagine that the longer
portion of the following line is 1.618, or Phi, and the shorter section is one (following the ratio
1.618/1), then you get a visual representation of the golden ratio:
|————-|——–|ab
a/b = a+b/a
This might be a little confusing, but bear with me! The Fibonacci Sequence is the crazy relative of Phi. It
starts with the numbers 1 and 1 and then progresses as follows:
1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13…
Now for the pattern! Adding 1 + 1 = 2, right? Now, if you add 1 + 2, you get 3. 2 + 3 = 5. To find a
number of the sequence, you add the two previous numbers. So, to find the next one of my example
sequence, you would add 8 and 13 to get 21. Which will then get you to 13 + 21 = 34.
If you quickly google Fibonacci Sequence, you will find a great visual depiction of this series. To give
another example of Phi in use: a golden rectangle, which can be found in many architectural projects, has
a height of 1 and a length of 1.618. The human face has at least 30 different representations of the golden
ratio in it. Sunflower seeds grow in a Fibonacci Spiral pattern from the center of the flower. The
examples are endless!
If you have any more questions (or maybe want some real pictures, as it’s a little hard to grasp the
concept with no visual aid.I want to know what is the englis equivalent word of greek word ‘phi’
Phi is a letter of the Greek alphabet, so its closest English equivalent is the letter F. Phi was chosen to
represent the golden ratio to recognize the Greek sculptor Phidias, who lived from about 480 – 430 BC.
He is regarded as one of the greatest sculptors of classical Greece. His statue of Zeus at Olympia was one
of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. He also designed the statues of the goddess Athena on the
Athenian Acropolis. Mark Barr, a mathematician, first used the Greek letter phi (Φ) to designate the
golden ratio. See the Golden Ratio History page for more.I learned how the square root of 1 plus the
square root of 1 plus square root of 1… etc.
if you let x=squareroot(1+squareroot(1+squareroot(1…))) then square both sides you get
x^2 = 1 + squareroot(1+squareroot(1+square root(1….)))
then substitute x in for the squareroot(1+…)
x^2=1+x
then subtract both sides by (1+x) to get
x^2-x-1 = 0
Then use the quadratic formula
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x=(1 +/- squareroot((-1)^2 – 2*(1)*(-1)))/(2*1)
Clean everything up to get:
x= (1 +/- squareroot(5))/2
Take the positive outcome, and get phi!!
Φ^n = F(n)*Φ + F(n-1)
When F(n) is the “n”th Fibonacci number (n≠1, obviously)
Has anyone else noticed this?
This family of equations has other solutions besides phi, (i.e. (1-sqrt5)/2 and complex numbers) but phi is
a solution for all of them, and also the only positive solution for any of them.
And you mentioned the second root of eq. n^2 – n – 1 = 0: let’s call it phi (small phi, it is < 0)
Here is another nice recursion for Fibonacci, using Phi and phi:
F[n] = Phi^(n-1) + phi * F[n-1]
How do you show that [1+√5/2][1+√5/2]= [1+√5/2]+1. I’ve tried it in so many ways but I never make it
equal.. Help..The proof you are looking for is as follows;(1 + √5)/2 * (1 + √5)/2 = ((1 + √5) * (1 + √5)) /4
= (1 + 2*√5 +5) /4
= (6 + 2*√5) /4
= (6 + 2*√5)/4 – 4/4 + 4/4
= (6 + 2*√5 – 4)/4 + 1
= (2 + 2*√5) /4 + 1
= (1 + √5) /2 + 1
Also if anyone’s interested here is the proof of Φ = 1/Φ + 1 ;Since Φ = (1 + √5) / 2
Then, if Φ = 1/Φ + 1, it follows that;(1 + √5) / 2 = 2/(1 + √5) +1
2/(1 + √5) + (1 + √5)/(1 + √5)
= (2+ 1 + √5)/(1 + √5)
= (3 + √5)/(1 + √5)
= (3 + √5)/(1 + √5) * 1
= (3 + √5)/(1 + √5) * (2/(1 + √5))/(2/(1 + √5))
= ((3 + √5) * (2/(1 + √5))) / ((1 + √5) * (2/(1 + √5)))
= ((6 + 2√5) / (1+√5)) / 2
= ((1 + √5)^2) / (1+√5)) / 2
= (1 + √5) / 2
Therefore Φ = 1/Φ + 1
For any number in the sequence… determining the next number is just a matter of multiplying the current
number by Phi and rounding it… (after the pair of 1s, mind you).
I have found design drawing of pyramid by the fractal perspective based on the legendary theory of the
circle. square and triangle the first in the world.
It would be correct answers for your questions.
My point of view, now humankind is backward mentally and physically since 11,000years ago.
There are a lot of new knowledge and special information that humankind must know the fact such as
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1) Origiof alphabets
2) Origin of numbers
3) Origin of languages
4) Origin of civilization
5) Mono-genesis species
6) The moving theory of the axis of the earth
7) Origin of trigonometry
8) Origin of equation
9) Origin of integration
10) Origin of differentiation
11) Origin of coordinates
12) Origin of STEM
13) Origin of origin etc much more
The pyramid of time capsule was a historical civilization.
I have few evidence.
use equation x squared-xy-y squared to show that x over y is = phi
I have come across this equation called the fibonacci activation function. How it it derived and
how it it related to the golden ratio?
Phi(y) = ((sqrt(5) – 1)y^3)/2 + ((3 – sqrt(5))y^5)/2
Golden ratio: for any segment c, find a and b segments – YouTube http://youtu.be/cp3dpvqns_4
Golden ratio Phi Space – YouTube http://youtu.be/JLzX2XxSVgs
i hear—because i have a spiral cochlea
doesn’t mean i understand–that takes
a mind willing
i honestly believe there’s a solution and
if i look-i have a chance of finding
and that’s my truth
need significance of phi equation:The significance of the equation, ( 1 + √5 ) / 2 =
1.6180339… = Φ, is that this gives the value of the relationship that appears when dividing a line
such that the ratio of the entire line to the larger segments is the same as the larger segment to the
smaller segment. This dividing is the golden ratio that appears extensively in mathematics,
geometry and nature. It has thus also been applied to the design arts to achieve a natural
appearance in composition and to enhance aesthetics.
We – the human species -, and in relation to Phi, is in need of a Mathematician for an altruistic
job. There is a unique pattern always applied by Nature when organizing matter/energy into a
working complete system. This pattern is built by the process of life cycle. You know, it is about
the phenomena that makes our bodies – as systems – born,glow,mature,degeneration,death –
when our bodies changes its shapes all time. So, using this process of life cycle Nature has
created systems, from atoms to galaxies to cells to human bodies. How? Nature build an
inanimate object body from any nebulae, or dust. Then Nature applies the force upon several
inanimate objects of same shape/constitution, which will have their shapes, functions, changed
into new shapes. When Nature gets 6 different shapes from that kind of object, it arranges the
shapes in a linear sequence. But the location of each object must obeys the sequence of life cycle
( birth,grow,maturation,etc.). As the shape of your body known as teenage has as left neighbor
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the shape of kid and as the right neighbor the shape of adult ( so, there is a link about time, etc.,
between neighbors) and the natural tendency of neighbors to keep together, the different objects
are aligned mimicking the life cycle sequence, which creates links between them and finally, a
running circuit. The system is ready.
We make no idea how this knowledge is important for us to make the word a better place for
everybody. this is the natural principle of automation productive process, reproduction, life, etc.
I got the metaphorical representation of all these process into a working system as a formula, em
shape of software diagram. With this formula I am understanding every natural and event
phenomena from a very interesting new perspective. But, we need to learn how to reproduce this
formula as material tools for practical applications. And for making plans, strategies, creating
new systems, etc. I am merely a naturalist philosopher observing Nature in the Amazon jungle,
with no knowledge of modern technology, complex Math. We need to find a way for
representing the formula as an equation. That’s why we are in need of a Mathematician that
grasp something of this new idea and trying to find the equation. my research job is not
profitable, I am selling nothing ( only spending), it is merely altruistic, so, I can’t hiring a
Mathematician, but, if the mathematical equation based on the formula gets some donations, by
sure, we will share it half and half. Someone there?…
I haven’t figured out math notation on a computer yet. Let X = arccosine of the reciprocal of phi.
Y = sine of one half X. Phi mutiplied by the reciprocal of y is the square root of two, precisely.I
understand your confusion, and I’ve been studying this topic for over twenty years. I’ve seen the
usages of upper and lower case phi in conflict in varying sources, and it’s not clear who or which
body gets to define what is standard or correct. Earlier sources seemed to most often used upper
case phi, but more recently the shift is towards lower case phi. As Wikipedia states, “The Greek
letter phi symbolizes the golden ratio. Usually, the lowercase form (φ or φ) is used. Sometimes
the uppercase form is used for the reciprocal of the golden ratio, 1/φ.” The source for this is
shown as ” Weisstein, Eric W. “Golden Ratio Conjugate” MathWorld. I emailed him years back
asking to know his source, but never received a response. Po-tay-to, po-tah-to?Can anyone
explain to me how, at the start of the Fibonacci series, we get from zero to one? Okay, I get it
that the two previous numbers are added together to get the next one in the series, but why did
we add 1 to 0 to kick it off? If we started with nothing (i. e. emptiness or non-existence) where
did the “one” suddenly appear from? Looking at it on a cosmic scale, it seems similar to the
explanation of the big-bang theory: “first there was nothing, and then it exploded.”If we assume
Phi(n) is equal to the distance of the centre of two flower of life circles, axis 12 Vesica Pisces
must be equal to (1x-√5)/(2^1/2)ª. This is also proof that Φ = 1/Φ + 1 and also brings to light the
significance of Φ in aesthetics.
REFERENCES
1.https://www.jstor.org/stable/991561?seq=1 On the Idea of the Mandala as a Governing
Device in Indian Architectural Tradition
Sonit Bafna,Journal of the Society of Architectural HistoriansVol. 59, No. 1 (Mar., 2000), pp.
26-49 (24 pages)Published By: University of California Press
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CHAPTER VII
A Universe Connected, John Boyce, 2018
Excerpt from Fibonacci’s Liber Abaci from the Biblioteca Nazionale di Firenzes
In the year 1202 AD, a mathematician from Italy asked a very simple question: “A certain man
put a pair of rabbits in a place surrounded on all sides by a wall. How many pairs of rabbits can be
produced from that pair in a year if it is supposed that every month each pair begets a new pair
which from the second month on becomes productive?” A question notably found in the third
section of a publication called Liber Abaci which was written by Leonardo Pisano Fibonacci. The
above question led to a sequence of numbers that the Western world knows as the “Fibonacci
Sequence”. Although most accredit Fibonacci with the discovery of this numerical sequence, its
existence had been observed long before Leonardo’s lifetime.
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With each turn of a Rubik’s cube creates a permutation (rearrangement of color tiles)
With each turn of a Rubik’s cube creates a permutation (rearrangement of color tiles)The study of
permutations and combinations has long been a subject of research in areas of South Asia,
particularly in India. Variations in numerical arrangements became popular in ancient Indian
society and applied to astrology, medicine, music, and architecture. The first notable hint of this
sequence’s existence came around 200 BC through the work of an ancient Indian mathematician
named Pingala through his work with Chandaḥśāstra (metrical sciences). Following the work of
Pingala, various other Indian mathematicians such as Virahanka, Gopala, and Hemachandra
contributed work that gave evidence of the existence of this numerical anomaly. Not to discredit
the brilliant work of Fibonacci but his most recognized contribution to mathematics, not
necessarily his most significant, led to the discovery of a ratio that has scientists in most practices
mystified. This ratio, as observed numerically, appears to be ingrained within the fabric of
universal order. Before going into too much detail about this ratio, it is essential first to
understand how the Fibonacci sequence works and how through this sequence the ratio was
discovered.
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One of the most consistent and elusive numbers ever discovered is 1.161803398874989. The
Golden Ratio, as it is known to those seeking to discern the underlying architecture of the
cosmos, is a ratio apprised in quantum physics and in the overall construct of galaxies. This ratio
has been applied to and observed in geometry, nature, and architecture.
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Figure 1 is a basic geometrical representation of the Fibonacci sequence. The first two squares
(the smallest squares) both have an area of 1 unit squared (1 unit by 1 unit).
The square labeled “2” has an area double of the 2 squares labeled “1”. At this point, the ratio
between the sizes does not equal that of the Golden Ratio (Ratio 2:1 or 2), however, as the tiles
grow larger by building on the base predicated by the previous two larger squares, the ratio
approaches and will eventually equal that of the Golden Ratio. For instance: the area of the largest
square of the image above is 21 units X 21 units or 21 units². The next largest squares have an
area of 13 units² and 8 units² after that. Both the squares labeled 13 and 8 have a base that’s’ sum
equals 21. Mathematicians have added additional geometry to the square Fibonacci tiling to create
a spiral pattern. This is known as the Fibonacci spiral: illustrated below.
Figure 3: an illustration of a Fibonacci spiral
The Fibonacci spiral is incorporated into a tile pattern based on the sequence. As previously stated
and observed in Table 1, ratios calculated from smaller integers of the Fibonacci sequence do not
exhibit the Golden Ratio or Phi (φ)(Phi is the Greek letter denoting 1.61803…). As the numbers
become larger throughout the calculation, the more a Fibonacci spiral resembles the Golden
Spiral. A Golden spiral is based on geometrical square tiling similar to figure 1 except all
correlating tiles are designed to have a ratio of φ (Phi) as seen below.
Sequence 1 is a Golden spiral continuously winding through Golden-square tiles. This also
resembles a Fib spiral at larger values as they approach affinity. Sequences, tiles, and spirals may
all exhibit φ, but there are plenty of different ways to observe this ratio. The golden ratio isn’t just
a number or proportion; it is a reminder of the inherent connectivity that exists within our
universe. The existence of the Fibonacci sequence and Golden ratio preceded mathematics as it
can be observed in nature within human DNA and even within the anatomical structure of certain
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flowers. Now that some fundamentals have been discussed, let’s dive into a few real-world
examples.
The number of possible ancestors on the X chromosome inheritance line at a given ancestral
generation follows the Fibonacci sequence. (This caption was directly copied from wikipedia
page where image was found)
Although mathematics has deep-seeded roots in human history, DNA and mammalian procreation
preceded human existence and therefore arithmetic. In 2005, a team of genealogists led by Luke
Hutchison stumbled across some interesting results. In their research article entitled “Growing the
Family Tree: The Power of DNA in Reconstructing Family Relationships” Hutchinson et al.
retroactively studied the number of ancestors that could potentially be the source of specific genes
on a particular, heritable X chromosome (sex chromosome carried by both parents). This study
used advanced genomic technology to discover what Leonardo Pisano Fibonacci had centuries
ago, that in a controlled environment the Fibonacci sequence and Phi may be witnessed within
aspects of mammalian lineage. This is one example of how the Fibonacci sequence appears to
shape natural order, but another biological example is found in the anatomy of some flowers.
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Geometrical overlay of a flower illustrating well defined symmetry with the “flower of
life” visible at the center
The disk florets of sunflowers have an arrangement that illustrates a spiral pattern that has
Fibonacci undertones. In sunflowers, the spirals that are created within the disk florets’ pattern
(reproductive buds at the center of the flower) often have 34 spiral turning clockwise and 21
moving counter clockwise. Another Fibonacci anomaly may be found in the number of petals on
certain flowers. For instance, Lillies have 3 petals, Roses have 8 interior plus 5 exterior petals,
and Pyrethrum have 34 petals: all Fibonacci numbers. Even the way plants branch from their
trunk follow a Fibonacci pattern. Although there is an exact correlation between these numbers
and the Golden Ratio, because these numbers are too low to give the precise value of Phi, these
patterns may be dictated by some underlying force exhibited by Phi. This force appears to
manifest itself within the human psyche as evidenced by ancient architects use of dimensions
inspired by the Fibonacci sequence Golden Ratio.
In 432 BC the construction of a world renown temple dedicated to the Grecian goddess Athena
was completed. The Parthenon isn’t just a testament to ancient Greek engineering, and it is also
known as the first impression of the Golden Ratio on architecture. The Fibonacci sequence and
Phi were not limited by culture concerning religious Temple architecture and practices.
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8X8 Mandala (Temple floor plan)
Buddhism is rooted in Hinduism, in fact, Siddhartha Gautama ( known as Buddha) practiced
Hinduism before finding enlightenment which is believed to have occurred in Bihar, a state of
India. In ancient India, temple construction was a very well thought out process, veritably, ancient
Hindu architects created a science designed to structure dwellings and temples to be in sync with
the natural and cosmic order. Vāstu śāstra translates to “science of architecture,” is an ancient
Sanskrit manual, which outlines appropriate geometry and alignment for temple construction. The
general layout of a Hindu temple is called its “Mandala.” The Mandala of a temple did not always
abide by Fibonacci sequence or the Golden Ratio, but some examples have been discovered.
However, as Buddhism developed as a separate belief system, variations of Hindu practices were
incorporated into Buddhist temple architecture and rituals.
As Buddhism moved East so has various aspects of Hindu practice. In Central Java, Indonesia
resides Borobudur, the world’s largest Buddhist temple. The Mandala of Borobudur illustrates Phi
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when comparing the dimension of the square base to the diameter of the largest circular terrace.
However, temple floor plans are not the only type of Mandala exhibiting the Golden Ratio.
If the term “Mandala” sounds familiar, that is because the word is still used today. Mandala: once
used to describe the underlying architecture of Hindu and Buddhist temples is now a ritual
synonymous with Buddhist meditation. In Vajrayana Buddhism, mandalas are created in the form
of a sand painting, which is an incredibly tedious task. Tibetan monks are often recognized for
their intricate, highly detailed sand Mandalas. These Mandalas are designed to encompass a
Universal understanding as discovered in Buddhist teachings.
The Tzolk’in wheel of time known as the Mayan calendar
Although there is a direct correlation between this sacred design between Eastern religions, there
are examples of Mandalas observed in Mayan (Tzolk’in: wheel of time), Aztec (Sun Stone) and
even Christian cultures. Eastern Asian cultures have no historical connection with Mesoamerican
cultures; however, many of the elements observed in Mandala’s across these cultures
share sacred geometry (Fibonacci numbers, Golden Ratio, yantra and the flower of life). This is
what makes the concept of the Mandala fascinating; it is a sacred design that spans across time
and cultures that have no known physical connections. Mandala truly embraces the philosophy
behind its concept: A UniverseConnected
The internet brought the world together, but with the emergence of Blockchain technology comes
another mechanism of connectivity. Unity across the global society is bolstered through the
instantaneous creation, transfer, and storage of data, in almost all forms, and Blockchain
technology delivers just that.
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As humans, we live in a world constricted by imaginary and physical barriers where financial
institutions are required centralization to grant access. Humanity is seeing the dawn of a new era
where technology is breaking barriers and Blockchain technology embraces our innate desire to
share an objective. Two innovators with a mutual desire constructed a team that shares the same
passion for creating a digital asset exchange that will bring aspiring and seasoned digital asset
traders together on a platform designed with the hope of accommodating and educating the
masses. With the goal of Connecting the Universe through Blockchain in mind, there is not a
more appropriate name for a company striving to do so than Mandala.
Parallel to the explosion of new Blockchain based digital assets is a surge of Blockchain related
exchanges. Digital asset trading differs from most traditional markets in that it is 24/7, this style
of trade is international and never sleeps. For this market and Blockchain to exist the way that it
does, speed and international cooperation are pertinent. With these two elements already in place
and mass adoption under 5%, one could only imagine the potential of this technology across the
global community.
Science and Golden Ratios in Mandala Architecture Hardcover – Import, 1 December 2011
by Rekha Rao
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Connecting the Universe through Inclusion
John Boyce 2018
Following their first meeting of 2018, G20 Finance Ministers & Central Bank Governors released
the following statement,
“We acknowledge that technological innovation, including that underlying crypto- assets, has the
potential to improve the efficiency and inclusiveness of the financial system and the economy
more broadly.”
This sentiment towards cryptocurrency has been a fundamental argument for mass adoption.
The United States has a top-tier financial infrastructure forged through experimentation, trial &
error, and innovation; nurtured by a free market. Aspiring American businesses have multiple
options to acquire or raise capital, and prospective homeowners have access to banks for loan
acquisition. Even failing companies can find ways to tread water long enough to restructure and
prosper. Although not perfect, top-tier financial access is the hemoglobin that controls the
distribution of oxygen (capital), to flow throughout the larger economic body. A loss of financial
access is the equivalent of carbon monoxide poisoning, causing large-scale commercial failure.
Mitigating the potential destruction of commerce and the middle class that would be caused by a
bottleneck of capital flow requires the existence of a financial foundation. The first step to
building a robust economic infrastructure and a healthy middle class is financial inclusion.
Financial inclusion is simply access to monetary services such as banking and credit. Many
residents in wealthy countries take financial inclusion for granted. In contrast, financial seclusion
is the lack of access to such instruments. Even in the United States, where people live in rural
areas, access may be limited. Rural areas are most susceptible to financial seclusion. Countries
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like India, with a population ~ 1.3 Billion, has struggled with financial inclusion since ~ 67% of
its people reside in rural areas. Which is why the Indian Government is working hard to increase
inclusion throughout its nation.Mid-August of 2014, Prime Minister Narendra Modi launched the
first phase of Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana (PMJDY), a campaign to facilitate universal
access to banking facilities, basic banking accounts with an overdraft facility and a program to
bolster financial literacy. By January 31st, 2015, a total of 125,473,289.00 bank accounts opened
as a result of PMJDY. Of the 125 million accounts, nearly 60% of them were created in rural
areas. At today’s conversion rate, a total of $1.5 billion was deposited in less than six
months. Rohit Azad and Dipa Sinha of The Hindu reported, in their article entitled “The Jan-Dhan
Yojana, four years later,” that 80% of adults owned a banking account in 2017 compared to 53%
in 2017. They also noted that access to formal credit did not improve. This article, however, was
published only months before the implementation of PMJDY phase 2, launched in mid-August of
2018, which aims to address this problem along with adding overdraft protection, microinsurance, and a pension scheme for the unorganized sector. India is on track to have the second
largest share of middle-class consumption by 2030, possibly pulling ahead of the United States.
Before the push by the Indian Government to increase financial inclusion, India had the means to
implement such a bold agenda: countries without such economic development would struggle
with a program of this caliber. Technological innovations have broken barriers for individuals in
less developed nations. Mobile devises, such as cell phones, have become more prevalent and
useful as a gateway for financial services.
Mobile money is a wallet service used on mobile devices to store, send and receive money. The
largest cohort of mobile money users is in Sub-Saharan Africa where 21% of Adults have an
account. Access to a mobile wallet is a significant step forward but miles behind the level of
inclusion seen in developed nations. However, it does illuminate the possible solutions that
technology can offer moving forward. There is another emerging technology that has the potential
to overcome geographical barriers and allow for accessibility of a variety of financial services.
Blockchain technology has the potential to increase financial inclusion cost-effectively. Without
the need to build banks across vast terrain, blockchain-based money (cryptocurrency) can
maintain transaction ledgers without a third party, reducing cost and local resources. Smartcontracts can allow for escrow services and provide the capability to offer other utility through
rules built within the contract. Some companies use a blockchain to match a potential borrower to
a suitable lender. The immutable yet accurate ledger of a blockchain may help insurance
companies reduce cost. Blockchain technology has also given people in underdeveloped nations
the ability to invest in ways never thought imaginable. These are just a few examples that this
technology, through a mobile device or personal computer, can offer.
Does blockchain hold all of the solutions to bring about global financial inclusion? Only time will
tell, the fact that G20 Finance Ministers & Central Bank Governors see its potential should
reverberate the possibilities of this technology. Connecting the universe isn’t just about bringing
people together, it also means building each other up. It is time to leave behind the era of
exploitation for personal gain and champion inclusion. It’s our world, let’s enjoy it together.
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C i r c l e o f K u r i s u Jung recognized that the urge to make mandalas emerges during
moments of intense personal growth. As Jungian analyst Marie Louise von Franz explains: “The
mandala serves a conservative purpose—namely, to restore a previously existing order. But it
also serves the creative purpose of giving expression and form to something that does not yet
exist, something new and unique….The process is that of the ascending spiral, which grows
upward while simultaneously returning again and again to the same point.” (C. G. Jung: “Man
and His Symbols,” p. 225)
When you see circles encompassing other patterns or hosting their own sacred geometry in
nature, you are viewing a natural mandala. Mandalas are everywhere if you take time to look.
Plants and flora, trees, fruit, vegetables and even animals can hold the power of the mandala
within them.
It is not only impressive to look at a mandala – you can design one yourselves as well!
Especially during cold days lounging in the armchair with a delicious homemade Yogi Tea you
can grab your pencils and start to doodle! At this site you can get some help!
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Lotus Mandala
They represent different aspects of the universe and are used as instruments of meditation and
symbols of prayer. Mandalas can be understood externally as a visual representation of the
universe and internally as a guide for several spiritual practices like meditation. The basic
explanation of their form can be described as circles contained within a square and arranged into
sections that are all organized around a single or a central point. And it is believed that by
proceeding towards its center, you are guided through the cosmic process of transforming the
universe from one of suffering into one of joy and happiness. They serve as a representation of
the universe and a guide on the path to enlightenment.
Even today the mandalas are used in a variety of ways. In yoga, mandalas represent the same
ancient ideals, signifying a sacred space to shut away external influences or the negative energy.
Not only in spiritual practices, but also in Arts and Architecture, mandalas play a very
magnificent part. We can find them also at the stained glass rose in gothic churches, Persian art,
archeology, etc. I remember myself when I was very little that I used to draw circular shapes or
flower petals one after another or in my notebook during classes when I was bored. Little did I
know that I was drawing mandalas…I was just passing the time and anything seems much more
interesting to do than following a boring class right? According to psychological interpretations
creating mandalas helps stabilize, integrate, and re-order inner life because its symbolic nature
can help one to access progressively deeper levels of the unconscious, ultimately assisting the
meditator or creator to experience a mystical sense of oneness with the ultimate unity from
which the cosmos in all its manifold forms arises.
“The mandala serves a conservative purpose – namely, to restore a previously existing order.
But it also serves the creative purpose of giving expression and form to something that does not
yet exist, something new and unique… The process is that of the ascending spiral, which grows
upward while simultaneously returning again and again to the same point.”
– Jungian analyst, Marie-Louise von Franz
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CHAPTERVIII
Phylogeny Mandala & other Scientific Concepts
A circular phylogeny with photos or drawings of species is named a phylogeny mandala. This is
one of the ways for illustrating the Tree of Life, and is suitable to show visually how the
biodiversity has developed in the course of evolution as clarified by the molecular phylogenetics.
To demonstrate the recent progress of molecular phylogenetics, six phylogeny mandalas for
various taxonomic groups of life were presented; i.e., (1) Eukaryota, (2) Metazoa, (3) Hexapoda,
(4) Tetrapoda, (5) Eutheria, and (6) Primates.1
The Tree of Life (ToL) has been of central importance in the biological sciences, usually
understood as a model or a metaphor, and portrayed in various graphical forms to summarize the
history of life as a single diagram. If it is seen as a mathematical construct—a rooted graph
theoretical tree or, as more recently viewed, a directed network [Network of Life (NoL)]—then
its proper visualization is not feasible, for both epistemological and technical reasons. As an
overview included in this study demonstrates, published ToLs and NoLs are extremely diverse in
appearance and content, and they suffer from inevitable bias towards particular groups, or are
restricted to a single major taxon. Metaphorical trees are even less useful for the purpose,
because ramification is the only property of botanical trees that may be interpreted in an
evolutionary or phylogenetic context. This paper argues that corals, as suggested by Darwin in
his early notebooks, are superior to trees as metaphors, and may also be used as mathematical
models. A coral diagram is useful for portraying past and present life because it is suitable: (1) to
illustrate bifurcations and anastomoses, (2) to depict species richness of taxa proportionately, (3)
to show chronology, extinct taxa and major evolutionary innovations, (4) to express taxonomic
continuity, (5) to expand particulars due to its self-similarity, and (6) to accommodate a
genealogy-based, rank-free classification. This paper is supplemented with a figure, The Coral of
Life (CoL), which is, to the author’s knowledge, the first attempt to combine all of the above
features in a single diagram for the entirety of life, thus serving as a prototype for further analysis
and improvement. The discussion is partly historical: references to classical and modern writings
help the reader to understand how biological thinking and methods of visualization have evolved
to reach this achievement.
Introduction
Biologists have long been interested in a diagrammatic representation of the evolutionary history
of Life. The first illustration of this kind was Jean-Baptiste Lamarck’s “Tableau. Servant à
montrer l’origine des diffèrens animaux” (Lamarck 1809, vol. 2, p. 463Footnote1) depicting his
ideas about the phylogenetic relationships between major animal groups. The most striking
feature of this scheme is not that groups are derived directly from one another, reflecting the old
concept of the scala naturae (Great Chain of Being), but the emergence of a branching pattern
of change for some pairs of these groups. The theory behind this phenomenon, namely the
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principle of evolutionary divergence, was elaborated and published 50 years later by Charles
Darwin (1859, hereafter “Origin”) and visualized by his book’s single “accompanying diagram”
(inserted facing page 117) for a small collection of hypothetical species and genera. He then
argued that “a great tree” is sometimes used to represent the affinities of all members of a given
class, and then extended this statement to the entirety of life on earth in the following famous
passage (Darwin 1859, p. 130):
As buds give rise by growth to fresh buds, and these, if vigorous, branch out and overtop on all
sides many a feebler branch, so by generation I believe it has been with the great Tree of Life,
which fills with its dead and broken branches the crust of the earth, and covers the surface with
its ever branching and beautiful ramifications.
Notably, this is the only occurrence of the term “Tree of Life” (ToL) in Darwin’s work published
in his lifetime.Footnote2 For him and most of his audience, ToL might have appeared to be no more
than an idealized goal that can never be achieved, and therefore the term remained almost
completely dormant for more than a century in the biological literature.Footnote3 Terminology,
even at the level of metaphors, was much more strongly influenced by Ernst Haeckel, who
published a large number of phylogenetic diagrams, with different styles and theoretical
backgrounds, for various groups of organisms. Of these, the “Monophyletische Stammbaum der
Organismen” (Tafel I in Haeckel 1866) is the first attempt in the history of science to depict
phylogenetic relationships for all extant life (Hossfeld and Levit 2016).Footnote4 Perhaps, this
figure facilitated most effectively the rapid spread and wide use of the term “tree”, which has
since been routinely used in evolutionary and phylogenetic investigations.
For 100 years after the publication of the Origin, these studies were largely based on observed
similarities among groups of organisms and the correlations of their attributes (Mayr 1988,
pp. 269–270), which was challenged significantly by the rise of cladistics around the middle of
the 20th century. Bifurcating tree graphs, called cladograms, were generated more objectively
than any previous phylogenetic diagrams, with the goal of hypothesizing evolutionary
relationships within selected taxonomic groups. The tree of all life was still illusory, however,
because no phenetic data could cover prokaryotes together with eukaryotes, for obvious reasons.
Very few or no morphological characters were available to describe all members of large groups,
such as metazoans or plants, and the problem of universal morphology existed at even lower
levels, as well. The situation changed radically with the advent of molecular cladistics in the late
1980s, when the analysis of nucleotide sequences of universal (ribosomal) genes made possible
the “reconstruction” of the phylogeny of all extant organisms.
A literature search in the Web of Science (WoS) Core Collection reveals that the expression
“Tree of Life” re-appeared in the subject matter and/or the title of biological papers in 1989, and
after 10 years the number of occurrences started to increase dramatically, reaching 42 per year in
the title and more than 190 appearances per year in the topic by 2018 (Supplementary Fig. S1).
Another search in the same database shows that papers mentioning “Tree of life” in the title or in
the abstract often receive a large number of citations, further illustrating that this expression has
taken a central role in the life sciences (Supplementary Table S1). The trend is evident even
though the increases may be partly due to the extensions of journal coverage by WoS in the past
decade. Moreover, these figures could be even larger, because WoS actually covers only a
fraction of the scientific literature. In addition to periodicals, many books include the “Tree of
life” (or its translation) in their title, and several internet applications, online resources and
databases also bear the term in their names. Thanks to the joint effort of thousands of biologists,
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we are getting increasingly closer to (although still a long way from) the realization of Darwin’s
dream of a historical drawing that shows all buds, branches and ramifications of the living world
that exists—and has existed—on our planet.
The obvious correlation between the increased use of ToL and the rapid expansion of molecular
systematics suggests that the single candidate for the long-sought historical diagram is indeed
“The One True Tree of Life”Footnote5 (title of Chapter 10 in Dawkins 1986). As Eiserhardt et al.
(2018) have recently put it: “It is a fundamental infrastructure of scientific knowledge that is as
central to biology as the periodic table is to chemistry”. However, in sharp contrast to Dmitri
Mendeleev’s chemical chart, it is extremely surprising and embarrassing that no exact definition
for its underlying concept has been given for the ToL. Indeed, the methodology for preparing the
ToL does not follow any standard, and its use freely fluctuates around “metaphor, model and
heuristic device” (Mindell 2013; Morrison 2014, 2016). Some glossaries provide a short and
even circular description; for example, when ToL is understood as a “tree-like representation of
the history of all living and extinct organisms” (Gogarten and Townsend 2005). A more
fortunate formulation is due to O’Malley et al. (2010), who say that the ToL is “intended to
represent the pattern of evolutionary processes that result in bifurcating species lineages” thus
symbolizing powerfully “the unity of evolutionary process and pattern”. Footnote6 But bifurcation
and pattern may be manifested in different ways in a diagram. Many instances of the ToL are
rigorously graph theoretical trees, such as cladograms or their weighted variants (phylograms
and chronograms or “timetrees”), whereas others are much more like metaphors and thus
resemble “botanical trees” in shape.
Critical reviews and point-of-view articles devoted to this matter are relatively scarce, and they
are concerned mostly with incongruent “gene trees” and phenomena that are said to violate the
tree condition (HGT and hybridization; see Wolf et al. 2002; Puigbò et al. 2009;
Morrison 2014, 2016; Doolittle and Brunet 2016 and most contributions in O’Malley 2010), or
with methods of visualization (Page 2012). In some cases, although “Tree of life” appears in the
title, its role is marginal in the main text (e.g., Szklarczyk et al. 2015; Wanntorp and Ronse de
Craene 2011), with the ToL thus serving merely as a vague metaphor of the living world.
The information content in most diagrams published to date is insufficient to demonstrate
appropriately “the grandest earthly enterprise”: details are restricted usually to one or a few
aspects of the history of life, mostly to divergence and the associated timing or molecular
change. In addition, however, I think that facts from paleontology (e.g., fossil groups,
extinctions), estimated dates of major evolutionary events, a temporally meaningful hierarchical
classification of species, and the known diversity of life should also be demonstrated properly by
one and the same diagram. Although much information has been available to prepare such a
figure, the details do not yet form a coherent, comprehensive diagrammatic representation.
In this paper, I suggest a solution that is not a tree in the graph theoretical sense of the word
(because a tree cannot fulfill the above requirements, as explained later), but follows Darwin’s
early concept by revitalizing the coral metaphor he mentioned only once in his notebooks. A
mathematically well-defined coral allows illustrating the history of life by combining cladistic,
chronological, paleontological, historical and taxonomic data in a synthesis never before
portrayed. A preliminary attempt to compile the first version of the Coral of Life (CoL) is thus
provided here, which is admittedly heuristic in many parts, but which can be refined and
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elaborated continuously when new phylogenetic hypotheses arise and more details are revealed
and clarified.
Main Features of ToLs
Published ToLs, as noted above, are extremely diverse regarding their main characteristics.
Supplementary Table S2 provides relevant information on 32 selected diagrams that cover all
major groups of extant life (plus fossils in some cases) at least at the level of domains. All of
them were designated as ToL by the author(s)—with the exception of Haeckel’s Stammbaum
and Whittaker’s five-kingdom system, both of which deserve inclusion in the table for their
importance in the history of ToL. Criteria for feature evaluation are as follows:
1. (1)
if the diagram may be interpreted as a graph-theoretical tree, with nodes representing
taxonomic entities (e.g., species or their groups aggregated into “higher” taxa) and edges
representing relationships (see Glossary), or interpreted as an image of another kind;
2. (2)
whether or not the diagram is embedded into the time dimension, and if so whether the
timescale is linear or logarithmic;
3. (3)
if the diagram is based on a single gene, allowing measurement of molecular distances
along the edges of the graph, or whether there is no genetic distance measured at all;
4. (4)
the proportion of labeled nodes representing prokaryotes and those corresponding to
eukaryotes, which indicates bias towards either group (usually towards prokaryotes);
5. (5)
if the diagram includes additional information on macroevolution (e.g., endosymbiotic
events, significant genetic novelties, position of Last Universal Common Ancestor, etc.)
or major ecological changes on Earth;
6. (6)
if there is a classification (partitions or a hierarchy) superimposed over the phylogeny;
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7. (7)
the taxonomic status of entities represented by nodes or branches (e.g., species, genera,
higher Linnaean ranks or clades);
8. (8)
if the relations depicted are of sister group (SG) or ancestor–descendant (AD) type;
9. (9)
if extinct organisms (fossils) also appear as labeled nodes; and
10. (10)
typification of the diagram according to Podani (2013, 2017).
Purely stylistic properties are excluded from this list because I do not see any essential
difference, for example, between trees arranged in traditional rectangular manner and
alternatives such as radial trees, the so-called phylogenetic mandalas (Hasegawa 2017)—if they
otherwise agree in all other features from the above list. Orientation, color, line thickness, fonts,
presence of photos and other artistic details are also irrelevant here, although such features may
be important from an aesthetic viewpoint (as in Lima 2013).
It is apparent that for visualizations of the Tree of Life the various authors have felt absolutely
free to combine the fundamental properties listed above. There are hardly any two diagrams that
completely agree in all of these features—the world of ToLs appears to be extremely diverse in
this respect. Therefore, in the following sections I provide a detailed discussion of published
variants of the tree of life, show the disadvantages associated with the use of mathematical trees,
and outline the possibility for adapting a different type of drawing, the coral, to summarize the
history and diversity of life in a single figure.
The Scale Problem: Levels of Organization
The first and most fundamental question is the choice of the basic taxon entities, the welldistinguishable operational units of visualization or—to put it another way—the level of
biological organization at which the history of life is to be conceived and displayed. Biological
organization may be viewed as a hierarchical arrangement of entities, either ecological or
genealogical (Tëmkin and Eldredge 2015, see their Fig. 5). The ecological hierarchy relates to
the functioning of its components and their spatial associations, while the genealogical one
focuses on the information flow through time. In a historical context, therefore, we are concerned
with the genealogical hierarchy.
173
In this hierarchy, the lowest relevant level would be that of cells (Doolittle and Brunet 2016):
since all cells originate from previously existing ones,Footnote7 the cellular history of life may be
modeled as a mathematical graph (see Glossary) with vertices representing cells and directed
edges corresponding to parent–offspring relations, which may therefore be embedded in the time
dimension. Parts of this enormous imaginary graph are trees, where each parent cell gives rise to
new cells by division (binary fission in prokaryotes and mitosis or meiosis in eukaryotes).
However, new cells may also be formed by the merger of two cells, such as cellular fusions in
the prokaryotic world (e.g., haloarchaeans)—which may also have created the first eukaryotic
cell—and the fusion of gametes in sexually reproducing eukaryotes. Due to these events, which
may connect closely related and very distant lineages as well, the tree-condition (no cycles) is
violated, and the diagram becomes a network—the cellular Network of Life (NoL).
There is a third type of cellular union, phagocytosis, which normally means that one cell
consumes the other as food, and is thus irrelevant in the present context. On rare occasions,
however, the engulfed cell survives and is gradually integrated into the host cell, a process
known as symbiogenesis,Footnote8 which may have lead to the formation of the mitochondrion and
various types of plastids. In every such case, the new organelle performs functions that greatly
increase the host’s fitness; and genetic material is carried over into its nucleus, thereby
modifying the genome. Therefore, this type of fusion may be conceived as a major mutation
event, by which evolutionary changes and diversification along the host’s lineage are greatly
enhanced, whereas the line of the engulfed cell as a separate entity is eliminated. Evidently, the
cellular NoL has only theoretical importance as a mental model for the unique (one true) cellular
history, which involved an astronomical number of units for which I would never try to provide
any estimate.
The next hierarchical level pertains to individual organisms (Dennett 1995; Doolittle and
Brunet 2016), a large part of which is unicellular and is therefore present in the cellular network
discussed above. Here, innovation is multicellularity, which has evolved several times
independently, producing the metazoans and different groups of plants, meta-algae and fungi.
The NoL of individuals derives (“simplifies”) from the above network by combining nodes that
represent cells of the same individual organism. These are considered physically separable for
simplicity, although in many cases (e.g., clonal plants, animal colonies) it is hard to make a
distinction between individuals; in such cases these “superorganisms” are viewed as units. In this
graph, the edges show parent–offspring relationships as in the cellular NoL. It is partly composed
of trees for asexually propagating organisms and partly of networks in the case of sexually
reproducing species. It also has theoretical significance as a model to explain the one true
network of organismal history (called “tokogenetic relationships” by Hennig 1966, see his Fig. 6
as a hypothetical example for speciation), with a size several magnitudes smaller than the graph
of cells.
The next two levels of organization involve classification of individuals into the basic units of
taxonomy, i.e., species. The historical diagrams with species as entities derive theoretically from
the graph of individuals, such that nodes assigned to the same species are aggregated. This
means that continuity of the lineages of cells and individuals is maintained in the graphs. At
these levels arise the uncertainties with the definition of species. There are at least 30 different
species concepts (Zachos 2016, pp. 80–96), and none of them apply equally to all groups of
organisms and to extant and extinct species alike. Nevertheless, since most species are distinct
(genetically, morphologically, ecologically, etc.) from the others at one time point, the species
174
delineation problem is less apparent at the population level—i.e., when a node represents a living
population of a species at time t, while an edge connects a parent population to its offspring at
time t + 1. Darwin’s single tree-like model diagram in the Origin is the first one of this kind
(“tree-like” because dotted links are used to represent many subsequent generations and nodes
appear only where a population splits). However, hybridization may occur even between distinct
and well-established populations of two related species, mostly in plants and less commonly in
animals, giving rise to an offspring population that must show up in our theoretical diagram no
matter whether it is fertile or sterile. Hybridization of species is almost the rule rather than the
exception in the plant world: according to some estimates a large proportion of extant species are
hybridogeneous (percentages vary, up to 80% for dicots, Briggs and Walters 2016). A
consequence is that the historical diagram of life can only be a network at the population level.
Needless to say, this NoL is no more knowable than are the previous two graphs.
Populations of a given species from all times can be further amalgamated into a single node, thus
giving a species diagram. Evolutionary theory suggests that temporal species boundaries are not
sharp—while moving from parent to offspring species identity is unlikely to change, unless some
dramatic genomic modifications happen (e.g., autopolyploidization or hybridization) that warrant
taxonomic switch as well. In general, speciation is a slow, gradual process, thus questioning the
meaningfulness
of
discrete mathematical
tools,
such as
graphs,
for
its
Footnote9
modeling.
Nevertheless, this is the lowest level at which scientists ever attempted to draw
historical diagrams of life, and thus species are assumed as discrete spatio-temporal evolutionary
entities in most attempts to determine ToL. Loops are inherited from the previous levels;
therefore a complete species graph can only be a network.
In summary, the mere existence of sexual reproduction, i.e., the fusion of gametes, at these four
levels of organization is the principal reason explaining the network structure in the history of
life, with other processes being rare or affecting mostly prokaryotes. The tree property comes
into focus again if we consider that increased biological distances between distinct lineages
prevent interbreeding, which means that they can never fuse again. The minimum distance for
complete separation is indirectly reflected by traditional systematics: species belonging to
different families, orders or higher Linnaean taxa never form hybrids, and the history of life, if
viewed at a large taxonomic scale, will be dominated by ramifications.
At first glance, then, one may think that aggregation of species into nodes representing higher
taxa resolves the tree versus network dilemma in favor of the former. Historically important
examples for this view are Lamarck’s Tableau and some of Haeckel’s trees (e.g., for plant
phylogeny, see Fig. 3 in Dayrat 2003). Interestingly, Darwin also played with this idea when he
drew a sketch for mammalian evolution in 1857 or 1858 (see Fig. 4.6 in Archibald 2014): this
figure is in fact a graph theoretical tree, with a question at the top of the diagram: “Let dots
represent genera???” No matter how attractive, the proposal that Linnaean taxa are nodes, and
that the edges depict their AD relations in a tree, is untenable for several reasons discussed later.
Here, one of them deserves attention: if agglomeration of individuals into species is problematic
because the temporal boundaries are not sharp, then the same problem transfers to groups of
species as well. Jumping from one family into another when going from parent to offspring is
even more unrealistic than the change of species identity (Podani 2009).
175
Finally, we can go down one step below the cells in the biological hierarchy, and construct
“gene-trees” that are often associated with the notion of the ToL. Similarly to cells, individuals,
populations and species, each single gene also has a unique history, which is predominantly treelike (Maddison 1997; Dickerman 1998). This is shaped by various processes of mutation,
recombination, gene duplication and extinction, and horizontal gene transfer via cell fusions,
viruses and extracellular parasites, as well as by the physical environment. Genes or their
encoded proteins, sampled from individuals of selected species, have been generally used for
phylogenetic studies, and comparisons suggest that species-level trees based on individual
genes may be remarkably different from one another and rarely identical. Some authors therefore
suggest (Puigbò et al. 2009, 2013; the idea originated in Dickerman 1998) that no universal ToL
exists, and that the concept should be substituted by the Forest of Life (FoL), consisting of gene
trees. Puigbò et al., on the other hand, agree that the congruence among many gene trees is much
higher than expected by random, suggesting the existence of a single statistical ToL. Forterre
(2015) concludes that the history of genes is “incredibly complex” and the universal tree should
reflect the evolutionary history of cells, as envelopes of the genetic apparatus, rather than the
change of their genome composition. Unlike cells or individuals, genes are not living entities,
and may only be—more or less reliable—markers of phylogenetic relationships. Under what
circumstances this history can be shown by a mathematical tree is an issue to be examined later
in this paper. In the next sections, I shall first assume what most authors do: the ToL (i.e., a tree)
is a meaningful summary at the level of species.
Scope, Taxon Sampling and Diversity
Whereas the ToL has obvious connotation to the entirety of life, its use is often confined to a
subset of the living world: expressions such as the “prokaryotic tree of life” (McInerney et
al. 2008), “plant tree of life” (Soltis et al. 2018), “fungal tree of life”, “tree of life of birds” or
“amphibian tree of life” (Supplementary Table S1) are not uncommon. This is unfortunate,
because in this way the ToL may end up with the same fate as the infamous “family tree”, for
example, which in most publications had nothing to do with actual families (understood either in
the everyday sense of the word or as a rank in systematics). Footnote10 To clarify the issue, I suggest
the use of the mathematically well-established term subtree (e.g., “avian subtree of life”)
whenever attention is focused on a well-circumscribed set of species, i.e., a higher taxon.
The true ToL is therefore expected to include the widest possible range of cellular organisms,
representing both domains of prokaryotes as well as eukaryotic protists, fungi, plants, animals
and other groups (viruses excluded, see Moreira and López-Garcia 2009; Forterre 2015, for
arguments). For extant species, most published phylogenies are based directly or indirectly on
molecular data, and the resulting tree has as many leaves (terminal nodes or vertices) as the
number of species examined. In such trees, especially those published before 2010, eukaryotes
are usually underrepresented, since a higher proportion of bacterial species had been analyzed for
nucleotide sequences than eukaryotes. ToLs with prokaryote-dominance (see column 6 in
Supplementary Table S2) provide a strongly biased view on the richness of (extant) life, because
the number of known species in this group is two magnitudes smaller than that of eukaryotes (ca.
20,000 vs. ca. 2 million).
176
The one graph theoretical ToL biologists are looking for should theoretically include around 2
million terminals, which is impossible in practice even with the currently popular circular
arrangements. Some authors have tried to circumvent the problem by a more balanced taxon
sampling: for example, Hillis et al. (Fig. 230 in Pietsch 2012; Supplementary Table S2) reduced
the proportion of prokaryotes to less than 2%. Hedges et al. (2015) included more than 50,000
species in a large tree arranged in a spiral format, with a proportion of eukaryotes close to the
true value of 99.5%. A very large number of species are found in the ToL diagram compiled by
Yifan
Hu
(reproduced
on
pp.
120–121
in
Lima 2013,
see
also
at http://yifanhu.net/TOL/tol_9_19_2011.jpg), allegedly more than 90,000, but the choice of taxa
is completely arbitrary, most of them are unlabeled, and the overall appearance of the tree is
chaotic; and thus it does not improve our understanding of the natural order of life.
One might suggest therefore that the ToL need not be shown at the species level, but “higher”
taxa should appear as terminal nodes. This solution, although not uncommon (e.g., families or
“family-level” taxa in Hedges and Kumar 2009; Supplementary Table S2) is problematic for two
main reasons: (1) the choice of higher taxa (either Linnaean or cladistic) can only be subjective,
and (2) the species richness of these groups cannot be demonstrated graphically by proper
mathematical trees. As a result, taxon sampling is still unbalanced, and some groups receive too
much emphasis (vertebrates take ca. one-third of the tree tips in the ToL of Hedges and
Kumar 2009). Even the number of higher taxa may be exceedingly large: in this diagram the
total number of tips exceeds 1600, so that the terminal edges of the tree do not separate, and
large clades cannot be distinguished without the use of different colors. The same is true for the
spiral ToL (Hedges et al. 2015), in which tips are actually species but only large clades are
labeled and colored differently. Again, this ToL is biased: about twice as many vertebrates as
arthropods are included (actual richness values are ca. 67,000 vs. ca. 1,170,000). As well,
angiosperms and vertebrates are exposed at the order level but major invertebrate groups are
overlooked: names such as Mollusca, Insecta, Coleoptera and Lepidoptera do not even appear in
the diagram. Although the spiral arrangement allowed an increased taxon sampling, the tree itself
is squeezed into a narrow strip, and the bifurcating pattern is hard—if not impossible—to
ascertain. The tree drawn by Hedges et al. is therefore more like a curiously arranged
classification than an easily conceivable ToL.
In conclusion, a mathematical tree cannot visualize the phylogenetic relationships of known
extant life without bias towards particular groups. Drawing a species-level tree is definitely a big
data problem: the enormous technical difficulties are demonstrated lucidly by Eiserhardt et al.
(2018): a tree even for extant plant species only would require a ca. 1660 m long piece of paper
if the labels were given in a nine-point font—twice as much as the height of the tallest man-made
construction in the world (Burj Khalifa in Dubai). For a similar graph for 2 million species, the
paper length would be around 10 km! Some authors suggest, therefore, that no single drawing of
the ToL is appropriate; and the use of several subtrees in a suitable navigational environment is
recommended—a practice already followed by some books (e.g., Lecointre and Le
Guyader 2007; Hedges and Kumar 2009; Vargas and Zardoya 2012) and internet applications
(e.g., Maddison and Schulz 2007; Rosindell and Harmon 2012; de Vienne 2016).
Representing Extinct Species and Their Groups
177
While the large number of species induces serious problems in tree (and network) visualization,
it is generally agreed that, if the ToL is to be about the history of life, then extinct species or their
groups should also be included (Donoghue and Cracraft 2004, p. 3; Gogarten and
Townsend 2005). This further increases the number of entities to be represented in the graph.
Darwin probably agreed with this requirement—the only figure in the Origin may be interpreted
as a model tree showing ancestor–descendant relationships (Dayrat 2005) at the population level,
as said above. Of course, a ToL determined merely on the basis of molecular information cannot
include fossils—it refers to the past of organisms living in a single slice of time and stratigraphic
information is only used for calibration (Benton 2001; Benton and Ayala 2003; Benton and
Donoghue 2007; Forest 2009; Clarke and Boyd 2015). However, depicting who is sister to whom
is only part of the story; such cladograms are therefore by no means “reconstructions” of
phylogeny.
Simultaneous representation of extinct and extant species in the same tree requires careful
synthesis of molecular and morphological cladograms, which is a great challenge for
contemporary biology. This practice is relatively rare at the level of the ToL, and extinct taxa, if
included, usually appear only in subtrees of life. For example, in diagrams of the Tree of Life
project (Maddison and Schulz 2007), extinct and extant species or genera appear as sister
nodes—that is, all entities are terminals on the tree. The same is true for the internet application
developed by Rosindell and Harmon (2012) and de Vienne (2016). Recent approaches to modelbased phenetic reconstruction of phylogeny (Puttick et al. 2017) also provide cladograms with all
taxa as terminal nodes. This is a problem, because one cannot exclude the possibility that any
fossil is an ancestor to another or to an extant species (Foote 1996), especially if the fossil lacks
apomorphic characters.Footnote12 The sister group relationship is thus questionable, so that the
branching topology is not necessarily a faithful representation of evolutionary
pathways.Footnote13 Since we can rarely (or never) answer the question as to whether a fossil is
ancestor of or an extinct sister to another species, a historical ToL will always be impossible to
derive for theoretical reasons.
There is also a more or less practical problem well-known for everyone from Darwin’s time to
our molecular era: the fossil record is extremely incomplete and unbalanced. The fact that only
250,000 or so fossil species have been described until now clearly demonstrates our limited
knowledge about past life. Clearly, the various taxonomic groups have very different
probabilities of being preserved (Donoghue and Yang 2016), e.g., for soft-bodied organisms it is
nearly zero; and the discovery of fossils has always been the matter of luck. Raup (1992)
estimates that at least 99% of “all species that lived in the past have disappeared forever, and
these are not only unicellular organisms. We can safely say, therefore, that the Darwinian, truly
historical, ToL together with its subtrees is absolutely unknowable with species as nodes. The
same statement holds true for a historical NoL with similar taxonomic resolution.
If the idea of illustrating ancestor–descendant relationships by a tree is unrealistic, then do we
have to give up every attempt at visualizing the paleontological past? Can we still compile a
diagram that shows at least the known diversity of extinct groups and its change over time as
well? To find an answer we have to go back in time: this goal is achieved by an old-style
graphical tool that has become almost completely forgotten, the so-called romerogram, or spindle
(bubble-, balloon-) diagram formerly so popular in paleontology.
178
Archetypes of these diagrams were drawn by paleontologists (including the non-evolutionists
Louis Agassiz and Edward Hitchcock) in the nineteenth century. Thanks to Osborn (1917),
Vialleton (1929) and especially to Romer (1945), after whom this type of diagram is named,
such images were extensively used for demonstrating temporal changes in the richness of
vertebrate groups in the fossil record. Other uses include paleobotany (Stewart and
Rothwell 1993) and echinoderm systematics (Sprinkle 1992), but see Pietsch (2012), for a fuller
account.
More apt are the other informal terms for the diagram, because the “spindles” are meant to
illustrate the beginning and the end of the existence of a (higher Linnaean) taxon over geological
time. The width of the spindle is proportional to the diversity of the represented group at any
point of time. Its widest part corresponds to the period when the taxon reached its highest
diversity, and a given spindle may have submaxima as well. Within-group relationships of taxa
are thus omitted; this problem is set aside by using the completely filled spindle shape.
In Romer’s work, some spindles were directly connected to others, demonstrating “ancestordescendant” relationships between these groups, but the connecting lines were dotted in most
cases, reflecting uncertainty of the relationships. The cladistic component in these diagrams was
therefore weak, if present at all.
Viewed by modern eyes, there was another disadvantage: derivation of one group from another
leads to obvious paraphyly of the ancestor. For these reasons, romerograms are no longer used in
the form originally proposed. More recently, another vertebrate paleontologist, Benton (2005)
combined the advantages of romerograms with cladograms. In his diagrams, no group was
derived directly from another while the terminal “edges” were drawn like spindles to illustrate
relative diversity of the groups.Footnote15
Although the author himself, and other sources as well, refer to these diagrams as evolutionary
“trees” (e.g., Fig. 4.21 on p. 105 in Benton 2005), these are neither mathematical trees nor do
they bear any resemblance to woody plants. But then, what in fact are they?
Is the Tree the Best Metaphor?
As generally accepted, bifurcations during the evolutionary process may be best illustrated by
“tree-like” diagrams. Rooted mathematical trees are applicable to depict both SG and AD
relationships, but their use as a true ToL necessarily is burdened by visualization problems and
epistemological limitations. Diagrams resembling “botanical” trees in shape are less often
displayed in scientific publications (but see examples in Supplementary Table S2) while they are
more commonly used for educational purposes (e.g., museum displays, MacDonald 2010), and
may serve as alternatives. An internet search for biologically relevant images reveals that in fact
the “Tree of life” takes the form of a plant almost as often as it does the mathematical construct.
In this section I examine whether this botanical simile is indeed useful for scientific purposes.
It was Darwin himself who realized early in his career that the tree (of life) metaphor may not be
the best choice. After returning from his voyage around the world, he first formulated his
179
pioneering ideas on the transmutation of species, and drew several branching diagrams for
hypothetical taxa in his notebooks. By examining these writings, not published until the 20th
century and made available on the internet only fairly recently, we find that he was more hesitant
than suggested by the passage cited in the Introduction from the Origin. After “discovering” the
ToL (as Eldredge 2005 put it), in Notebook B (Darwin 1837, p. 23) he added a most remarkable
comment (Darwin 1837, p. 25), as pointed out by many authors (De Beer 1960, p. 44; Hull 1985;
Bredekamp 2005; Voss 2007; Gayon 2011):
The tree of life should perhaps be called the coral of life, base of branches dead; so that passages
cannot be seen.
This is a clear reference to the branching true corals,Footnote16 which he examined at several stops
during his travel; and it may also recall some coralline red algae collected in South America
(Bredekamp 2005; Maderspacher 2006). The coralline algae had a branched macroscopic
structure similar to corals, and were fossilized thanks to a hard crust of lime deposited on their
surface. Two small drawings on the next page of the same notebook may be considered as
illustrations of the coral concept (Fig. 1a).
180
a Darwin’s drawings on page 26 of his Notebook B—which may be considered as the first
instances of corals, which he specifically mentions on the previous page. Heuristic visual models
for the Coral of Life, as simplified from b Zhaxybayeva and Gogarten (2007) and c Gaucher et
al. (2010). Lineages leading to extant entities are in black
Darwin did not elaborate this idea any further; and later in the same notebook he used “Tree of
life” again, just as he had in Notebooks C and D (1838), and later in the manuscript form of
the Origin (“Natural Selection”, Stauffer 1975) and its final version. We can only assume that
Darwin gave up his early musing on corals under strong influence from Victorian society
because: a) the Tree of Life as a metaphor taken from the Bible appeared to him as more
convincing and attractive for religious readers of his writings; b) genealogical (or “family”) trees
for ruling dynasties and large families were also common and well-known in the 19th century;
and c) the heavily and sometimes nicely branching tree plants were more familiar to everyone
than corals, which are simple and obscure organisms observable only in marine environments.
Thus, choice in favor of trees was almost a necessity, “historically and culturally, not
scientifically, predicated” (Hellström 2012).
However, as some authors note today, Darwin’s skepticism was well-grounded—the tree is
inferior to (branching) corals, even as a metaphor for populations, which form a continuous
stretch in space and time, very often “decorated” by splits (bi- or multifurcations) and broken by
extinctions.
First of all, as implied by Darwin’s comment, only the uppermost parts of a coral are alive, with
the older branches being dead. The fragments may be accumulated over millions of years on the
sea floor, thus producing atolls, for example, which Darwin knew very well. A potentially
1000 m thick layer of dead material may be a better allegory of the extinct past than is a tree,
since trees are alive from the lowest parts (apical root cells) to the tips of ultimate leaves.
Furthermore, a coral starts to grow upwards on the rock (or other) surface as a tiny polyp, and
ramifies later. Contrarily, a tree grows from seed into two directions, to develop underground
parts, the roots, which may be just as large and similarly branched as the distal part, the crown.
Therefore, the root-trunk-crown system, i.e., the entire plant, cannot serve at all as an appropriate
metaphor of evolution or phylogeny.
The third problem has to do with the shape of the parts: coral branches may be fairly even in
diameter, sometimes wider above than below, suggesting that the abundance of organisms they
may represent diagrammatically did not necessarily change much over time. An average tree,
regarding its visible parts, is the thickest at the ground level, and then decreases gradually in
diameter along the trunk, towards the limbs, smaller branches and then to twigs. This gives the
false impression that richness (in whatever sense) or abundance of populations is continuously
diminishing over time, which is obviously not the case.
The fourth serious difficulty with the tree metaphor is the most widely recognized argument
against its use. Once bifurcated, tree branches do not fuse again under normal circumstances,
whereas separate evolutionary lineages may be merged through cell fusions. At this point I will
recall what has been said in the section on biological hierarchy: a complete ToL cannot be a
mathematical tree, but is a network at all levels from the cellular to the species. Several authors
181
have argued that Darwin’s almost forgotten suggestion may resolve this problem, as well. In
particular: the compact dump of fragmented coral may stand for the effect of lateral relationships
that confound the vertical pattern of inheritance (Fournier et al. 2009); corals grow on each other,
thus symbolizing competitive struggle (Müller-Ville 2009); and many coral species (fan corals)
exhibit a more or less anastomosing structure anyway (Olendzenski and Gogarten 2009),
especially near the base of the colony.
Olendzenski and Gogarten (2009) and Müller-Ville (2009) even suggested that the unknown past
of lineages may be best represented by an entire coral reef. Zhaxybayeva and Gogarten (2007)
presented first a graphical model they called tentatively the “tree of life/coral of life” with several
merging extinct lineages (see Fig. 1b). In another graphical scheme, Gaucher et al. (2010) used
corals to distinguish between two major phases of evolution, the first dominated by horizontal
inheritance and the second by vertical (Fig. 1c). These early heuristics were not elaborated
further, and no other uses of the coral have been published in this context.
The question remains: trees or corals? To clarify the problem of confounding mathematical trees
and botanical tree metaphors, which often cause misinterpretation of phylogenetic relationships,
I have suggested (Podani 2017) as a first step the use of the term Branching Silhouette
Diagram (BSD). This refers to drawings conveying phylogenetic/evolutionary information, but
which do not qualify as mathematical trees. I also provided a definition for its four main types,
according to whether time is considered or disregarded and whether the BSD portrays AD or SG
relationships; this elevates these images from the status of metaphors to that of mathematical
constructs. By revitalizing Darwin’s early musing and operationalizing all other proposals
mentioned above, I defined corals as diachronous BSDs, embedded into the time dimension—
thereby showing AD relationships. This is in full agreement with Darwin’s note and its
subsequent interpretations.
Each point in the coral may represent an individual, a population, a species or even a higher
taxon, depending on the objectives of the researcher. Thus, it contains as special cases the
romerograms, the stem “trees” (Wiley and Lieberman 2011) and other tree-like structures within
which certain events or processes (e.g., lineage sorting) may be displayed (the latter often
referred to as “species trees” in the literature of molecular genetics, e.g., Maddison 1997Footnote18;
Nakhleh 2013). The horizontal time slice of the coral corresponds to a partition of organisms,
and the width of the branches may be drawn to be proportional to the relative diversity of the
corresponding class in the partition. By zooming deeply into the coral, it becomes a graph with
individuals as nodes and links depicting parent/offspring relationships (“tokogenetic” graphs of
Hennig 1966; as in Maddison and Maddison 1992; Baum and Smith 2013).
The other type of BSD which shows AD relationships is the achronous cactus (named after
Bessey’s famous diagram, see e.g., Pietsch 2012, Fig. 112), in which pads (nopales) represent
higher taxonomic categories. In this diagram, a descendant higher taxon may be extinct, while its
ancestor taxon is still surviving. Consequently the time dimension is scrambled, whence the
name.
BSDs depicting the SG (rather than AD) relationship among entities have two different versions,
both reminiscent of the traditional “botanical” or figurative tree diagrams drawn by Haeckel
(1866): the synchronous and asynchronous oaks. They are, in practice, cladograms for organisms
182
living at a given point of time or at any point of time, respectively; but they may be artistically
designed with a thick trunk and continuously tapered branches and twigs.
Figure 2 summarizes this classification of BSDs, allowing a comparison with the analogous four
groups distinguished among mathematical trees. In Supplementary Table S2, there are examples
of these categories, represented by icons reduced from the original figures (col. 2) and classified
into tree or BSD types (col. 12). This table demonstrates that all eight possible combinations
(tree or BSD × time considered or disregarded × AD or SG) of tree-like
phylogenetic/evolutionary diagrams are represented in the sample collection of ToLs, the most
common type being the synchronous tree (= cladogram), which is the typical result of molecular
phylogenetic investigations.
Fig. 2
183
Typification and illustration of trees and tree-like phylogenetic diagrams according to Podani
(2013, 2017). Upper four: mathematical trees, lower four: branching silhouette
diagrams, ADR ancestor–descendant relationships, SGR sister group relationships. (filled circle)
extant entity, (open circle): extinct entity (except for the coral and the oak branches)
To recapitulate what has been said so far, corals are more suitable than trees to express both
phylogenetic relationships and the changing diversity of groups simultaneously, i.e., the history
of life, as both metaphors and mathematical objects. The use of coral branches solves many
problems that a tree cannot: (1) species need not appear as separate nodes, as in trees, and this
way the species delineation problem is circumvented; (2) the relative richness of groups and its
changes over time may be visualized; (3) AD relationships are assumed to exist along the
branches, without the need to explicitly display any particular fossil, known or hypothetical; and
(4) different genetic events and processes associated with evolution may be drawn onto the
corals. Importantly, the coral has a cladistic component, i.e., the relation corals ⊃ trees exists.
A further advantage is that corals may be modified, if necessary, to accommodate horizontal
events as well, leading to fan corals for which the definition is given in Supplementary Fig. S2.
Fan corals are thus analogous to networks. We must keep in mind that coral diagrams have a
branching structure because the partition of organisms changes over time (due to speciation and
extinction), i.e., there must be a temporally interpretable underlying classification.
This leads us to the last topic to be discussed in detail, namely historical taxonomy.
The classification of organisms is traditionally Linnaean (= rank-based): species are grouped
into genera, genera into families, families into orders, and so on, up to phyla and then to
kingdoms. In other words, there is an inclusive hierarchy that implies that species in the same
genus are more closely related morphologically to each other than to members of other genera.
Likewise, genera in a given family are closer to one another than they are to genera in other
families. As a consequence, the morphological gap is narrower between two genera in the same
family than between two families in the same order; and these relationships hold true all the way
up the hierarchy. Also, the system of ranks implies that differences between plant genera in the
same family are “commensurable”, for example, with those between genera of a given animal
family. This system was developed long before the theory of evolution, with the intention to
classify organisms living at the present slice of time. Although Linnaeus did have some
knowledge about fossils as well, he deliberately classified them among the rocks. For him,
classification of petrified forms was not a real problem to worry about, for reasons I need not
elaborate here.
Evolutionary theory has always been a major challenge to this system. Lamarck (1809, p. 20)
asserted that nature did not produce classes, orders, families and even species, only individual
organisms, which follow one another in time and resemble each other—taxa are merely our
inventions, he said. Darwin (1862, pp. 330–331) warned that the system of ranks would not work
if we knew more details about past life. It is due to the absence of extinct forms and “to the
consequent wide gaps in the series, that we are enabled to divide the existing species into
definable groups, such as genera, families, and tribes”. In the Origin (Darwin 1859, p. 330), he
commented that groups that clearly separable at present, based on many characters, have much
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fewer differences for their ancient members, In other words: (1) ranks are arbitrarily assigned to
groups; (2) in the evolutionary continuum taxa can only be separated artificially; and (3) the
Linnaean hierarchy is meaningless if the recent grouping is projected into the past, because the
morphological gaps diminish when we go back in time. Thus, the Linnaean system is
meaningful, at best, at a given slice of time (as Crowson 1970 has suggested), but the assignment
of ranks still remains arbitrary anyway.
The conceptual basis for a classification that is fully compatible with evolution is almost as old
as the idea of natural selection itself. Darwin, in yet another book (Darwin 1871, vol. 1, p. 188)
wrote:
[The natural system,] …it is now generally admitted, must be, as far as possible, genealogical in
arrangement,– that is, the co-descendants of the same form must be kept together in one group,
apart from the co-descendants of any other form; but if the parent-forms are related, so will be
their descendants, and the two groups together will form a larger group…
In this way, Darwin makes clear that there is a single, natural system in the organic world, the
one true classification governed by a natural process, evolution.
Darwin’s proposal was made operational by Hennig (1966), who launched the cladistic
approach. He made central to his theory the requirement that every group in a classification
should consist of an ancestor and all of its descendants—any other groups are non-natural. The
natural groups, called clades, can be circumscribed in (mathematical) tree representations
differently, depending on the type of the underlying graph (Supplementary Fig. S3ab). In trees
showing AD relations, a clade contains an ancestor node and all of its descendant nodes. In
cladograms, which depict SG relations, a clade is the set of all and only those terminal nodes that
derive from the same ancestor node, i.e., a complete sister group system (Nelson 1971), in which
case the ancestor is usually unknown and hypothetical. The contents of a clade, however, need
not be enumerated extensively; another possibility is to define clades intensionally through
membership rules (described in detail in the PhyloCode; Cantino and de Queiroz 2010). For
example, an apomorphy-based clade contains a—usually hypothetical—ancestor in which the
apomorphic character originated, and all of its descendants. To illustrate this concept, the
ancestor is placed somewhere between two nodes in the phylogenetic “tree”—which means that
visualization is in fact by corals rather than trees (Supplementary Fig. S3c). In a coral model,
branches are analogous to monophyletic groups, or clades in AD trees: a branch contains an
ancestor class (group of organisms) and all of its descendant classes (Supplementary Fig. S3d).
Despite his pioneering role in disseminating cladistic thinking, Hennig did not refute the
Linnaean system, and supported assignment of ranks to clades. This is not logical, however,
because increasing ranks imply the existence of increasing gaps, as noted above, while there are
no restrictions regarding minimum (morphological or molecular) differences between clades.
The genealogical hierarchy, although it is also inclusive (large clades include smaller ones, etc.)
does not require this.
Although there is increasing support in the scientific community to place the classification of the
living world onto an evolutionary basis, the Linnaean view persists. Newly discovered fossils are
still forced into the straightjacket of the rank-based scheme. Many recent “reconstructions” of the
molecular phylogeny of particular groups aim to revise or refine the Linnaean classification,
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thereby rearranging the contents of families, orders and other higher taxa, and reallocating many
species from one genus to the other.
There is no consensus, even between the supporters of the cladistic approach, regarding the
implementation of classifications and nomenclature—for historical, practical, technical and
personal reasons. Direct followers of the Hennigian approach usually insist upon ranks even
though the classification is derived entirely from a cladistic framework. For example, Benton
(2005, Appendix), who was the first to combine clades with romerograms, adopts a completely
ranked classification for vertebrates, with an inevitable over-proliferation of categories (for
example, superlegion, legion, sublegion, infralegion, cohort, magnorder, grandorder, mirorder,
etc. inserted between standard ranks). Through all versions published to date, the (APG
(Angiosperm Phylogeny Group 2016) insists that angiosperms be divided first into unranked
clades (such as eudicots ⊃ superasterids ⊃ campanulids) but then—all of a sudden—arranged
into Linnaean orders and families. Many articles in Wikipedia refer to classifications in which
clades and ranked categories are intermingled—thereby triggering taxonomic chaos rather than
clarifying the concept of a natural genealogical order, which confuses the readers of this popular
digital encyclopedia.
In published ToLs, as columns 8–9 in Supplementary Table S2 indicate, the use of ranks is a
fairly general practice, with some authors explicitly referring to families and orders, for example,
as integral parts of the classification projected to, or deducted from, the tree. A few ToLs that
show only major groups of life (up to 30–40) rely apparently on clades, but these diagrams do
not provide classification details within these groups, so that the authors’ attitude towards ranks
remains undisclosed. Parts of ToLs visualized as subtrees contain Linnaean taxa (for instance,
those inherited from the APG classification of plants) in all of the books and internet resources
listed in the supplement. To my knowledge, therefore, no high-resolution ToL is available that is
completely free from the non-evolutionary idea of Linnaean ranks.
The Coral of Life
After examining major criteria for tree-like diagrams of life in detail, relying largely upon
published work and my own evaluation, we may conclude that the graphical scheme showing as
many aspects of the history of life as possible should ideally be:
Cladistic: evolutionary divergence events, as the most essential elements of the
phylogenetic process, are depicted similarly to trees;
Chronological: the diagram is embedded in the time dimension, preferably at a linear
scale, which demonstrates the depth of time needed for evolution more sensibly than the
logarithmic or any other scale;
Paleontological: known extinct organisms (fossils) and their groups are also represented;
186
Historical: major events of macroevolution are noted, and other comments (about
geological events, mass extinctions, for example) are included in the drawing area;
Self-similar: while a single main diagram should convey as much information as possible,
its parts should be zoomable to show particulars;
Continuous: in the mathematical sense: in this way it is free from constraints imposed by
discrete mathematics (graph theory), which is especially critical when species (or higher
taxa) are taken as distinct historical entities;
Anastomosing: the diagram tolerates reticulation events, which are either hidden within
coral segments or are explicitly shown as links between two segments;
Rank-free: a classification of past and present life is superimposed on the diagram, and
groups are named such that the non-evolutionary taxonomic concept of ranks is neglected
Proportional to diversity: species richness is visualized at the same scale for all groups,
according to the best available information, thus illustrating faithfully how biodiversity is
distributed over the different groups.
All of these criteria are satisfied simultaneously by a coral diagram inserted into a 2 dimensional
coordinate system (Fig. 3, a high resolution poster-size image is supplied as Supplementary Fig.
S4), with time as the vertical axis and species richness as the horizontal axis, and with each point
representing a population of a species. Timing, and the division of geological time into eons,
eras, periods and epochs (the latter appearing only in insets), follow the standards established by
the International Commission of Stratigraphy (2018). The entire range of the horizontal axis
corresponds to the 2 million species known today. The ordering of groups along this axis is
arbitrary, because the diagram may be rotated at every branching point: usually larger or “more
developed” groups are placed on the right. Here, prokaryotes are at the left, followed by
excavates, plants, various groups of meta-algae and other protists, amoebozoa, fungi and then
metazoa. Within the latter group, some “basal” branches, such as sponges are arranged first,
followed by deuterostomia and protostomia. The small red arrow points to the position of our
species, Homo sapiens, within the vertebrates. This group is deliberately positioned in the
middle, to break with the long—selfish and misleading—tradition of placing humans at the end
of a uni-dimensional ordering of life. Consistent with this, the most successful group in terms of
species richness, namely the insects, and within this group, the beetles, are positioned at the
right.
Fig. 3
187
188
To the casual eye, the diagram is most reminiscent of romerograms, but in the coral the cladistic
component is stronger and the classification is cladistic, rather than rank-based. This is meant to
be a prototype of the Coral of Life, prepared using phylogenies and species richness data
published in various sources, and divergence dates from the TimeTree of Life (timetree.org).
Since estimated divergence dates are burdened with high uncertainty, and therefore have high
variance for a given event (Morrison 2009), I used mean values whenever there was no conflict
with the sequence of bifurcations—otherwise the dates had to be shifted a bit. The width of coral
segments is proportional to species richness, scaled to the entire axis. The smallest line width is
used for branches for which no richness data are available. Also, due to the constraining effect of
line width, species richness of small groups cannot be visualized proportionally. This problem
may be solved in the future by increasing the resolution of the figure.
For many branches of the coral, where fossils are scarce or unavailable, the shapes were drawn to
indicate gradual diversification, starting from the latest divergence event. This means that the
coral still has a strong heuristic component—which may be reduced by experts of particular
groups in further editions and revisions of the diagram. There is also an artistic element
regarding the arched shape of branches, which may also be drawn differently.
Colors are used to make distinctions between major branches of life: magenta for eubacteria,
orange for archaea, black for various non-photosynthetic protists, green for photosynthetic
eukaryotes and blue for unikonts (Amorphea: amoebozoa, fungi and animals). Classification into
large nested branches is shown at the top using curly brackets.
The self-similarity of the diagram is illustrated by four insets, gradually expanding the details for
monocots (Monocotyledoneae), and within them for the branch of orchids (Orchidaceae), and
then for Lady’s slipper orchids (Cypripedioideae), and finally for species assigned to the
genus Cypripedium. The last inset is the only one explicitly using a fan coral, which
demonstrates the ease with which orchids hybridize. Only natural hybrids are shown—in the
laboratory hybrids may be formed for practically every pair species. Details of the other branches
of life may be visualized similarly—presumably using a zooming tool, to be developed and
implemented later, and preferably as an internet application.
Major horizontal events in the main diagram are indicated by dotted or dashed arrows. At the
current scale, I can show relatively few events involving cell fusion (as hypothesized for the
origin of eukaryotes, for example), which means that at this point the diagram is anastomosing,
and is in fact a fan coral (Supplementary Fig. S2). Strongly zoomed parts of the diagram would
have more horizontal coral segments, demonstrating hybridization, as shown for Cypripedium.
Small stickers are used to label important evolutionary innovations (appearance of cell types,
large branches) and to show the approximate position of enigmatic groups (Ediacara fauna). The
red explosion marks on the right refer to the dates of major mass extinctions, including the one
we experience today.
The Tree of Life has its origins outside biology, being linked in a number of ways to religion,
spirituality, mythology, ancient and folk art, literature, and the history of civilization.
Consequently, it may be—and in practice is—interpreted with considerable freedom in the
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humanities. This explains, but does not justify, why the meaning of the ToL in biological
publications is also extremely ambiguous: it may be understood as a concept, a diagram, a
metaphor, or a model, each visualized in many different ways.
Although the ToL is expected to incorporate several features of the history of life on Earth
simultaneously, most published ToL diagrams are limited in scope and taxonomic resolution;
they have little or no paleontological relevance; they often neglect the time dimension; and the
underlying classification contradicts evolution, i.e., is rank-based.
The question as to whether the ToL can be drawn at all is raised mostly by microbiologists, who
usually emphasize: (1) the discrepancy between gene trees; (2) the relationships of the three
domains and the position of the root; (3) different phenomena leading to loops in the graph; and
(4) whether ToL is to be understood at the level of genes, cells, individual organisms or higher
up in the hierarchy of life. Due to the strong bias towards prokaryotes, 99% of known species are
thus down-weighted in their diagrams. Notwithstanding that the tree condition is easily violated
in the microbial world, these are predominantly synchronous cladograms, rooted or unrooted,
with some genetic events indicated along edges—while metaphorical forms are rare (e.g.
Doolittle 1999; McInerney et al. 2008).
In systematics outside microbiology, the species ToL is the primary target, such that: (1) many
diagrams are restricted to depicting relationships within a single “higher” taxon; 2) fossils, if
they appear, are displayed as sisters to extant species; 3) the time dimension is ignored except for
“timetrees”; and 4) tree-thinking is often metaphorical rather than graph theoretical. The tree
property (no loops) is rarely questioned, although it is widely acknowledged that hybridization
among closely related species is common.
The fact that the term Tree of Life still dominates biological thinking is due to two main factors:
1) fitting trees to morphological or genetic data is computationally more feasible than calculating
networks (cf. Morrison 2013, 2016); and 2) for the actual subset (or sample) of species selected
in a study, the tree is indeed an approximately correct summary of evolutionary relationships, in
many cases. Tree-generating algorithms have contributed a lot to our understanding of evolution
and phylogeny, and will continue to do so in the future. However, if we carefully consider the
different levels of biological organization, from cells to species, we can easily see that the history
of the entirety of life is not tree-like in most parts. This is not because the histories of genes are
incongruent—the predominance of sexual reproduction in eukaryotes alone explains the
existence of both vertical and horizontal links in the immense historical graph of life. This might
suggest that an appropriate display would rather be a directed graph, and our goal would
therefore be to strive for the Network of Life (NoL).
For visualizing the history of all of life, the “grandest earthly enterprise”, as a single picture,
however, neither trees nor networks are feasible, for several reasons. The use of cells,
individuals, populations or species has an obvious epistemological limitation: we do not and will
never know sufficient details to prepare, or even to imagine such a diagram. We could restrict the
contents to known extant and extinct species, but their number is too large to be shown by a
single mathematical graph. Sampling evenly from the—otherwise arbitrary—higher taxa is not a
190
solution, because in this way species diversity of these groups cannot be portrayed graphically.
Furthermore, graphs are tools of discrete mathematics, in which we assume that the operational
units are distinguishable entities. But the living world fails to satisfy the discreteness criterion
both in space and time, when it comes to categorizing individuals into species, and species into
larger groups. To demonstrate continuity and fuzziness in the history of life, some other means
of visualization is required.
The use of the tree as a metaphor is not free from difficulties, either. The term tree has two
definitions in science: one is botanical and the other is mathematical (see Glossary)—any other
usage of the word can only be ambiguous and should therefore be avoided. Trees have several
limitations even as metaphors of evolution or phylogeny, rendering them useless for scientific
communication, in practice. These include that: (1) a tree is a living entity from the root tips to
the topmost leaves, (2) it has a root system comparable in size and complexity to the crown, (3)
the trunk and the branches continuously decrease upwards in diameter and, last but not least, (4)
the branches normally do not form anastomoses. There is only one fundamental feature of trees
that remains meaningful metaphorically, namely ramification. This property alone explains why
in the history of science trees have become metaphors of hierarchical classification (starting with
Peter Simon Pallas and Augustin Augier) or phylogeny (pioneered by Haeckel)—while the
inconsistency of the other botanical characteristics of a tree with evolutionary thinking was
largely ignored.
We have to consult another important person in the history of biology, Darwin, to find a solution
at the level of both metaphors and mathematical objects. He suggested that corals or coral-like
branching creatures (such as certain algae) of the sea could be a better metaphor of evolution
than a tree. A branching coral is free from problems 1-3 mentioned above, and a fan-coral may
have horizontally connected branches as well. Furthermore, an entire coral as a continuous object
may also represent sensibly the spatio-temporal continuum of populations, species or their
groups. This way, drawing a coral is not burdened with the necessity of specifying every detail in
the diagram, unlike for trees and directed networks. Although the idea of a coral has long been
neglected, many types of figures used in biology in the past 100 years are actually comparable to
the concept Darwin had in mind. These include romerograms, “phylogenetic stem trees”, and
gene-tree enclosing “species trees” of molecular genetics. The coral as a visual model of
phylogeny re-appeared only a few years ago (Zhaxybayeva and Gogarten 2007; Gaucher et
al. 2010), apparently escaping general attention, and was defined mathematically as the most
common instance of branching silhouette diagrams even more recently (Podani 2017).
Raising the coral to the level of mathematically definable constructs allows the examination of
its potential for replacing trees and networks to illustrate the history of life as a single diagram. I
have presented a prototype of the Coral of Life which, being embedded in the time versus
species richness space, depicts simultaneously many meaningful aspects of the history of life,
such as evolutionary divergence, chronology, paleontology, and some major evolutionary
innovations. As such, this diagram is suitable for educational purposes even in its present form,
while its precise structure may be continuously refined in the future. The coral diagram, and its
zoomed parts, may not only capture biological history but also provide a solution to the problem
raised by Avise (2009, p. 23), namely the need for a “first ever universally standardized scheme
of biological classification”. The shift from tree- or network-thinking to coral-thinking is
191
inevitably complemented by a change from the Linnaean system to a genealogy-based
classificatory scheme, in which coral branches are distinguished as taxa. This will not be easy,
because the tree simile is at least as deeply anchored in our brains as is the rank-based
classification of life.
The Angiosperm Phylogeny Group, or APG, is an informal international group of
systematic botanists who collaborate to establish a consensus on the taxonomy of flowering
plants (angiosperms) that reflects new knowledge about plant relationships discovered
through phylogenetic studies.
As of 2016, four incremental versions of a classification system have resulted from this
collaboration, published in 1998, 2003, 2009 and 2016. An important motivation for the group
was what they considered deficiencies in prior angiosperm classifications since they were not
based on monophyletic groups (i.e., groups that include all the descendants of a common
ancestor).
APG publications are increasingly influential, with a number of major herbaria changing the
arrangement of their collections to match the latest APG system.
1Angiosperm classification and the APG
2Principles of the APG system
3APG I (1998)
4APG II (2003)
5APG III (2009)
6APG IV (2016)
7Updates
8Members of the APG
o 8.1Listed as "author" of one or more of the papers
o 8.2Listed as "contributor" to one or more of the papers
Angiosperm classification and the APG
In the past, classification systems were typically produced by an individual botanist or by a small
group. The result was a large number of systems (see List of systems of plant taxonomy).
Different systems and their updates were generally favoured in different countries. Examples are
the Engler system in continental Europe, the Bentham & Hooker system in Britain (particularly
influential because it was used by Kew), the Takhtajan system in the former Soviet Union and
countries within its sphere of influence and the Cronquist system in the United States.[1]
Before the availability of genetic evidence, the classification of angiosperms (also known
as flowering
plants, Angiospermae, Anthophyta or Magnoliophyta)
was
based
on
their morphology (particularly of their flower) and biochemistry (the kinds of chemical
compounds in the plant).
After the 1980s, detailed genetic evidence analysed by phylogenetic methods became available
and while confirming or clarifying some relationships in existing classification systems, it
radically changed others. This genetic evidence created a rapid increase in knowledge that led to
many proposed changes; stability was "rudely shattered".[2] This posed problems for all users of
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classification systems (including encyclopaedists). The impetus came from a major molecular
study published in 1993 based on 5000 flowering plants and a photosynthesis gene (rbcL).[4] This
produced a number of surprising results in terms of the relationships between groupings of
plants, for instance the dicotyledons were not supported as a distinct group. At first there was a
reluctance to develop a new system based entirely on a single gene. However, subsequent work
continued to support these findings. These research studies involved an unprecedented
collaboration between a very large number of scientists. Therefore, rather than naming all the
individual contributors a decision was made to adopt the name Angiosperm Phylogeny Group
classification, or APG for short.[4] The first publication under this name was in 1998,[2] and
attracted considerable media attention.[4] The intention was to provide a widely accepted and
more stable point of reference for angiosperm classification.
As of 2016, three revisions have been published, in 2003 (APG II), in 2009 (APG III) and in
2016 (APG IV), each superseding the previous system. Thirteen researchers have been listed as
authors to the three papers, and a further 43 as contributors (see Members of the APG below).[5]
A classification presents a view at a particular point in time, based on a particular state of
research. Independent researchers, including members of the APG, continue to publish their own
views on areas of angiosperm taxonomy. Classifications change, however inconvenient this is to
users. However, the APG publications are increasingly regarded as an authoritative point of
reference and the following are some examples of the influence of the APG system:
A significant number of major herbaria, including Kew, are changing the order of their
collections in accordance with APG.
The influential World Checklist of Selected Plant Families (also from Kew) is being updated
to the APG III system.[7]
In the United States in 2006, a photographic survey of the plants of the USA and Canada is
organized according to the APG II system.
In the UK, the 2010 edition of the standard flora of the British Isles (by Stace) is based on
the APG III system. The previous editions were based on the Cronquist system.[9]
Principles of the APG system
The principles of the APG's approach to classification were set out in the first paper of 1998, and
have remained unchanged in subsequent revisions. Briefly, these are:[2]
The Linnean system of orders and families should be retained. "The family is central in
flowering plant systematics." An ordinal classification of families is proposed as a "reference
tool of broad utility". Orders are considered to be of particular value in teaching and in
studying family relationships.
Groups should be monophyletic (i.e. consist of all descendants of a common ancestor). The
main reason why existing systems are rejected is because they do not have this property, they
are not phylogenetic.
A broad approach is taken to defining the limits of groups such as orders and families. Thus
of orders, it is said that a limited number of larger orders will be more useful. Families
containing only a single genus and orders containing only a single family are avoided where
this is possible without violating the over-riding requirement for monophyly.
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Above or parallel to the level of orders and families, the term clades is used more freely.
(Some clades have later been given formal names in a paper associated with the 2009
revision of the APG system.[10]) The authors say that it is "not possible, nor is it desirable" to
name all clades in a phylogenetic tree; however, systematists need to agree on names for
some clades, particularly orders and families, to facilitate communication and discussion.
For a detailed discussion on phylogenetic nomenclature, see Cantino et al. (2007).[11])
APG I (1998
The initial 1998 paper by the APG made angiosperms the first large group of organisms to be
systematically re-classified primarily on the basis of genetic characteristics.[2] The paper
explained the authors' view that there is a need for a classification system for angiosperms at the
level of families, orders and above, but that existing classifications were "outdated". The main
reason why existing systems were rejected was because they were not phylogenetic, i.e. not
based on strictly monophyletic groups (groups which consist of all descendants of a common
ancestor). An ordinal classification of flowering plant families was proposed as a "reference tool
of broad utility". The broad approach adopted to defining the limits of orders resulted in the
recognition of 40 orders, compared to, for example, 232 in Takhtajan's 1997 classification.[2][1]
In 1998 only a handful of families had been adequately studied, but the primary aim was to
obtain a consensus on the naming of higher orders. Such a consensus proved relatively easy to
achieve but the resultant tree was highly unresolved. That is, while the relationship of orders was
established, their composition was not.[12]
Other features of the proposed classification included:
Formal, scientific names are not used above the level of order, named clades being used
instead. Thus eudicots and monocots are not given a formal rank on the grounds that "it is
not yet clear at which level they should be recognized".
A substantial number of taxa whose classification had traditionally been uncertain are given
places, although there still remain 25 families of "uncertain position".
Alternative classifications are provided for some groups, in which a number of families can
either be regarded as separate or can be merged into a single larger family. For example,
the Fumariaceae can either be treated as a separate family or as part of Papaveraceae.
A major outcome of the classification was the disappearance of the traditional division of the
flowering plants into two groups, monocots and dicots. The monocots were recognized as a
clade, but the dicots were not, with a number of former dicots being placed in separate groups
basal to both monocots and the remaining dicots, the eudicots or 'true dicots'.[2] The overall
scheme was relatively simple. This consisted of a grade consisting of isolated taxa (referred to
as ANITA), followed by the major angiosperm radiation, clades of monocots, magnolids and
eudicots. The last being a large clade with smaller subclades and two main
groupings, rosids and asterids, each in turn having two major subclades.[12]
APG II (2003)
194
As the overall relationship between groups of flowering plants became clearer, the focus shifted
to the family level, in particular those families generally accepted as problematic. Again,
consensus was achieved relatively easily resulting in an updated classification at the family
level.[12] The second paper published by the APG in 2003 presented an update to the original
classification of 1998. The authors stated that changes were proposed only when there was
"substantial new evidence" which supported them.[13]
The classification continued the tradition of seeking broad circumscriptions of taxa, for example
trying to place small families containing only one genus in a larger group. The authors stated that
they have generally accepted the views of specialists, although noting that specialists "nearly
always favour splitting of groups" regarded as too varied in their morphology.[13]
APG II continued and indeed extends the use of alternative 'bracketed' taxa allowing the choice
of either a large family or a number of smaller ones. For example, the large
family Asparagaceae includes 7 'bracketed' families which can either be considered as part of the
Asparagaceae or as separate families. Some of the main changes in APG II were:
New orders are proposed, particularly to accommodate the 'basal clades' left as families in
the first system.
Many of the previously unplaced families are now located within the system.
Several major families are re-structured.[13]
In 2007, a paper was published giving a linear ordering of the families in APG II, suitable for
ordering herbarium specimens, for example.[14]
APG III (2009)
The third paper from the APG updates the system described in the 2003 paper. The broad outline
of the system remains unchanged, but the number of previously unplaced families and genera is
significantly reduced. This requires the recognition of both new orders and new families
compared to the previous classification. The number of orders goes up from 45 to 59; only 10
families are not placed in an order and only two of these (Apodanthaceae and Cynomoriaceae)
are left entirely outside the classification. The authors say that they have tried to leave longrecognized families unchanged, while merging families with few genera. They "hope the
classification [...] will not need much further change."[6]
A major change is that the paper discontinues the use of 'bracketed' families in favour of larger,
more inclusive families. As a result, the APG III system contains only 415 families, rather than
the 457 of APG II. For example, the agave family (Agavaceae) and the hyacinth family
(Hyacinthaceae) are no longer regarded as distinct from the broader asparagus family
(Asparagaceae). The authors say that alternative circumscriptions, as in APG I and II, are likely
to cause confusion and that major herbaria which are re-arranging their collections in accordance
with the APG approach have all agreed to use the more inclusive families. This approach is
being increasingly used in collections in herbaria and botanic gardens.
In the same volume of the journal, two related papers were published. One gives a linear
ordering of the families in APG III; as with the linear ordering published for APG II, this is
intended for ordering herbarium specimens, for example. The other paper gives, for the first
time, a classification of the families in APG III which uses formal taxonomic ranks; previously
only informal clade names were used above the ordinal level.
195
APG IV (2016
In the development of a fourth version there was some controversy over the methodology, [18] and
the development of a consensus proved more difficult than in previous iterations.[5] In
particular Peter Stevens questioned the validity of discussions regarding family delimitation in
the absence of changes of phylogenetic relationships.
Further progress was made by the use of large banks of genes, including those
of plastid, mitochondrial and nuclear ribosomal origin, such as that of Douglas Soltis and
colleagues (2011). The fourth version was finally published in 2016.[12] It arose from an
international conference hosted at the Royal Botanical Gardens in September 2015[4] and also an
online survey of botanists and other users. The broad outline of the system remains unchanged
but several new orders are included
(Boraginales, Dilleniales, Icacinales, Metteniusales and Vahliales), some new families are
recognised
(Kewaceae, Macarthuriaceae, Maundiaceae, Mazaceae, Microteaceae, Nyssaceae, Peraceae, Pete
naeaceae and Petiveriaceae) and some previously recognised families are lumped
(Aristolochiaceae now includes Lactoridaceae and Hydnoraceae; Restionaceae now reincludes Anarthriaceae and Centrolepidaceae; and Buxaceae now includes Haptanthaceae). Due
to nomenclatural issues, the family name Asphodelaceae is used instead of Xanthorrhoeaceae,
and Francoaceae is used instead of Melianthaceae (and now also includes Vivianiaceae). This
brings the total number of orders and families recognized in the APG system to 64 and 416,
respectively. Two additional informal major clades, superrosids and superasterids, that each
comprise the additional orders that are included in the larger clades dominated by
the rosids and asterids are also included. APG IV also uses the linear approach (LAPG) as
advocated by Haston et al. (2009).In a supplemental file Byng et al. provide an alphabetical list
of families by orders.
Peter Stevens, one of the authors of all four of the APG papers, maintains a web site,
the Angiosperm Phylogeny Website (APWeb), hosted by the Missouri Botanical Garden, which
has been regularly updated since 2001, and is a useful source for the latest research in
angiosperm phylogeny which follows the APG approach.[22] Other sources include the
Angiosperm Phylogeny Poster and The Flowering Plants Handbook.[24]
Members of the APG
Listed as "author" of one or more of the papers
Name
APG APG
I
II
APG
III
APG
IV
Birgitta Bremer
c
a
a
Swedish Academy of Sciences
Kåre Bremer
a
a
a
Uppsala University; Stockholm University
196
Institutional affiliation
James W. Byng
Mark
Chase
Wayne
a
a
a
Maarten
J.M.
Christenhusz
Michael F. Fay
c
c
a
Walter S. Judd
David
Mabberley
J.
James L. Reveal
Alexander
Sennikov
N.
Douglas
Soltis
E.
a
a
Plant Gateway; University of Aberdeen
a
Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew
a
Plant Gateway; Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew
a
Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew
a
University of Florida
a
University of Oxford; Universiteit Leiden;
Naturalis Biodiversity Center; Macquarie
University; National Herbarium of New South
Wales
a
University of Maryland; Cornell University
a
Finnish Museum of Natural History; Komarov
Botanical Institute
c
a
a
a
University of Florida
Pamela S. Soltis c
a
a
a
Florida Museum of Natural History
Peter F. Stevens
a
a
a
Harvard University Herbaria; University of
Missouri-St. Louis and Missouri Botanical
Garden
a
a = listed as an author; c = listed as a contributor
197
Listed as "contributor" to one or more of the papers
Name
APG I APG II APG III APG IV
Arne A. Anderberg
c
Anders Backlund
c
Barbara G. Briggs
c
c
c
c
Samuel Brockington
c
Alain Chautems
c
John C. Clark
c
John Conran
c
Peter K. Endress
c
Peter Goldblatt
c
Mats H.G. Gustafson
c
c
Elspeth Haston
c
Sara B. Hoot
c
Walter S. Judd
c
c
198
Mari Källersjö
c
Jesper Kårehed
c
c
Elizabeth A. Kellogg
c
Kathleen A. Kron
c
Donald H. Les
c
Johannes Lundberg
c
c
Michael Moller
c
Michael J. Moore
Cynthia M. Morton
c
Daniel L. Nickrent
c
c
Richard G. Olmstead
c
c
Bengt Oxelman
c
c
c
c
c
Mathieu Perret
J. Chris Pires
c
c
199
Robert A. Price
c
Christopher J. Quinn
c
James E. Rodman
c
c
Paula J. Rudall
c
c
Vincent Savolainen
c
c
c
Laurence Skog
c
James Smith
c
Kenneth J. Sytsma
c
c
David C. Tank
Mats Thulin
c
c
c
c
Maria Vorontsova
Michelle van der Bank
c
c
Anton Weber
Kenneth Wurdack
c
c
c
200
Jenny Q.-Y. Xiang
c
c
Sue Zmarzty
c
c
c = listed as a contributor
In biology, phylogenetics /ˌfaɪloʊdʒəˈnɛtɪks, -lə-/ (Greek: φυλή, φῦλον – phylé, phylon = tribe,
clan, race + γενετικός – genetikós = origin, source, birth) is a part of systematics that addresses
the inference of the evolutionary history and relationships among or within groups
of organisms (e.g. species, or more inclusive taxa). These relationships are hypothesized
by phylogenetic
inference methods
that
evaluate
observed heritable traits,
such
as DNA sequences or morphology, often under a specified model of evolution of these traits. The
result of such an analysis is a phylogeny (also known as a phylogenetic tree)—a diagrammatic
hypothesis of relationships that reflects the evolutionary history of a group of organisms. [4] The
tips of a phylogenetic tree can be living taxa or fossils, and represent the 'end', or the present, in
an evolutionary lineage. A phylogenetic diagram can be rooted or unrooted. A rooted tree
diagram indicates the hypothetical common ancestor, or ancestral lineage, of the tree. An
unrooted tree diagram (a network) makes no assumption about the ancestral line, and does not
show the origin or "root" of the taxa in question or the direction of inferred evolutionary
transformations. In addition to their proper use for inferring phylogenetic patterns among taxa,
phylogenetic analyses are often employed to represent relationships among gene copies or
individual organisms. Such uses have become central to understanding biodiversity, evolution,
ecology, and genomes.
Taxonomy is the identification, naming and classification of organisms. Classifications are now
usually based on phylogenetic data, and many systematists contend that only monophyletic taxa
should be recognized as named groups. The degree to which classification depends on inferred
evolutionary history differs depending on the school of taxonomy: phenetics ignores
phylogenetic speculation altogether, trying to represent the similarity between organisms
instead; cladistics (phylogenetic systematics) tries to reflect phylogeny in its classifications by
only recognizing groups based on shared, derived characters (synapomorphies); evolutionary
taxonomy tries to take into account both the branching pattern and "degree of difference" to find
a compromise between them.Inference of a phylogenetic trees
Computational phylogenetics
Usual methods of phylogenetic inference involve computational approaches implementing
the optimality criteria and methods of parsimony, maximum likelihood (ML), and MCMCbased Bayesian inference. All these depend upon an implicit or explicit mathematical
model describing the evolution of characters observed.
Phenetics, popular in the mid-20th century but now largely obsolete, used distance matrix-based
methods to construct trees based on overall similarity in morphology or similar observable traits
(i.e. in the phenotype or the overall similarity of DNA, not the DNA sequence), which was often
assumed to approximate phylogenetic relationships.
201
Prior to 1950, phylogenetic inferences were generally presented as narrative scenarios. Such
methods are often ambiguous and lack explicit criteria for evaluating alternative hypotheses.
HISTORY:
The term "phylogeny" derives from the German Phylogenie, introduced by Haeckel in 1866and
the Darwinian approach to classification became known as the "phyletic" approach.
Ernst Haeckel's recapitulation theory
During the late 19th century, Ernst Haeckel's recapitulation theory, or "biogenetic fundamental
law", was widely accepted. It was often expressed as "ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny", i.e. the
development of a single organism during its lifetime, from germ to adult, successively mirrors
the adult stages of successive ancestors of the species to which it belongs. But this theory has
long been rejected. Instead, ontogeny evolves – the phylogenetic history of a species cannot be
read directly from its ontogeny, as Haeckel thought would be possible, but characters from
ontogeny can be (and have been) used as data for phylogenetic analyses; the more closely related
two species are, the more apomorphies their embryos share.
Timeline of key points
Branching tree diagram from Heinrich Georg Bronn's work (1858)
202
Phylogenetic tree suggested by Haeckel (1866)
Ernst Heinrich Philipp August Haeckel (German: [ˈʔɛɐ̯nst ˈhɛkl̩ ]; 16 February 1834 – 9
August 1919) was a German zoologist, naturalist, eugenicist, philosopher, physician, professor,
marine biologist, and artist who discovered, described and named thousands of new species,
mapped a genealogical tree relating all life forms, and coined many terms in biology,
including ecology,[2] phylum, phylogeny,
and Protista.[5] Haeckel
promoted
and
popularised Charles Darwin's work in Germany and developed the influential but no longer
widely held recapitulation theory ("ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny") claiming that an
individual organism's biological development, or ontogeny, parallels and summarises its species'
evolutionary development, or phylogeny.
The published artwork of Haeckel includes over 100 detailed, multi-colour illustrations of
animals and sea creatures, collected in his Kunstformen der Natur ("Art Forms of Nature"). As a
philosopher, Ernst Haeckel wrote Die Welträthsel (1895–1899; in English: The Riddle of the
Universe, 1901), the genesis for the term "world riddle" (Welträtsel); and Freedom in Science
and Teaching support teaching evolution.
Haeckel was also a promoter of scientific racism[8] and embraced the idea of Social Darwinism.
203
Christmas of 1860 (age 26)
Ernst Haeckel was born on 16 February 1834, in Potsdam (then part of the Kingdom of Prussia).
In 1852 Haeckel completed studies at the Domgymnasium, the cathedral high-school
of Merseburg. He then studied medicine in Berlin and Würzburg, particularly with Albert von
Kölliker, Franz Leydig, Rudolf Virchow (with whom he later worked briefly as assistant), and
with the anatomist-physiologist Johannes Peter Müller (1801–1858). Together with Hermann
Steudner he attended botany lectures in Würzburg. In 1857 Haeckel attained a doctorate in
medicine, and afterwards he received the license to practice medicine. The occupation of
physician appeared less worthwhile to Haeckel after contact with suffering patients.[12]
Ernst Haeckel studied under Karl Gegenbaur at the University of Jena for three years, earning
a habilitation in comparative anatomy in 1861, before becoming a professor of zoology at Jena,
where he remained for 47 years, from 1862 to 1909. Between 1859 and 1866 Haeckel worked on
many phyla, such as radiolarians, poriferans (sponges) and annelids (segmented worms). During
a trip to the Mediterranean, Haeckel named nearly 150 new species of radiolarians.
From 1866 to 1867 Haeckel made an extended journey to the Canary Islands with Hermann Fol.
On 17 October 1866 he arrived in London. Over the next few days he met Charles Lyell, and
visited Thomas Huxley and family at their home. On 21 October he visited Charles
Darwin at Down House in Kent. In 1867 he married Agnes Huschke. Their son Walter was born
in 1868, their daughters Elizabeth in 1871 and Emma in 1873. In 1869 he traveled as a
researcher to Norway, in 1871 to Croatia (where he lived on the island of Hvar in a
monastery), and in 1873 to Egypt, Turkey, and Greece. In 1907 he had a museum built in Jena to
teach the public about evolution. Haeckel retired from teaching in 1909, and in 1910 he
withdrew from the Evangelical Church of Prussia.
204
In later life
On the occasion of his 80th birthday celebration he was presented with a two-volume work
entitled Was wir Ernst Haeckel verdanken (What We Owe to Ernst Haeckel), edited at the
request of the German Monistenbund by Heinrich Schmidt of Jena.
Haeckel's wife, Agnes, died in 1915, and he became substantially frailer, breaking his leg and
arm. He sold his "Villa Medusa" in Jena in 1918 to the Carl Zeiss foundation, which preserved
his library. Haeckel died on 9 August 1919.
Haeckel became the most famous proponent of Monism in Germany.
Politics
Haeckel's affinity for the German Romantic movement, coupled with his acceptance of a form
of Lamarckism, influenced his political beliefs. Rather than being a strict Darwinian, Haeckel
believed that the characteristics of an organism were acquired through interactions with the
environment and that ontogeny reflected phylogeny. He saw the social sciences as instances of
"applied biology", and that phrase was picked up and used for Nazi propaganda. In 1906 Haeckel
founded a group called the Monist League (Deutscher Monistenbund) to promote his religious
and political beliefs. This group lasted until 1933 and included such notable members
as Wilhelm Ostwald, Georg von Arco (1869-1940), Helene Stöcker and Walter Arthur
Berendsohn. He was the first person to use the term "first world war"
205
Sea anemones from Ernst Haeckel's Kunstformen der Natur (Art forms of Nature) of 1904
Haeckel was a zoologist, an accomplished artist and illustrator, and later a professor
of comparative anatomy. Although Haeckel's ideas are important to the history of evolutionary
theory, and although he was a competent invertebrate anatomist most famous for his work
on radiolaria, many speculative concepts that he championed are now considered incorrect. For
example, Haeckel described and named hypothetical ancestral microorganisms that have never
been found.
He was one of the first to consider psychology as a branch of physiology. He also proposed the
kingdom Protista in 1866. His chief interests lay in evolution and life development processes in
general, including development of nonrandom form, which culminated in the beautifully
illustrated Kunstformen der Natur (Art forms of nature). Haeckel did not support natural
selection, rather believing in Lamarckism.
206
Embryology theories of Ernst Haeckel and Karl Ernst von Baer compared
Haeckel advanced a version of the earlier recapitulation theory previously set out by Étienne
Serres in the 1820s and supported by followers of Étienne Geoffroy SaintHilaire including Robert Edmond Grant. It proposed a link between ontogeny (development of
form) and phylogeny (evolutionary descent), summed up by Haeckel in the phrase "ontogeny
recapitulates phylogeny". His concept of recapitulation has been refuted in the form he gave it
(now called "strong recapitulation"), in favour of the ideas first advanced by Karl Ernst von Baer.
The strong recapitulation hypothesis views ontogeny as repeating forms of adult ancestors, while
weak recapitulation means that what is repeated (and built upon) is the ancestral embryonic
development process. Haeckel supported the theory with embryo drawings that have since been
shown to be oversimplified and in part inaccurate, and the theory is now considered an
oversimplification of quite complicated relationships, however comparison of embryos remains a
powerful way to demonstrate that all animals are related. Haeckel introduced the concept
of heterochrony, the change in timing of embryonic development over the course of evolution.
207
Haeckel (left) with Nicholai Miklukho-Maklai, his assistant, in the Canaries, 1866
Haeckel was a flamboyant figure, who sometimes took great, non-scientific leaps from available
evidence. For example, at the time when Darwin published On the Origin of Species by Means of
Natural Selection (1859), Haeckel postulated that evidence of human evolution would be found
in the Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia). At that time, no remains of human ancestors had yet
been identified. He described these theoretical remains in great detail and even named the as-yet
unfound species, Pithecanthropus alalus, and instructed his students such as Richard and Oskar
Hertwig to go and find it.
One student did find some remains: a Dutchman named Eugène Dubois searched the East
Indies from 1887 to 1895, discovering the remains of Java Man in 1891, consisting of a skullcap,
thighbone, and a few teeth. These remains are among the oldest hominid remains ever found.
Dubois classified Java Man with Haeckel's Pithecanthropus label, though they were later
reclassified as Homo erectus. Some scientists of the day suggested. Dubois' Java Man as a
potential intermediate form between modern humans and the common ancestor we share with the
other great apes. The current consensus of anthropologists is that the direct ancestors of modern
humans were African populations of Homo erectus (possibly Homo ergaster), rather than the
Asian populations exemplified by Java Man and Peking Man. (Ironically, a new human
species, Homo floresiensis, a dwarf human type, has recently been discovered in the island of
Flores).
The creationist polygenism of Samuel George Morton and Louis Agassiz, which presented
human races as separately created species, was rejected by Charles Darwin, who argued for
the monogenesis of the human species and the African origin of modern humans. In contrast to
most of Darwin's supporters, Haeckel put forward a doctrine of evolutionary polygenism based
on the ideas of the linguist August Schleicher, in which several different language groups had
arisen separately from speechless prehuman Urmenschen (German: proto-humans), which
themselves had evolved from simian ancestors. These separate languages had completed the
transition from animals to man, and under the influence of each main branch of languages,
humans had evolved – in a kind of Lamarckian use-inheritance – as separate species, which
could be subdivided into races. From this, Haeckel drew the implication that languages with the
most potential yield the human races with the most potential, led by the Semitic and IndoGermanic groups, with Berber, Jewish, Greco-Roman and Germanic varieties to the fore.[29] As
Haeckel stated:
We must mention here one of the most important results of the comparative study of languages,
which for the Stammbaum of the species of men is of the highest significance, namely that
human languages probably had a multiple or polyphyletic origin. Human language as such
probably
developed
only
after
the
species
of
speechless Urmenschen or Affenmenschen (German: ape-men) had split into several species or
kinds. With each of these human species, language developed on its own and independently of
the others. At least this is the view of Schleicher, one of the foremost authorities on this
subject. ... If one views the origin of the branches of language as the special and principal act of
becoming human, and the species of humankind as distinguished according to their language
stem, then one can say that the different species of men arose independently of one another.
208
Haeckel's view can be seen as a forerunner of the views of Carleton Coon, who also believed that
human races evolved independently and in parallel with each other. These ideas eventually fell
from favour.
Haeckel also applied the hypothesis of polygenism to the modern diversity of human groups. He
became a key figure in social darwinism and leading proponent of scientific racism, stating for
instance:
The Caucasian, or Mediterranean man (Homo Mediterraneus), has from time immemorial been
placed at the head of all the races of men, as the most highly developed and perfect. It is
generally called the Caucasian race, but as, among all the varieties of the species, the Caucasian
branch is the least important, we prefer the much more suitable appellation proposed
by Friedrich Müller, namely, that of Mediterranese. For the most important varieties of this
species, which are moreover the most eminent actors in what is called "Universal History", first
rose to a flourishing condition on the shores of the Mediterranean. ... This species alone (with the
exception of the Mongolian) has had an actual history; it alone has attained to that degree of
civilisation which seems to raise men above the rest of nature.
Haeckel divided human beings into ten races, of which the Caucasian was the highest and the
primitives were doomed to extinction. Haeckel claimed that '[t]he Negro' had stronger and more
freely movable toes than any other race, which, he argued, was evidence of their being less
evolved, and which led him to compare them to '"four-handed" Apes'.Haeckel also believed
'Negroes' were savages and that Whites were the most civilised.
In his Ontogeny and Phylogeny Harvard paleontologist Stephen Jay Gould wrote: "[Haeckel's]
evolutionary racism; his call to the German people for racial purity and unflinching devotion to a
'just' state; his belief that harsh, inexorable laws of evolution ruled human civilization and nature
alike, conferring upon favored races the right to dominate others ... all contributed to the rise of
Nazism."
In his introduction to the Nazi party ideologue Alfred Rosenberg's 1930 book, The Myth of the
Twentieth Century, Peter Peel affirms that Rosenberg had indeed read Haeckel.
In the same line of thought, historian Daniel Gasman states that Haeckel's ideology stimulated
the birth of Fascist ideology in Italy and France.
However, Robert J. Richards notes: "Haeckel, on his travels to Ceylon and Indonesia, often
formed closer and more intimate relations with natives, even members of the untouchable
classes, than with the European colonials." and says the Nazis rejected Haeckel, since he
opposed antisemitism, while supporting ideas they disliked (for instance atheism, feminism,
internationalism, pacifism etc.).
Asia hypothesis
Haeckel claimed the origin of humanity was to be found in Asia: he believed
that Hindustan (Indian subcontinent) was the actual location where the first humans had evolved.
Haeckel argued that humans were closely related to the primates of Southeast Asia and rejected
Darwin's hypothesis of Africa.
209
Haeckel later claimed that the missing link was to be found on the lost continent
of Lemuria located in the Indian Ocean. He believed that Lemuria was the home of the first
humans and that Asia was the home of many of the earliest primates; he thus supported that Asia
was the cradle of hominid evolution. Haeckel also claimed that Lemuria connected Asia and
Africa, which allowed the migration of humans to the rest of the world.[40][41]
In Haeckel’s book The History of Creation (1884) he included migration routes which he thought
the first humans had used outside of Lemuria.
Illustrations of dog and human embryos, looking almost identical at 4 weeks then differing at 6
weeks, shown above a 6-week turtle embryo and 8-day hen embryo, presented by Haeckel in
1868 as convincing proof of evolution. The pictures of the earliest embryonic stages are now
considered inaccurate.[42]
When Haeckel was a student in the 1850s he showed great interest in embryology, attending the
rather unpopular lectures twice and in his notes sketched the visual aids: textbooks had few
illustrations, and large format plates were used to show students how to see the tiny forms under
a reflecting microscope, with the translucent tissues seen against a black background.
Developmental series were used to show stages within a species, but inconsistent views and
stages made it even more difficult to compare different species. It was agreed by all European
evolutionists that all vertebrates looked very similar at an early stage, in what was thought of as a
common ideal type, but there was a continuing debate from the 1820s between the
Romantic recapitulation theory that human embryos developed through stages of the forms of all
the major groups of adult animals, literally manifesting a sequence of organisms on a linear chain
of being, and Karl Ernst von Baer's opposing view, stated in von Baer's laws of embryology, that
the early general forms diverged into four major groups of specialised forms without ever
resembling the adult of another species, showing affinity to an archetype but no relation to other
types or any transmutation of species. By the time Haeckel was teaching he was able to use a
textbook with woodcut illustrations written by his own teacher Albert von Kölliker, which
purported to explain human development while also using other mammalian embryos to claim a
coherent sequence. Despite the significance to ideas of transformism, this was not really polite
enough for the new popular science writing, and was a matter for medical institutions and for
experts who could make their own comparisons.
Darwin, Naturphilosophie and Lamarck
Darwin's On the Origin of Species, which made a powerful impression on Haeckel when he read
it in 1864, was very cautious about the possibility of ever reconstructing the history of life, but
210
did include a section reinterpreting von Baer's embryology and revolutionising the field of study,
concluding that "Embryology rises greatly in interest, when we thus look at the embryo as a
picture, more or less obscured, of the common parent-form of each great class of animals." It
mentioned von Baer's 1828 anecdote (misattributing it to Louis Agassiz) that at an early stage
embryos were so similar that it could be impossible to tell whether an unlabelled specimen was
of a mammal, a bird, or of a reptile, and Darwin's own research using embryonic stages
of barnacles to show that they are crustaceans, while cautioning against the idea that one
organism or embryonic stage is "higher" or "lower", or more or less evolved.[45] Haeckel
disregarded such caution, and in a year wrote his massive and ambitious Generelle Morphologie,
published in 1866, presenting a revolutionary new synthesis of Darwin's ideas with the German
tradition of Naturphilosophie going back to Goethe and with the progressive evolutionism
of Lamarck in what he called Darwinismus. He used morphology to reconstruct the evolutionary
history of life, in the absence of fossil evidence using embryology as evidence of ancestral
relationships. He invented new terms, including ontogeny and phylogeny, to present his
evolutionised recapitulation theory that "ontogeny recapitulated phylogeny". The two massive
volumes sold poorly, and were heavy going: with his limited understanding of German, Darwin
found them impossible to read. Haeckel's publisher turned down a proposal for a "strictly
scholarly and objective" second edition.
Embryological drawings
Haeckel's tree of life
Haeckel's aim was a reformed morphology with evolution as the organising principle of a cosmic
synthesis unifying science, religion, and art. He was giving successful "popular lectures" on his
211
ideas to students and townspeople in Jena, in an approach pioneered by his teacher Rudolf
Virchow. To meet his publisher's need for a popular work he used a student's transcript of his
lectures as the basis of his Natürliche Schöpfungsgeschichte of 1868, presenting a
comprehensive presentation of evolution. In the Spring of that year he drew figures for the book,
synthesising his views of specimens in Jena and published pictures to represent types. After
publication he told a colleague that the images "are completely exact, partly copied from nature,
partly assembled from all illustrations of these early stages that have hitherto become known".
There were various styles of embryological drawings at that time, ranging from more schematic
representations to "naturalistic" illustrations of specific specimens. Haeckel believed privately
that his figures were both exact and synthetic, and in public asserted that they were schematic
like most figures used in teaching. The images were reworked to match in size and orientation,
and though displaying Haeckel's own views of essential features, they support von Baer's
concept that vertebrate embryos begin similarly and then diverge. Relating different images on a
grid conveyed a powerful evolutionary message. As a book for the general public, it followed the
common practice of not citing sources.
In 1868 Haeckel illustrated von Baer's observation that early embryos of different species could
not be told apart by using the same woodcut three times as dog, chick and turtle embryos: he
changed this in the next edition.
The book sold very well, and while some anatomical experts hostile to Haeckel's evolutionary
views expressed some private concerns that certain figures had been drawn rather freely, the
figures showed what they already knew about similarities in embryos. The first published
concerns came from Ludwig Rütimeyer, a professor of zoology and comparative anatomy at
the University of Basel who had placed fossil mammals in an evolutionary lineage early in the
1860s and had been sent a complimentary copy. At the end of 1868 his review in the Archiv für
Anthropologie wondered about the claim that the work was "popular and scholarly", doubting
whether the second was true, and expressed horror about such public discussion of man's place in
nature with illustrations such as the evolutionary trees being shown to non-experts. Though he
made no suggestion that embryo illustrations should be directly based on specimens, to him the
subject demanded the utmost "scrupulosity and conscientiousness" and an artist must "not
arbitrarily model or generalise his originals for speculative purposes" which he considered
proved by comparison with works by other authors. In particular, "one and the same, moreover
incorrectly interpreted woodcut, is presented to the reader three times in a row and with three
212
different captions as [the] embryo of the dog, the chick, [and] the turtle". He accused Haeckel of
"playing fast and loose with the public and with science", and failing to live up to the obligation
to the truth of every serious researcher. Haeckel responded with angry accusations of bowing to
religious prejudice, but in the second (1870) edition changed the duplicated embryo images to a
single image captioned "embryo of a mammal or bird". Duplication using galvanoplastic
stereotypes (clichés) was a common technique in textbooks, but not on the same page to
represent different eggs or embryos. In 1891 Haeckel made the excuse that this "extremely rash
foolishness" had occurred in undue haste but was "bona fide", and since repetition of incidental
details was obvious on close inspection, it is unlikely to have been intentional deception.
The revised 1870 second edition of 1,500 copies attracted more attention, being quickly followed
by further revised editions with larger print runs as the book became a prominent part of the
optimistic, nationalist, anticlerical "culture of progress" in Otto von Bismarck's new German
Empire. The similarity of early vertebrate embryos became common knowledge, and the
illustrations were praised by experts such as Michael Foster of the University of Cambridge. In
the introduction to his 1871 The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex, Darwin gave
particular praise to Haeckel, writing that if Natürliche Schöpfungsgeschichte "had appeared
before my essay had been written, I should probably never have completed it". The first chapter
included an illustration: "As some of my readers may never have seen a drawing of an embryo, I
have given one of man and another of a dog, at about the same early stage of development,
carefully copied from two works of undoubted accuracy" with a footnote citing the sources and
noting that "Häckel has also given analogous drawings in his Schöpfungsgeschichte." The fifth
edition of Haeckel's book appeared in 1874, with its frontispiece a heroic portrait of Haeckel
himself, replacing the previous controversial image of the heads of apes and humans.
1874 illustration from Anthropogenie showing "very early", "somewhat later" and "still later"
stages of embryos of fish (F), salamander (A), turtle (T), chick (H), pig (S), cow (R), rabbit (K),
and human (M)
A phylogenetic tree or evolutionary tree is a branching diagram or "tree" showing
the evolutionary relationships among various biological species or other entities—
their phylogeny (/faɪˈlɒdʒəni/)—based upon similarities and differences in their physical or
genetic characteristics. All life on Earth is part of a single phylogenetic tree, indicating common
ancestry.
In a rooted phylogenetic tree, each node with descendants represents the inferred most recent
common ancestor of those descendants, and the edge lengths in some trees may be interpreted as
time estimates. Each node is called a taxonomic unit. Internal nodes are generally called
hypothetical taxonomic units, as they cannot be directly observed. Trees are useful in fields of
213
biology such as bioinformatics, systematics, and phylogenetics. Unrooted trees illustrate only the
relatedness of the leaf nodes and do not require the ancestral root to be known or inferred.
The idea of a "tree of life" arose from ancient notions of a ladder-like progression from lower
into higher forms of life (such as in the Great Chain of Being). Early representations of
"branching" phylogenetic trees include a "paleontological chart" showing the geological
relationships among plants and animals in the book Elementary Geology, by Edward
Hitchcock (first edition: 1840).
Charles Darwin (1859) also produced one of the first illustrations and crucially popularized the
notion of an evolutionary "tree" in his seminal book The Origin of Species. Over a century
later, evolutionary biologists still use tree diagrams to depict evolution because such diagrams
effectively
convey
the
concept
that speciation occurs
through
the adaptive and
semirandom splitting of lineages. Over time, species classification has become less static and
more dynamic.
The term phylogenetic, or phylogeny, derives from the two ancient greek words φῦλον (phûlon),
meaning "race, lineage", and γένεσις (génesis), meaning "origin, source"
Rooted tree
Rooted phylogenetic tree optimized for blind people. The lowest point of the tree is the root,
which symbolizes the universal common ancestor to all living beings. The tree branches out into
three main groups: Bacteria (left branch, letters a to i), Archea (middle branch, letters j to p) and
Eukaryota (right branch, letters q to z). Each letter corresponds to a group of organisms, listed
below this description. These letters and the description should be converted to Braille font, and
printed using a Braille printer. The figure can be 3D printed by copying the png file and using
Cura or other software to generate the Gcode for 3D printing.
A rooted phylogenetic tree (see two graphics at top) is a directed tree with a unique node — the
root — corresponding to the (usually imputed) most recent common ancestor of all the entities at
the leaves of the tree. The root node does not have a parent node, but serves as the parent of all
other nodes in the tree. The root is therefore a node of degree 2 while other internal nodes have a
minimum degree of 3 (where "degree" here refers to the total number of incoming and outgoing
edges).
The most common method for rooting trees is the use of an uncontroversial outgroup—close
enough to allow inference from trait data or molecular sequencing, but far enough to be a clear
outgroup.
214
Unrooted tree
An unrooted phylogenetic tree for myosin, a superfamily of proteins
Unrooted trees illustrate the relatedness of the leaf nodes without making assumptions about
ancestry. They do not require the ancestral root to be known or inferred.[6] Unrooted trees can
always be generated from rooted ones by simply omitting the root. By contrast, inferring the root
of an unrooted tree requires some means of identifying ancestry. This is normally done by
including an outgroup in the input data so that the root is necessarily between the outgroup and
the rest of the taxa in the tree, or by introducing additional assumptions about the relative rates of
evolution on each branch, such as an application of the molecular clock hypothesis.
Bifurcating versus multifurcating
Both rooted and unrooted trees can be either bifurcating or multifurcating. A rooted bifurcating
tree has exactly two descendants arising from each interior node (that is, it forms a binary tree),
and an unrooted bifurcating tree takes the form of an unrooted binary tree, a free tree with
exactly three neighbors at each internal node. In contrast, a rooted multifurcating tree may have
more than two children at some nodes and an unrooted multifurcating tree may have more than
three neighbors at some nodes.
Labeled versus unlabeled
Both rooted and unrooted trees can be either labeled or unlabeled. A labeled tree has specific
values assigned to its leaves, while an unlabeled tree, sometimes called a tree shape, defines a
topology only. Some sequence-based trees built from a small genomic locus, such as Phylotree
feature internal nodes labeled with inferred ancestral haplotypes.
SPECIAL TREES-Dendrogram
215
Dendrogram of the phylogeny of some dog breeds
A dendrogram is a general name for a tree, whether phylogenetic or not, and hence also
for the diagrammatic representation of a phylogenetic tree.
Cladogram
A cladogram only represents a branching pattern; i.e., its branch lengths do not represent
time or relative amount of character change, and its internal nodes do not represent
ancestors.[
Phylogram
A phylogram is a phylogenetic tree that has branch lengths proportional to the amount of
character change.
216
Chronogram[
A chronogram of Lepidoptera. this phylogenetic tree type, branch lengths are
proportional to geological time.
A chronogram is a phylogenetic tree that explicitly represents time through its branch
lengths.
Dahlgrenogram
A Dahlgrenogram is a diagram representing a cross section of a phylogenetic tree
Phylogenetic network
A phylogenetic network is not strictly speaking a tree, but rather a more general graph, or
a directed acyclic graph in the case of rooted networks. They are used to overcome some
of the limitations inherent to trees.
Spindle diagram
A spindle diagram, showing the evolution of the vertebrates at class level, width of
spindles indicating number of families. Spindle diagrams are often used
in evolutionary taxonomy.
217
A spindle diagram, or bubble diagram, is often called a romerogram, after its
popularisation by the American palaeontologist Alfred Romer It represents taxonomic
diversity (horizontal width) against geological time (vertical axis) in order to reflect the
variation of abundance of various taxa through time. However, a spindle diagram is not
an evolutionary tree: the taxonomic spindles obscure the actual relationships of the
parent taxon to the daughter taxon and have the disadvantage of involving
the paraphyly of the parental group. This type of diagram is no longer used in the form
originally proposed.
Coral of life
The Coral of Life
Darwin[19] also mentioned that the coral may be a more suitable metaphor than the tree.
Indeed, phylogenetic corals are useful for portraying past and present life, and they have
some advantages over trees (anastomoses allowed, etc.).
Computational phylogenetics
Phylogenetic trees composed with a nontrivial number of input sequences are
constructed using computational phylogenetics methods. Distance-matrix methods such
as neighbor-joining or UPGMA,
which
calculate genetic
distance from multiple
sequence alignments, are simplest to implement, but do not invoke an evolutionary
model. Many sequence alignment methods such as ClustalW also create trees by using
the simpler algorithms (i.e. those based on distance) of tree construction. Maximum
parsimony is another simple method of estimating phylogenetic trees, but implies an
implicit model of evolution (i.e. parsimony). More advanced methods use the optimality
criterion of maximum likelihood, often within a Bayesian framework, and apply an
explicit model of evolution to phylogenetic tree estimation.[10] Identifying the optimal
tree
using
many
of
these
techniques
is NP-hard,[10] so heuristic search
and optimization methods are used in combination with tree-scoring functions to identify
a reasonably good tree that fits the data.
Tree-building methods can be assessed on the basis of several criteria:
efficiency (how long does it take to compute the answer, how much memory does it
need?)
power (does it make good use of the data, or is information being wasted?)
consistency (will it converge on the same answer repeatedly, if each time given
different data for the same model problem?)
218
robustness (does it cope well with violations of the assumptions of the underlying
model?)
falsifiability (does it alert us when it is not good to use, i.e. when assumptions are
violated?)
Tree-building techniques have also gained the attention of mathematicians. Trees can
also be built using T-theory
Symbols used in astrology overlap with those
used in astronomy because of the historical
overlap between the two subjects.
Frequently used symbols include signs of the zodiac and for the classical planets. These have
their origin in medieval Byzantine codices, but in their current form are a product of the
European Renaissance. Other symbols for astrological aspects are used in various astrological
traditions.
History & Origins: Symbols for the classical planets, zodiac signs, aspects, lots, and the lunar
nodes appear in the medieval Byzantine codices in which many ancient horoscopes were
preserved.[1] In the original papyri of these Greek horoscopes, there were found a circle with the
glyph representing shine( ) for the Sun and a crescent for the Moon.The written symbols for
Mercury, Venus, Jupiter, and Saturn have been traced to forms found in late Greek papyri. The
symbols for Jupiter and Saturn are identified as monograms of the initial letters of the
corresponding Greek names, and the symbol for Mercury is a stylized caduceus. A. S. D.
Maunder finds antecedents of the planetary symbols in earlier sources, used to represent the gods
associated with the classical planets. Bianchini's planisphere, produced in the 2nd
century, shows Greek personifications of planetary gods charged with early versions of the
planetary symbols: Mercury has a caduceus; Venus has, attached to her necklace, a cord
connected to another necklace; Mars, a spear; Jupiter, a staff; Saturn, a scythe; the Sun,
a circlet with rays radiating from it; and the Moon, a headdress with a crescent attached.[5] A
diagram in Johannes Kamateros' 12th century Compendium of Astrology shows the Sun
represented by the circle with a ray, Jupiter by the letter zeta (the initial of Zeus, Jupiter's
counterpart in Greek mythology), Mars by a shield crossed by a spear, and the remaining
classical planets by symbols resembling the modern ones, without the cross-mark seen in modern
versions of the symbols.[5]
The modern sun symbol, pictured as a circle with a dot (☉), first appeared in the Renaissance.
The conventional symbols for the signs of the zodiac also develop in the Renaissance period as
simplifications of the classical pictorial representations of the signs.
Symbols for Uranus and Neptune were created shortly after their discovery. For Uranus, two
variant symbols are seen. One symbol, , invented by J. G. Köhler and refined by Bode, was
intended to represent the newly discovered metal platinum; since platinum, sometimes confused
219
with white gold, was found by chemists mixed with iron, the symbol for platinum combines the
alchemical symbols for iron, ♂, and gold, ☉. Another symbol, , was suggested by Lalande in
1784. In a letter to Herschel, Lalande described it as "un globe surmonté par la première lettre de
votre nom" ("a globe surmounted by the first letter of your name").[8] After Neptune was
discovered, the Bureau des Longitudes proposed the name Neptune and the familiar trident for
the planet's symbol.
The astrological symbols for the first three objects discovered at the beginning of the 19th
century—Ceres, Pallas, and Juno—were also created after their discovery. Firstly, they were
listed as planets, and half a century later, renamed as asteroids. Shortly after Giuseppe Piazzi's
discovery of Ceres, a group of astronomers ratified the name, proposed by the discoverer, and
chose the sickle as a symbol of the planet.[10] The symbol for Pallas, the spear of Pallas Athena,
was invented by Baron Franz Xaver von Zach, and introduced in his Monatliche Correspondenz
zur Beförderung der Erd- und Himmels-Kunde.[11] Karl Ludwig Harding, who discovered and
named Juno, assigned to it the symbol of a scepter topped with a star.
The modern astrological symbol for Vesta, ⚶, was created by Eleanor Bach who is credited with
pioneering the use of the Big Four asteroids with the publication of her Ephemerides of the
Asteroids. Bach's symbol for Vesta is a simplified version of other representations of Vesta's
altar. The original form of the symbol for Vesta,
, was created by German mathematician Carl
Friedrich Gauss. Olbers, having previously discovered and named one new planet (as the
asteroids were then classified), gave Gauss the honor of naming his newest discovery. Gauss
decided to name the planet for the goddess Vesta, and also specified that the symbol should be
the altar of the goddess with the sacred fire burning on it.
Pluto, like Uranus, has multiple symbols in use. One symbol, ♇, is a monogram of the
letters PL (which can be interpreted to stand for Pluto or for astronomer Percival Lowell), was
announced with the name of the new planet by the discoverers on May 1, 1930.. Another
symbol, which was popularized in Paul Clancy's astrological publications, is based on the
symbol for Mercury, with the circle and arc of Mercury trading positions. This symbol is
described by Dane Rudhyar as "suggest[ing] the planetary character of the Pluto mind by the
circle, floating above the open cup." Although, this meaning is readily debatable due to
Blavatskian origins, rather than a properly traditional understanding, such as may be found in the
hermetic sciences.
The symbol for the centaur Chiron, ⚷ , is a key with the letter K (for discoverer Charles T.
Kowal) was proposed by astrologer Al Morrison, who presented the symbol as "an inspiration
shared amongst Al H. Morrison, Joelle K.D. Mahoney, and Marlene Bassoff.
The symbol for retrograde motion is ℞, a capital R with a tail stroke. An R with a tail stroke was
used to abbreviate many words beginning with the letter R; in medical prescriptions, it
abbreviated the word recipe[23] (from the Latin imperative of recipere "to take and in missals, an
R with a tail stroke marked the responses
Astrological planets
220
The glyphs of the planets are usually (but not always) broken down into four common elements:
A circle denoting spirit, a crescent denoting the mind, a cross denoting practical/physical matter
and an arrow denoting action or direction.
Name
Image Text Unicode
Symbol represents
Sun
☉
U+2609
Moon
☽
U+263D A crescent
Mercury
☿
U+263F
Mercury's winged helmet and caduceus
Venus
♀
U+2640
Hand mirror or
(emoji variation is ♀)
⊕
U+2295
Earth; a Solar symbol (sun cross)
♁
U+2641
Alternate symbol, a stylized globus cruciger
Mars
♂
U+2642
Mars's shield and spear (emoji variation is ♂)
Jupiter
♃
U+2643
Jupiter's thunderbolt or eagle
Saturn
♄
U+2644
Saturn's sickle
Uranus
♅
U+2645
H in symbol taken from discoverer's last name, Herschel
Earth
Solar symbol (circled dot)
221
necklace
(see Venus
symbol)
Neptune
⛢
U+26E2
Derived from a combination of the Mars and Sun symbols
♆
U+2646
Neptune's trident
U+2BD3 Pluto's circle and a cross or bident (the arc under the circle).
♇
U+2647
PL monogram for Pluto and Percival Lowell
U+2BD4
Variant symbol used mainly by French, Spanish, and Italian
speaking astrologers.[26]
Variant symbol invented by German astrologer Hermann
U+2BD5 Lefeldt in 1946. Used mostly by those that follow
the Hamburg School of Astrology.
U+2BD6
Pluto
Variant symbol used mostly used in German-speaking
countries and Denmark.[26]
The Hamburg School of Astrology, also called Uranian Astrology, is a sub-variety of western
astrology. adds eight hypothetical trans-Neptunian planets to the normal ones used by western
astrologers:
Name
Image Text Unicode
Cupido
U+2BE0
Hades
U+2BE1
222
Zeus
U+2BE2
Kronos
U+2BE3
Apollon
U+2BE4
Admetos
U+2BE5
Vulcanus
U+2BE6
Poseidon
U+2BE7
Signs of the zodiac
Name
Meaning
Image Text Emoji Unicode Symbol Represents
Aries
Ram
U+2648
Face and horns of ram. Also
Ovaries
and
a
woman's
reproductive organ.
Taurus
Bull
U+2649
Face and horns of bull. Horned
torus.
Gemini
Twins
U+264A Companion
Cancer
Crab
U+264B
223
Connection to both material and
spiritual worlds
Leo
Lion
Circle-Spirit and tail. Cosmic
U+264C Snake. Sperm. A lion's head and
mane.
Virgo
Virgin
Derived from the Greek letters
ΠΑΡ, which are the first three
U+264D letters
of
the
Greek
word parthenos, which means
"virgin"
Libra
Scale
U+264E Scales
Scorpio
Scorpion
U+264F Stinger of a scorpion
Sagittarius
Archer
U+2650
U+2651
Arrow of the centaur, aiming to
higher realms
Capricorn
Sea-Goat or
Mountain
Goat
Aquarius
Waterbearer
U+2652
Ripples of water, disruption
Pisces
Fish
U+2653
Two fish tied together yet
swimming in opposite directions
[28]
Body and head of a goat with
the tail of a fish or face and
horns of goat.
Aspects
In astrology, an aspect is an angle the planets make to each other in the horoscope, also to
the ascendant, midheaven, descendant, lower midheaven, and other points of astrological
interest. Aspects are measured by the angular distance in degrees and minutes of ecliptic
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longitude between two points, as viewed from Earth. According to astrological tradition, they
indicate the timing of transitions and developmental changes in the lives of people and affairs
relative to the Earth.
As an example, if an astrologer creates a horoscope that shows the apparent positions of the
celestial bodies at the time of a person's birth (a natal chart), and the angular distance
between Mars and Venus is 92° of arc, the chart is said to have the aspect "Venus square Mars"
with an orb of 2° (i.e., it is 2° away from being an exact square; a square being a 90° aspect). The
more exact an aspect, the stronger or more dominant it is said to be in shaping character or
manifesting change.[1]
The astrological aspects are noted in the central circle of this natal chart, where the different
colors and symbols distinguish between the different aspects, such as the square (red)
or trine (green)
Approach: In medieval astrology, certain aspects, like certain planets, were considered to be
either favorable (benefic) or unfavorable (malefic). Modern usage places less emphasis on these
fatalistic distinctions. The more modern approach to astrological aspects is exemplified by
research on astrological harmonics of which John Addey was a major proponent, and
225
which Johannes Kepler earlier advocated in his book Harmonice Mundi in 1619. But even in
modern times, aspects are considered either hard (the 90° square, the 180° opposition) or easy
(the 120° trine, the 60° sextile). The conjunction aspect (essentially 0°, discounting orb) can be
in either category, depending on which two planets it is that are conjunct.
A list of aspects below presents their angular values and a recommended orb for each aspect. The
orbs are subject to variation, depending on the need for detail and personal preferences.
The traditional major aspects are sometimes called Ptolemaic aspects since they were defined
and used by Ptolemy in the 1st Century, AD. These aspects are the conjunction (0°), sextile
(60°), square (90°), trine (120°), and opposition (180°). It is important to note that different
astrologers and separate astrological systems/traditional utilize differing orbs (the degree of
separation between exactitude) when calculating and using the aspects, though almost all use a
larger orb for a conjunction when compared to the other aspects. The major aspects are those that
can be used to divide 360 evenly and are divisible by 10 (with the exception of the semi-sextile).
Conjunction
A conjunction (abrv. Con) is an angle of approximately 0–10°. An orb of approximately 10° is
usually considered a conjunction, but if neither the Sun nor Moon is involved, some consider the
conjunction to have a maximum orb of only about 8°.
Conjunctions are said to be the most powerful aspect, mutually intensifying the effects of the
planets involved; they are major point in an individual's chart. Whether the conjunction in
question is regarded as beneficial or detrimental depends on the specific planets involved. In
particular, conjunctions involving the Sun, Venus, and/or Jupiter, in any of the three possible
conjunction combinations, are considered highly favourable, while conjunctions involving the
Moon, Mars, and/or Saturn, again in any of the three possible conjunction combinations, are
considered highly unfavourable.
Exceptionally, the Sun, Venus, and Jupiter were in a 3-way (beneficial) conjunction on
November 9–10, 1970, while on March 10 of that same year, the Moon, Mars, and Saturn were
in 3-way (detrimental) conjunction.
If either of two planets involved in a conjunction is also under tension from one or more hard
aspects with one or more other planets, then the added presence of the conjunction aspect will
further intensify the tension of that hard aspect.
A planet in very close conjunction to the Sun (within 17 minutes of arc, or only about 0.28°) is
said to be cazimi, an ancient astrological term meaning "in the heart" (of the Sun). For example,
"Venus cazimi" means Venus is in conjunction with the Sun with an orb of less than ≈ 0.28°.
Such a planetary position is a conjunction of great strength. A related term is combust, applicable
when the planet in conjunction with the Sun is only moderately close to the Sun. In the case
of combust, specific orb limit will depend on the particular planet in conjunction with the Sun.
The Sun and Moon experience a conjunction every single month of the year — during the New
Moon.
226
Sextile — intermediate major/minor aspect
"Sextile" redirects here. For the symbol on telephone keypads and viewdata terminals,
see Viewdata § Viewdata keypad symbols: the square and the sextile. For the band, see Sextile
(band).
A sextile (abrv. SXt or Sex) is an angle of 60° (1/6 of the 360° ecliptic, or 1/2 of a trine [120°]).
An orb between 3-4 is allowed depending on the planets involved.
The sextile has been traditionally said to be similar in influence to the trine, but less intense. It
indicates ease of communication between the two elements involved, with compatibility and
harmony between them. A sextile provides opportunity and is very responsive to effort expended
to gain its benefits. See information on the semisextile below.
Square
A square (abrv. SQr or Squ) is an angle of 90° (1/4 of the 360° ecliptic, or 1/2 of an opposition
[180°]). An orb of somewhere between 5° and 10°[3] is usually allowed depending on the planets
involved.
As with the trine and the sextile, in the square, it is usually the outer or superior planet that has
an effect on the inner or inferior one. The square's energy is strong and usable but has a tension
that needs integration between 2 different areas of life, or offers a choice point where an
important decision needs to be made that involves an opportunity cost. It is the smallest major
aspect that usually involves houses in different quadrants.
Trine
A trine (abbrev. Tri) is an angle of 120° (1/3 of the 360° ecliptic), an orb of somewhere between
5° and 10° depending on the planets involved.
The trine relates to what is natural and indicates harmony and ease. The trine may involve talent
or ability which is innate. The trine has been traditionally assumed to be extremely beneficial.
When involved in a transit, the trine involves situations that emerge from a current or past
situation in a natural way.
Opposition
227
An opposition (abrv. Opp) is an angle of 180° (1/2 of the 360° ecliptic). An orb of somewhere
between 5° and 10°[3] is usually allowed depending on the planets.
Oppositions are said to be the second most powerful aspect. It resembles the conjunction
although the difference between them is that the opposition is fundamentally relational. Some
say it is prone to exaggeration as it is not unifying like the conjunction but has a dichotomous
quality and an externalizing effect. All important axes in astrology are essentially oppositions.
Therefore, at its most basic, it often signifies a relationship that can be oppositional or
complementary.
Minor Aspects: Quincunx (Inconjunct) — intermediate major/minor aspect
A quincunx is an angle of 150° (5/12 of the 360° ecliptic). An orb of ±3.5° is usually allowed
depending on the planets involved. Unlike all the other aspects, it does not offer equal divisions
of the circle.
Its effect is most obvious when there is a triangulating aspect of a 3rd planet in any major aspect
to the 2 planets which are quincunx. Its interpretation will rely mostly on the houses, planets,
and signs involved. The effect will involve different areas of life being brought together that are
not usually in communication since the planets are far enough apart to be in different house
quadrants, like the trine, but often with a shift in perspective involving others not previously seen
clearly. Keywords for the quincunx are mystery, creativity, unpredictability, imbalance, surreal,
resourcefulness, and humor.
Semi-sextile
A semi-sextile is an angle of 30° (1/12 of the 360° ecliptic). An orb of ±1.2° is allowed.
It is the most often used of the minor aspects perhaps for no other reason than it can be easily
seen. It indicates a mental interaction between the planets involved that is more sensed than
experienced externally. Any major aspect transit to a given planetary position will also involve
the other planet that is in semi-sextile aspect to it. The energetic quality is one of building and
potentiating each other gradually, but planets, houses and signs involved must be considered.
Similar to a sextile in offering a quality of opportunity with conscious effort to benefit from.
Quintile
A quintile is an angle of 72° (1/5 of the 360° ecliptic). An orb of ±1.2° is allowed.
It indicates a strong creative flow of energy between the planets involved, often an opportunity
for something performative, entertaining or expressive.
Septile
A septile is an angle of roughly 51.5° (1/7 of the 360° ecliptic). An orb of ±1° is allowed. It is the
only prime number aspect that is an inexact number.
It is a mystical aspect that indicates a hidden flow of energy between the planets involved, often
involving spiritual or energetic sensitivity and an awareness of finer and more subtle, hidden
levels of reality involving the planets in septile aspect.
Semi-square
A semi-square is an angle of 45° (1/8 of the 360° ecliptic). An orb of ±2° is allowed.
228
It is an important minor aspect and indicates a stimulating or challenging energy like that of a
square but less intense and more internal.
Novile
A novile is an angle of 40° (1/9 of the 360° ecliptic). An orb of ±1° is allowed.
It indicates an energy of perfection and/or idealization.
The parallel and antiparallel (or contraparallel) are two other aspects which refer to degrees
of declination above or below the celestial equator. They are not widely used by astrologers.
Parallel: same degree± 1-degree 12-minutes of arc. This may be similar to a semi-square or
quincunx in that it is not clearly seen. It represents an opportunity for perspective and
communication between energies that requires some work to be made conscious.
Contraparallel: opposite degree± 1-degree 12-minute of arc. Said to be similar to the
parallel. (Some who use the parallel do not consider the contraparallel an aspect.)
Name
Image Text Unicode
Conjunction
☌
V
V
U+260C
Semisextile
Undecile
U
SD
0°
Two or more planets in the same sign.
A circle with a line implying two objects
are in the same place (also, the starting
point of an angle)
18°
Also known as semidecile.
One
sign
apart
The intersecting lines from the inner angles
of the upper half of a hexagon (see Sextile).
Also known as dodecile.
U+0056
Vigintile
SD
Angle Explanation
U+0053
U+0044
⚺
U+26BA
30°
U
U+0055
33°
229
D
D
U+0044
Decile
36°
⊥
Novile
N
Semi-square
Septile
N
∠
S
Sextile
Q
S
U+22A5
U+004E
40°
Also known as nonile.
U+2220
45°
The bisecting line of a right angle (see
Square).
Also
known
as semiquartile and octile.
U+0053
51°
⚹
U+26B9
Q
U+0051
Quintile
Binovile
72°
N²
Square
Biseptile
60°
Two
signs
apart
The intersecting lines from the inner angles
of a hexagon
S²
⬠
U+2B20
N²
U+004E
U+00B2
80°
Also known as binonile.
Three signs apart / Same modality
A
regular quadrilateral that
represents
the right angle. Also known as quartile.
□
U+25A1
90°
S²
U+0053
U+00B2
103°
230
D³
D³
U+0044
U+00B3
Tredecile
∓
Trine
△
Biquintile
Triseptile
U+25B3
U+26BC
Q²
Q²
U+0051
U+00B2
bQ
bQ
U+0062
U+0051
±
U+00B1
Quincunx
S³
Also known as tridecile.
120°
Four signs apart / Same elemental triplicity
An equilateral triangle. Also known
as trinovile.
135°
The glyph of the Semi-Square under the
glyph of the Square, implying the sum of
them
both.
Also
known
as
the sesquisquare, square-and-a-half,
and trioctile.
U+2213
⚼
Sesquiquadrate
108°
144°
⚻
U+26BB
150°
Five
signs
apart
The intersecting lines from the inner angles
of the lower half of a hexagon (see Sextile).
Also known as the inconjunct.
S³
U+0053
U+00B3
154°
Also known as tridecile.
231
Quadranovile
N⁴
U+004E
U+2074
N⁴
160°
Also
as quadnovile and quadranonile.
known
Six signs apart
Opposition
U+260D
☍
180°
The glyph of the Conjunction plus a circle
on top of its line, implying two objects are
in front (opposed) of each other.
In addition to the aspect symbols above, some Russian astrologers use additional or unique
aspect symbols:
Name
Image Text Unicode Angle
Vigintile
U+2BF3 18°
Novile
U+2BF4 40°
Quintile
U+2BF5 72°
Binovile
U+2BF6 80°
Centile (Sentagon)
U+2BF7 100°
Tredecile
U+2BF8 108°
Lunar phases[
Name
Image Text Emoji Unicode
232
Explanation
New moon
Crescent moon
First quarter moon
Denotes the new moon or a solilunar arc in the range 0°-45°.
U+1F311
Denotes a waxing crescent moon
U+1F312 or a soli-lunar arc in the range
45°-90°.
Denotes a first quarter moon or a
U+1F313 soli-lunar arc in the range 90°135°.
Gibbous moon
Denotes a waxing gibbous moon
U+1F314 or a soli-lunar arc in the range
135°-180°.
Full moon
U+1F315
Denotes a waning gibbous moon
U+1F316 or a soli-lunar arc in the range
225°-270°.
Denotes a last quarter moon or a
U+1F317 soli-lunar arc in the range 270°315°.
Denotes a waning crescent moon
U+1F318 or a soli-lunar arc in the range
315°-360°.
Disseminating moon
Last quarter moon
Balsamic moon
233
Denotes a full moon or a solilunar arc in the range 180°-225°.
Miscellaneous symbols[edit]
Category
Name
Imag
e
Text
Unicode
Ascendant
Angle
Midheaven
Apparent
retrograde
motion
Retrograde
motion
℞
U+211E
Asteroid
Ceres
⚳
U+26B3
Pallas
⚴
U+26
B4
A spear
(variant
has
triangle
on top)
Alchemi
cal
symbol f
or sulfur
(both
variants)
see
also Aste
roids in
astrolog
y)
Juno
⚵
U+26
B5
The
scepter
234
(of
a
queen,
Juno is
the
Roman
equivale
nt
of
Greek H
era)
topped
with a
star
Vesta
⚶
U+26
B6
Astraea[33]
U+2B
D9
⚕
U+26
95
Hygiea
The fire
on the
hearth or
altar
(Roman
equivale
nt
of
Greek H
estia)
A
serpent
coiled
around
Asclepiu
s' rod
U+2B Two
serpents
DA
coiled
235
around
the rod.
(Alternat
ive
astrologi
cal
symbol)[
33]
Centaur
Comet
Dwarf planet
Chiron
⚷
U+26B7
Nessus
U+2BD
C
Pholus
U+2BD
B
Comet
U+2604
U+2BF0
U+2BF1
Eris
236
Haumea
Makemake
Proserpina
U+2BD8
Transpluto[33]
U+2BD7
⊗
U+2297
⚸
U+26B8
True or Osculatin
g Black
Moon
Lilith
U+2BD
E
White
Selena
U+2BD
D
U+2BD
F
Hypothetical
Planet
Lot
Lot of fortune
Black
Lilith
Moon
Lunar apogee
Moon
True Light Moon
Arta or True
White Moon
Ascending Node
☊
U+260A
Descending Node
☋
U+260B
Lunar node
237
Plutino
Ixion
Scattered disk
Typhon
object
Quaoar
Small body
Sedna
U+2BF2
Zodiacal
modalities:
cardinal
U+1F70
D
U+1F71
4
Alchemical
'Three primes' fixed
mutable
U+263F
☿
238
18th-century axonometric plan, Port-Royal-des-Champs
CHAPTER IX
Mandala in Architecture
An architectural drawing or architect's drawing
is a technical drawing of a building (or building project) that falls within the definition
of architecture. Architectural drawings are used by architects and others for a number of
purposes: to develop a design idea into a coherent proposal, to communicate ideas and concepts,
to convince clients of the merits of a design, to assist a building contractor to construct it based
on design intent, as a record of the design and planned development, or to make a record of a
building that already exists.
Architectural drawings are made according to a set of conventions, which include particular
views (floor plan, section etc.), sheet sizes, units of measurement and scales, annotation and
cross referencing.
Historically, drawings were made in ink on paper or a similar material, and any copies required
had to be laboriously made by hand. The twentieth century saw a shift to drawing on tracing
paper, so that mechanical copies could be run off efficiently. The development of
the computer had a major impact on the methods used to design and create technical
drawings,[1] making manual drawing almost obsolete, and opening up new possibilities of form
using organic shapes and complex geometry. Today the vast majority of drawings are created
using CAD software.
The size of drawings reflects the materials available and the size that is convenient to transport
– rolled up or folded, laid out on a table, or pinned up on a wall. The drafting process may
impose limitations on the size that is realistically workable. Sizes are determined by a
consistent paper size system, according to local usage. Normally the largest paper size used in
modern architectural practice is ISO A0 (841 mm × 1,189 mm or 33.1 in × 46.8 in) or in the
239
USA Arch E (762 mm × 1,067 mm or 30 in × 42 in) or Large E size (915 mm × 1,220 mm or
36 in × 48 in).[3]
Architectural drawings are drawn to scale, so that relative sizes are correctly represented. The
scale is chosen both to ensure the whole building will fit on the chosen sheet size, and to show
the required amount of detail. At the scale of one eighth of an inch to one foot (1:96) or the
metric equivalent 1 to 100, walls are typically shown as simple outlines corresponding to the
overall thickness. At a larger scale, half an inch to one foot (1:24) or the nearest common metric
equivalent 1 to 20, the layers of different materials that make up the wall construction are shown.
Construction details are drawn to a larger scale, in some cases full size (1 to 1 scale).
Scale drawings enable dimensions to be "read" off the drawing, i.e. measured
directly. Imperial scales (feet and inches) are equally readable using an ordinary ruler. On a oneeighth inch to one foot scale drawing, the one-eighth divisions on the ruler can be read off as
feet. Architects normally use a scale ruler with different scales marked on each edge. A third
method, used by builders in estimating, is to measure directly off the drawing and multiply by
the scale factor.
Dimensions can be measured off drawings made on a stable medium such as vellum. All
processes of reproduction introduce small errors, especially now that different copying methods
mean that the same drawing may be re-copied, or copies made in several different ways.
Consequently, dimensions need to be written ("figured") on the drawing. The disclaimer "Do not
scale off dimensions" is commonly inscribed on architects drawings, to guard against errors
arising in the copying process.
Standard views used in architects' drawings Principal floor plans of the Queen's House,
Greenwich (UK).
Mandala: The Architecture of Enlightenment
240
In the fall of 1997, the Asia Society presented "Mandala: The Architecture of Enlightenment,"
the first exhibition ever devoted to the multiple manifestations of the mandala throughout Asia.
A mandala is an ancient Hindu and Buddhist graphic symbol of the universe a cosmic diagram
that functions as a powerful aid to meditation and concentration.
On view at the Asia Society from September 24, 1997 through January 4, 1998, this exhibition
featured more than fifty mandalas and related objects, including sculptures and models of sacred
spaces, from Tibet, Nepal, China, Japan, Bhutan, India and Indonesia. Co-organized by the Asia
Society and Tibet House,"Mandala: The Architecture of Enlightenment" highlighted the stunning
artistry and diversity of this ancient artform and explored the artistic genesis and religious role of
the mandala in Buddhism.
In honor of the exhibition, a Kalachakra sand mandala was constructed at the Asia Society by
monks from the Namgyal monastery, H.H. The Dalai Lama's personal monastery, it remained on
view throughout the exhibition. Also during the run of the exhibition, a series of public events at
the Asia Society explored the wide appeal of the mandala and its affinities with representations
of sacred space in other religions and cultures.
The mandala is likened by some to a "floor plan of the universe." The type most familiar in the
West is an intricately patterned painting on cloth or paper that often takes the general form of a
circle within a square.
The word "mandala" comes from the Sanskrit verbal root "mand" (meaning to mark off,
decorate, set off) and the Sanskrit suffix "la" (meaning circle, essence, sacred center).
The mandala's symbolic power can be traced back to millennia-old roots in Indian temple
architecture, which created sacred spaces linking the worshiper to the larger cosmos. In these
temples, time and space were represented in a vocabulary of circles and squares. Similarly, a
mandala helps believers visualize the universe and their place in it, often in relation to a specific
deity found in the center of the image.
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The mandalas on display at the Asia Society tracked the evolution of the symbol throughout Asia
under the influence of various religious and artistic traditions. Some were exquisitely complex;
others quite simple.
A portable soapstone model of a stone temple found in tenth-century India is one kind of
mandala; another is the Tibetan assemblage of miniature bronze deities that resembles a sacred
chess setA 15th-century silk scroll from Japan might be mistaken for an elegant nature-study of a
lone deer except for the cloud-borne gathering of deities just below the mandala moon.More
contemporary mandalas made from thread and sand offered proof of the continuing vitality of the
mandala and its role in Buddhist devotions.Co-curators of Mandala: The Architecture of
Enlightenment are Robert A. F. Thurman, Professor of Religions at Columbia University, and
Denise Patry Leidy, Associate Curator/Administrator, Department of Asian Art, the Metropolitan
Museum of Art.
Mandala: The Architecture of Enlightenment and related programs are co-organized by the Asia
Society and Tibet House and funded in part by the National Endowment for the Arts, The Henry
Luce Foundation, Michael Marsh, Mary Livingston Griggs and Mary Griggs Burke Foundation,
The Woodcock Foundation, Ellen Bayard Weedon Foundation and Frank and Lisina Hoch.
Support for the Asia Society Galleries exhibitions and education programs has been provided by
the Friends of Asian Arts, The Starr Foundation, The Armand G. Erpf Fund, and the Arthur Ross
Foundation.
242
Architectural drawing combining elevation, section and plan:
Reveley of Jeremy Bentham's proposal for a Panopticon prison, 1791
drawings
by Willey
Views:
Floor plan
A floor plan is the most fundamental architectural diagram, a view from above showing the
arrangement of spaces in building in the same way as a map, but showing the arrangement at a
particular level of a building. Technically it is a horizontal section cut through a building
(conventionally at four feet / one metre and twenty centimetres above floor level), showing
walls, windows and door openings and other features at that level. The plan view includes
anything that could be seen below that level: the floor, stairs (but only up to the plan level),
243
fittings and sometimes furniture. Objects above the plan level (e.g. beams overhead) can be
indicated as dashed lines.
Geometrically, plan view is defined as a vertical orthographic projection of an object on to a
horizontal plane, with the horizontal plane cutting through the building.
Site plan
A site plan is a specific type of plan, showing the whole context of a building or group of
buildings. A site plan shows property boundaries and means of access to the site, and nearby
structures if they are relevant to the design. For a development on an urban site, the site plan may
need to show adjoining streets to demonstrate how the design fits into the urban fabric. Within
the site boundary, the site plan gives an overview of the entire scope of work. It shows the
buildings (if any) already existing and those that are proposed, usually as a building footprint;
roads, parking lots, footpaths, hard landscaping, trees and planting. For a construction project,
the site plan also needs to show all the services connections: drainage and sewer lines, water
supply, electrical and communications cables, exterior lighting etc.
Site plans are commonly used to represent a building proposal prior to detailed design: drawing
up a site plan is a tool for deciding both the site layout and the size and orientation of proposed
new buildings. A site plan is used to verify that a proposal complies with local development
codes, including restrictions on historical sites. In this context the site plan forms part of a legal
agreement, and there may be a requirement for it to be drawn up by a licensed professional:
architect,
engineer,
landscape
architect
or
land
surveyor.
p
Elevation of the principal façade of the Panthéon, Paris
Elevation
244
An elevation is a view of a building seen from one side, a flat representation of one façade. This
is the most common view used to describe the external appearance of a building. Each elevation
is labelled in relation to the compass direction it faces, e.g. looking toward the north you would
be seeing the southern elevation of the building.[5] Buildings are rarely a simple rectangular
shape in plan, so a typical elevation may show all the parts of the building that are seen from a
particular direction.
Geometrically, an elevation is a horizontal orthographic projection of a building onto a vertical
plane, the vertical plane normally being parallel to one side of the building.
Architects also use the word elevation as a synonym for façade, so the "north elevation" is the
north-facing wall of the building.
Section drawing of the Observatorium at Potsdam.
Cross section
A cross section, also simply called a section, represents a vertical plane cut through the object, in
the same way as a floor plan is a horizontal section viewed from the top. In the section view,
everything cut by the section plane is shown as a bold line, often with a solid fill to show objects
that are cut through, and anything seen beyond generally shown in a thinner line. Sections are
used to describe the relationship between different levels of a building. In the Observatorium
drawing illustrated here, the section shows the dome which can be seen from the outside, a
second dome that can only be seen inside the building, and the way the space between the two
accommodates a large astronomical telescope: relationships that would be difficult to understand
from plans alone.
A sectional elevation is a combination of a cross section, with elevations of other parts of the
building seen beyond the section plane.
Geometrically, a cross section is a horizontal orthographic projection of a building on to a
vertical plane, with the vertical plane cutting through the building.
Isometric and axonometric projections
Isometric and axonometric projections are a simple way of representing a three dimensional
object, keeping the elements to scale and showing the relationship between several sides of the
same object, so that the complexities of a shape can be clearly understood.
There is some confusion over the distinction between the terms isometric and axonometric.
"Axonometric is a word that has been used by architects for hundreds of years. Engineers use the
word axonometric as a generic term to include isometric, diametric and trimetric
drawings."[6] This article uses the terms in the architecture-specific sense.
Despite fairly complex geometrical explanations, for the purposes of practical drafting the
difference between isometric and axonometric is simple (see diagram above). In both, the plan is
drawn on a skewed or rotated grid, and the verticals are projected vertically on the page. All lines
are drawn to scale so that relationships between elements are accurate. In many cases a different
scale is required for different axes, and again this can be calculated but in practice was often
simply estimated by eye.
245
An isometric uses a plan grid at 30 degrees from the horizontal in both directions, which
distorts the plan shape. Isometric graph paper can be used to construct this kind of drawing.
This view is useful to explain construction details (e.g. three dimensional joints in joinery).
The isometric was the standard view until the mid twentieth century, remaining popular until
the 1970s, especially for textbook diagrams and illustrations.
Cabinet projection is similar, but only one axis is skewed, the others being horizontal and
vertical. Originally used in cabinet making, the advantage is that a principal side (e.g. a
cabinet front) is displayed without distortion, so only the less important sides are skewed.
The lines leading away from the eye are drawn at a reduced scale to lessen the degree of
distortion. The cabinet projection is seen in Victorian engraved advertisements and
architectural textbooks, but has virtually disappeared from general use.
An axonometric uses a 45 degree plan grid, which keeps the original orthogonal geometry of
the plan. The great advantage of this view for architecture is that the draftsman can work
directly from a plan, without having to reconstruct it on a skewed grid. In theory the plan
should be set at 45 degrees, but this introduces confusing coincidences where opposite
corners align. Unwanted effects can be avoided by rotating the plan while still projecting
vertically. This is sometimes called a planometric or plan oblique view,[9] and allows
freedom to choose any suitable angle to present the most useful view of an object.
Traditional drafting techniques used 30–60 and 45 degree set squares, and that determined the
angles used in these views. Once the adjustable square became common those limitations were
lifted.
The axonometric gained in popularity in the twentieth century, not just as a convenient diagram
but as a formal presentation technique, adopted in particular by the Modern Movement.
Axonometric drawings feature prominently in the influential 1970's drawings of Michael
Graves, James Stirling and others, using not only straightforward views but worms-eye view,
unusually and exaggerated rotations of the plan, and exploded elements.
The axonometric view is not readily generated by CAD programmes which create views from a
three dimensional model. Consequently, it is now rarely used.
Detail drawings
Detail drawings show a small part of the construction at a larger scale, to show how the
component parts fit together. They are also used to show small surface details, for example
decorative elements. Section drawings at large scale are a standard way of showing building
construction details, typically showing complex junctions (such as floor to wall junction, window
openings, eaves and roof apex) that cannot be clearly shown on a drawing that includes the full
height of the building. A full set of construction details needs to show plan details as well as
vertical section details. One detail is seldom produced in isolation: a set of details shows the
information needed to understand the construction in three dimensions. Typical scales for details
are 1/10, 1/5 and full size.
In traditional construction, many details were so fully standardised, that few detail drawings
were required to construct a building. For example, the construction of a sash window would be
left to the carpenter, who would fully understand what was required, but unique decorative
details of the facade would be drawn up in detail. In contrast, modern buildings need to be fully
detailed because of the proliferation of different products, methods and possible solutions.
246
Perspective in the manner of the classic Ideal city by Jean-Max Albert,1977./Two point
perspective, interior of Dercy House by Robert Adam, 1777.
Perspective in drawing is an approximate representation on a flat surface of an image as it is
perceived by the eye. The key concepts here are:
Perspective is the view from a particular fixed viewpoint.
Horizontal and vertical edges in the object are represented by horizontals and verticals in the
drawing.
Lines leading away into the distance appear to converge at a vanishing point.
All horizontals converge to a point on the horizon, which is a horizontal line at eye level.
Verticals converge to a point either above or below the horizon.
The basic categorization of artificial perspective is by the number of vanishing points:
One-point perspective where objects facing the viewer are orthogonal, and receding lines
converge to a single vanishing point.
Two-point perspective reduces distortion by viewing objects at an angle, with all the
horizontal lines receding to one of two vanishing points, both located on the horizon.
Three-point perspective introduces additional realism by making the verticals recede to a
third vanishing point, which is above or below depending upon whether the view is seen
from above or below.
The normal convention in architectural perspective is to use two-point perspective, with all the
verticals drawn as verticals on the page.
Three-point
perspective
gives
a
casual,
photographic
snapshot
effect.
In
professional architectural photography, conversely, a view camera or a perspective control lens is
used to eliminate the third vanishing point, so that all the verticals are vertical on the photograph,
as with the perspective convention. This can also be done by digital manipulation of a
photograph taken with a standard lens.
Aerial perspective is a technique in painting, for indicating distance by approximating the effect
of the atmosphere on distant objects. In daylight, as an ordinary object gets further from the eye,
its contrast with the background is reduced, its colour saturation is reduced, and its colour
247
becomes more blue. Not to be confused with aerial view or bird's eye view, which is the view as
seen (or imagined) from a high vantage point. In J M Gandy's perspective of the Bank of
England (see illustration at the beginning of this article), Gandy portrayed the building as a
picturesque ruin in order to show the internal plan arrangement, a precursor of the cutaway view.
A montage image is produced by superimposing a perspective image of a building on to a
photographic background. Care is needed to record the position from which the photograph was
taken, and to generate the perspective using the same viewpoint. This technique is popular in
computer visualisation, where the building can be photorealistically rendered, and the final
image is intended to be almost indistinguishable from a photograph.
Architect's early concept sketches.
A sketch is a rapidly executed freehand drawing, a quick way to record and develop an idea, not
intended as a finished work. A diagram could also be drawn freehand but deals with symbols, to
develop the logic of a design. Both can be worked up into a more presentable form and used to
communicate the principles of a design. In architecture, the finished work is expensive and time
consuming, so it is important to resolve the design as fully as possible before construction work
begins. Complex modern buildings involve a large team of different specialist disciplines, and
communication at the early design stages is essential to keep the design moving towards a
coordinated outcome.[12] Architects (and other designers) start investigating a new design with
sketches and diagrams, to develop a rough design that provides an adequate response to the
particular design problems.
248
There are two basic elements to a building design, the aesthetic and the practical. The aesthetic
element includes the layout and visual appearance, the anticipated feel of the materials, and
cultural references that will influence the way people perceive the building. Practical concerns
include space allocated for different activities, how people enter and move around the building,
daylight and artificial lighting, acoustics, traffic noise, legal matters and building codes, and
many other issues. While both aspects are partly a matter of customary practice, every site is
different. Many architects actively seek innovation, thereby increasing the number of problems
to be resolved.
Architectural legend often refers to designs made on the back of an envelope or on a
napkin.[13] Initial thoughts are important, even if they have to be discarded along the way,
because they provide the central idea around which the design can develop. Although a sketch is
inaccurate, it is disposable and allows for freedom of thought, for trying different ideas quickly.
Choice becomes sharply reduced once the design is committed to a scale drawing, and the sketch
stage is almost always essential.
Diagrams are mainly used to resolve practical matters. In the early phases of the design architects
use diagrams to develop, explore, and communicate ideas and solutions. They are essential tools
for thinking, problem solving, and communication in the design disciplines. Diagrams can be
used to resolve spatial relationships, but they can also represent forces and flows, e.g. the forces
of sun and wind, or the flows of people and materials through a building.[15]
An exploded view diagram shows component parts dis-assembled in some way, so that each can
be seen on its own. These views are common in technical manuals, but are also used in
architecture, either in conceptual diagrams or to illustrate technical details. In a cutaway
view parts of the exterior are omitted to show the interior, or details of internal
construction.[16] Although common in technical illustration, including many building products
and systems, the cutaway is in fact little-used in architectural drawing.
Types: Architectural drawings are produced for a specific purpose, and can be classified
accordingly. Several elements are often included on the same sheet, for example a sheet showing
a plan together with the principal façade.
Presentation drawings
Drawings intended to explain a scheme and to promote its merits. Working drawings may
include tones or hatches to emphasise different materials, but they are diagrams, not intended to
appear realistic. Basic presentation drawings typically include people, vehicles and trees, taken
from a library of such images, and are otherwise very similar in style to working
drawings. Rendering is the art of adding surface textures and shadows to show the visual
qualities of a building more realistically. An architectural illustrator or graphic designer may be
employed to prepare specialist presentation images, usually perspectives or highly finished site
plans, floor plans and elevations etc.
Survey drawings of existing land, structures and buildings. Architects need an accurate set of
survey drawings as a basis for their working drawings, to establish exact dimensions for the
construction work. Surveys are usually measured and drawn up by specialist land surveyors.
Record drawings
Historically, architects have made record drawings in order to understand and emulate the great
architecture known to them. In the Renaissance, architects from all over Europe studied and
249
recorded the remains of the Roman and Greek civilizations, and used these influences to develop
the architecture of the period. Records are made both individually, for local purposes, and on a
large scale for publication. Historic surveys worth referring to include:
Colen Campbell's Vitruvius Brittanicus, illustrations of English buildings by Inigo
Jones and Sir Christopher Wren, as well as Campbell himself and other prominent architects
of the era.
The Survey of London, founded in 1894 by Charles Robert Ashbee and now available
through English Heritage. A record of notable streets and individual buildings in the former
County of London.
Historic American Buildings Survey, records of notable buildings drawn up during the
1930s Depression, this collection is held by the Library of Congress and is available
copyright-free on the internet.
Record drawings are also used in construction projects, where "as-built" conditions of the
completed building are documented to take account of all the variations made during the course
of construction.
Working drawings
A comprehensive set of drawings used in a building construction project: these will include not
only architect's drawings, but structural and other engineering drawings as well. Working
drawings logically subdivide into location, assembly and component drawings.
250
Location drawings, also called general arrangement drawings, include floor plans, sections
and elevations: they show where the construction elements are located.
Assembly drawings show how the different parts are put together. For example, a wall detail
will show the layers that make up the construction, how they are fixed to structural elements,
how to finish the edges of openings, and how prefabricated components are to be fitted.
Component drawings enable self-contained elements e.g. windows and doorsets, to be
fabricated in a workshop, and delivered to site complete and ready for installation. Larger
components may include roof trusses, cladding panels, cupboards and kitchens. Complete
rooms, especially hotel bedrooms and bathrooms, may be made as prefabricated pods
complete with internal decorations and fittings.
Formerly, working drawings would typically combine plans, sections, elevations and some
details to provide a complete explanation of a building on one sheet. That was possible because
251
little detail was included, the building techniques involved being common knowledge amongst
building professionals. Modern working drawings are much more detailed and it is standard
practice to isolate select areas of the project on separate sheets. Notes included on drawings are
brief, referring to standardised specification documents for more information. Understanding the
layout and construction of a modern building involves studying an often-sizeable set of drawings
and documents.
Drafting
Until the latter part of the 20th century, all architectural drawings were manually produced, if not
by the architects, then by trained (but less skilled) draftsmen (or drafters), who did not generate
the design, but did make many of the less important decisions. This system has continued with
CAD drafting: many design architects have little or no knowledge of CAD software
programmes, relying upon others to take their designs beyond the sketch stage. Draftsmen often
specialize in a type of structure, such as residential or commercial, or in a type of construction:
timber frame, reinforced concrete, prefabrication, etc.
The traditional tools of the architect were the drawing board or drafting table, T-square and set
squares, protractor, compasses, pencil, and drawing pens of different types. Drawings were made
on vellum, coated linen, and tracing paper. Lettering would either be done by hand, mechanically
using a stencil, or a combination of the two. Ink lines were drawn with a ruling pen, a relatively
sophisticated device similar to a dip-in pen, but with adjustable line width, capable of producing
a very fine controlled line width. Ink pens had to be dipped into ink frequently. Draftsmen
worked standing up, keeping the ink on a separate table to avoid spilling ink on the drawing.
Developments in the 20th century included the parallel motion drawing board, as well as more
complex improvements on the basic T-square. The development of reliable technical drawing
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pens allowed for faster drafting and stencilled lettering. Letraset dry transfer lettering and halftone sheets were popular from the 1970s until computers made those processes obsolete]
CGI and computer-aided design
Computer generated perspective of gears
Computer-aided design (generally referred to by the acronym CAD) is the use of computer
software to create drawings. Today the vast majority of technical drawings of all kinds are made
using CAD. Instead of drawing lines on paper, the computer records equivalent information
electronically. There are many advantages to this system: repetition is reduced because complex
elements can be copied, duplicated and stored for re-use. Errors can be deleted, and the speed of
drafting allows many permutations to be tried before the design is finalised. On the other hand,
CAD drawing encourages a proliferation of detail and increased expectations of accuracy,
aspects which reduce the efficiency originally expected from the move to computerization.
253
An example of a drawing drafted in AutoCAD
Professional CAD software such as AutoCAD is complex and requires both training and
experience before the operator becomes fully productive. Consequently, skilled CAD operators
are often divorced from the design process. Simpler software such as SketchUp and Vectorworks
allows for more intuitive drawing and is intended as a design tool.
CAD is used to create all kinds of drawings, from working drawings to photorealistic perspective
views. Architectural renderings (also called visualisations) are made by creating a threedimensional model using CAD. The model can be viewed from any direction to find the most
useful viewpoints. Different software (for example Autodesk 3ds Max) is then used to apply
colour and texture to surfaces, and to represent shadows and reflections. The result can be
accurately combined with photographic elements: people, cars, background landscape.
Building information modeling
Building information modeling (BIM) is the logical development of CAD drawing, a relatively
new technology but fast becoming mainstream. The design team collaborates to create a threedimensional computer model, and all plans and other two-dimensional views are generated
directly from the model, ensuring spatial consistency. The key innovation here is to share the
model via the internet, so that all the design functions (site survey, architecture, structure and
services) can be integrated into a single model, or as a series of models associated with each
specialism that are shared throughout the design development process. Some form of
management, not necessarily by the architect, needs to be in place to resolve conflicting
priorities. The starting point of BIM is spatial design, but it also enables components to be
quantified and scheduled directly from the information embedded in the model.
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Architectural animation
An architectural animation is a short film showing how a proposed building will look: the
moving image makes three-dimensional forms much easier to understand. An animation is
generated from a series of hundreds or even thousands of still images, each made in the same
way as an architectural visualisation. A computer-generated building is created using a CAD
programme, and that is used to create more or less realistic views from a sequence of viewpoints.
The simplest animations use a moving viewpoint, while more complex animations can include
moving objects: people, vehicles, and so on.[
Architectural reprography
Blueprint
Reprographics or reprography covers a variety of technologies, media, and support services used
to make multiple copies of original drawings. Prints of architectural drawings are still sometimes
called blueprints, after one of the early processes which produced a white line on blue paper. The
process was superseded by the dye-line print system which prints black on white coated paper
(Whiteprint).
The
standard
modern
processes
are
the ink-jet
printer, laser
printer and photocopier, of which the ink-jet and laser printers are commonly used for large255
format printing. Although colour printing is now commonplace, it remains expensive above A3
size, and architect's working drawings still tend to adhere to the black and white / greyscale
aesthetic.
Sun
City arizona
256
257
Renderings of Georgian Fan Lights, Baltimore
1. Almost all religious theories of the oriental civilization believe in the existence of
a center from which everything instigates. This center is a point called the bindu.
In Sanskrit, it is also referred to as ‘dapsa’ and ‘avayava’ meaning the physical
body. Originally, the Supreme Reality represented by the symbol of the universe
is the bindu as a central point of a circle or a triangle. It is the manifestation of
creative dynamism. It also means the vibratory sound – the cosmic sound that
relates to unconditional consciousness. In Hindu philosophy, the “bindu” forms
the central part of mandala which is the cosmic model that organizes the spiritual
world. For centuries, this formed the basis of creating architectural spaces
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through the construction of temples and other religious cultural structures. The
model interweaves natural elements essential for human survival and healthy
spatial organization.
The present research is the continuity of work since 1980 when the first temple of Vellore was
documented as part of a student project. Further literary interest in bindu and mandala led to the
investigation of these principles through practice and the maiden venture was the IGNCA
Cultural Center in New Delhi in the year 1986. Though partially successful through practice, the
concept of “bindu and mandala” has a great potential in the realm of sacred architecture and can
reinvigorate architectural spaces to bring sacredness and well-being.
Keywords: Bindu, Mandala, Culture, Built Environment, Sacred Architecture
2. MANDALA AND THE BINDU
In Tantric philosophy, the moon or the indu is also associated with the basic concept of the
bindu. Drops of dew located in the pinnacle of the body i.e. head is believed to be a
manifestation of the bindu. The goal of the person practicing yoga is to attain liberation or
moksha as a result of which the dew drops which are as cool as the moon melts and flows
through the entire body.
Voidness or sunnya is also represented by the bindu as it occupies a minute unit of space in a
unique
place.
The second most important component of the mandala diagram is the nabhi. Nabhi or navel is
the straight line that is generated when the bindu moves in a particular direction. Bindu or the
center of the universe or of the body is considered to be the nabhi. This is also defined as the hub
of a wheel i.e. Nabhi Chakra which comprises of three parts. Firstly, the center point around
which everything revolves called the bindu. Secondly, the thick circular part to which the spokes
of the wheel are fixed. And thirdly, the spokes itself or aras. [1]
According to the Vaishnavaite mythology, Lord Vishnu or the protector of life is also referred to
as Padmanabha (Padma – lotus), which means “one with lotus flower sized navel”. [2] It is
believed to be the center of creative energy. The phenomenal universe is symbolized by Lord
Brahma also known as God of creation emerging from the navel of Lord Vishnu. Some cultures
in the oriental region believe that the mandala is represented as a lotus. The lotus, when
represented as a central portion of the chakra, exposes three divisions –the karnika or the
pericarps, the kesara or the filament and the petals. Hindu mythology regards the lotus as a
symbol of the pedestal or the throne of Gods.
In the practice of yoga, the ultimate aim is to focus the concentration on the central point of the
nabhi to attain a greater level of realization. The third major component that forms the mandala
is the chakra, which is nothing but a circling wheel with a center and circumference. It is the
symbolical representation of the universe. The center of the wheel, which represents complete
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emptiness, is imagined to possess the characters of dukha (pain) and sukha (pleasure) symbolized
by black and white respectively. [1]
3. THE SRI YANTRA AND THE BINDU
Figure 1. The Sri Yantra representing the “Evolution of Life and Involution of Life”
Nine interlocking triangles around a bindu represent the Sri Yantra. It is also called a Navayoni
Chakra because of the presence of nine (nava) triangles (yoni). Out of these nine triangles, five
of them point downwards symbolize Sakti (feminine energy) and the remaining four points
upwards symbolize Siva (masculine energy). The Sri Yantra shows the various stages of Sakti’s
descent in expression.
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The para bindu is the first stage of manifestation represented by a point being the nucleus of
condensed energy. It represents the static and dynamic aspects of Siva and Sakti in one. Creation
begins when this transforms into apara bindu when the center swells and becomes a form of a
triangle. The interaction between the static and dynamic energy results in the formation of a triad
– the Mula – trikona or the triangle. [3]
Figure 2. (From Left to Right) Trailokya- Mohana Chakra; Sarvasaparipuraka Chakra; Sarva- Sankshobhana Chakra; and
Sarva- Saubhagyadayaka Chakra
Figure 3. (From Left to Right): Sarvartha- Sadhaka Chakra And Sarvarakshakara Chakra; Sarva- Rogahara
Chakra; Sarva- Siddhiprada Chakra; and Bindu: Sarva- Anandamaya Chakra
There are nine circuits that constitute the Sri Yantra from the outer plane to the bindu. The
outermost periphery of the yantra consists of four gates located in the centers of the sides of a
square and these are coloured white, red and yellow. Also called bhupara this is the ground plan
of the Sri Yantra. There are three concentric circles inside the square called mekhala. The space
between the square and the circles is the Trilokya-mohana or the Enchantress of the Triple World
and this represents the stage when one is infatuated by objectives and wishes. Sarvarthasaddhaka meaning Accomplisher of All Purpose and Sarvarakshakara meaning Giver of
Protection represent a period of self-realization and these two chakras are constituted of ten
triangles each. Sarva – rogahara or the Remover of all Desires and Ills is the next chakra
constituting eight triangles and represents the period of the inner circle of realization after freeing
oneself from worldly ties. The Giver of All Accomplishments or the Sarva-siddhiprada is the
stage just before realization and is represented by an inverted triangle. Colouring all the triangles
red as they represent radiant energy reflects the dynamism.
The culmination results in the last chakra, which is the bindu itself known as Sarva-anandamaya,
which means Full of Bliss. This is the state when one participates in the union. This is
represented as colourless as the point is light itself. [3]
4. VASTU PURUSHA MANDALA AND THE BINDU
Vastu Purusha Mandala can be explained as the diagram of the universe in miniature. The word
mandala in Sanskrit means a circle. It can be explained as a cosmic diagram that possesses radial
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symmetry. Purusha can be explained as a cosmic man, an embodiment of pure consciousness.
Also represented as a masculine divine he is contained in a square grid showing his union with
the feminine divine or the Earth Mother.
Thus, Vastu Purusha Mandala can be explained as a harmonious unification of the masculine
divine and the feminine divine or the cosmic energy and the earth energy respectively.
The Vastu Purusha Mandala contains a minimum of nine sections signifying the directions north,
south, east, west, northeast, northwest, southeast, southwest and the center represented as square
grids. In the Vastu Purusha Mandala, the Purusha’s head is located in the northeast direction and
this is considered utmost sacred. In the southwest are his feet and his knees and elbows in the
northwest and southeast. Kept open and clear in the center part of the diagram are his main
organs and his torso. Starting from a single undivided square of 1 x 1 there are grid patterns
ranging up to 32 x 32 thus making it 1024 sections. [4]
Architecturally, the adaptation of the Vastu Purusha Mandala has been seen in the design of
houses, palaces, temples and even cities. Integrating it into the design brings a certain amount of
order in the design. Here, the squares are assumed as cubes of architectural spaces. [5]
The five elements of earth, water, fire, air and space correspond with specific sections of the
Vastu Purusha Mandala. The south-west direction is associated with the element of
earth(Bhumi); south-east with the elements of fire (Agni); north-east with the element of water
(Jala); north-west with the element of air (Vayu) and the center space with the element of space
(Akasha) [4].
Figure 5. Manduka Purusha Mandala Showing the Concentric Zones of Energy
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The commonly used ones are the 8 x 8 and the 9 x 9 grids. The 8 x 8 grid also called the
Manduka Vastu Mandala is used mainly in temple architecture. The 9 x 9 grid also called the
Parasayika Vastu Mandala is used for the design of residential spaces and spaces other than
temples. The center of the mandala is both sunnya (the absolute Void) and bindu (the source of
all energy). Located here is Lord Brahma (The Supreme creator). [5]
The term Pada in Sanskrit means the section of the energy grid pattern in the Vastu Purusha
Mandala. There are concentric padas of energy in the mandala. The primary source of energy
that is highly changed is in the center called the Brahma Pada. The Deivika pada around this is
the luminous space. These two padas should be kept free of no walls. The conscious space or the
Manusha Pada surrounds the Deivika Pada. Finally, the material space encompasses all of it and
is the Paisachika Pada. These two padas are for the built structure and human occupancy. [4]
5. MANDALA AND HINDU TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE
Although there have been various arguments by authors of Indian temple architecture like Stella
Kramrisch and Michael W. Meister about the applicability of the Vastu Purusha Mandala as a
governing device for temple architecture, it is safe to say that for formulating the layout of the
temple, the Vastu Purusha Mandala has been an imperative tool. [6] Though the 8 x 8 grid or the
Manduka Vastu Mandala has been used in various temples of Indian architecture, it is to be
noted that regional differences have played a major influence on the workability of the mandala
design throughout India. [7]
Customarily, mandalas were spaces for the symbolic consciousness of universal theories which
help in the awakening of the individual psyche. [8] The mandalas can be thought of as diagrams
that function as a cue to reach a contemplational state which is the primary aim of the tradition.
[9] The form of the temples that are based on the regulating lines of the mandala were meant to
create spaces that bring about a “physical and spatial” communion between God and man. [10]
6. MANDALA AND BUDDHIST TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE
The mandala in Buddhism is a cosmic model depicting Buddha’s dwelling place as the center of
the universe. Like in the Hindu temples, the structuring of the Buddhist temples has also been
predominantly based on the spiritual model of the mandala. Illustrations can be seen both in the
form of two-dimensional mandalas as well as three-dimensional mandalas. The two-dimensional
mandalas which are drawings composed of squares and concentric circles could be temporarily
painted on various material or drawn on the ground or sand or other natural substances using
coloured powder. Customs involving ceremonious gatherings along with prayers and chantings
while drawing the mandalas are believed to alleviate difficulties and be of greater good to an
individual or a community. These ceremonies could even last up to a number of days. [11]
Three-dimensionally, the mandala diagram becomes a visual model of the built environment. In
the Buddhist worship place, the central space is significant having a statue of the Buddha fronted
by a worshipping space surrounded by walls. This is encircled by a circumambulating space. The
circumambulation pathway is a space of psychological awakening before reaching the spiritual
pinnacle. [12]
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7. THE HINDU AND BUDDHIST MANDALA – A SPECULATIVE PROJECT – PEACE
MEMORIAL FOR THE TAMILS, SRI LANKA (2014)
The continuing search for the mystery of sacral space by author1 led to an experiment on a
speculative project called the Peace Museum for the Tamils in Sri Lanka. The Tamil peace
memorial, proposed to be built in Mullaitivu, Sri Lanka, which was controlled by the LTTE and
was witness to many killings of the Tamils during the civil war.
The mandala is of significant importance in both Hinduism and Buddhism. Both religions adopt
the mandala as a peaceful and creative symbol. Hence, the speculative project finds a balance to
build a memorial, which will signify peace and harmony of the Tamil community. The scale of
the mandala here is monumental imposing the idea of spirituality and peace. Contemplating the
mandala does not only provide insight into reality, the Cosmos but also communion with it.
Mandala is the mystery that pervades all existence. Mandala alleviates suffering individually as
well as in society. Contemplation can help overcome antagonism, conflict, stress and even war.
Bindu as a symbolism is the beginning of the process that culminates into a mandala.
Here the mandala and the bindu is in three-dimension with the mandala rising above the sea level
to be a visual spectacle defining the solid cube and its framework. The ritual pathway from the
entry point contains the narrative and progresses to the main mandala. The plan of the museum is
the Sri Yantra which
is the representation of life from bindu and the unfolding universe. The memorial is primarily a
cultural model represented through the mandala. [13]
9. CONCLUSION
The position of the bindu in the Vastu Purusha Mandala as the seat of Lord Brahma symbolizes
creative life. The process of bindu as a point and reaching the ultimate form of a mandala
signifies the bindu’s transformation to mandala and back. This proves the theory of ‘Evolution
and Involution.’ Bindu and mandala have inspired artists and architects in isolation. But the
author experiments with the process itself by manifesting the philosophy through architectural
form finding which is significant to spirituality and the context of the practice.
The study of bindu and mandala and its interpretation into architecture can be a convenient way
theoretically to root the design in tradition. It is important to balance this transformation to
architecture with contemporary design. Without careful consideration, the outcome could be
superficial.
In architecture, sacral space can exist everywhere whether it is religious or non-religious. It
becomes a difficult task for architects to create this space which takes on different meanings in
different situations. It is culturally fluid and socially adaptable. Such a space is a meaningful
fourth dimension of architecture which is both visible and invisible. And the most potent
definition to support this idea can be found in Vedas, which defines this space as, “Space is that,
which accommodates space”.2
REFERENCES
[1]
M. Shakya, “Basic Concepts of Mandala,” Voice of History, vol. 15(1), pp. 81 – 88, 2000.
[2]
“The Art of Living,” [Online]. Available: http://www.artofliving.org/padmanabha-lotus-navel..
264
[Accessed 2014 November 2014].
[3]
A. Mookerjee and M. Khanna, The Tantric Way – Art. Science. Ritual, London: Thames and
Hudson, 1977.
[4]
S. Silverman, Vastu: Transcendental Home Design in Harmony with Nature, Utah: Gibbs Smith,
2007.
[5]
C. Kagal, Ed., Vistara – The Architecture of India, Bombay: The Festival of India, 1986, p. 36.
[6]
E. E. Raddock, “Listen how the wise one begins construction of a house for Viṣṇu,” Berkeley, 2011.
[7]
L. S. Thakur, “Application of Vāstupuraṣamaṇḍala in the Indian Temple Architecture: An Analysis
of the Nāgara Temple Plans of Himachal Pradesh,” Artibus Asiae, vol. 50, no. 3/4, pp. 263-284,
1990.
[8]
M. Grey, “Encountering the mandala: the mental and political architectures of dependency,” Cultural
Mandala: The Bulletin of the Centre for East-West Cultural and Economic Studies, vol. 4, no. 2, 11 1
2001.
[9]
S. Bafna, “On the Idea of the Mandala as a Governing Device in Indian Architectural Tradition,” J
Soc Archit Hist, vol. 59, no. 1, pp. 26 – 49, March 2000.
[10]
G. Michell, The Hindu Temple – An Introduction to its Meaning and Forms, Chicago and London:
The University of Chicago Press, 1977, pp. 71-72.
[11]
T. Anderson, “Mandala: Constructing Peace through art,” Art Education, pp. 33-39, May 2002.
[12]
P. Xu, “The Mandala as a cosmic model used to systematically structure the Tibetan Buddhist
Landscape,” J Archit Plan Res, vol. 27, no. 3, pp. 181-203, 2010.
[13]
Coherence of Tradition in Practice, Khan and Varadarajan.
REFERENCES
1.http://www.wilbourhall.org/pdfs/suryasiddhanth035839mbp.pdf Check
page 286 for the shlokas and the
commentary.Phylogeny mandalas for illustrating the Tree of Life,MasamiHasegawa,The Institute of
Statistical
Mathematics,
Midori-cho
10-3,
Tachikawa,
Tokyo
190-8562,
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1055790316303049?via%3Dihub
The Coral of Life,János Podani ,Evolutionary Biology volume 46, pages123–144(2019)
Japan
2.RESEARCH – APPLICATION OF BINDU AND MANDALA AS A MODEL FOR CULTURAL
AND SACRED ARCHITECTURE, JAFFER KHAN
https://architecturelive.in/research-application-of-bindu-and-mandala-as-a-model-for-cultural-and-sacredarchitecture/
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CHAPTER X
The World Mountain – Mount Meru in myths and legends of
peoples of the world
The cosmic or World Mountain as axis mundi is mentioned in world mythology just as
frequently as the World Tree. As a rule, these two images peacefully coexist, not excluding, but
rather being superimposed on each other. The World Tree stretching to the heaven is often
placed on top of a giant mountain in the middle of the universe. Both concepts serve as
embodiments of the sacred axis in the world structure.
In my opinion, the concept of the World Mountain is most profoundly revealed in Anastasia
Novykh’s Sensei of Shambala – Book IV, so let us start with this very source:
“What is the World Mountain?” Slava asked Sensei.
“Well, generally speaking, it’s quite a well-known concept, frequently mentioned in the
folklore of different peoples of the world,” Sensei started explaining in detail to our amazement.
“Ideas of the World Mountain, or as it is also called the cosmic mountain, date back to extreme
antiquity. According to mythology, the World Mountain is located in an inaccessible place in the
centre of the universe or, to be more precise, in the place where the axis mundi, the axis of the
universe runs through all worlds, including the disjoint ones located in the same space. It is
deemed that all the elements and parameters of the universal order are reflected in the World
Mountain. Legends say immortal gods gather together on it, and from there everything that
happens in the universe is seen.”
266
“Immortal gods gather together there,” Kostya repeated Sensei’s phrase and directed his
admiring gaze at the image of the ‘World Mountain’ gradually dissolving in the clouds.”
Sensei shrugged his shoulders, “Well, gods in the sense like… As legends say, sages from
the entire universe, that is spiritual beings who possess Knowledge and have achieved certain
levels of spiritual development, like our Imhotep or Buddha who were able to leave their bodies
during their life in the state of meditation and to appear on the World Mountain, to stay there, to
communicate, to share their experience with similar enlightened representatives of other worlds.
At that, immortality is meant not in the sense of one’s body, but immortality of the spiritual
nature of those who visit that place.”
“Wow, it’s the mountain for the select ones!” Kostya made his conclusion with admiration.
“Well, what does ‘the select ones’ really mean?” Sensei objected. “Everybody is the select
one if he or she exists. However, not everybody makes one’s life choice in favour the Spiritual
Way, not to mention following it towards God. Though everything depends on a person oneself!
Everyone is able, if he or she wants, to evolve to such a spiritual level that he or she will be able
to participate in one of such high gatherings.”
Stas could hardly wait until Sensei replies Kostya’s questions and uttered with impatience,
“Does it mean the World Mountain doesn’t look like this mountain?” he motioned to the
disappearing heavenly image of the mountain with melting-down snowy hat on its sharp-edged
top.
“Well, it’s not really a mountain,” Sensei slightly waved with his hand, lighting up a
cigarette. “It looks like a bald little hill, with a big glade on its top. Well, not quite bald. It is
covered with petty grass like our dark green moss, it’s a peculiar plant not from our world. The
only interesting thing is that there is atmosphere, but no wind. That what is meant to be the ‘air’
there does not move…”
“Does the World Mountain really exist?!” Andrew asked with distrust. Like all of us, he held
his breath before that in order to hear Sensei’s answer to Stas better.
In response Sensei said in quite a usual tone, as if it went without saying, “The World
Mountain is located in the universe simultaneously on the crossroads of layers of this world. But
materially its location is in no certain populated world of the universe. At the same time, it links
up all the worlds on itself. It is absolutely real, even by touch…”
“Many records and legends remained from extreme antiquity almost all over Eastern and
Central Asia where it is called the great Mount Meru and considered to be the centre of the world
located in an inaccessible place. Later, when people began to give their own interpretations of
the original legends about this mountain, some ’interpreters’ placed it in the centre of the earth
267
under the Pole Star and encircled with the world ocean, others placed in the inaccessible
Himalayas and associated it with Shambala…”
“Is it associated even with Shambala?” Volodya got surprised.
Sensei grinned.
“Sure. There is plenty of such interweaving of legends about the World Mountain with
legends about Shambala. But it is understandable. For people who know nothing about Shambala
or the cosmic Mount Meru, both located ‘somewhere there’, nobody knows where, all these
concepts will certainly merge together in one and the same idea. Though in fact there is a big
difference between them. Shambala is located between the real eternal world of God and the
temporarily existing material universe. It’s the abode of Bodhisattvas. Whereas the World
Mountain is located amidst the worlds of the material universe, and it is a place of visit of wise
beings, like our enlightened people or demigods as they were called by ancient people, that is
those who reached a high spiritual level. Therefore in ancient legends this mountain was
associated with achievement of the genuine human happiness and immortality.
In the mythology of Ancient India there was a range of myths connected with Meru.
According to such ancient views, Brahma, Shiva and other great gods live on the World
Mountain located in the centre of the universe, with stars, planets and many suns revolving
around it. There are also references to thirty-three gods who communicate with each other there.
Their activities are described, too. For example, on this mountain Vishnu gives advices to other
gods on how to extract the drink of immortality Amrita.”
“Amrita… sounds nice,” Tatiana said. “Is it somehow connected with a female name?”
“No. This word originates from ‘amrta’ meaning ‘immortal’. It is similar to a later ancient
Greek myth about the Ambrosia drink which maintains immortality of Olympic gods and their
eternal youth. Amrita, Ambrosia is the same as the Vedic juice of Soma. In Rigveda it is
described as a juice of gods that causes an ecstatic state and grants immortality and extraordinary
force. In ancient Hindu religious practice the very process of preparation of this juice represented
a special ritual. In Avesta this juice is called Haoma, and its cult goes back to the ancient Iranian
period. It was also worshipped by Sarmatians and Scythians. This juice was also called ‘death
averting’. It not only changed space and time perception, but granted enormous power,
enlightenment and knowledge. As ancient Iranians believed, it prepared the way for the soul in
the best way. But as a matter of fact this juice of immortality has always been called the ‘juice of
lotus’. In nearly all legends this sacred juice was described as the juice of an unusual heavenly
plant connected with the earth, beautifully and rightly created, which had a white and yellow,
and even golden colour…”
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… Buddha became able to visit the World Mountain. Owing to Buddha and some of his followers
who possessed this knowledge, the information about Mount Meru became known across the
Orient. Buddhists, by the way, like Hindu, described this mountain as a pistil of the lotus flower – the
sacred flower for both religions, and this image was more associated not with the mountain itself, but
with main elements of a dynamic meditation for preparation to visit Meru.
Or let us take our Slavonic ‘heathenism’. What is noteworthy about it is that knowledge and practices
about the World Mountain were accessible to ordinary people, unlike ’usurpation’ of this knowledge
by priests of other peoples. For a long time on Slavonic territories people practiced ancient rituals of
magic ‘flights’ to the cosmic mountain, which were held on a sacred hill similar by its shape to
outlines of the World Mountain. By the way, in old times people celebrated big holidays not because
they wanted to enjoy themselves. From time immemorial holidays were arranged on the days that
coincided with certain cosmic cycles, and people started celebrations not in the morning as it is
habitual today, but in the evening, at the rise of the first star.
In the course of time, when ‘heathenism’ was extirpated by fire and sword among Slavonic peoples
and the Christian faith was imposed, they began to persecute servants of ‘heathen cults who were
labelled as ‘devil’s offspring’, ’servants of the devil’. At that, ‘pagan’ ancient rituals were labelled as
sabbaths and festivals of ‘satanic forces’ hostile to people. Generally speaking, after physical
annihilation of most of the magi, the knowledge about the World Mountain was lost, and what
remained was distorted to a negative side beyond recognition. Holidays were renamed, although due
to such renaming the occurrence of certain cosmic cycles didn’t change of course, and neither did the
holiness of relevant places. Thus, Christian churches were built on the sites of former heathen
temples of chief pagan gods. But, as they say, this is already history.
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A similar image of the World Mountain in the centre of the universe was known to Altaians, though
they called it Altyn-Tu. According to their beliefs, the foundation of this golden cosmic mountain
was fastened to the heaven (i.e. its widest part was above and its narrowest part was beneath), and its
top hung above the earth at the distance ‘equal to the length of a human shin’. Moreover, they had
other widespread names of the World Mountain, e.g. Mount Sumeru, with stars revolving around it.
It was also known by Kalmyks and many other peoples in Central Asia. According to myths of the
Altai people, there are 33 tengri, or 33 gods on it.
The Chinese call the World Mountain Kunlun. According to their beliefs, it is possible to go through
it to the highest spheres of the universe. It was considered to be something like ‘paradise’. There is a
following record in one of ancient texts, “The one who would go up from Kunlun twice as high will
reach the Mountain of Cool Wind and gain immortality; the one who would go up twice as high will
reach the Hanging Ground and gain miraculous abilities, having learnt to manage the wind and the
rain; the one who would go up twice as high will reach the heaven, the abode of Tai Di – the supreme
lords, and will become a spirit.” For unconversant people it’s a nice fairy tale, while for
knowledgeable people it is only a hint.
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By the way, such association of the World Mountain with paradise is mentioned in the Bible as well.
There you can find separate evidences pointing out to echoes of knowledge about the World
Mountain, e.g. that it is located in the centre of the universe, that God descends to it, that there is kind
of a paradise on it, that the mountain is surrounded with rivers that symbolize the primeval ocean.
The text also says that only a righteous person with ‘innocent hands and pure heart’ is able to ascend
it. It was associated with Mount Zion, and even with Mount Ararat to which Noah’s Ark moored
according to the legend.
Muslims describe the World Mountain in their texts in a quite interesting though a bit camouflaged
way. Firstly, Islamic myths mention that Allah created a huge Mount Qaf which encircled the
populated world and firmly supported the universe. The Creator created another earth behind this
mountain, seven times bigger in size, which is populated by angels so densely that even a needle
can’t fall down between them…
Ideas of the World Mountain, just like of the World Tree, date back to the remote antiquity. These
cosmological images are recorded in rock paintings of the Upper Palaeolithic, i.e. have a history of
several tens of thousands of years. In any case, we can speak of people’s knowledge of the axis
mundi during the Stone Age with certainty. This is exactly how we can interpret numerous images
found by archaeologists on Neolithic ceramics and widespread from Western Asia through China.
Having appeared on ceramics in the period preceding the emergence of the first great civilizations,
the motif of the universe pillar preserved its popularity in visual arts in subsequent periods as well.
Thus, for instance, Scythians believed Mount Meru was in the north, in the region of darkness and
snow, “where stars, the Moon and the Sun revolve”. A common plot of many myths and legends was
description of the magic abode behind the sacred mountains – the so-called “land of blissful”,
situated on the northern slope of Mount Meru, on the shore of the Milky Ocean (Sea) – the Arctic
Ocean.
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The World Mountain (an image on Neolithic ceramics. the Mediterranean)
The World Mountain (an image on Neolithic ceramics. the Mediterranean)
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Altai Tatars imagine Bay Ulgen sitting amidst the Heaven on a golden mountain. Abakan Tatars call
it the Iron Mountain; Mongols, Buryats and Kalmyks know it as Sumbur, Sumur or Sumeru. In
Central Asian traditions and for many Altai peoples, the World Mountain, based on the image of
Mount Meru (Sumeru, Sumur, Sumbur, etc.), is often represented as an iron pillar (the Iron
Mountain) located in the middle of the earthly disc and joining heaven and earth, with its top
touching the Pole Star. Sometimes the Mountain (Sumbur) stands on a navel of a turtle turned to its
side, on each leg of which a particular continent is located. According to other versions, the Pole Star
itself is the edge of God’s palace built on top of the Mountain. Kalmyks believe that stars revolve
around Mount Sumeru. According to myths of some Altai peoples, 33 tengri live on top of the
Mountain. There is a myth saying that Sumeru is three times surrounded by the enormous serpent
Losun.
Mongols and Kalmyks believe the World Mountain has three or four tiers; for Siberian Tatars the
Mountain has seven tiers. In their mystic journeys Yakut shamans also ascend a seven-tier mountain.
Its top rests against the Pole Star – “the navel of the heaven”. Buryats say the Pole Star is attached to
the Mountain top.
Description of the World Mountain in ancient Egyptian mythology
From Sensei of Shambala – Book IV by Anastasia Novykh:
In earlier times Ra was worshipped in Heliopolis as a god of the ‘mature’ daylight sun.
Before the Archons’ priests started using the image of Ra, the god of the midday sun, people in
Heliopolis worshipped Atum, the god of the evening sun and the creator of the world. However,
the most interesting thing is that Atum is a later alteration of the name of goddess Atama who
according to ancient legends showed herself as a hill originated from the primeval waters of Nun
(the water chaos from which everything emerged). A lotus flower blossomed out on this hill, and
bright light illumined the darkness. It was namely goddess Atama who played the main role in
maintaining the world order. The all-seeing Eye knowing about everything in the world glared
on her crown which consisted of lotus petals…
Description of Mount Meru in the Mahabharata
The most classical World Mountain is the great Mount Meru in Hindu mythology and
cosmography. It is situated in the centre of the earth under the Pole Star and surrounded by the
world ocean. On its three tops – golden, silver and iron – there reside Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva,
or (according to other versions) 33 deities making up the pantheon; underneath the mountain there
is the Asur Kingdom. A huge tree stands on each of the four mountains that surround Meru
(including Ashvattha and Pippala which represent the World Tree), indicating a corresponding
cardinal direction. In Buddhist texts, in addition to Mount Meru there is Himavat (“the King of
Mountains”) serving as a pillow for Tathāgata.
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Himavat – the King of Mountains
In the Mahabharata, Meru is a mountainous land with sky-high peaks, where the main peak is Mount
Mandara. The Mahabharata describes lands beyond the Himalayas: Tibet and Pamir ranges, Central
Asian deserts, impenetrable forests, polar regions and such arctic phenomena as the stationary Pole
Star, stars that neither rise nor set, but revolve in a horizontal plane, completing a circle every 24
hours, the high-standing constellation of Ursa Major (the Big Dipper, or the Great Bear), the sun that
rises only once a year, nights and days lasting for six months, the polar aurora, the long darkness
region, and so on. It is mentioned that on the edge of this region Mount Meru towers with its northern
slope being the Milky Ocean coast. According to the Mahabharata:
On the northern side, the mighty Meru stands, shining in its great glory; Brahma’s abode is on
it, where the soul of all beings resides, Prajapati that created everything movable and immovable…
The great Meru, the chaste, good abode… Here (over the mountain) seven divine Rishis with
Vasishtha (constellation of the Bid Dipper) at their head set and rise again.
All heavenly bodies revolve around Meru. The polar star hangs on it motionlessly, while
Cassiopeia and Bootes circle around it together with the Bid Dipper. Here, the day lasts for six
months and the night lasts for six months, one night and one day being equal to a year. To the north
of the Milky Ocean there is a big island known as Shveta Dvila (“the Radiant White Island”).
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This land is described as “the land of everlasting happiness”, “the tribe knows neither diseases nor
age weakness”, “flocks of antelopes and birds are everywhere”, “having gone there, one does not
return to his world again”. It’s “the Land of the Select”, “the Land of Saints”, “the Land of Blissful”.
Devas used the Meru peak as a beater for the ocean churning, which resulted in emergence of
Amrita:
… and started beating the water to obtain Amrita. When devas and suras churned the ocean with
Mandara, the great noise began, similar to rumble of monstrous clouds. Various water inhabitants,
crushed by the great mountain, found their death in the salt water. Diverse creatures of the world of
Varuna, as well as inhabitants of lower regions of the world, were destroyed by the mountain, the
pillar of the earth. While it was rotating, mighty trees populated by birds collided and fell from the
mountain top. The fire that emerged from their friction, blazing with lightning every minute as if a
blue cloud, wrapped Mount Mandara round. It burned elephants and lions that turned out to be
there. All other diverse beings lost their life, too. Then Indra, the best of the immortal, extinguished
that burning fire with water begotten from the clouds. Thereafter variegated secretions of mighty
trees and numerous herb juices flew into the ocean waters. Devas achieved immortality exactly from
drinking of those juices endowed with an immortal power, as well as from the flow of gold.
A way to Amaravati – the royal city of Indgra – runs through its top. Serpent Vasuki encircles Meru.
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Churning of the Milky Ocean (bas-relief): Mount Mandara, Vishnu, Kurma, Lakshmi
Mount Mandara, used by devas and suras for churning of the Milky Ocean, is an obvious “synonym”
of the World Mountain – Mount Meru. The resemblance between the mountains is clearly seen in
description given in the Mahabharata.
“There is a mountain called Mandara
adorned with cloud-like peaks.
It is the best of mountains, and is covered
all over with intertwining herbs.
There countless birds
pour forth their melodies,
and beasts of prey roam about.
The gods, the Apsaras and the Kinnaras visit the place.
Upwards it rises eleven thousand yojanas,
and descends downwards as much.
The gods wanted to tear it up and use it as a churning rod,
but failing to do so same to Vishnu and Brahman
who were sitting together…
There is a mountain named Meru, of blazing appearance,
and looking like a heap of effulgence.
The rays of the Sun falling on its peaks of golden lustre
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are dispersed by them.
Decked with gold and exceedingly beautiful,
that mountain is the haunt of the gods and the Gandharvas.
It is immeasurable and unapproachable
by men of manifold sins.
Dreadful beasts of prey wander over its breasts,
and it is illuminated by many divine life-giving herbs.
It stands kissing the heavens by its height
and is the first of mountains.
Ordinary people cannot even think of ascending it.
It is graced with trees and streams,
and resounds with the charming melody
of winged choirs.”
Description of Mount Meru in the Puranas
According to one of myths, Shiva used Mandara as an axle for his chariot and an arc for his bow. As
for Mount Meru, it is considered to be the centre of the earth and the universe; its top rises 84,000
leagues above the ground. The sun, the moon, planets and stars revolve round Meru. The heavenly
river Ganga flows from the heaven first to this mountain, and only thereafter it flows to the world of
people. On top of Mount Meru the city of Brahma is located, stretching for 14,000 leagues. Cities of
Indra and other gods are situated nearby.
The Bhagavata Purana describes one of the versions of emergence of river Ganga and explains how
Ganga gets to various planets from the highest point of the universe. Once, when Maharaja Bali
performed yajna, Vishnu came to him as Vamana and asked three steps of the earth from him. His
request was satisfied: in two steps Vamana crossed all three planetary systems (lokas) and pierced a
hole in the universe shell with the big toe of his left foot. Several drops of water from the Primordial
Ocean leaked through the hole in the shell, fell on Shiva’s head and remained there for thousand
yugas. These drops of water were the sacred river Ganga. It is described that it first runs to
Dhruvaloka (the Pole Star) and purifies it, then it washes planets of the seven great Rishis (Marichi,
Vasishtha, Atri and others) who reside on the planets located under Dhruvaloka, and then billions of
heavenly spaceships carry its waters along the ways of devas – first to the Moon (Chandraloka) and
finally to the abode of Brahma, which is situated on top of Mount Meru. Here is divides into four
branches – Sita, Alakananda, Chakshu and Bhadra – which flow down from Meru slopes and reach
middle-level planets, one of which is the Earth. From the Himalayan peaks the river branches run
down, flow through Haridvar across India plains, cleaning everything on their way.
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The foundation of Mount Meru rests upon the klobuk of the world serpent Shesha lying on the back
of a giant turtle that swims in primordial waters. Under another version of the myth, Meru (and the
earth as a whole) is supported by four elephants.
In the same way gods in a Kalmyk myth used Sumer as a stick to “beat up” the Ocean and thus create
the Sun, the Moon, and the stars. Another Central Asian myth reflects penetration of Hindu elements
into the myth: having assumed the appearance of eagle Garida (Garuda), god Ochirvani (Indra)
attacked serpent Losun in the primordial Ocean; he wound the serpent round Mount Sumer three
times and broke his head. An idea was spread across Eastern and Central Asia that the main and most
important pillar of the world is the mythical Mount Meru located in an inaccessible place (it was
usually placed in the Himalayas). The source of such ideas was myths of Ancient India, later on
adopted by Buddhism that made them very popular. Mount Meru was not only considered the centre
of cosmos, but was regarded as the sacred abode of gods. In numerous legends and tales Meru was
described via the brightest epithets and definitions: it was called golden, shining, brilliant, and was
associated with happiness, abundance and immortality. Myths draw this mountain in different ways.
Buddhists often depicted it as a colossal cylinder directed to the superior height. Sometimes it was
described as the pistil of lotus – the sacred flower. Likening of the cosmic mountain to a plant, i.e.
basically to the World Tree, is quite interesting. An unusual feature is that the foundation and the top
as if swap places, thus an impression arises that the mountain grows from the heaven.
According to the Puranas, all celestial bodies rotate around Mount Meru, and almighty devas reside
on its top, including Indra and Brahma. Indraloka – the abode of the main Vedic deva Indra – is
situated on the very top of Meru, where there is a magnificent palace of Indra with the Soma plant
growing in the garden. The sacred drink of immortality is produced of the Soma plant. Matsya
Purana says:
It is of gold and shines like fire with no tinge of darkening smoke. Its four sides are of four
different colours. The colour of the eastern side is white like the colour of brahmans; the colour of
the northern side is red like the colour of kshatriyas, the colour of the southern side is yellow like the
colour of vaishyas; the colour of the western side is black like the colour of shudras. Its height is
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86,000 yojanas, of which 16,000 are inside the earth. Every edge of the four sides makes up 34,000
yojanas. On the mountain, there are rivers with fresh water and marvellous golden dwellings where
diverse spiritual beings reside: devas together with gandharva singers and their mistresses apsaras,
as well as asurs, daytias and rakshasas. Manasa reservoir is around the mountain, and on four sides
of the reservoir lokapalas live – the keepers of the world and its inhabitants. Mount Meru has seven
nodes, i.e. big mountains called Mahendra, Malaya, Sahya, Shuktibam, Pikshabam, Vindhya,
Pariyatra, and there are so many small mountains that it’s almost impossible to count them; these
are the mountains on which people live. As for the big mountains around Meru, they include:
Himavat covered with eternal snows and populated by rakshasas, pishachis and yakshi; Hemakuta
made of gold, on which gandharvas reside.
In Vishnu Purana, one of the most authoritative Puranas in Hinduism, containing extensive
information on philosophy, cosmology and theology, there is the following information about Mount
Meru:
The internal shell of the world egg endowed with great Atman was Mount Meru, while mountains
were its external shell; the amniotic fluid is formed of the oceans. In this egg, oh brahman, there
were mountains, continents, oceans, planets, worlds, devas, asurs, and people. On its outer side the
egg is covered with water, fire, air, space, and the source of primary elements, the primary elements
endowed with ten qualities and the great principle of creation.
Such scheme of the world egg structure is common for Purana texts, epos and the Upanishads.
However, the quantity and names of different worlds vary.
In Buddhist cosmology the earth is deemed to be plane with Mount Meru (or Sumeru) in its centre.
On Buddhist mandalas it is also depicted in the centre, surrounded by four big dvipas (islands) with
eight small dvipas behind them. Mount Sumeru, according to Buddhist cosmology, consists of four
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jewels, namely: its entire eastern side consists of silver, the southern side of lazurite, the western side
of ruby, and the northern side of gold. For this reason, on the four sides of the eminence made on the
mandala and intended to depict Mount Sumeru, lamas insert separate pieces of silver, lunar caustic,
lazurite, ruby and gold.
A similar image was known to Altaians who believed that the golden cosmic mountain Altyn-Tu was
attached to the heaven and hung over the earth, not reaching the earth by a minimal distance of the
length of a human shin. However, most traditionally Meru was depicted as a round or tetrahedral
mountain gradually narrowing towards its top. In such form is was depicted on various Buddhist
works of art.
Altyn-Tu golden mountain of the Altaians
It is no mere chance that the four facets were associated with a mythical pillar of the universe. One
world river nourishing the universe with its waters was flowing down on each side of the mountain.
This detail indicates another aspect of the cosmic symbolism of Meru: the meaning of its four rivers
is equivalent to the four oceans, which surround the world according to Hindu myths. Thus, Meru
itself is a reduced model of cosmos, by which cosmos was exactly structured by gods.
In lamaist mythology Mount Meru (Sumeru) has a pyramidal shape and is surrounded with seven
mountain ranges with seas between them. Each side of the pyramid has colour characteristics: the
southern side is blue, the western is red, the northern is yellow, and the eastern is white. Same
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equivalents are known in India, Tibet, China, and even in traditions of some American Indian tribes.
Thus, Navajo Indians believed that black (or northern) mountains covered the earth with darkness,
blue (or southern) mountains brought the dawn, white (or eastern) mountains brought the day,
whereas yellow (or western) mountains brought the shining sunlight.
Images of Mount Meru and the universe, according to Buddhist cosmology. Trongsa
Dzong, Trongsa, Bhutan
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Mount Meru cosmology, according to Abhidharmakoša and Kalachakra systems
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The World Mountain image was very popular in Iranian mythology which is congenerical to
mythology of Ancient India. In Zoroastrian text Bundahishn we can read the following: “From
Mount Harburz everything that takes place in the world is seen. Mount Thaera is in the centre of the
world, the sun turns around it. Like waters washing the Var land of Mount Harburz, the sun revolves
around Mount Thaera.” Furthermore: “Firstly Mount Harburz grew up in 15 years, after 800 years it
grew completely; it took it 200 years to grow up to the circle of stars, 200 years to the circle of the
moon, 200 years to the circle of the sun, and 200 years to the primordial light. Mount Harburz is
attached to the heaven around this earth, and Ptirk Harburz is [the place where] stars, the moon and
the sun set.”
Mount Harburz
The names of Babylonian temples and towers evidence identification of such structures with the
World Mountain: “the Mountain of Home”, “the House of the Mountain of All Lands”, “the
Mountain of Storms”, “the Junction of Heaven and Earth”, etc. Ziggurat – the cult tower in Babylon
– was basically the World Mountain, a symbolic representation of Cosmos: its seven floors
corresponded to the seven planetary heavens (as in Borsippa) or were painted in world colours (as in
Ur). Borobudur Temple, the true imago mundi (image of the world), was built in a shape of a
mountain.
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Borobudur Temple
Artificial mountains were found in India, Mongolia and South East Asia. Mount Tabor
in Palestine may mean a “navel”, omphalos. Mount Gerizim in central Palestine was prestigious as
the Centre, since it is called “the navel of the earth” (Tabbur Eresh, the Book of Israeli Judges, IX,37:
“…The army is descending from the navel of the world”). According to the tradition established by
Petrus Comestor, on the summer solstice the sun does not cast shadow on “the well of Jacob” (near
Gerizim). As Comestor clarifies, “sunt qui dicunt locum illum esse umbilicum terrae nostrae
habitabilis” (“there are those who say this place is the navel of our earth, convenient for living”).
Palestine as the land located at the highest altitude (since it is close to the World Mountain top) was
not submerged during the flood. There is a rabbinic text saying: “The land of Israel was not
submerged by the flood.”
Biblical texts give a ground to state that paradise is also located on a mountain. According to the
Book of Genesis, the garden of Eden was “in the east”, but Ezekiel (Chapter 28, Verse 13) specified
it was on a mountain. To all appearances, paradise is identified with the sacred “Lord’s mountain”
mentioned in psalm (23, p. 3-5) with a note that only a righteous person with “innocent hands and
pure heart” may ascend it. The biblical reference to the heavenly river washing the entire earth with
its four streams is also quite interesting (Genesis, Chapter 2, Verse 10).
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Having collected separate evidence from the Bible, we will get a complete set of features of the
mythic World Mountain: it is situated in the centre of the universe, God descends onto it, the
heavenly garden is located there with a marvellous tree in the middle, whereas the mountain itself is
surrounded by rivers which symbolize the primordial ocean. A well-known biblical myth says that
during the Flood only Mount Ararat to which Noah’s ark moored was not submerged. At that, in
other biblical legends Mount Zion is mentioned, which once again emphasizes its particular cosmic
role as of the centre of the world, “the navel of the earth”, the highest point of the universe.
Even a more graphic demonstration of this is the Muslim world outlook. According to Islamic
mythology, the earth was initially very unstable, permanently shuddered and addressed complaints to
Allah. Taking pity on it, Allah created the enormous Mount Qaf that encircled the populated world
and firmly supported the universe. Behind this stone ring, the Creator created another earth, seven
times larger in size. That earth is populated by angels so densely that even a needle cannot fall down
between them. Angels incessantly glorify Allah and pray over human sins. If we omit details and
single out the gist, it will turn out that the world populated by people is situated inside the cosmic
mountain, i.e. the mountain itself is exactly the universe.
REFERENCE IN THE ALLATRA BOOK (pages 179-180 on allatra.us):
According to the Indian mythology, the Universe is a giant global snake biting its tail and
wrapping the universe in a ring. Inside the ring it was carrying a giant turtle, on whose back there
were four elephants supporting the world. In the centre of the world was the inhabited land
Jambudvipa, the shape of which reminded of a blossoming lotus flower with Mount Meru in the
middle.
Traditional interpretation of the image in encyclopaedias, according to myths:
1) the legendary serpent Ananta (in Sanskrit meaning “boundless”, “infinite”) floating in the
waters of the cosmic ocean; its other name is Shesha; legends mention that god Vishnu rests on its
rings;
2) the triangle above the truncated pyramid represents the power of the higher over the lower;
3) a conventional representation of an image of Mount Meru, in this case in the form of a
truncated pyramid;
4) a symbol of the visible physical world in the form of a hemisphere;
5) four elephants (which symbolize the elements) supporting the terrestrial world (the elephant
embodying the air element is not visible);
6) the turtle resting on the serpent Ananta is an embodiment of the ancient Indian guardian god
Vishnu (the universal reviving principle).
In Altai mythology influenced by Buddhism, the World Mountain name was somewhat altered and
sounds as Sumeru. By this very name the mountain is known to other peoples of Central Asia, too. In
Altai legends, Buddhist ideas have fancifully mixed with ancient local beliefs. It is exactly the World
Mountain which a future shaman ascends during initiation and visits later on in his astral journeys.
Ascent of a mountain always signifies a journey to the World Centre. As we have seen, such “centre”
is one way or another present even in the structure of a human dwelling, but only shamans and heroes
can ascend the World Mountain. Moreover, only a shaman, climbing up a ritual tree, actually climbs
up the World Tree, thus reaching the peak of the universe, the highest Heaven.
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Besides Meru (Sumeru) and Altyn-Tu, the Altaians placed a mythic mountain Ak-Toshon Altai-syny
in the centre of the universe. On its top there is a milky lake in which shaman souls bathe on their
way to the heavenly world.
The same milky lake in the heaven is described by the Hungarian narrator of fairy tales Lajos Ami
(with angels, not shamans, bathing in it). This is no mere coincidence. Once, before migrating to
Europe, forefathers of Hungarians inhabited the territory of the contemporary Trans-Urals and
maintained close contacts with South Siberian tribes. Yet, let us go back to Altai legends. A
wonderful poplar rises from the milky lake, and shamans use it to get into the kingdom of heavenly
spirits, while the mountain itself represents the first station on the way to heaven. Here a strong
shaman takes a respite, whereas a weak one does not even dare to move further and returns. On the
flat top of the sacred mountain the main spirit of the earth resides, as well as many other spirits being
in charge of the souls of livestock and wild animals. The spirits are light-minded and enjoy gambling.
It often happens so that one of them loses all animal souls that belong to him to another spirit at cards
or dice. In such case the livestock on earth dies, and wild animals move to another locality.
Concerned people send a shaman who ascends the cosmic mountain and ascertains which spirit is
currently the winner, in order to gain his favour with sacrifices.
The ancient Chinese also worshipped mountains, real and mythical. They regarded any elevation as a
holy site, because they believed the light power Yang was concentrated there, whereas bottom lands
and depressions were the region of the dark principle Yin. In ancient times in China there was a cult
of the five sacred mountains located in the south, west, north, east, and in the centre. Mount Tai Shan
(literally “the Great Mountain”), which really existed and was located in the east of the country, was
particularly revered. It was believed to patronize the imperial dynasty, and the Sons of Heaven
offered sacrifices to it. Just like in the case of Mount Meru of India, the numerical symbolism of
Chinese World Mountains has its deep meaning: the five points of space by which they were placed
were the most sacred and determined the structure of mythological cosmos.
At that, the Chinese revered Mount Kunlun – the centre of the earth – the most. They believed one
could get into the higher realms of the world by ascending it. One of ancient texts say: “The one who
would go up from Kunlun twice as high will reach the Mountain of Cool Wind and gain immortality;
the one who would go up twice as high will reach the Hanging Ground and gain miraculous abilities,
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having learnt to manage the wind and the rain; the one who would go up twice as high will reach the
heaven, the abode of Tai Di – the supreme lords, and will become a spirit.” This is a true description
of a shaman journey to the other world! By the way, shamanism existed in Ancient China, too. It is
evidenced by frequent mentions of sacred mountains and trees via which priests and gods of Ancient
China ascended to the heaven and descended to the earth. Mount Kunlun itself was regarded as
something like an earthly paradise: rivers of five different colours flew down from it (including the
largest Chinese river Huang He), and diverse cereals drew there in abundance. The Chinese mountain
worship tradition and an attempt to unite mountains into a classification system are reflected in the
Classic of Mountains and Seas (Shan Hai Ching). The appearance and location of mountains was
associated with activities of a mythical subjugator of the flood and manager of the earth – the great
Yul who was not only cleaving and moving mountains to eliminate consequences of the flood, but
also gave names to three hundred mountains.
In ancient Greek myths gods lived on Mount Olympus where Zeus the thunderer resided, Mount Etna
(Zeus put this mountain on Typhon; Hephaestus’s smithy was on it, and Demeter was looking for
Persephone with the fire obtained on Etna), Mount Ida where Zeus was hiding from Cronus, and the
Caucasus where Prometheus was chained.
Mount Meru and the Arctic theory
One of the founders of the “Arctic theory of the origin of Aryans” was the famous Indian politician
Bal Gangadhar Tilak (1856-1920). He is the author of a hypothesis that the ancestral home of IndoEuropeans (or Aryans) was northern regions of Eurasia (Kola Peninsula, Karelia, the White Sea
coast, and Taimyr). The meaning of the word Arctic: Greek ἄρκτος – “female bear”, ἀρκτικός –
“being under the constellation of the Great Bear”, “northern”.
The Arctic Home in the Vedas (1903) by B.G. Tilak has been frequently quoted until nowadays.
According to his theory, in the preglacial period climate in Arctic regions was warm and favourable
for human living. When climate changed unfavourably there, Aryans migrated to the south, to India.
In his book B.G. Tilak tries to prove that the Vedas and Upanishads point at the Arctic ancestral
home of Aryans. He writes:
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“In Rigveda (X.89.2-4) god Indra “supports the heaven and earth, like a cart wheel is supported by
an axle” and rotates the “remote sphere, like cart wheels”. If we combine the two statements that the
heaven is supported by an axle and moves like a wheel, we will clearly see that the described
movement correlates solely with the heavenly hemisphere observable at the North Pole only. In
Rigveda (I.24.10) the Great Bear constellation is described as high-standing, which points at a
position visible only from the circumpolar region.”
The statement that the day and the night last for 6 months is widespread in Hindu literature. “On
Meru gods see the sun after its one-time ascent on its way equalling to a half of its rotation around
the earth.”
In Tayttiria Brahman (III, 9, 22.1) and Avesta (Vendidad, Fargard II) a year is compared to one day,
whereas the sun sets and rises only once a year.
Numerous hymns of Rigveda are dedicated to the goddess of the morning sun Ushas. Moreover, it is
mentioned that dawn lasts very long and there are very many stars moving along the horizon, which
may be indicative of circumpolar regions. A weakness of such hypothesis is the impossibility to link
it with any archaeological culture.
In the Divine Avesta there is a description of not a separate peak, but a whole mountain range Hara
Berezaiti (perhaps, these are the Urals), although Avesta provides us with another supporting element
mentioned neither in the Vedas nor in the Puranas: this mountain range is stretched in latitudinal
direction “from the sunset to the sunrise”, i.e. from the west to the east.
The highest peak of Hara Berezaiti range is Mount Hukarya (the Avestan name for Vedic Mandara):
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We worship Mitra...
To whom radiant
Imperious Haoma prayed,
Salubrious, gold-domed,
On the highest peak
Of Harati high mountains,
Called Hukarya,
Not contaminated, pure,
With perfect barsman
And pure libation,
With faultless words. (Avesta, Hymn to Mitra, XXIII)
In the same way as the greatest rivers flow from Meru, on Hara Berezaiti there are springs of sacred
Avestan rivers (Ranhi), Rusiyi, Ardvi Sura:
3. Pray to the great, glorious,
Equal in size
To all waters together,
Which flow on the earth.
Pray to the impetuously flowing
From Hukarya height
To Vourukasha sea.
4. From edge to edge
Vourukasha sea is rough,
And waves rise in the middle
When Ardvi pours
Its waters into it,
Flowing into the sea
With all thousand streams
And thousand lakes,
Each of which
May be bypassed in forty days
Only by a rider
On a decent horse.
5. One Ardvi branch
Runs to seven karshvars,
Evenly flowing
In summer and in winter,
And consecrates male semen
And female bosom,
And gives milk. (Avesta, Hymn to Ardvi Sura)
Slavs regard a mountain (а hill, a mound, etc.) as a vertical line binding the top and the bottom,
which determines the duality of ideas of the mountain, on the one hand, as of a pure locus and, on the
other hand, as of a demonic locus. The link between the mountain and the heaven is reflected in
Slavic vocabulary (in Slavic gora mans “a top”, and gorniy means “heavenly”) and in the ritual
practice. Russian chronicles tell that Slavs worshipped heathen deities on mountains. Spring rituals
were performed on mountains (the Russan gorka – “gathering of youth in spring and in summer for
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the round dance”). In Russian charms a mountain, on the one hand, is a place where God, Christ and
Our Lady reside, and on the other hand it is a place associated with evil spirits.
A mountain is associated with the other world. In Russian “to leave for a mountain” means “to die”;
the kingdom of the dead is a land with golden moutains; paradise is located on an iron mountain or
behind mountains.
Collections of Russian bylinas (heroic epics) usually start with Sviatogor, which is a solely archaic
character. The image is based on Slavic heathen beliefs, therefore it is very difficult to interpret it for
traditional researchers who thoughtlessly date the time described in bylinas to the 10 th century only
because Prince Vladimir is mentioned there. Sviatogor is particularly notable, since in none of extant
bylinas he fights with any other epical hero – he simply has no adequate rivals among mortals. For
instance, Sviatogor can easily put Ilya of Murom together with his horse into his pocket, and he
measures his strength with Mother Earth itself or starts building a stone pole up to the heaven.
In Greek mythology there is Sviatogor’s analogue – giant Atlant. He also performs a function of
maintaining the world order – holds the firmament on his shoulders. The earth cannot endure its
mass, so he stands on the Atlas Mountains. Those mountains are located at the end of the earth, on
the coast of the outer ocean. In front of the mountains, boundless sunburnt deserts stretch for many
days of journey (just like those in front of Meru and the Riphean Mountains!). The only treasure of
the heaven-holder is a marvellous garden where a tree with golden apples grows – Heracles had to
commit his eleventh feat in order to get the apples. Furthermore, both giants ended their lives in the
same way – they petrified.
The Pigeon Book refers to the Alatyr Stone, “the father of all stones”. It is a sacred rock crowning the
top of the Alatyr Mountain and covering the entrance to the underworld, while Sviatogor guards this
entrance.
On the Alatyr Stone the laws of Svarog are carved, and the stone itself has magic properties owing to
which it is often mentioned in charms: “In the sea, in the ocean, on the Buyan island, there is a whitehot Alatyr Stone, under which a great endless power is hidden.” Ilya of Murom often ascended the
Alatyr Mountain as well. The heroic epic Ilya of Murom and the Hawker says:
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Across the blue sea,
Across the cold sea,
To the Alatyr Stone,
To Maya of the Golden Mountain,
The fine young man came,
Named Ilya of Murom.
Ilya was approaching it for twelve years...
According to Slavic genealogy, Maya of the Golden Mountain was the daughter of Sviatogor and the
first wife of Dajdbog whose son she gave birth to – the god of the calendar cycle Kolyada (the
word calendar in Slavic means “the gift of Kolyada”, while kolyadki means “festive carols” that
nowadays are usually performed on the Christmas Eve). Maya of the Golden Mountain herself was
the goddess of summer and was depicted with golden braids that symbolized ripe ears.
Many books can be written about the World Mountain, and the fact that it is known in all cultures
and on all the continents represents another evidence that the spiritual knowledge is, first and
foremost, single, and secondly it has been given to humanity from the earliest times. However, today
for someone it’s a nice fairy tale, while for knowledgeable people it is a hint! It is quite interesting to
me the description given from the Divine Avesta… it sounds to me as though they were describing
the long mountain range found at the center of Pangea, which would be at the center of the Earth.
Also, just a side comment that the Gulf of Mexico would be ablout the size of Mount Meru, if in fact
the Sacred Mountain was taken from off the Earth. Prepared by Arbat27.11.2016 ABOUT THE
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AUTHOR DR UDAY DOKRAS
About the Author
The author has worked for 30 years in the human resources arena in India and abroad. He
was Group Vice -President of MZI Group in New Delhi and has anchored Human
Relations in Go Air and Hotel Holiday Inn;was General Manager-Health Human
Resources at the Lata Mangeshkar Hospital amd Medical college. Is currently Consultant
to Gorewada International Zoo,Nagpur and visiting Faculty at the Central Institute of
Business Management and Research, Nagpur.
In Sweden he anchored HR in Stadbolaget RENIA, SSSB and advisor to a multi
millionaire. He has studied in Nagpur, India where he obtained degrees of Bachelor of
Science, Bachelor of Arts(Managerial Economics) and Bachelor of Laws. He has done
his Graduate Studies in labour laws from Canada at the Queen's University, Kingston; a
MBA from USA, and Doctorate from Stockholm University, Sweden. Apart from that he
has done a Management Training Program in Singapore.
A scholar of the Swedish Institute, he has been an Edvard Cassel Fund and Wineroth
Fund Awardee.A scholar for the Swedish Institute for 5 years.
In 1984 he was involved with the Comparative Labour Law Project of the University of
California, Los Angeles, U.S.A. He was also visiting lecturer there. In 1985 he was
invited by the President of Seychelles to do a study of the efficacy of the labour laws of
Seychelles.
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Author of a book on a Swedish human resource law, his brief life sketch is part of the
English study text book of 7 th Class Students in Sweden -“Studying English.
SPOTLIGHT 7”- and 8th Class students in Iceland - “SPOTLIGHT 8- Lausnir.”
BOOKS written by Dr Uday
1. Act on Co-determination at work-an efficacy study - 1990
Doctoral thesis published by Almqvist & Wiksell International, Stockholm,Sweden
This is a first of a kind empirical study of both employees and business owners reactions
of how efficiently a labour law was functioning in a country(Sweden).Adorns Stanford
and Harvard University Libraries and granted Copyright by the Library of Congress,USA
in 1990.
2. Health Human Resource Management- 2006
A to Z of the Management of health workers starting from recruitment to training,
development and enhancing their efficacy. Good book for all health care institutions as
well as medical and nursing staff and students.
3. Theme Park Human Resource Engineering- 2007
How the workers in theme parks deal with a complex environment and need to be
managed in order to being out superior delivery of customer focused services helping in
more footfalls at the same time not compromising on safety.
4. Project Human Resource Management- 2008
Projects are cumbersome and their success rests not on the material but on the men who
move it. Book deals with management ideas to spur project workers and staff to greater
delivery parameters.
5. Creativity and Architecture -2009
Co-authored with Srishti Dokras, examines the parameters of creativity and how it will
raise design quotients.
6. Diffusion – Management and Design- 2009
Co-authored with Karan Dokras deals with a new and little known subject of Diffusion
or how predator ideas enhance own value in a market where dominant players call the
shots.
7. Hindu Temples of Bharat,Cambodia and Bali- 2020
Enigmatic designs, huge structures, massive projects all done before the invention of
cranes or bulldozers- the how and why of temples in Bharat,Nagpur,and the Far East.
Biggest and most comprehensive book on the subject -452 pages.
8. Win Diet 2020
Diets and fads come and go but not this one-A diet and exercise plan that will help you to
win over obesity,unhealthy lifestyles and make a dynamic YOU .Written by a 68 year old
who has been diagnosed with a 26 year old’s heart.
9. Celestial Mysteries of the Borobudur Temple of Java- 2020
This amazing biggest in the world Buddhist temple was built with technology and ideas
from India 1500 years ago using fractal geometry, Algorithms, Hindu temple technology
and archeoastronomy. Read HOW it was done.
10. LOTUS the Celestial Flower
11.Light house at Alexandria
12. Lighthouses in words and Pictures
13.Vayu- Man’s taming of the Winds
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14. My Best Foot Forward- story of the Footware Industry in India
15.16,17… DEVARAJA- TRILOGY. The Celestial King and the Mysteries of South
Asian Hindu Temples -3 Volumes 1200 pages
18. VARDHAMAN- Jainism- for not the layman
19. ATIVIR- The saga of Vardhaman the Prince and Mahavir the Saint.
20. Hindu Temple Architecture-Panorama being the consolidated papers written by
the author and published on line in academia.edu & researchgete.net.
21.Tamil Mercantile Traders of ancient times
22.Randevous with Ram
23. T2- Temple Tech
24. Vedic Gods of Scandinavia
25. Design your Destiny
26. Chidambaram Temple
RESEARCH PAPERS-220 + in Researchgate and academia.edu & scribd
Followers(readers) 65,000 consolidated as on 26 th September,2020.
Authors-DR Uday DOKRAS
Dr. Uday Dokras
B.Sc., B.A. (Managerial Economics), LL.B., Nagpur University, India
Certificat'e en Droit, Queen’s University. Ontario, Canada,
MBA, CALSTATE,Los-Angeles, USA,
Ph.D. Stockholm University, Sweden,
Management and Efficacy Consultant, India
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Reviews of the Book PROJECT HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
The authors highlight the benefits of paying attention to human resources and offer success and
failure factors guideline for a variety of potential practitioners and students in global project
marketplace.
Ms.Ylva Arnold, Head HR- Norstedts Publishers, Stockholm SWEDEN
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From the Newspaper Times of India March 24, 2018
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Iceland Sweden both countries use the English Text SPOTLIGHT-one of the lessons in
which is about Dr Uday Dokras
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Prof. S.Deshpande,President of the Indian Instituye of Architects, New Delhi INDIA
releasing the book of Dr Dokras HINDU TEMPLES on the web in CARONA
gimes( May 2010)
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Dr. Uday Dokras
B.Sc., B.A. (managerial economics) LL.B. Nagpur University, INDIA
Graduate Studies, Queen’s University, Kingston, CANADA
MBA CALSATATE USA
Graduate Diploma in Law, Stockholm University, SWEDEN
Ph.D. Stockholm University, SWEDEN
Indo Swedish Author’s Collective, Stockholm SWEDEN and Nagpur
INDIA
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ADVANCED MANDALAS
Maze of the Mandala -PART II
Dr Uday Dokras - Ph D SWEDEN
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