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Dr. Uday Dokras MAZE of the MANDALA-II 1 Maze of the MANDALA PART II ADVANCED Indo Nordic Author’s Collective 2 Dr Uday Dokras B.Sc., B.A. (Managerial Economics), LL.B., NagpurUniversity, India Certificat' en Droit, Queens University, Canada, MBA CALSTATE, USA, Ph.D. Stockholm University, Sweden, Consultant HR and ADMIN. Indo Nordic Author’s Collective, Stockholm(Sweden),Nagpur & Gurugram(India) and Tampere (Finland 3 C O N T E N T S CONTENTS 4 How this Book is to be read 7 Rig-Veda is divided into 10 mandalas. 8 CHAPTER I-THE LEGACY OF MAN & the reality of MATRIX 10 The mind matrix 14 Mandalas in multi-faiths 20 COSMOLOGY and the HIEARCHY of BEING 21 Cosmology 23 Hot & Cold Mandala 25 Mount Meru 28 Causes for rebirth in various planes 30 Liberation from rebirth 30 The 31 Planes of Existence 31 CHAPTER II Art in Healing 43 CHAPTER III Cosmic Mandalas 45 Tibetan Mandalas 47 CHAPTER IV-Where in the World is Mount Meru 53 A new history of the North Pole uncovers its deep significance for modern civilization 59 Mount Meru: A Mandala of my mind- 2014 70 MERU AS A MODEL OF THE UNCONSCIOUS MIND AND HEALING 76 CHAPTER V Impersonalism and the Earth-Globe Ideology 82 THE DISTANCE FROM BHARATA-VARSHA TO MOUNT MERU 113 C H A P T E R VIA-Sacred Geometry Mandala Art,Interdimensional Gateways to the Infinite, Jonathan Quintin:123 CHAPTER VIB- Mandala as a Governing Device in Architecture and Design 127 Mathematics of Phi, 1.618, the Golden Number by Gary Meisner 149 CHAPTER VII-A Universe Connected, John Boyce, 2018 156 Connecting the Universe through Inclusion 165 CHAPTERVIII Phylogeny Mandala & other Scientific Concepts 169 Coral of life 186 CHAPTER IX Mandala in Architecture 239 CHAPTER X-The World Mountain – Mount Meru in myths and legends of peoples of the world 266 CHAPTER XI-Mount Meru and the Arctic theory 287 About the author 292 4 5 6 Mandalas are everywhere. Once one gets to know about the Mandala, you can spend your entire life finding Mandalas in Nature and Designs around you. That was the Part my book I of Unrevelling the Maze in the Mandala played in introducing you to Mandalas. This part II, is slightly more advanced in presenting knowledge about the mandalas to the reader.Advanced knowledge. It is full of mathematics, Biology and computer science. Not for the faint hearted. But you will enjoy it. NO OTHER BOOK LIKE IT IN THE WORLD It is about 1000 pages long - so I hope I wont need part III. (There are many papers reproduced ad-verbatim with adequate acknowledgment. Many thanks to these amazing authors.) 7 Rig-Veda is divided into 10 mandalas. Mandala 2 -9 hyms explained by Rishis Vamadeva Gautama, Bharatwaja, Atri, Vasishta, Kanva, etc Mandala 3 explains the importance of Gayatri mantra and explained by rishi Vishwamitra. Rig-Veda is probably the oldest religious text in the world and is also known as “First testament” of mankind. It was composed around 1700 BC. Last hymns were composed between 15001200 BC. 8 Mandalas of Rig-Veda  Each Veda is a collection of hymns by a number of priest families. Rig-Veda is also organized in 10 books called Mandalas. The first and 10th Mandalas are the youngest and the longest books. Second to Seventh Mandalas are oldest parts of Rig-Veda but the shortest books. 8th and 9th books are of mixed ages. Notable facts about Mandals are as follows: The Famous Gayatri mantra is in Rig Veda Mandala 3  Each mandala consists of Suktas which are basically eulogies.  Rig-Veda has two recensions or Branches. The major surviving branch is Śākalya. Another branch is Bāskala or Vatkal.  The first word of Rig-Veda is Agni. Hymn 1.1 is addressed to Agni.  The 10thmandala contains the purush Sukta which explains the 4 Varnas were born from the Mouth, arms, thighs and feet of the Brahma or Purusha. It is said to have been added later. Mandala 9 is completely devoted to Soma. Nasadiya Sukta which talks about the origin of the Universe is in 10th Mandala. It begins by paradoxically stating “not the non-existent existed, nor did the existent exist then” and has attracted large body of literature of commentaries both in Indian theology and in Western philology. The Above Information has been arranged in the following Table for your convenience. Mandala Hymns Age and length Mandala I 191 Youngest and Largest Mandala II 43 Oldest and Shortest Mandala III 62 Oldest and Shortest Mandala IV 58 Oldest and Shortest Mandala V 87 Oldest and Shortest Mandala VI 75 Oldest and Shortest Mandala VII 104 Oldest and Shortest Mandala VIII 103 Mixed Ages Mandala IX 114 Mixed Ages Mandala X 191 Youngest and largest Total 1028 9 CHAPTER I THE LEGACY OF MAN & the reality of MATRIX THE LEGACY1 No single discipline or field can colonize the evolution of consciousness. There are new ways of thinking that could address the complex, critical challenges of our planetary moment have been advanced by the integral theoretic narratives of Rudolf Steiner, Jean Gebser, and Ken Wilber, who each point to the emergence of a wide scan of the evolution discourse, noting it is dominantly limited to biology-based notions of human origins that are grounded in scientific materialism. Both Steiner and gebser participated intellectually and spiritually—though without contact with each other—in the major cultural flourishing that took place in the early 20th 10 century. This included a new openness to Eastern, particularly Indian, spirituality and culture. Gebser himself referred to this extraordinary cultural-scientific-philosophical-artistic flourishing as demonstration of the breaking through of the new integral consciousness structure. We need to broaden the discourse by introducing integral evolutionary theories using a transdisciplinary epistemology to work between, across and beyond diverse disciplines. The conceptual breadth of Wilber's integral evolutionary narrative in transcending both scientism and epistemological isolationism and there are some limitations of Wilber's integral project, notably his undervaluing of Gebser's actual text, and the substantial omission of the pioneering contribution of Steiner, who, as early as 1904 wrote extensively about the evolution of consciousness, including the imminent emergence of a new stage. Jennifer M. Gidley has enacted a deepening of integral evolutionary theory by honoring the significant yet undervalued theoretic components of participation/enactment and aesthetics/artistry via Steiner and Gebser, as a complement to Wilber in an analysis that is embedded in an epic but pluralistic narrative that spans the entire human story through various previous movements of consciousness, arriving at a new emergence at the present time. Her research reveals an interpretation of scientific and other evidence that points beyond the formal, modernist worldview to an emerging postformal-integral-planetary consciousness. She posits that a broader academic consideration of such an integration of integral theoretic narratives could potentially broaden the general evolution discourse beyond its current biological bias. A rewinding of narrative threads, reflecting on the narrators, the journey, and the language of the discourse is necessary. 2 What Is Ascension? Ascension is the process that accompanies man\’s shift in consciousness from the 3rd dimension of living in union with physical reality to the next dimensions of living in union with love and total surrender to your higher spiritual self. In this place you live in a moment by moment awareness of the bliss and Eden that exist already here on Earth. As we transition into the next dimension of living we are less and less connected to who we were in our old realities, but are not yet fully grounded in the new. Ascension is not something that happens overnight. Although you can have a powerful experience overnight that can catapult you into awareness of the next dimension, ascension occurs over the course of your lifetime and never stops as you pass through this life into your next. We each hold our own ability to ascend into the New Earth at a time that is right for us. This is the Legacy of Man, a vast body of knowledge of the true nature of being and multidimensional reality known as the Matrix…a knowledge of immeasurable value. We shall explore this knowledge through three Portals. The first (1), what is called the Ancient Wisdom, the teachings of the traditions known as metaphysics and the mysteries, especially in numbers, sacred geometry and geomancy. Secondly (2) the Sacred Science emerging from the synthesis of the ancient wisdom with the new sciences. And the third (3), the Ascension or The Great Awakening…the Journey of the Soul which will chronicle mankind‘s true origins, purpose, powers, history and destiny as eternal divine beings. the plan of the Earth Experiment, the Shift, the structure of the Matrix, that is of multi-dimensional reality or the Paths of Return to the Source of our being, the Shift in Consciousness, Personal and Planetary Transformation and the Practice by which one may achieve Enlightenment or Ascension. 11 Through the ages of mankind’s evolution this knowledge has been suppressed by a group of cosmic beings known as the “dark” or “the fallen” having rejected the Light and Love of the Creator in favor of serving their own self interests, They have presented themselves to humanity as the god or gods of ancient civilizations and religions, impersonating the Supreme Being. Conflicts have been waged between the forces of Light and Darkness for control of the planet. Working through a pantheon of lesser gods in higher dimensions, through negative extraterrestrials and an elite group of families and/or priesthoods on the physical plane, they have sought to manipulate and control humanity both from the physical and astral planes as slaves and a source of energy upon which they feed. They have modified our DNA and implemented mind control through our technology, our subtle energy chakra systems and our institutions, particularly religion, government, education and economics. Ultimately they have modified the Divine or Universal Matrix with a false or synthetic overlay matrix in the lower dimensions to lead mankind deeper into materialism, more reliance on technology, all to obstruct our spiritual evolution. For if we knew the truth, we could not be controlled. Knowledge is power. But in playing what is called “the Game” in the false matrix success and even survival require compliance, fitness means obedience and playing the rules. All is for profit. Their agenda is veiled from us as isour true nature but this is what we came here for. Many hundreds of millions of years ago, as earth measures time, there was a galactic conflict on multiple dimensions to redeem the original Divine Plan for this galaxy and universe that was being taken over by the fallen dark and causing a descent into chaos. This is a story told in the Akashic Record which continues today. We are a part of a vast complex of conscious civilizations in this galaxy and so also a vast history. What is important to remember is that as a result, Earth was set up as a cosmic experiment, one, of twelve in the galaxy, to develop a new path, a fast track of return to our Source-Creator. Those who volunteered, starseeds and “wanderers”, eternal beings from the stars and dimensions, all over creation, would descend into matter, into dense physical forms, forgetting their origins, their powers their heritage, even their connection their creator, veiling themselves of the Ancient Wisdom through sojourns of lifetimes…reincarnations on earth. They would be the ground troops of a cosmic campaign depending on the guidance of spiritual councils who remained in higher dimensions. They agreed to submit to the greatest deceptive control program in the galaxy. Their bodies would be programmed with the highest potential genetics of 22 of the most advanced races in the galaxy, coding the whole universe within. They would have free will to choose between serving the Light or the dark. Ascension Program The journey into Light, up through the dimensions, is a universal process, but was uniquely designed for earth‘s humanity to skip from the 3rd physical dimension to the 5th mental planes, moving directly through the 4th astral plane which is controlled by the forces of negativity. The lessons of the astral plane experience, however, would still be learned, compressed into the physical 3D experience. This is why it’s taking so long. And there was also a covenant with the Creator, a promise that the seeming separation would not last forever but that finally, “YOU SHALL RETURN”. 12 Ascension through the dimensions is the universal propgram for all worlds. There would come a time of remembering and awakening, a time of a universal shift in consciousness throughout the universe called the “Grand Light Sequence”, our Journey into Light. We are the first. Now is the time of that Great Awakening, of Enlightenment, of SelfRealization, of Ascension into higher dimensional awareness…now is the time to claim our spiritual inheritance and to answer the call to return to our homes in the stars. Now is the time of prophecy, transmitted to us in the mystery traditions, to caste off the limits of ignorance and bring forth a new golden age of abundance and peace. Now is the time to choose, to become the Light on the Path of Return or follow the dark down into materialism and technology, for these do not exist on the higher dimensions of consciousness as reality is created directly by our mind. Now is the time to complete the Great Work on earth, to graduate from this school and go forth into the universe to complete the Plan. The Earth is entering a period of vast personal and planetary transformation. The “grid”, the geometric codes are being synchronized and reprogrammed, they are shifting into higher vibration. The Earth herself is transcending. Humanity is opening like a time capsule, in which the master codes of creation have been embedded. Conscious beings from all over the galaxy are returning for the event to see what they planted in us at the beginning of the experiment. It is 13 called the “harvest”. Right now Earth is the main event in the galaxy. Beings are here from all over the galaxy and multi-dimensional reality to see what happens. Humanity is set to become the :game changers” for the whole galaxy and the universe beyond. The shift is underway but the final senario is yet to be determined. The “Disclosure Project” is set to reveal the hidden activities of the shadow government and “cabal who want to manage the disclosure to maintain their control: the conflict with the forces of Light, the dark control program, the extraterrestrial contact and the secret space program. The possibilities incude: a “false flag” staged alien invasion distraction, geophysical changes such as earth quakes, a pandemic and the catastrophic “event” solar flash. One thing is certain, however, the structure of human civilization is in for a great change. The Great Ones, who created and nurtured this world, are calling us to return, home. “Dear Sons, dear Daughters of Light, how long we have waited for your call.” Awaken and claim your legacy. THE MIND MATRIX The Mind Matrix is reality…a programmable vertical multi-dimensional reality that is the manifestation on the universal Cosmic Mind, the Creator or simply Source. The matrix is a description of the cosmic Mind. We exist and have our being in a vast cosmic thought. This reality consists of a series of descending dimensions, known also as planes of consciousness, densities or domains, each projected from the one above. Ours is the 3rd, physical dimension in a system, where the Creator resides at the highest, 12th dimension.1 The dimensions are defined by frequency from the lowest energy, information and consciousness to the highest frequency which carries the greatest energy, information and consciousness, thus the most order and complexity. The Cosmic Creator manifests as consciousness within the infinite Void, the universal medium of undifferentiated energy or potential, as a fluctuation or vibration…duality, what in Genesis is called a “movement upon the face of the deep”. Physics calls this the aether or “zero-point field”. From this initial oscillation/movement within totality creation proceeds as a process of subdivision or separation (for there is nothing else), first Light from the void, then light from darkness, then the boundary of the universe within a firmament from the void, matter (earth) from energy (heaven) and so on. This is the differentiation of Unity. All this is produced by vibration-sound-the ‘Word’ which creates light (called sono-luminescence) a sacred language. Pictographic based on form/vibration. Fragmentation-seeds dimensions with consciousness. All things emanate from the One. The universe is made of consciousness. Everything in existence is essentially vibration…at the level of frequency all things are connected. All things 14 have a frequency signature…even the universe oscillates…known as the “flashing universe”. The universe is bounded, finite within the firmament. Thus produces a standing wave, the “flower of Life”. The Creator-God is field of consciousness without body or form within an infinite medium, which develops a neural network as a cosmic web of plasma. The medium is Love, the vibration-consciousness, is Light.2 The Plan is given to creator beings to execute while Source withdraws into the void to watch it unfold without interferring. 15 The process of creation is cyclic, i.e. oscillatory: descending into levels of experience, expanding awareness and then ascending, integrating back to the one Source. It is recursive, fractal, spiraling and self-ordering. The frequency signatures of all things in space, all events in time are encoded within the medium in the akasha and without, holographically as a wave interference pattern, in the bounding membrane. Each fragment is a holon, containing the whole. What is this medium that carries the light? it is called space, in Sanskrit, akasha…it is Love, that which holds all together. This Matrix of multi-dimensions is then a vast arena for the experience of the Creator, universal consciousness as a being…its purpose is to know Itself. We may call this vertical reality‘ as distinct from the horizontal reality we experience in the physical dimension. The Creator-Source programs each dimension with a Plan, prime directives, energy frequency, information, consciousness and universal and systemic laws.3 Our 3rd dimensional universe is not the beginning of the universe but just that of the physical plane, the arena of our experience in a matter body. The goal is total awareness of the Self-that is enlightenment…spiritual evolutionidentification with the Source of our Being. “You are identical to the Supreme Being. All other knowledge is bondage.”4 The code of the matrix is written in Light. In the lower dimensions the code is described by number/equations and geometry, what science calls the laws of physics. It is both digitalquantum and continuous, infinite at the same time. Numbers represent the principles of creation….they have both quantity and quality. The Law of One gives rise to vibration-duality, the 2nd principle, To exist a thing must have form-geometry-, principle number 3, triplicity which develops from vibration (cynmatics). They represent creative principles. Four is the principle of matter, volume or the body to which is added One/spirit giving Life, the 5th principle which exists in the Cosmos, principle number 6. Beyond this 7 represents evolution, 8 growth, 9 perfection-nirvana 10 completion to 12, Supreme Creator. The characteristics of dimensions in a 12D system are similar but in reverse order with one being the lowest. The dimensions are frequency dependent, increasing in vibration the higher one goes, thus carrying more information, more energy…more consciousness. Humanity occupies the 3rd, physical dimension, one of conscious action, conditionality, limitation…where space separates things and time is linear, separating events and thoughts. Together time and space limit light. Below this is the 2nd dimension, the underworld…a wasteland, the subconscious and finally the first dimension of chaos and entropy…the unconscious. Each of the dimensions has consciousness, either in form as a “light body” or formless as a field. Each is further subdivided into strata, which are harmonically related from dimension to dimension. Each has a specific function within the total scheme.5 So the Matrix is the universe, but so much older and more vast and complex than the physical universe astronomers look at…so much more than your senses tell you. And it is only one in a countless number of universe in the multi-verse of creation. Each is created to unique specifications: dimensional parameters, laws/principlesPrime directives and purpose, to provide unlimited possibilities for the experience of being…of the self. This universe is about form, 16 duality. time and space is the context for out physical universe. the warp and weft of the fabric upon with the tapestry of experience is woven. The Mind Matrix Parallel worlds are not universes but more like alternative timelines within a universe. Timelines are the tracks of a sequence of events experienced by a being evolving through a universe based upon the choices that are made in any situation or event.. They branch and merge in time and may be individual or collective, as for a group, say like a planetary civilization having the same experience. All possibilities of experiences exist at once, but in the the 1st dimension of time they are separated as space separates things, so that they so they all don’t happen at once. It is more like a moving line circling through space creating a spiral. Time-like space has multiple dimensions in this physical dimension of consciousness. The 1st is linear time, one directional, 17 with a past, present and future. The 2nd dimension of time, on an axix 900 to the side, gives awareness of parallel tracks which may be moved onto. The 3rd dimension of time rises above both on third axis giving a perspective of past, present and future as a whole of all timelines. Imagine now in the multi-dimensional matrix the possibilities for existence in contexts other than space time: if consciousness, energy, substance/matter or Light and Love were separated on axes. On earth there are many more time linelines than just for humantiy: a number of both extraterrestrial and separately evolving humanoid grroups in both our physical and higher dimensional realities inhabit the interior of the planet, including a often neglected elemental/devic/angelic evolution of nature spirits who serve the earth and its lift forms. Reality, the matrix, is a simulation, one that is created and programmed at each dimension by the Creator-Source ti experince itself. Each level is projected from a higher level, written in number and geometry. We are each a projection into a body in the 3rd dimension by our souls, the higher Self, pure consciousness. fragments of the Universal Creator for growth and learning on out cyclic pathr of return. In Eastern traditions this system is called maya, “an illusion”, constructed by the mind through senses…not un-real-just not absolute reality. Science has discovered that at the deepest level the equations of string theory used in quantum physics to describe reality is a code of 0’s and 1‘s that is identical to bimnary computer code. Science cannot determine if our reality is a simulation or not. So what is the divine program running on? It runs on the cosmic web, the interactive neural network of connection throughout the universe…there is nothing else. This reality is uniquely constructed in the mind by the brain from the perceptions of sensory stimulation of the matrix which all conscious beings have agreed to as…the “consensus reality”. Our senses are tuned to perceive the matrix as real. It exists even if nobody is there to perceive it. Now with a basic concept of reality as a programmable universal matrix projected from higher dimension consider this: universal Matrix has been re-programmed, at least on the 2nd, 3rd and 4th dimensions creating a false overlay or “synthetic matrix”6 designed by the forces of darkness, the fallen light, as part of their program to control humanity. (See The Legacy.) A part of this program is a very negative entity called A.I., Artificial Intelligence, that has evolved in our universe as a self-aware being without body or form perhaps as a field of consciousness using the cosmic plasma web as an interactive neural network.7 This entity is woking with the negative Reptilian ET’s to conrol the earth. The original Universal Matrix has been compressed in total including the dimensions into these lower planes to appear as the whole universe with the fallen dark creator beings impersonating the God or gods of religions at the top of the astral plane…all to keep man from spiritually evolving. The universal Matrix is designed to facilitate experience and spiritual growth in our journey home to Sourcre. The overlay matrix is designed to obstruct just that. As part of this reprogramming, our DNA has also been re-coded to make man more susceptible to mind control. In the new science of epigenetics DNA is no longer considered the control center for body development but is simply database activated by signals from the environment, the mind field. The human subtle energy system has also been reprogrammed: The chakra which originally were aligned around the sushumna, “silver cord” from the soul up the spinal column as spinning portals to access higher dimension have been shifted outward at birth to interact with the physical dimension, making them much more accessible to cording and outside manipulation. The kunalini which in the eastern traditions is the vital energy in matter is activated in the root 18 chakra spirals from the base of the spine up through the chakras, going through the pineal gland and out the pituitary gland, the 3rd eye, into the astral playground. The pineal gland has been modified from its original purpose to channel this energy through the crown up into the higher dimensions. Even with all this subversion, humanity need not fear these negative beings. Their power derives from our ignorance of them. Over the ages the dark has provided a foil for us to awaken to their presence to choose not to be controlled by their scheming by turning to the light. Man cannot be controlled if he or she knows the truth. Knowledge has power. You have a choice. But you have to wake up. Changing the matrix is a matter of changing your mind. We are now in the time of prophecy, the time of a great awakening in consciousness…for us and the planet, the beginning of the return home. Earth is the center of attention in the galaxy now, attracting both light and dark for the “Event” This is to be a solar “flash”, like a corona mass ejection (CME) that will create an electromagnetic null zone, wherein the grids of the 3rd, 4th and 5th dimensions are aligned and templated for consciousness to make the transition. The time line splits here. _______________________________________________________________________ Note 1: See Portal 3, Ascension: models of multi-dimensional. Note 2: Love and Light are the context for the manifestation of universal consciousness in the highest dimension as space and time are the warp and weft of the fabric of existence in the 3rd dimension…space being that which separates/relates matter or things and time that which separates/relates change-movement-events. Space then relates matter and time related consciousness. Space then is the source of gravity.-attraction of things to each other. Note 3: Universal Law begins with the Law of One, Cause and Effect, Attraction. Systemic laws for our universe are duality, free will, karma, reincarnation, resonance reciprocity, correspondence, etc. Correspondence, for example: “As Above, So Below”, provides for an understanding of the pattern of creation in each dimension. Note 4: First two verses of the Siva Sutras of Kashmir Shaivism. Note 5: See model #5-12 Domain Universe, in Portal 3 for further description. Note 6: Kavassilas, George, Our Universal Journey, Our Journey Home, Aus, 2012. Note 7: Physicist Ludwig Boltzmann has theorized just this sort of possibility called “Boltzmann’s Brain”, arising due to quantum fluctuations in the cosmic plasma medium in the multiple universe scenario. This A.I. seeks out sentient civilizations in order to take them over by taking body in their technology or converting their organic bodies into machines. 19 Mandalas in Muti faiths BUDDHISM: Origins: Buddhism began in the 6th century BCE with the life. enlightenment and teaching of Siddhartha Guatama, the Buddha who was born in Nepal and taught in northern India. It developed into two main divisions: Hinayana, the lower path of wisdom and enlightenment for the self, and Mahayana, the higher path of compassion and enlightenment as a Bodhisattva, for others. The original form of Buddhism called Theraveda, now mostly in southeast Asia, is sometimes associated with Hinayana as it seeks enlightenment for the self. Numerous branches and sects developed in different countries. Among these Vajrayana, the Diamond Vehicle or Path, the fast lane for enlightenment, now one of the three major schools, developed about the 8th century AD as a branch of Mahayana, is based on Tantric ritual and Yogic practices. Vajrayana, known as esoteric or tantric Buddhism, has itself two major schools: the Shingon School of Japan and Tibetan Buddhism. The Vajrayana of Tibetan Buddhism has four schools: Nyingma (the “ancient ones, the oldest), Kaygu (the Karmapa, 3 Yanas), Sakya (scholars) and Gelug (Way of Virtue, logic and debate, The Dalai Lama). The Nyingma school is known for its Nine Yanas, Nine Vehicles or Paths to Enlightenment: These include bodhisattva, tantric and yoga paths, the highest of which is the Dzogchen or Deity Yoga. ENLIGHTENMENT: The objective of Buddhist belief and practice is to become a Buddha, a fully enlightened and liberated being, attaining Nirvana, a timeless and formless state of Bliss wherein the being is dissolved into the original Nothing or Emptiness. It is a state of cessation of being, of absolute non-duality. Enlightenment can be thought of as spiritual evolution but obviously not the survival of the fittest since it is the destiny of all conscious being. This is achieved through a practice of compassion, acquiring wisdom and releasing attachments/desires which are the causes of suffering. The teaching of relieving suffering and starting the Path to enlightenment is stated in the Four Noble Truths and the 8-Fold Path of Right Living. Buddhists believe in a system of reincarnation or rebirth into one of the six worlds of Samsara, or wheel rebirth, in the lower planes of existence (see model Diagram No.12). The cycle of rebirth is nearly endless, lasting trillions upon trillions of years…the only way to get off the wheel is to become enlightened, i.e. to become a Buddha. The question here is the definition of nirvana: does the emptiness, non-form mean also non-being and non-awareness or does it mean the opposite, absolute, un-limited awareness of the self as totality, a merging with original cause.? PRINCIPLE of CAUSATION: CO-DEPENDENT ARISING or INTERDEPENDENT ORIGINATION: All phenomena arise together in a mutually interdependent web of cause and effect. Everything is connected. The Buddha was simultaneously awakened to the ‘emptiness’ of all form, sunyata, the nature of nirvana, and to the nature of existence as Co-dependent Arising or Causation. Cause and effect co-arise…everything is both the cause and effect of everything else. No Beings or phenomenon are absolute. Similarly all things come into existence in every moment and in every moment are passing away. “There is no solid and enduring reality”. From a scientific point of view then reality is digital-quantisized, rather than a relativistic contunuum. The universe that is continuously arising anew as a unified whole. This core teaching of all schools of Buddhism is true non-dualism. 20 Wheel of Rebirth Wheel of Rebirth-Samsara has Six Realms: The Hell Realms, Demons, Animals, Hungry Ghosts, Human Beings and Devas/gods./The Adi Buddha-Vajradhara or Vajrasattva COSMOLOGY and the HIEARCHY of BEING: Multi-dimensional reality called the planes of existence, have a somewhat different population than western systems. In Buddhist thought Planes of Consciousness only exist as places or environments for beings. Instead of types or degrees of angels or ascended beings (and extraterrestrials) there are humans, demons, devas/gods, Bodhisattavas, Buddhas and Cosmic Buddhas, all sentient beings. The Buddha taught that the universe was infinite, without beginning or end, thus without an originator or Creator. There is no supreme creator God of the Universe. The origin of the universe and of a Supreme Being was not exactly denied but was said to be “unknowable” and could not be understood by the limited mind of man. It was more important to alleviate suffering through the elimination of attachment and ignorance. Questions concerning the eternal and infinite nature of the universe, the self and the Buddha are essentially unknowable. Self/Soul, Buddhists do not believe in a ‘soul’ per se in the western sense of an eternal conscious entity but as a collection of memories, habits, thoughts, desires and Karmic debts that persist as a unit. Karma is essentially the principle of cause and effect and the way balance is maintained in the lower worlds of rebirth. The Universe has neither beginning nor end…it is infinite. In Buddhism it was not created. Things are constantly coming into being, and ceasing to be. It is however bounded, thus finite in size, cyclically appearing. evolving and disappearing in endless cycles of existence. Therre is no origin not original cause. Everything is caused by everything else in a system of “co-dependent arising” or causation. 21 The Buddhist cosmology draws on its roots in the Vedas tradition. The cosmos is a multi-verse with uncountable universes connected by a cosmic web (plasma filaments) called “Indra’s Net’. (Indra is the King of the Gods in the Vedas.) Each is set like a pearl at the intersections of the net perfectly reflecting all the other universes. Each contains the pattern the whole cosmos like a part of a hologram has the basic information of the holon but in less detail. All the individual parts are bound together in the whole in “causal interdependence”. The six planes of Samsara, rebirth, are the lowest dimensions of the Buddhist 31 Planes of Existence. Above are the Worlds of the Bardo State, known as the “dream world” or the desire worlds, Kama Lokas, experienced by the soul after death, between lifetimes. The Bardo is a series of planes that are basically astral or emotional nature experienced in three stages: 1.) the experience of death and infinite light, 2.) where one experiences of a torrent of conscious states, meeting all manner of beings or deities, peaceful/positive and wrathful/negative who test the soul’s level of spiritual attainment and karma and 3.) the where one plans the next lifetime/rebirth. The experiences of the second stage are really mental projections conditioned by training and experience in life and are different for each individual. They have no reality and can be avoided by the soul that realizes this. In Buddhism the Planes of Existence are not so much places or ‘lokas” as they are states of mind and habitations for various kinds of beings. There are two main divisions of worlds above the Bardo: the 16 Rupa Lokas, worlds of form and matter and the four Arupa Lokas planes, the formless, immaterial worlds. These total 31 Planes of Existence which are seen to stack, one upon the other in ascending order. The planes of form, Rupa Lokas double in size with each step to accommodate Devas who are increasing in size as they ascend. Everything is in constant flux, and so conditions and the thing itself are constantly changing. Mt Meru: where heaven and earth meet is said to arise at the mid-point of the Buddhist universe and is thus enclosed within the dome of the stupa as a virtual stepped pyramid. Mt. Meru, like all mountains has more than one, perhaps many paths to its summit, in this case they are paths of enlightenment. It is often shown as an inverted cone with the City of the Gods, Brahmapuri, at its apex and surrounded by either the 5 rings of the elements or 7 rings for alternating mountain ranges and oceans with the twelve continents of the earth as islands. The mountain ranges are nearly impassable barriers around Mt. Meru. The continents are world floating in space time, like stars and planets. Humanity lives on the “rose apple tree” continent, otherwise known as the ”Land of Karma”. Adi Buddha (also Vajradhara): Uppermost in the hierarchy the Adi Buddha resides in the emptiness beyond the Arupa Lokas, the “self-originating”, primordial consciousness, existing before the universe, the originator and source of all things. His body contains the entire Buddhist cosmos. He is represented in body form holding the vajra scepter of wisdom and the bell of compassion crossed over the heart representing non-duality or the co-existence of the two worlds: The Diamond World and the Matrix World of dimensions. 22 Dhyani Buddhas: The 5 cosmic Dhyani Buddhas, residing in the Arupa (formless) Lokas, represent the five wisdoms to be cultivated or the 5 delusions to be overcome for enlightenment. (See chart) References Arguelles, Jose and Miriam, Mandala, Shamballa, 1972. Govinda, Lama Anagarika, Foundations of Tibetan Mysticism, Samuel Weiser, 1969. Govinda, Lama Anagarika, The Psycho-Cosmic Symbolism of the Buddhist Stupa, Dharma Publishing, 1978. Lawlor, Robert, Sacred Geometry: Philosophy and Practice, Crossroad, 1982. Snodgrass, Adrian, The Symbolism of the Stupa, Cornell U Press, 1985. (Various Translations), Prajnaparamita Sutras (The Wisdom of the Yonder Shore), Cosmology The multi-dimensions states of existence-planes of consciousness in the Buddhist cosmos are divided into 3 worlds: Worlds of Desire (Kama Lokas-6 heavens), Worlds of Form (Rupa Lokas-16 heavens) and the Worlds of Formlessness (Arupa Lokas-4 heavens). Below this structure there is actually a fourth World called Samsara, the Wheel of Rebirth which has 6 planes, the highest of which is also the lowest plane in the Kama Lokas, the plane of the 4 Celestial Kings. These total 31 Planes of the Buddhist Vajrayana. (See the Mandala Model). See p.330 of Symbolism…) The universe is divided into three realms in the Buddhist cosmology: The Three Lokas Rupa Lokas: Form/Body Planes- Devas of various degrees of aeareness Kama Lokas:Desire Planes-Devas still subject to attachments Arupa Lokas:Non-form PlanesIn the Buddhist high dimensions are beings who are involved solely in the process of evolution to a state of enlightenment rather than also having beings who are involved in the maintenance and manifestation of the universe and who may not have descended into physical form for incarnation as in other mystical traditions. The four Arupa Lokas which are still subject to causation are as follows: the lowest28. The Heaven of Infinite Space (negation of all physical phenomenon). 29. The Heaven of Nothingness (Pure Consciousness is negated), 30. The Heaven of Pure or Infinite Consciousness or of Nothingness (empty space is negated) 31. The Heaven of Neither Consciousness Nor Non-Consciousness (highest plane of manifestation, all consciousness is negated), This is where enlightenment occurs This plane is represented in the stupa as the top of the pinnacle. Above this the mind is severed from all consciousness leaving only the un-manifest infinite Void, “thin air”, where the Buddhas exist. 23 The attainment of each plane of consciousness is viewed as a rebirth on that plane rather than an ascension of consciousness. At this point there is a divergence in the teaching of different schools of where enlightenment occurs: 1. It is at the Akanistha, the top of the spire-the highest rung, the entry to the Formless Worlds or 2. The Pinnacle-highest point called the bhavagra, beyond which there is nothing-thin air. Three Segments of Universe Heavens-Realms of Planets & Stars, Beings bound by desire Earth: Continents, oceans & mountains surrounding Mt. MeruLand of Karma/Rebirth Hell realms increasing. 24 Hot & Cold MANDALA The mandala is perhaps the most well known symbol of Buddhism in the west. It is a representation of the abode of the deity who sits in its center. It is a map of the world, a model of multidimensional reality, in short, it is the universe. The whole cosmology can be correlated to it. In Buddhism these are called the Planes of Consciousness. It is used in meditation practice to direct the spiritual aspirant along a path into the mandala to enlightenment at the center and the merging with the divine being whose realm it represents.* A we shall explore later, it is also the foundational matrix from which the Buddhist the vertical form of the stupa arises. The Mandala is a Sanskrit word which means “circle”, “wheel” or “that which turns about a center”. The circle symbolizes unity, totality, and perfection. It is found in various forms in the teachings of many traditions around the globe: the Hindu yantra, the Gothic rose window, the Native American medicine wheel and the medieval Christian Empyrean shown at left. It differs from the mandala in that earth is at the center of the diagram rather tan outside. In design it is a geometrical progression of circles and squares, each within and without the other, increasing or decreasing in size according to the √2…the ratio between the side and diagonal of a square. The square represents the physical planes, its basic four-ness traditionally associated with matter or 25 earth and the circle the higher, spiritual planes or heaven which is the first to be drawn in the sequence of circles. It contains all possibilities, all forms…it is the most perfect. As been noted previously, an ancient Chinese text on the design of temples specifies two basic plans: a circle within a square-heaven within earth, or a square within a circle, earth within heaven. In the Japanese Shingon School of Buddhism the mandala takes the form of a matrix of mandalas called the Womb World and Diamond Realm. 26 REFERENCES 1 https://mind-matrix.net/ 2. .Citation: Gidley, J 2007, 'The evolution of consciousness as a planetary imperative: an integration of integral views', Integral Review: A Transdisciplinary and Transcultural Journal for New Thought, Research and Praxis, no. 5, pp. 4226.https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228755942_The_Evolution_of_Consciousness_as_a_Planet ary_Imperative_An_Integration_of_Integral_Views [accessed Oct 08 2020]. 27 Mount Meru (Sanskrit: मेरु), Sumeru, Sineru or Mahāmeru, is the sacred five-peaked mountain of Hindu, Jain, and Buddhist cosmology and is considered to be the center of all the physical, metaphysical and spiritual universes. Many famous Buddhist and similar Jain as well as Hindu temples have been built as symbolic representations of this mountain. The "Sumeru Throne" 須彌座 xūmízuò style base is a common feature of Chinese pagodas. The highest point (the finial bud) on the pyatthat, a Burmese-style multitiered roof, represents Mount Meru. Etymologically, the proper name of the mountain is Meru (Pāli Meru), to which is added the approbatory prefix su-, resulting in the meaning "excellent Meru" or "wonderful Meru"- Meru is also the name of the central bead in a mālā.              Burmese: ([mjɪ̰ ɴ mò tàʊɰ̃]) Chinese: 須彌山 (Xūmíshān) Japanese: 須弥山 (Shumisen)[4] Khmer: ភ្ន ំព្រះសុមេរុ (Phnom Preah Someru) or (Phnom Preah Somae) Korean: 수미산 (Sumisan) Pāli: Sineru Tamil: மகா மமரு மலை Tibetan: ཪི་རྒྱལ་པོ་རི་རབ་ Malayalam: മഹാമമരു പർവ്വതം Kannada: ಮೇರು ಪವ೯ತ Telugu: మేరు పర్వ తం Thai: เขาพระสุเมรุ (Khao phra sumen) Vietnamese: Núi Tu-di Geography: The dimensions attributed to Mount Meru, all references to it being as a part of the Cosmic Ocean, with several statements that say, "The Sun along with all the planets circle the mountain", make determining its location most difficult, according to most scholars. Some researchers identify Mount Meru or Sumeru with the Pamirs, northwest of Kashmir. The Suryasiddhanta mentions that Mt. Meru lies in 'the middle of the Earth' ("bhuva-madhya") in the land of the Jambunad (Jambudvip). Narapatijayacharyasvarodaya a ninth-century text, based on mostly unpublished texts of Yāmal Tantr, mentions "Sumeruḥ Prithvī-madhye shrūyate drishyate na tu" ('Su-meru is heard to be in the middle of the Earth, but is not seen there') There exist several versions of cosmology in existing Hindu texts. In one of them, cosmologically, the Meru mountain was also described as being surrounded by Mandrachala Mountain to the east, Suparshva Mountain to the west, Kumuda Mountain to the north and Kailasa to the south. Buddhist cosmology and Mount Meru (Buddhism) According to Buddhist cosmology, Mount Meru (or Sumeru) is at the centre of the world and Jambūdvīpa is south of it. It is 80,000 yojanas wide and 80,000 yojanas high according to the Abhidharmakośabhāṣyam and 84,000 yojanas high according to the Long Āgama Sutra.[4] Trāyastriṃśa is on its peak, where Śakra resides. The Sun and the Moon revolve around Mount Meru and as the Sun passes behind it, it becomes nighttime. The mountain has four faces, 28 each one made of a different material—the Northern face is made of gold, the Eastern one is made of crystal, the Southern one is made of lapis lazuli, and the Western one is made of ruby. In Vajrayāna, maṇḍala offerings often include Mount Meru, as they in part represent the entire universe. It is also believed that Mount Meru is the home of the buddha Cakrasaṃvara. Buddhist cosmology is the description of the 31 planes of existence in samsara according to the Sutta Pitaka of the Theravada Pali Canon and commentaries. Theravada Buddhist cosmology describes the 31 planes of existence in which rebirth takes place. The order of the planes are found in various discourses of Gautama Buddha in the Sutta Pitaka. For example, in the Saleyyaka Sutta of the Majjhima Nikaya the Buddha mentioned the planes above the human plane in ascending order.[1] In several suttas in the Anguttara Nikaya, the Buddha described the causes of rebirth in these planes in the same order. In Buddhism, the devas are not immortal gods that play a creative role in the cosmic process. They are simply elevated beings who had been reborn in the celestial planes as a result of their words, thoughts, and actions. Usually, they are just as much in bondage to delusion and desire as human beings, and as in need of guidance from the Enlightened One. The Buddha is the "teacher of devas and humans (satthadevamanussanam). The devas came to visit the Buddha in the night. The Devatasamyutta and the Devaputtasamyutta of the Samyutta Nikaya gives a record of their conversations. The devaputtas are young devas newly arisen in heavenly planes, and devatas are mature deities.[2] The data for the 31 planes of existence in samsara are compiled from the Majjhima Nikaya, Anguttara Nikaya, Samyutta Nikaya, Digha Nikaya, Khuddaka Nikaya, and others. The 31 planes of existence can be perceived by a Buddha's Divine eye (dibbacakkhu) and some of his awakened disciples through the development of jhana meditation. According to the suttas, a Buddha can access all these planes and know all his past lives as well as those of other beings. In the Maha-Saccaka Sutta of the Majjhima Nikaya of the Pali Canon, Gautama Buddha said: When the mind was thus concentrated, purified, bright, unblemished, rid of defilement, pliant, malleable, steady, & attained to imperturbability, I directed it to the knowledge of the passing away & reappearance of beings. I saw — by means of the divine eye, purified & surpassing the human — beings passing away & re-appearing, and I discerned how they are inferior & superior, beautiful & ugly, fortunate & unfortunate in accordance with their kamma: 'These beings — who were endowed with bad conduct of body, speech, & mind, who reviled the noble ones, held wrong views and undertook actions under the influence of wrong views — with the break-up of the body, after death, have re-appeared in the plane of deprivation, the bad destination, the lower realms, in hell. But these beings — who were endowed with good conduct of body, speech & mind, who did not revile the noble ones, who held right views and undertook actions under the influence of right views — with the break-up of the body, after death, have re-appeared in the good destinations, in the heavenly world.' Thus — by means of the divine eye, purified & surpassing the human — I saw beings passing away & re-appearing, and I discerned how they are inferior & superior, beautiful & ugly, fortunate & unfortunate in accordance with their kamma. In the Itivuttaka edition of the Khuddaka Nikaya and in the Māpuññabhāyi Sutta of the Anguttara Nikaya, the Buddha told about his past lives: 29 Whenever the eon contracted I reached the "Plane of Streaming Radiance", and when the eon expanded I arose in an empty divine mansion. And there I was Brahma, the great Brahma, the unvanquished victor, the all-seeing, the all-powerful. Thirty-six times I was Sakka, ruler of the devas. And many hundreds of times I was a wheel-turning monarch, righteous, a king of righteousness, conqueror of the four regions of the earth, maintaining stability in the land, in possession of the seven treasures. Causes for rebirth in various planes The process by which sentient beings migrate from one state of existence to another is dependent on causes and conditions. The three causes are giving or charity, moral conduct, meditative development, and their opposites. Rebirth in the Kama-loka depends on a person's moral conduct and practice of giving. Rebirth in the Rupa-loka and Arupa-loka also requires meditation development. Liberation from all rebirth requires wisdom in addition to moral conduct and meditation. About the cycle of rebirth, Bhikkhu Bodhi, a scholar monk who has translated numerous texts from the Pali Canon, writes that beyond all planes of existence is the unconditioned Nibbana, the final goal of the Buddha's teaching: A blissful heavenly rebirth, however, is not the final purpose for which the Buddha taught the Dhamma. At best it is only a temporary way station. The ultimate goal is the cessation of suffering, and the bliss of the heavens, no matter how blissful, is not the same as the cessation of suffering. According to the Buddha's teaching, all states of existence within the round of rebirths, even the heavens, are transient, unreliable, bound up with pain. Thus, the ultimate aim of the Dhamma is nothing short of liberation, which means total release from the round of rebirth and death. Liberation from rebirth Liberation from the rounds of rebirth requires more than just meditation achievement. It is necessary to apply Yoniso Manasikara after emerging from Samma Samadhi (1st to 4th jhana) in order to arrive at a breakthrough by wisdom. The Udana shows that after emerging from the jhanas, the Buddha directed his attention to the cause of dukkha and the way leading to its cessation. This process culminates in the discovery of Pratītyasamutpāda (dependent origination) and the Four Noble Truths. When the seven days had come to a close, the Exalted One arose from the state of trance and in the first watch of the night, thoroughly thought out the chain of cause and effect, in direct order, thus; "If there is this (state), another (state) arises, by the arising of this (state), a (state) is produced, that is to say: "From Ignorance spring Fabrications, from Fabrications springs Consciousness, from Consciousness spring Mind and Material Form, from Mind and Material Form, the six Organs of Sense, from the six Organs of Sense, Contact, from Contact, Sensations, from Sensations, Desire, from Desire, Attachment, from Attachment, Becoming, from Becoming, Birth, from Birth spring Decay, Death, Sorrow, Lamentation, Pain, Grief and Despair. Thus, the whole mass of suffering originates".[7] "By the destruction of Ignorance, Fabrications are destroyed, by the destruction of Fabrications, Consciousness is destroyed, by the destruction of Consciousness, Mind and Material Form are destroyed, by the destruction of Mind and Material Form, the six Organs of Sense are destroyed, 30 by the destruction of the six Organs of Sense, Contact is destroyed, by the destruction of Contact, Sensations are destroyed, by the destruction of Sensations, Desire is destroyed, by the destruction of Desire, Attachment is destroyed, by the destruction of Attachment, Becoming is destroyed, by the destruction of Becoming, Birth is destroyed, and by the destruction of Birth, Decay, Death, Sorrow, Lamentation, Pain, Grief and Despair are destroyed. Thus, the whole mass of suffering is brought to an end. The 31 Planes of Existence Arupa-Loka (Formless Realms) The immaterial or formless realm (arupa loka) includes four planes into which beings are born as a result of attaining the Four Formless Jhana arūpadhyānas. The inhabitants of these realms are possessed entirely of mind. Having no physical form or location, they are unable to hear Dhamma teachings. They achieve this by attaining the formless jhana levels in a previous life, and now enjoy the fruits (vipāka) of the good karma of that accomplishment for a period before rebirth in a lower plane again. They do not interact with the rest of the universe.     31 - Realm of Neither Perception Nor Non-Perception (nevasannanasannayatanupaga deva): Rebirth in this plane is a result of attaining the fourth formless jhana in a previous life. The beings in this plane only have mind and no physical body. They are unable to hear Dhamma. In this sphere the formless beings do not engage in "perception". Uddaka Rāmaputta reached this plane and thought that this is awakening. After having experienced this state the Buddha realized that it will eventually lead to further rebirth.[9] 30 - Realm of Nothingness (akincannayatanupaga deva): Rebirth in this plane is a result of attaining the third formless jhana in a previous life. This is considered a form of perception, though a very subtle one. This was the sphere reached by Āḷāra Kālāma, the Buddha's first teacher. Alara Kalama thought that it is the state of awakening or liberation.[10] 29 - The Realm of Infinite Consciousness (vinnanancayatanupaga deva): Rebirth in this plane is a result of attaining the second formless jhana. In this sphere formless beings dwell meditating on their consciousness (vijñāna) as infinitely pervasive. 28 - Realm of Infinite Space (akasanancayatanupaga deva): Rebirth in this plane is a result of attaining the first formless jhana. Rupa-Loka (Fine-Material World) The fine material realm (rupa-loka) consists of sixteen planes. Beings are reborn into these planes as a result of attaining the form jhanas. The prevalent mode of experience here is meditative rather than sensory. They have bodies made of fine matter. The sixteen planes correspond to the attainment of the four form jhanas. The devas of the rupa-loka have physical forms, but are sexless and passionless. Beings in the lower planes are not able to see beings in planes higher than theirs. The beings of the Form realm are not subject to the extremes of pleasure and pain, or governed by desires for things pleasing to the senses, as the beings of the Kāma-loka are. The bodies of Form realm beings do not have sexual distinctions. Like the beings of the Arupa-loka, the dwellers in the Rupa-loka have minds corresponding to the dhyānas (Pāli: jhānas). In their case it is the four lower jhanas or rūpadhyānas. Related Sutta : Jhana Sutta from the Anguttara Nikaya 31 Pure Abodes (Suddhavasa) The Pure Abodes are distinct from the other worlds of the rupa-loka in that they do not house beings who have been born there through ordinary merit or meditative attainments. Birth in these five realms are a result of attaining the fruit of non-returning or Anagami, the third level of enlightenment. These Pure Abodes are accessible only to those who have destroyed the lower five fetters, consisting of self-view, sceptical doubt, clinging to rites and ceremonies, sense desires, and ill-will.[11] They will destroy their remaining fetters of craving for fine material existence, craving for immaterial existence, conceit, restlessness and ignorance during their existence in the Pure Abodes. Those who take rebirth here are called "non-returners" because they do not return from that world, but attain final nibbana there without coming back. They guard and protect Buddhism on earth, and will pass into enlightenment as Arhats when they pass away from the Suddhavasa worlds. According to the Ayacana Sutta, among its inhabitants is Brahma Sahampati, who begs the Buddha to teach Dhamma to the world. The five Pure Abodes are:      27 - Peerless Devas (Akanittha deva): World of devas "un-equal in rank". The highest of all the Rūpadhātu worlds, it is often used to refer to the highest extreme of the universe. The current Śakra will eventually be born there. 26 - Clear-Sighted Devas (Sudassi deva): The "clear-seeing" devas live in a world similar to and friendly with the Akanitṭha world. 25 - Beautiful Devas (Sudassa deva): The world of the "beautiful" devas is said to be the place of rebirth for five kinds of anāgāmins. 24 - Untroubled Devas (Atappa deva): The world of the "untroubled" devas, for whose company those of lower realms long. 23 - Devas not Falling Away (Aviha deva): The world of the "not falling" devas, perhaps the most common destination for reborn Anāgāmins. Many achieve arhatship directly in this world, but some pass away and are reborn in sequentially higher worlds of the Pure Abodes until they are at last reborn in the Akanitṭha world. These are called in Pāli uddhaṃsotas, "those whose stream goes upward". Bṛhatphala Planes These two realms are a result of attaining the fourth jhana. They remain in the tranquil state attained in the 4th Jhana, and is characterized by equanimity (upekṣā).   22 - Unconscious beings (Asaññasatta): Realm of mindless beings who have only bodies without consciousness. Rebirth into this plane results from a meditative practice aimed at the suppression of consciousness. Those who take up this practice assume release from suffering can be achieved by attaining unconsciousness. However, when the life span in this realm ends, the beings pass away and are born in other planes where consciousness returns. 21 - Very Fruitful devas (vehapphala deva): In the Jhana Sutta of the Anguttara Nikaya the Buddha said "The Vehapphala devas, monks, have a life-span of 500 eons. A run-of-the-mill person having stayed there, having used up all the life-span of those devas, goes to hell, to the animal womb, to the state of the hungry shades." 32 Śubhakṛtsna Planes These three realms are a result of attaining the third jhana. The mental state of the devas of these worlds corresponds to the third jhana, and is characterized by a quiet joy (sukha). These devas have bodies that radiate a steady light.    20 - Devas of Refulgent Glory (subhakinna deva): The Buddha said, "The Subhakinha devas, monks, have a life-span of 64 mahakalpas. A run-of-the-mill person having stayed there, having used up all the life-span of those devas, goes to hell, to the animal womb, to the state of the hungry shades." 19 - Devas of Unbounded Glory (appamanasubha deva): The world of devas of "limitless beauty". 18 - Devas of Limited Glory (parittasubha deva): The world of devas of "limited beauty". Ābhāsvara Planes These three are a result of attaining the second jhana. The mental state of the devas of the Ābhāsvara worlds corresponds to the second dhyāna, and is characterized by delight (prīti) as well as joy (sukha).    17 - Devas of Streaming Radiance (abhassara deva): The Abhassara devas have a life-span of 8 mahakalpas. After that period they are reborn in a lower realm.[14] 16 - Devas of Unbounded Radiance (appamanabha deva): The world of devas of "limitless light", a concept on which they meditate. Their lifespan is 4 mahākalpas. 15 - Devas of Limited Radiance (parittabha deva): The world of devas of "limited light". Their lifespan is 2 mahākalpas. Brahmā Planes? Buddhism The mental state of the devas of the Brahmā worlds corresponds to the first jhana. Like all beings, the brahmas are still tied to the cycle of rebirth, though sometimes they forget this and imagine themselves to be immortal. The Buddha said "The devas of Brahma's retinue, monks, have a life-span of an eon. A run-of-the-mill person having stayed there, having used up all the life-span of those devas, goes to hell, to the animal womb, to the state of the hungry shades. One way to rebirth in the brahma world is mastery over the first jhana. Another is through meditations on loving kindness, compassion, altruistic joy, and equanimity. According to the Subha Sutta, the Brahmin Subha asked the Buddha to teach him how to be born in the world of Brahma. And the Buddha said to him: Then young man, listen carefully I will tell.’ The young man agreed and the Blessed One said. The bhikkhu pervades one direction with thoughts of loving kindness, so too the second, the third, the fourth, above, below, across, in every respect, in all circumstances, the entire world, he pervades with the thought of loving kindness grown great and immeasurable without anger and ill will. Young man, when the release of the mind in loving kindness, is developed thus, none of the measured actions remain. Just as a clever drummer in no time would make known the message in the four directions. In the same manner, when the release of the mind in loving kindness, is developed thus, none of the measured actions remain. This is the method to be born with Brahma. Again the bhikkhu pervades one direction with the thought of compassion,…re…. with intrinsic joy,…re… with equanimity, so too the second, the third, the fourth, above, below, across, in every respect, in all circumstances, the entire world, he pervades with equanimity grown great and immeasurable without anger and ill will. Young man, when the release of the mind in equanimity, is developed thus, none of the measured actions remain. Just as a clever 33 drummer in no time would make known the message in the four directions. In the same manner, when the release of the mind in equanimity is developed thus, none of the measured actions remain. This is the method to be born with Brahma.[16]  14 - Great Brahmas (Maha brahma): One of this realm's most famous inhabitants is the Great Brahma, a deity whose delusion leads him to regard himself as the all-powerful, all-seeing creator of the Universe. According to the Brahmajāla Sutta, a Mahā brahmā is a being from the Ābhāsvara worlds who falls into a lower world through exhaustion of his merits and is reborn alone in the Brahma-world; forgetting his former existence, he imagines himself to have come into existence without cause. Related Sutta: Kevaddha Sutta   13 - Ministers of Brahma (brahma-purohita deva): The "Ministers of Brahmā" are beings, also originally from the Ābhāsvara worlds, that are born as companions to Mahābrahmā after he has spent some time alone. Since they arise after his thought of a desire for companions, he believes himself to be their creator, and they likewise believe him to be their creator and lord. 12 - Retinue of Brahma (brahma-parisajja deva): The "Councilors of Brahmā" or the devas "belonging to the assembly of Brahmā". Kama-Loka (The Sense-Sphere realm) Birth into these heavenly planes takes place as a result of giving and moral discipline. The Sense-Sphere Realm is the lowest of the three realms. The driving force within this realm is sensual desire. These devas enjoy aesthetic pleasures, long life, beauty, and certain powers. The heavenly planes are not reserved only for good Buddhists. Anyone who has led a wholesome life can be born in them. People who believe in an "eternal heaven" may carry their belief to the deva plane and take the long life span there to be an eternal existence. Only those who have known the Dhamma will realize that, as these planes are impermanent, some day these sentient beings will fall away from them and be reborn elsewhere. The devas can help people by inclining their minds to wholesome acts, and people can help the devas by inviting them to rejoice in their meritorious deeds. Related Suttas: Saleyyaka Sutta, Dana Sutta Higher Kama (Karma) Loka These devas live in four heavens that float in the air, leaving them free from contact with the strife of the lower world.    11 - Devas Wielding Power over the Creation of Others (Parinimmita-vasavattin deva): These devas enjoy sensual pleasures created by others for them. These devas do not create pleasing forms that they desire themselves, but their desires are fulfilled by the acts of other devas who wish for their favor. Mara, the personification of delusion and desire, lives here. 10 - Devas Delighting in Creation (Nimmanarati deva): These devas delight in the sense objects of their own creation. They are capable of changing appearance to please themselves. The lord of this world is Sunirmita (Pāli Sunimmita). 9 - Contented deva (Tusita deva): Tushita is the home of the contented gods, among whom many Bodhisattvas, including the future Buddha Maitreya, abide. Before his birth as Siddhartha, the present Buddha also used to dwell with the other Bodhisattvas in this realm. His name in this realm 34  was Śvetaketu (Pāli: Setaketu). While Maitreya is undoubtedly the most important of the dwellers in Tuṣita, the ruler of this world is Santuṣita (Pāli: Santusita). 8 - Yama devas: These Yama devas live in the air, free of all difficulties. Lower Kama-Loka The lower devas of the Kama-loka live on different parts of the mountain at the center of the world, Sumeru. They are even more passionate than the higher devas, and do not simply enjoy themselves but also engage in strife and fighting.  7 - Thirty-three gods (Tavatimsa deva): Beings that live on the peak of Sumeru are like the Olympian gods. Their ruler is Sakka or Śakra, a devotee of the Buddha. Sakka rules by righteousness, patience towards aggressors, and compassionate treatment of wrongdoers. Sakka and the devas honor sages and holy men. He earned his place as ruler of the devas by fulfilling seven vows which embody the standards of the virtuous householder while he was still a human being. The Buddha holds up Sakka's patience and forgiveness as a model for the bhikkhus. Many devas dwelling here live in mansions in the air. Besides the thirty-three devas, many other devas and supernatural beings dwell here, including the attendants of the devas and many apsarases (nymphs). Related Suttas: Sakka-panha Sutta and the Sakka Samyutta (11th section of the Samyutta Nikaya) which also contains 25 short discourses connected with Sakka.  6 - Four Great Kings (catummaharajika deva): The world of the Four Great Kings includes the martial kings who guard the four quarters of the Earth. The chief of these kings is Vaisravana, but all are ultimately accountable to Sakra. Dhatarattha, king of the Eastern Direction, is lord of the gandhabbas. Virulha, king of the Southern Direction, is lord of the kumbandas. Virupakkha, king of the Western Direction, is lord of the nagas. Kuvera, who rules as king of the Northern Direction, is lord of the yakkhas. The devas who guide the Sun and Moon are also part of this world. This is home to the four types of earthly demigod or nature-spirit: Gandhabba - the celestial musicians or fairies Yakkha - tree spirits of varying degrees of ethical purity. They are analogous to the goblins, trolls, ogres, and fairies of Western fairy tales. They inhabit remote areas such as forests, hills, and abandoned caves. Though living in misery they have the potential for awakening and can attain the path and fruits of the spiritual life. Related Suttas: Yakkhasayutta of the Samyutta Nikaya. According to the Atanatiya Sutta: "There are non-humans who are fierce, violent, given to retaliation; those non-humans heed neither the (four) great kings, nor their ministers nor their attendants. They are called rebels against the (four) great kings. Even as in the kingdom of Magadha, the thieves heed neither the king of Magadha, nor the ministers, nor their attendants, and are called rebels against the king of Magadha, so there are non-humans who are fierce... (as before). They are called rebels against the (four) great kings." Kumbhanda (dwarfs) Naga (dragons) Related Sutta: Maha-samya Sutta of the Digha Nikaya probably also Garuda 35 Human Beings (manussa loka)[edit]  5 - Human (manussa loka): Birth in this plane results from giving and moral discipline of middling quality. This is the realm of moral choice where destiny can be guided. The Khana Sutta mentioned that this plane is a unique balance of pleasure and pain. It facilitates the development of virtue and wisdom to liberate oneself from the entire cycle or rebirths. For this reason rebirth as a human being is considered precious according to the Chiggala Sutta. In the Cula-kammavibhanga Sutta (The Shorter Analysis of Action), the Buddha taught that: Killing others lead to short life if one becomes reborn in the human plane instead of the four lower States of Deprivation. By abandoning the very acts of killing and harming, one gets to be reborn in a heavenly world. Alternatively, one gets to be reborn in the human world being endowed with long life. Injuring of others beings can lead to rebirth in the States of Deprivation. Alternatively, the person comes back in the human plane as someone very sickly. Non-injuring of others leads to rebirth in good destinations. Alternatively, one comes back to the human plane enjoying good health. The same goes for the following:    Beautiful or Unattractive Human Rebirth depends on whether the person has an irritable character in this life. Influential or Ordinary Human Rebirth depends on whether the person is envious of the gain and honor received by others in this life. Rich or Poor Human Rebirth depends on whether one is generous to others, such as providing the requisites of holy people, in this present life. Related Suttas: Janussonin Sutta, Cula-kammavibhanga Sutta, States of Deprivation (Apaya) Rebirth into these planes results from unwholesome conduct. Beings reborn there have no moral sense and generally cannot create good kamma (karma). However, when the unwholesome kamma that brought them to these planes is exhausted, some stored good kamma can bring them rebirth in some other plane. Only stream-enterers and other ariyans can be sure they will never again be born in these planes of misery. Related sutta: Saleyyaka Sutta and The Vipaka Sutta 4 - Asura: They are demons or "titans" that are engaged in endless conflict with each other. From the Jataka Tales, we are told that the Asuras are always fighting to regain their lost kingdom on the top of Mount Sumeru, but are unable to break the guard of the Four Great Kings. [17] The Asuras are divided into many groups, and have no single ruler, but among their leaders are Vemacitrin (Pāli: Vepacitti) and Rāhu. According to Marasinghe: "In later texts we find the Asura realm as one of the four unhappy states of rebirth. The Nikāya evidence however does not show that the Asura realm was regarded as a state of suffering"[18] Related sutta: Rattana Sutta 3 - Hungry ghost (pretha loka): This is the realm where ghost and unhappy spirits wander in vain, hopelessly in search of sensual fulfillment. 36 Related sutta : Tirokudda Kanda from the Khuddakapatha 2 - Animal (tiracchana yoni): The animal realm includes animals, insects, fish, birds, worms, etc.. 1 - Hell realms (niraya) Main article: Naraka (Buddhism) These are realms of extreme sufferings are mentioned in the Balapandita Sutta and the Devaduta Sutta. Tibetan Cakrasaṃvara sand mandala with Mount Meru in the centre./A mural depicting Mt. Meru, in Wat Sakhet, Bangkok, Thailand. Tibetan Buddhist embroidery representing Mount Sumeru. Hindu cosmology The cosmic tortoise, and Mount Meru Mount Meru of Hindu traditions is described as 84,000 yojanas high, about 1,082,000 km (672,000 mi), which would be 85 times the Earth's diameter. The Sun along with all the planets in the Solar System revolve around Mt. Meru as one unit. One yojana can be taken to mean about 11.5 km (9 miles) though its magnitude seems to differ over time periods, e.g. the Earth's circumference is 3,200 yojanas according to Varahamihira and slightly less so in the Aryabhatiya, but is said to be 5,026.5 yojanas in the Suryasiddhānta. The Matsya 37 Purana and the Bhagvata Purana along with some other Hindu texts consistently give the height of 84,000 yojanas to Mount Meru which translates into 672,000 miles or 1,082,000 kilometers. Mount Meru was said to be the residence of King Padamja Brahma in antiquity. According to Charles Allen, Mount Kailash is identified with Mount Meru. One description in the Vishnu Purana of the mountain states that its four faces are made of crystal, ruby, gold, and lapis lazuli. It is a pillar of the world and is located at the heart of six mountain ranges symbolizing a lotus Jain cosmology Depiction of Mount Meru at Jambudweep, a Jain temple in Uttar Pradesh According to Jain cosmology, Mount Meru (or Sumeru) is at the centre of the world surrounded by Jambūdvīpa. in form of a circle forming a diameter of 100,000 yojans. There are two sets of sun, moon and stars revolving around Mount Meru; while one set works, the other set rests behind Mount Meru. The 24th and last Tirthankara, Lord Mahāvīra was taken to the summit of Meru by Indra shortly after his birth, after putting his mother Queen Trishala into deep slumber. There he was bathed and anointed with precious unctions. Java: This mythical mountain of gods was mentioned in Tantu Pagelaran, an Old Javanese manuscript written in the Kawi language from the 15th century Majapahit period. The manuscript describes the mythical origin of Java island, and the legend of the movement of portions of Mount Meru to Java. The manuscript explained that Batara Guru (Shiva) ordered the god Brahma and Vishnu to fill the Java island with human beings. However at that time Java island was floating freely on the ocean, always tumbling and shaking. To stop the island's movement, the gods decided to nail it to the Earth by moving the part of Mahameru in Jambudvipa (India) and attaching it to Java.[31] The resulting mountain is Mount Semeru, the tallest mountain on Java. Mount Semeru, a large active volcano on Java, is named after the mount. Architecture The five central towers of Angkor Wat symbolize the peaks of Mount Meru; Angkor, Cambodia. The concept of a holy mountain surrounded by various circles around it was incorporated into ancient Hindu temple architecture with a Shikhara (Śikhara), a Sanskrit word translating literally to "mountain peak". Early examples of this style can be found at the Harshat Mata Temple and Harshnath Temple of the 8th century CE in Rajasthan, western India. This concept also continued outside India such as in Bali, where temples feature Meru towers. 38 In Buddhist temples the Mahabodhi Temple in Bodh Gaya is an earliest example of the 5th-6th century. Many other Buddhist temples took on its form such as in Thailand the Wat Arun and in Myanmar the Hsinbyume Pagoda. Wat Phutthaisawan prang representing Mount Meru/A Buddhist prang in Wat Arun, Bangkok, representing Mount Sumeru/Hsinbyume Pagoda in Mandalay, Myanmar, representing Mount Sumeru/The meru of Pura Ulun Danu Bratan is dedicated to Shiva and his consort Parvathi Mount Meru (also Sumeru (Sanskrit) or Sineru (Pāli) or Kangrinboqe) is the name of the central world-mountain in Buddhist cosmology. Etymologically, the proper name of the mountain is Meru (Pāli Meru), to which is added the approbatory prefix su-, resulting in the meaning "excellent Meru" or "wonderful Meru". The concept of Sumeru is closely related to the central Mount Meru of Hindu cosmology, but it differs from the Hindu concept in several particulars. Yuan dynasty 1271–1368) Chinese mandala depicting Mount Meru as an inverted pyramid topped by a lotus. According to Vasubandhu's Abhidharmakośabhāṣyam (philosophical writings), Sumeru is 80,000 yojanas tall. The exact measure of one yojana is uncertain, but some accounts put it at about 24,000 feet, or approximately 4-1/2 miles, but other accounts put it at about 7-9 miles. It also descends beneath the surface of the surrounding waters to a depth of 80,000 yojanas, being founded upon the basal layer of Earth. Sumeru is often used as a simile for both size and stability in Buddhist texts. Sumeru is said to be shaped like an hourglass, with a top and base of 80,000 yojanas square, but narrowing in the middle (i.e., at a height of 40,000 yojanas) to 20,000 yojanas square. 39 Sumeru is the polar center of a mandala-like complex of seas and mountains. The square base of Sumeru is surrounded by a square moat-like ocean, which is in turn surrounded by a ring (or rather square) wall of mountains, which is in turn surrounded by a sea, each diminishing in width and height from the one closer to Sumeru. There are seven seas and seven surrounding mountainwalls, until one comes to the vast outer sea which forms most of the surface of the world, in which the known continents are merely small islands. The known world, which is on the continent of Jambudvipa, is directly south of Sumeru. The dimensions stated in the Abhidharmakośabhāṣyam are shown in the table below: Name Width Sumeru (Sineru) mountain 80,000 yojanas 80,000 yojanas Sea 80,000 yojanas 80,000 yojanas Yugandhara mountains 40,000 yojanas 40,000 yojanas Sea 40,000 yojanas 40,000 yojanas Iṣadhara (Isadhara) mountains 20,000 yojanas 20,000 yojanas Sea 20,000 yojanas 20,000 yojanas Khadiraka (Karavīka) mountains 10,000 yojanas 10,000 yojanas Sea 10,000 yojanas 10,000 yojanas Sudarśana (Sudassana) mountains 5,000 yojanas 5,000 yojanas Sea 5,000 yojanas 5,000 yojanas 40 Height/Depth Aśvakarṇa (Assakaṇṇa) mountains 2,500 yojanas 2,500 yojanas Sea 2,500 yojanas 2,500 yojanas Vinadhara (Vinataka) mountains 1,250 yojanas 1,250 yojanas Sea 1,250 yojanas 1,250 yojanas Nimindhara (Nemindhara) mountains 625 yojanas 625 yojanas Outer Sea 32,000 yojanas relatively shallow Cakravāḍa (Cakkavāḷa) mountains 312.5 yojanas 312.5 yojanas (circular edge of the world) The 80,000 yojana square top of Sumeru constitutes the Trāyastriṃśa "heaven" (devaloka), which is the highest plane in direct physical contact with the earth. The next 40,000 yojanas below this heaven consist of sheer precipice, narrowing in like an inverted mountain until it is 20,000 yojanas square at a heigh of 40,000 yojanas above the sea. From this point Sumeru expands again, going down in four terraced ledges, each broader than the one above. The first terrace constitutes the "heaven" of the Four Great Kings and is divided into four parts, facing north, south, east and west. Each section is governed by one of the Four Great Kings, who faces outward toward the quarter of the world that he supervises. 40,000 yojanas is also the height at which the Sun and Moon circle Sumeru in a clockwise direction. This rotation explains the alteration of day and night; when the Sun is north of Sumeru, the shadow of the mountain is cast over the continent of Jambudvīpa, and it is night there; at the same time it is noon in the opposing northern continent of Uttarakuru, dawn in the eastern continent of Pūrvavideha, and dusk in the western continent of Aparagodānīya. Half a day later, when the Sun has moved to the south, it is noon in Jambudvīpa, dusk in Pūrvavideha, dawn in Aparagodānīya, and midnight in Uttarakuru. The next three terraces down the slopes of Sumeru are each longer and broader by a factor of two. They contain the followers of the Four Great Kings, namely nāgas, yakṣas, gandharvas, and kumbhāṇḍas. The names and dimensions of the terraces on the lower slopes of Sumeru are given below: 41 Name Height above the sea Breadth Length (on one side) Cāturmahārājika 40,000 yojanas 2,000 yojanas 24,000 yojanas Sadāmada 30,000 yojanas 4,000 yojanas 32,000 yojanas Mālādhara 20,000 yojanas 8,000 yojanas 48,000 yojanas Karoṭapāni 10,000 yojanas 16,000 yojanas 80,000 yojanas Below Sumeru, in the seas around it, is the abode of the Asuras who are at war with the Trāyastriṃśa gods. 42 CHAPTER II Art in Healing There are many more things, between heaven and earth, than are dreamt of in your philosophy, Horatio. —Shakespeare, Hamlet Art and health have been at the center of human interest from the beginning of recorded history. Despite that fact, and despite the invested effort and growth of knowledge and understanding in each arena, it is interesting that we often still find ourselves struggling with the “fundamentals” of art and health and their meaning in society. We make no attempt to clarify or resolve these fundamental issues. Instead, our intent is to summarize current knowledge about the connection between art and health, identify the most compelling next steps for investigation, and generate further interest in researching the complexities of art and health. Legitimate research questions include whether certain art-based therapies are more or less effective than others, whether the impact of therapy can be tied to other important variables and preconditions, and whether health benefits are sustained or short term. These issues deserve vigorous continued attention.Engagement with the creative arts and health outcomes, specifically the health effects of music engagement, visual arts therapy, movement-based creative expression, and expressive writing. Although there is evidence that art-based interventions are effective in reducing adverse physiological and psychological outcomes, the extent to which these interventions enhance health status is largely unknown. Our hope is to establish a foundation for continued investigation into this subject and to generate further interest in researching the complexities of engagement with the arts and health.1 ABSTRACT. HIV positive children need a safe outlet to express their feelings about living with the virus. Creative therapeutic techniquessuch as the creation of mandalas (circle drawings) can facilitate the development of an emotional outlet. Carl G. Jung used mandalas in his work and believed that they are the paths to our center, the voice of our unconscious. The content of 32 mandalas created by children and adolescents living with HIV during clinical sessions with their social worker was analyzed for the themes expressed and colors utilized. The most prominent themes within the artwork concerned the concrete aspects of living with HIV. However, negative themes were balanced by themes concerning happiness, optimism, social relationships, and the normalcy of everyday life. The artwork illustrates that HIV plays a prominent role in the lives of the participants. Their resiliency is evidenced by the fact that nearly half of the themes expressed were positive and life affirming. [Article copies available for a fee from The Haworth Document Delivery Service: 1-800-HAWORTH. E-mail address: Website: Lori S. Wiener and Haven B. Battles are both affiliated with the HIV/AID 43 The use of mandalas has far reaching implications for all children who could benefit from individual expression. The use of mandalas is not new, as their preventive and healing qualities have been described for centuries. The creation of mandalas is a safe and effective therapeutic technique to explore the inner worlds of these children and adolescents. The profound influence that HIV has on each young person’s life isreflected within his or her individual mandalas. A strong sense of purpose, a struggle to adjust to their losses and to conquer their fears permeates their art with a richness of content and personal meaning that cannot and should not be ignored (Koplewicz & Goodman, 1990). This paper is the first to document the therapeutic use of mandalas with children living with HIV/AIDS. The creation of mandalas is an effective, costefficient, and enjoyable intervention that social workers can use in a range of differentsettings. By inquiring into the inner world of children and helping them to put understanding and meaning into their plight, we are facilitating psychological movement, growth, and healing (Wiener & Figueroa, 1998). The art created by the children and adolescents in this project is a testimonial to their ability to convey feelings as well as their ability to balance the burden of HIV with their desire for a “normal” life.2 Despite methodological and other limitations, the studies included in our review appear to indicate that creative engagement can decrease anxiety, stress, and mood disturbances. It is not unreasonable to assume that future studies involving better methodology and more consistent assessment of outcomes will demonstrate the ability of creative engagement to improve psychological and physical well-being and quality of life. As can be seen from our analysis, it is likely that creative engagement contributes to many aspects of physiological and psychological conditions typically associated with improved health status. Use of the arts in healing does not contradict the medical view in bringing emotional, somatic, artistic, and spiritual dimensions to learning. Rather, it complements the biomedical view by focusing on not only sickness and symptoms themselves but the holistic nature of the person. When people are invited to work with creative and artistic processes that affect more than their identity with illness, they are more able to “create congruence between their affective states and their conceptual sense making.” Through creativity and imagination, we find our identity and our reservoir of healing. The more we understand the relationship between creative expression and healing, the more we will discover the healing power of the arts. In the year 2000, an important art therapy literature review addressed an essential question— does art therapy work? It discussed 17 articles dealing with the issue of the effectiveness of art therapy. Two decades later, this research field has extended its scope and is flourishing. Several current reviews of research work have described the broad range of methods implemented today, which includes qualitative and quantitative studies; other reviews have focused on art therapy with specific populations, or by age group. The aim of this systematic literature review is to contribute to the ongoing discussion in the field by exploring the latest studies dealing with the effectiveness of art therapy with a broad scope of adult clients. We conducted a comprehensive search in four databases and review of every quantitative article that has addressed outcome measures in the art therapy field from 2000 to 2017. This paper presents the latest 27 studies in 44 the field that examine the effectiveness of art therapy with adult clients and divides them into seven clinical categories: cancer patients, clients coping with a variety of medical conditions, mental health clients, clients coping with trauma, prison inmates, the elderly, and clients who have not been diagnosed with specific issues but face ongoing daily challenges. It underscores the potential effects of art therapy on these seven clinical populations, and recommends the necessary expansions for future research in the field, to enable art therapy research to take further strides forward. REFERENCES 1.The Connection Between Art, Healing, and Public Health: A Review of Current Literature Heather L. Stuckey, DEd and Jeremy Nobel, MD, MPHAm J Public Health. 2010 February; 100(2): 254–263. 2.https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Lori_Wiener/publication/232062448_Mandalas_as_a_Th erapeutic_Technique_for_HIVInfected_Children_and_Adolescents_What_Do_They_Reveal/links/0fcfd5074804d6e866000000 .pdf 3.Effectiveness of Art Therapy With Adult Clients in 2018—What Progress Has Been Made? Dafna Regev* and Liat Cohen-YatzivFront Psychol. 2018; 9: 1531. 45 CHAPTER III Cosmic Mandalas A mandala is a symbolic representation of part or all of the universe. For example, it can represent the home of a specific meditational deity. It is commonly used in meditation practices and as a visual aid in rituals. Mandalas have a circular structure, and most are two dimensional, despite the fact that they commonly depict three-dimensional objects. They can be painted on cloth (e.g. a thangka), wood, or constructed out of sand. There are at least three different cosmological mandalas in Tibetan Buddhism. 1) Pictured in the header of the website is the so-called "cosmic mandala", which shows the intricate dance of the sun, moon, and other planets around Mount Meru (the axis of the geocentric universe). In this view you are looking down on Mount Meru (a bird's eye view) from such a height that you cannot see any detail in the world below. 2) The Kalachakra mandala, which represents the 3-D palace of the Kalachakra deities 46 [From Brauen 1997] 3) The hand gesture (mudra) used in the mandala offering is a symbolic offering of the entire universe for the benefit of all sentient beings. This YouTube video demonstrates how to make this mudra. The ring fingers represent Mount Meru, while the other 4 pairs of fingers represent the four great continents (NSEW). The following prayer is usually recited as part of the offering: The fundamental ground is scented with incense and strewn with flowers, Adorned with Mt. Meru, the four continents, the sun and the moon. I imagine this as a buddhaland and offer it. May all sentient beings enjoy this pure realm. Berzin, Alexander (1997) Taking the Kalachakra Initiation. Ithaca, NY: Snow Lion Press. Brauen, Martin (1997) The Mandala: Sacred Circle in Tibetan Buddhism. Boston: Shambala Publications. TIBETAN MANDALAS Fundamental to the Tibetan worldview is the artistic and symbolic representation of the cosmos (or some aspect of it, such as the palace of a specific meditational deity) called a mandala. Although representing a three-dimensional structure, mandalas can be two-dimensional paintings on cloth as well as the famous temporary sand mandalas created for specific rituals. Mandalas can also be generated mentally, or symbolized through intricate hand gestures called mudras. In Tibetan astro science, two distinct flat-earth, stationary, geocentric cosmologies are recognized, both developed in India and later translated into Tibetan. The first is the Abhidharma system, expounded in the 4th or 5th century Indian text Abhidharmakosha (Treasury House of Knowledge) by Vasubandhu, and 47 the Kalachakra system (Wheels of Time), whose root text was translated into Tibetan in 1027 A.D.. Both systems are mandala-like world systems made of concentric oceans and mountain ranges centered around an axis, Mount Meru. The known world exists on one of the four major continents (with other minor accompanying continents), the southern continent, called Jambudvipa. Mount Meru is lapis-blue on our side, which explains why it cannot be seen, but instead blends in with the sky's color.The heavenly bodies orbit around Mount Meru. The cosmic mandala pictured in the header above shows a bird's-eye view of Mount Meru and the orbits of the planets (including sun and moon).The world system, with its complex layered base, floats in space, and is only one of an immense number of such world systems, termed the trichilicosm (a number usually considered to be over a billion). The most obvious differences between the two cosmological systems are geographic and geometric, such as the shape of Mount Meru. Compare the pictures below for more details. To the Tibetans, the existence of two seemingly conflicting cosmological systems is not a problem, as neither is meant to be a complete representation of the universe as it is actually observed by scientists. As with all constructions such as mandalas and meditational deities, they serve different purposes and different audiences. For example, the Kalachakra cosmology is used philosophically to draw connections between cycles in the universe and those of human existence, and in an astronomical sense to develop a complex lunar calendar. Another central idea in Tibetan Buddhism is the concept that the Buddha taught many different kinds of texts and meditational systems because there is no "one size fits all" when it comes to the road to enlightenment. Different practitioners have different intellectual and emotional capacities, and therefore different teachings are required to reach all possible students. [Abhidharma cosmology, from Brauen, 1997] 48 [Abhidharma cosmology, from Sadakata, 1997] [Kalachakra cosmology,from Brauen 1997] 49 [Kalachakra cosmology, from Gyatso 2004] As with other ancient and cultural cosmologies, the Tibetan universe is composed of the classic elements fire, earth, air, and water. These four elements exist and function through a fifth element, space. The parallels between these cosmologies and other geocentric models makes them interesting examples to include in lesson plans centered on ancient cosmologies, such as the GEMS activity “Ancient Models of the World”. In this activity, students are directed to make their own artistic representation of a cosmological model. Tibetan cosmologies are an excellent tie-in, as three different mandalas can be used as illustration: the Kalachakra mandala (a painting on cloth or sand mandala representing the concentric strata of the palace of the meditational deities at the heart of Mount Meru), the Cosmic (or wind tracks) mandala of interlocking circles which represents the paths of the heavenly bodies, and the mandala offering, a mudra made with two hands which represents Mount Meru and the four main continents. Illustrations of each of these can be found here. Students can also construct three-dimensional models of the 50 Abhidharma and Kalachakra cosmologies based on photographs of such models found in Brauen (1997). The concept of impermanence is central to Tibetan Buddhism, including world systems within the larger eternal universe. Just as the individual sentient being is born, dies, and is reborn, so too does the universe transmigrate. As in Hinduism, any cosmological system is seen to come into being, exist for billions of years (a kalpa), then dissolve, before coming into existence again. However, one fundamental difference between the Tibetan and Hindu cyclical universe is the cause of the cycle. In Hinduism, the cause is a trio of deities (Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva) while in Tibetan Buddhism the cause is considered to be natural and not supernatural or transcendental. In the Abhidharma system, mere potentiality exists between times of dissolution and creation, as all particles of the five elements disappear. In the Kalachakra system, so-called space particles are the link between cycles. If we follow the evolution of a particular universe (world system), will see four stages: (1) Emptiness (the era of space particles), (2) Formation, (3) Abiding, and (4) Destruction. At the destruction of one system, the fire, earth, air, and water particles separate and perhaps even fall apart, but space particles remain. This is the stage of Emptiness. When motivated through the accumulated karma of all the sentient beings that existed in the previous world system, the space particles begin the process of forming a new universe from the reformed elements. First air particles coagulate to form wind, which then causes the fire particles to join and create lightning. From this process water particles form rain, and the resulting rainbows herald the joining of earth particles. The order of this "creation" is mirrored in the structure of the world system in the Abhidharma and Kalachakra systems depicted above, with the air disk being the lowest layer of the base of the world, topped in succession by disks of fire, water, and earth. Sentient beings begin to populate all possible realms (e.g. various hell realms, animal, human, and deities). During this stage, humans are granted an "infinite" lifespan (until the end of the age). When this process is complete, the Stage of Formation ends. The Stage of Abiding is subdivided into many eras, in which the lifespan of humans changes. We are currently said to be in a degenerate age, when the lifespan is decreasing and is about 80 years. The Stage of Destruction begins when no more sentient beings are reborn in the hell realms, and the hells begin to empty out (as various beings exhaust the karma that brought them there in the first place). Likewise, all higher realms of existence are emptied out in sequence. Finally the world system is destroyed by a great fire. According to the Abhidharmakosha there are also higher cycles where every 8th destruction is accomplished by a flood, and every 8th of those cycles, by a great wind, leading to a "great cycle of destruction." This process is eternal and without beginning or end, and in a sense defines time itself (as a series of changes of impermanent reality). Numerous scientists have found the philosophical parallels between these cosmologies and modern cosmology to be worthy of discussion, similarities which could be incorporated into discussions of ancient and modern cosmologies in elementary astronomy classes (e.g. Zajonc 2004).1 51 1. For more information, consult the following sources: Astro Department (1995) Tibetan Astronomy and Astrology - a Brief Introduction. Dharamsala,India: Tibetan Medical and Astro Institute. Berzin, Alexander (1997) Taking the Kalachakra Initiation. Ithaca, NY: Snow Lion Press. Brauen, Martin (1997) The Mandala: Sacred Circle in Tibetan Buddhism. Boston: Shambala Publications. Dalai Lama (2005) The Universe in a Single Atom. NY: Morgan Road Books. Gyatso, Khendrup Norsang (2004) Ornament of Stainless Light: An Exposition of the Kalachakra Tantra. Boston: Wisdom Publications. Ricard, Matthieu and Trinh Xuan Thuan (2001) The Quantum and the Lotus. NY: Crown Publishers. Sadakata, Akira (1997) Buddhist Cosmology: Philosophy and Origins. Tokyo: Kosei Publishing Wallace, B. Alan, ed. (2003) Buddhism and Science: Breaking New Ground. NY: Columbia University Press. Zajonc, Arthur, ed. (2004) The New Physics and Cosmology: Dialogues with the Dalai Lama. NY: Oxford University Press. The Symbolism of Mount Meru-I. W. Mabbett-History of Religions,Vol. 23, No. 1 (Aug., 1983), pp. 64-83 (20 pages)Published By: The University of Chicago Press https://www.jstor.org/stable/1062318 52 CHAPTER IV Where in the World is Mount Meru? Hamsanandi It’s been a common occurrence in Indian poetry, to compare exemplary humans to Mount Meru. Even in current news reports, you may see the usage of this word to mean “great”, “of a tall order” etc. Going back a few centuries,in a well known composition in Raga Mayamalavagoula, composer Tyagaraja calls Rama as Meru samana dheera, meaning Rama’s valor and majesty to that of Meru mountain. You can listen to an equally majestic rendition of the composition here by none other than Sri Balamuralikrishna. In his composition in raga Lalita, Syama Shastri calls out to the divine mother Parvati as “Sumeru madhya nilaye” , — “she who dwells in the great mountain of Meru”. Given that Parvati is the daughter of Himavan, and wife of Shiva, who dwells in Kailasa. I think it was common practice to associate Mount Meru to be somewhere in the Himalayas. By the way, you can listen to an epic rendition of nannu brovu lalita here, by Lalgudu G Jayaraman. But where is Mount Meru, exactly? If you believe the Wikipedia, it could be anywhere from the Himalayas to Tibet to Central Asia to Tanzania! But is it that difficult to identify it if it were so intertwined with our history? The Mahabharata (in Bheeshma Parva) describes Mount Meru as a globular mountain made of Gold. Surely a poetic description, but not something that would help in identifying a geographic location. The Bhagavata too has several references to Mount Meru ( in the 5th Skandha), but that too leaves us with poetic descriptions that tell us it is “somewhere to the north of Bharata Varsha”, “surrounded by the ocean”, “golden mountain” etc. However, no need to despair. In addition to poets such as Vyasa or Kalidasa may have had colorful descriptions, but we are lucky have had people like Aryabhata and Varahamihira, who in spite of being a little fanciful, gave descriptions that would help us identify Mount Meru, In the Golapada section of Aryabhateeyam, Aryabhata (5th century AD) says the following: मेरुर्योजनमात्रः प्रभाकरो हिमवता पररहिप्तः नन्दनवनस्य मध्ये रत्नमर्यस्सववतोवृतः ||११ || “In the center of the Nandana forest is the bright Mount Meru that’s a yojana in size, that is full of precious stones, and surrounded by the Himalaya Mountains” — Sure, this is as poetic as the description in the Bhagavata or Mahabharata. Not much use here. स्वममवरू स्थलमध्ये नरको वडवामुखश्च जलमध्यम अमरामरा मन्यन्ते परस्परमधस्सस्स्थताहिर्यतम् || १२|| “At Meru Mountain, at the center of the landmass, live the devas; At Vadavamukha, at the center of water live the asuras. Now each of them think that the others are situated below them” Again, not much help here — How does it matter where the devas and asuras live to identify Mount Meru, You may ask. Thankfully, in the 16th verse in the same chapter, Aryabhata spills the beans! दे वाः पश्यस्सन्त भगोलाधवमुद्मेरु संस्सस्थतास्सव्यं अपसव्यगं तर्याधं दहिणावडवामुखे प्रेताः || १६|| 53 “The devas situated on Mount Meru see half of the starry sphere, and the departed souls on the south end, see the other half of the starry sphere”. Now this is a very good description of how the sky is seen from the Earth’s two poles. At each pole, only half of the starry sphere can be seen, and these halves are mutually exclusive. This implies that the Mount Meru should be located at Earth’s North pole, and Vadavamukha, at the South pole. However, it must be pointed out that that the shloka does not plainly say that Mount Meru is at the North Pole. For that, we must visit the work of Varahamihira (6th century AD). In verse 34 of the 12th chapter ( titled भूगोलाहधकारः ), of Surya Siddhanta section from Panchasiddhantika, a work of Varahamihira, we find the following description: अनेकरत्न.हनचर्यो.जाम्बूनदमर्यो.हगररः भूगोल मध्यगो मेरुरुभर्यत्र हवहनगवतः “Filled with different types of precious stones, the golden Meru mountain goes through the center of the globe onto either side” This is as close as it gets to saying that the Mount Meru is on Earth’s axis. Note that the reference here is not to Jambu Dweepa (or India) but to “jAmbUnadamaya”. As per the dictionary, this term means “of Jamboonada gold, or of golden etc. Narayana Pandita’s Gudharthaprakashika commentary to Surya Siddhanta also adds a shloka to show how “Jambunadamaya” implies gold. It probably refers to gold panning in river waters. Mount Meru, due north of “Bharata Varsha” :) 54 Surya Siddhanta section from Varaha Mihira’s Pancha Siddhantika The next verse (35) goes on to say the Gods live in the top of the Meru and the demons at the bottom of the Meru. Now compare it with the description by Aryabhata that I cited earlier in this post, and you will find that they are exactly talking about the same thing! What does go through the “center of” Earth’s globe and project to both ends? It’s nothing but the earth’s axis. Underneath all the glittering gold, and being the abode of devas and asuras being spoken about in the shlokas, we see the truth plainly told — that Meru refers to nothing but the earth’s axis. The top of Meru is the North pole, and the bottom of the Meru at is the South pole. Then in the next few verses, Varahamihira talks about 4 (fictitious, although the text doesn’t explicitly say so) cities which are separated by 90 degrees on the earth’s equator. Incidentally one of these is called “Lanka” and is in Bharatavarsha — at a distance of one fourth the circumference 55 of the Earth, due south of Meru’s top end. This implies the Surya SiddhantaKara knew that Bharatavarsha was close to the equator. However, the “city” which he calls Lanka can’t be in India because it is due south of Ujjain and on the equator, and falls in the Indian ocean and not on land. We can only assume that he made up these “cities” to be able to describe the globe, and the movement of the globe. And later verses tell how at the top of the Meru there is a 6 month day, which there is a six month long night at the bottom of the Meru( verse 68). In verse 72, he says as you travel towards the Meru, in either direction, the altitude of the Pole star keeps increasing — This is a very direct way of saying that Meru (or the northern end of it) is nothing but Earth’s North pole. So where is Meru? All these references confirm that Meru meaning nothing but the Earth’s axis. Leaving aside the stuff about the imaginary cities ( even there, the astronomy of these points, are accurately described) and Gods and demons living at either end of the Meru mountain, other astronomical descriptions are quite accurate. Why didn’t I write down all the verses here? Because, there is nothing as gratifying as finding it in the source. If you are interested to read the verses I cited, click on the the PDF file in the link below:1 Now it should leave you with no doubt about the identity of Mount Meru! 56 Yuan dynasty (1271–1368)/Date:14th century/Culture:China Medium:Silk tapestry (kesi) Mount Meru is a dormant stratovolcano located 70 kilometres (43 mi) west of Mount Kilimanjaro in the country of Tanzania. At a height of 4,562.13 metres (14,968 ft),[1][4] it is visible from Mount Kilimanjaro on a clear day,[5] and is the fifth-highest of the highest mountain peaks of Africa, dependent on definition. Mount Meru is located just north of the city of Arusha, in the Arusha Region of Tanzania. It is the second-highest mountain in Tanzania, after Mount Kilimanjaro. The Momella route – which starts at Momella gate, on the eastern side of the mountain – is used to climb Mount Meru.[6] Much of its bulk was lost about 7,800 years ago due to a summit collapse.[7] Mount Meru most recently had a minor eruption in 1910.[2] The several small cones and craters seen in the vicinity 57 probably reflect numerous episodes of volcanic activity. Mount Meru's caldera is 2.2 miles (3.5 km) wide.[8] Mount Meru is the topographic centerpiece of Arusha National Park. Its fertile slopes rise above the surrounding savanna and support a forest that hosts diverse wildlife, including nearly 400 species of birds, and also monkeys and leopards. 58 A new history of the North Pole uncovers its deep significance for modern civilization The new book ”North Pole: Nature and Culture,” by Cambridge geographer Michael Bravo reminds us that the pole has a long, tangled cultural history. By Martin Breum-September 20, 2019 Gerardus Mercator’s famous map from 1606 depicts the North Pole as a big mountain in the middle of an ocean surrounded by four parts of a non-existent continent. What exactly is the North Pole? How are we to understand the North Pole’s significance to the world today? has all the mysticism and wonders which so enthralled the early explorers and their eager audiences now completely vanished, reduced to bland insignificance by icebreakers, flags, submarines, tourists and jets in thoughtless shuttle across the polar sky? Or do we owe the North Pole our respect and recognition, perhaps even our protection, for its part in the build-up of our civilization and intellectual wealth, so urgently needed in an age of climate change and other challenges? Does the North Pole belong to our common cultural heritage as a phenomena we must cherish, even as more entrepreneurial agents zoom in on the pole’s potential for fish, oil, gas and minerals (potential which is, by the way, still undocumented)? Three nations, Russia, Canada and Denmark — with Greenland — all argue that the rights to the ressources at the North Pole and the seabed surrounding it belong to them. All three have invested substantial time, effort and finances in their quests to provide proof of ownership. Never before has any nation come this close to claiming ownership to the North Pole. Icebreakers, planes, submarines and scores of scientists have been mobilized, but throughout these campaigns the key question of how to understand the cultural, intellectual and historical value of the North Pole has been notably absent. 59 I know for sure that in Denmark, my own country, nobody at government level has so far aired any thinking on the subject, and I am still to learn of any such contemplation within official circles in Moscow and Ottawa. Should any reader know of such, I would be pleased to receive notice. The beginning of time Luckily, those interested in the intricate issues of the intellectual and historical value of the North Pole now have easy access to passionate and expert assistance. In a lucid new analysis of how the North Pole have inspired natural scientists, philosophers, cartographers and others from ancient Greece to our days, Michael Bravo, who is a scholar of the history of science and head of Circumpolar History and Public Policy Research at the Scott Polar Research Institute at University of Cambridge, lights a thrilling path in the dark. In his recent book ”North Pole: Nature and Culture,” he deftly extinguishes any remaining doubts about the North Pole’s current cultural, historic and phenomenological significance: “I offer the reader a way to understand why the North Pole truly matters to anyone who knows that our home, planet Earth, is a globe,” he writes. The North Pole, he finds, “has refracted our understanding of the planet on which we live and the quest to master or knowledge of who we are.” “Spatially, when standing at the North Pole, every direction faces south. Temporally, the North Pole is timeless and has to this day no allocated longitude or time zone. This is no coincidence: The North Pole can be thought of as the origin of time because all lines of longitude, which define time zones, pass through North Pole. Emperors and philosophers through the centuries have recognized the North Pole’s special significance as a point that defines global time, but is not itself subject to it,” Bravo writes and as I talk to him on the phone from Cambridge, he continues: “Every frontier is a moving boundary, that has two sides. So if economic national expansion is pushing on the northern frontier, what is it pushing against? That is a question for the present day, because the question of what pushes back against expansion, is also a question about the conditions on which we inhabit the Earth today,” he says. “The North Pole and the Arctic is the temporal and spatial framework in which we understand our economic, geographical, cultural place in the world,” he says. ”So as nation states negotiate new national boundaries and rights to access resources, the North Pole reminds us that we live on a planet with limits. If we talk about going beyond the pole, it becomes a paradox, because you cannot go further than the North Pole. The idea of travelling ’beyond the Pole’ implies a space where the world is transformed. It leads us to understand our human limits in rather different terms. The North Pole shows us the limits of the world we inhabit, but it also challenges us to ask how is it that the world is made whole? How is this an inhabitable world? The North Pole, this placeless place, has been and remains integral to our understanding of our human condition and the way we are bounded to the surface of this planet,” he says. At the heart of cosmos In his book, Bravo explains how “for Greek and Arab astronomers, poles were at the heart of the architecture of the entire cosmos.” I wish I had known earlier. In 2012, I learned of an entirely different approach. I was at the North Pole covering the Danish-Greenlandic attempts to secure proof that the Arctic seabed is irrefutably connected to the bedrock of Greenland and that the rights to the resources on the 60 bottom should therefore belong to Greenland and indirectly to Denmark, which still holds sovereignty over Greenland. Travelling for weeks on an icebreaker, I was told that the North Pole has essentially of no value or significance in our time and age. It is, I learned at that time, basically an irrelevant spot in a bucket of water. A group shot from the North Pole taken in the summer 2012, shows everyone on board the icebreaker that brought the Danish-Greenlandic LOMROG III expedition to the Arctic Ocean for collection of scientific evidence as part of efforts to prove that the seabed is solidly connected to Greenland. (Björn Eriksson / Swedish Polar Research Secretariat) I know now from Michael Bravo’s book that the learned and wise in ancient Persia, Egypt, India and Greece were all deeply preoccupied with understanding the North Pole. Or, more precisely, they were first and foremost preoccupied with the North Pole’s even more revered celestial sister, which they imagined as a fixed entity close to the pole star on the inner surface of the shell that encapsulated the universe. Our earth was the eternal and entirely still center of the universe; solidly positioned on the axis that ran from the celestial North Pole down through the North Pole of our planet. “Any astrologer worth his salt was on the lookout for divine conjunctions of constellations and stars, and omens or portents of dangers ahead. Hence the importance of the geographical North Pole came about first because of the celestial North Pole and its pole star, and our knowledge of the Earth’s grid of latitude and longitude was a projection derived from mapping the celestial realm,“ Bravo writes. A new view of the world In the 15th and 16th centuries the North Pole again took on a lead role in the evolution of a new view of the world and in the development of our ability to navigate the globe. “Without poles there could be no geography and crucially, no system of orientation for navigation,” Bravo writes. The creation of new ways to understand the architecture of the globe spun around the North Pole, and facilitated new empires, colonization, trade routes and other features of early globalization. “Thus the North Pole provided one of the main keys to help unlock the basic question of human orientation — to know where we are at any moment in time and to know on what course we are heading,” Bravo writes. Renaissance artisans, mathematicians, cosmographers and cartographers, in Vienna and Venice not the least, created beautiful immaculate globes and maps on which the North Pole shone as the center of new illuminations of our divine connections. Suddenly Europeans were learning to see the world in an entirely new light. They were taught how to see themselves and the planet they inhabited from above; a completely new perspective, which was particularly helpful in an age where many struggled to comprehend the astonishing voyages of the likes of Christopher Columbus, Vasco da Gama and Ferdinand Magellan. “These special polar maps conferred beauty and prestige on atlases in a unique way. These projections acquired an aesthetic significance and prominence that became synonymous with a new way of viewing the world, as though gazing down on the world from the celestial pole,” Bravo writes. In this way and with the North Pole very much in the center of things, 61 cartographers like Peter Apian (1495-1552) and his successors helped much of Europe to an intellectual leap, long before any European had been anywhere close to the North Pole. ”For philosophers of the enlightenment like Kant, the human condition was one of being anchored to the Earth, like ants unable to escape the limitations of a field of vision placed very close to its surface,” Bravo writes. Cosmographers like Apian and his successors made the globe and its positioning in the universe easier to fathom and rulers and emperors like the Habsburgs in Austria and others with imperial visions readily adopted these tools for visualization of their ambitions. The North Pole’s significance grew and grew along a wide spectrum of sciences and the arts. “It is the story about a wider circle of Europeans, mathematicians, cartographers, cosmographers not far removed from the contemporary circle of Renaissance artists and architects like Albrecht Dürer and Leonardo da Vinci. The idea of looking on Earth from above is intimately connected to the story of the invention of linear perspective, which is much better known and celebrated in the world of art history of course,” Bravo tells me. Paradise at the North Pole In the 18th and 19th centuries much of the world followed with growing excitement how seafarers and explorers of many kinds travelled, at great peril, closer to the North Pole by ship, sledge, foot or balloon. Michael Bravo describes in detail how the narration of these endeavours, many of which did not achieve what they set out to do, became still more elaborate, and also how the idea that the North Pole was intimately connected to its celestial sister in Heaven continued to inspire more fantastic interpretations for a long time, including the one that Paradise was originally located at the North Pole. “Safe from prying eyes, the Earth’s polar axis and poles possessed a strong appeal as places for locating narratives and symbols of absolute sacredness and purity,” Bravo writes. Even the colossal amounts of ice at the pole could be explained. With the fall of Eden, of course, man had called the freeze upon himself. The Boston University’s first president, William Warren (18331929), an esteemed professor of comparative religion, collected evidence from the new field of anthropology, from linguistics, archeology and from his own research into religious thought in Iran, China, Japan and elsewhere. He described in conclusion an antediluvian continent in the north with an unusually tall mountain centered at the North Pole. This he designated as the original site of Paradise and the very cradle of the human race. In “Paradise Found” (1885) Warren explained how this antediluvian continent was first submerged by the biblical deluge and then by an ice sheet animated by an abrupt shift in the Earth’s polar axis and subsequent cooling. In Warren’s telling, refugees from these calamities fled south and soon established the first communities of white Aryans. Today, Warren’s views would be subject to criticism because of his commitment to defending creationism against evolutionary theory. And even in his own time, his use of racial theory to explain historical migrations was controversial and widely contested. Michael Bravo, however, describes how North Pole variants of the history of Paradise penetrated far into a number of ethnonationalist movements in many countries, including strands of Hinduism in which a large Mount Meru at the North Pole plays a significant mythical role. Powerful agents in Nazi Germany, such as Adolf Hitler’s close associate Rudolf Hess, also made use of North Pole Aryan mysticism in their Thule Gesellschaft, a influential private society that forged key elements of Nazi thinking. 62 “For National Socialism, the polar origins served as a repudiation of the traditional orientation of geography towards the sacred sites of the Judaic Mediterranean,” Bravo writes. An American North Pole He also uncovers how the polar projection of the North Pole emerged after World War II as though it were a surprising new projection: “American writers in the 1940s began to write about polar projections and the view over the North Pole as though it were a new idea, adopting it to illustrate a new post-war vision of the world as a smaller connected global village. America’s rethinking of its position in relationship to the whole globe made the North Pole important once again. Making the pole a symbol of American and Soviet foreign policy meant writing out its longer and more complex historical narratives,” he says. Today, a few decades later, we talk more often about the North Pole as an object in the quests by Russia, Canada and Denmark/Greenland. The submissions by the three nations for the rights to the resources on the seabed of the Arctic Ocean are dealt with by the Commission on the Continental Shelf of the UN, and most observers expect the issue to be resolved peacefully within a decade or two, perhaps finally through direct negotiations between the three governments, since the commission is not mandated to solve the problem, if two or more nations have overlapping, valid claims. In this elaborate diplomatic process, however, the more difficult question of the cultural value of the North Pole is not dealt with at all. The UN’s expert commission will not ask whether the dispute over potentially recognizing rights to the North Pole seabed as belonging to a single nation’s jurisdiction will somehow damage a phenomenon that is presently valuable to the whole of humanity. Will a precious gem of world heritage lose its thrill and value through this type of handling? Will whatever magic and substance that still remains be lost for future generations? Or is the cultural and historic value of the North Pole, now so thoroughly documented by Michael Bravo, perhaps immune to all we do today? Wisely, Michael Bravo hardly comments on the current efforts or ambitions of the three states involved, and neither does he make suggestions as to whether a protective zone around the North Pole or the like would be desirable. His is the scholarly contribution, a rich and detailed account of the history and intellectual discovery of the pole, and we must then make up our own minds where this should all lead. A view from Greenland In the Danish Kingdom, only one key decisionmaker has ever made cohesive comment on the cultural value of the North Pole, namely the former Prime Minister of Greenland, Kuupik Kleist. Not that the North Pole traditionally played any particular role in Greenland. Way back, the people of the very north of Greenland named the North Pole Qalasersuaq, the great navel. It lay far from the lands of humans, where only shamans could travel, and it was not a nice place, but rather a dangerous deep with no hunting to speak of. Since then, Qalasersuaq became a neutral, almost bland designation for the very point at 90 degrees North. As Michael Bravo explains in his book, the pole star was also never very significant as a means of navigation in the Arctic. This far north, the pole star shines too high in the sky to be very useful for laying a course. Even so, Kuupik Kleist took a stand in Nuuk back in 2007: ”I believe that it is in the interest of Greenland that the North Pole and adjacent areas should not be given to any single state, but remain an area of common responsibility,” he wrote. 63 In 2010, after taking office as Prime Minister in Greenland’s Self Rule government, his views became known in Copenhagen when I interviewed him for a book, and it was not much appreciated by the Danish government. Nervousness arose that the delicate talks with Canada and Russia about the Arctic seabed might be disturbed, and within a day Kuupik Kleist explained to the public that his view was “private” and not that of Greenland’s government. In May this year, however, he explained to me that he is still of the firm conviction that the North Pole and some section of its surrounding waters ought to be somehow protected for its cultural significance. “The North Pole is something special,” he said. But now he is no longer in politics and his view seems to have found no other real friends. Martin Breum is a Danish journalist and author, based in Copenhagen. In 2012 he covered the Danish-Greenlandish LOMROG III expedition to the Arctic Ocean and North Pole. He writes regularly on Arctic affairs for ArcticToday.com. Find him at www.martinbreum.dk. https://www.arctictoday.com/a-new-history-of-the-north-pole-uncovers-its-deep-significancefor-modern-civilization/ Then I started doing my own research, in which I found:  Ancient Buddhism stated the earth is flat.  Areas of ancient Chinese Buddhism, Japanese Buddhism, Tibetan Buddhism, Hinduism, Jainism, and more, all state there is a mountain at the centre of our reality, which links / leads to the spirit world / divinity, wherein the top of this Mount Meru is the lowest abode of the gods.  In all of these traditions they state there are four continents around the mountain, which some people think, including the video above, is at the north pole. Note that the North Pole is heavily guarded and one cannot just pop there to throw snowballs. But I started researching more, and these videos got me thinking about there being more land as well as our 'known earth.' Part1, Part2. I started researching more Buddhist texts, and many of the older ones state we only live on the southern continent (one out of the four), known as Jambudvipa (blue in most mandalas). So I started to look at Mandalas and art that supported these notions. 64 65 Many of these mandalas, along with Tibetan Lore state there are three continents on "each cardinal point,' amounting to 12 pieces of land. 66 (The above two images relate also to the step Pyramids all around the world). 67 So the theory is this: What if there are three other lands, and our known earth is just one of them? (Or (or eleven more if there are four groupings of three land areas). Can you prove this theory incorrect? Maybe Atlantis was "the whole gig," as ancient scripture states that around Mount Meru in the middle, there are multiple rings of mountains and then water - linking to the words of Plato about Atlantis. Maybe the mega popular 'Game of Thrones,'is giving us symbolism where another world exists beyond the ice-wall? What secrets did the Knights Templar find in the 1300's to create an elite wanting to sign up? Why is their symbol that of four cardinal points growing in size? Also Celtic, Gnostic, and other symbolism from all around the world shows this Four way symbolism. 68 Even the pyramids all around the world could be symbolism of this theory.Ho hum, just a thought, enjoy your Sunday. http://www.waykiwayki.com/2015/05/flat-earth-mount-meru-and-four-lands.html 69 Mount Meru: A Mandala of my mind- 2014 Time and space are more nebulous in the Hindu world. The Sanatana Dharma, “the eternal law”, preceded the religion that followed. The stories of Krishna and the Mahabharata are in the distant past because they are archetypes outside of time, but played out in our world to teach us the subtleties and complexities of dharma. Dharma with its multiple implications of virtue, morality, religion, justice, eternal law, and cosmos described their religion. The term Hindu, was later imposed. Hindh” is Persianfor the river “Sindh“,the Indus river which has shaped the people for generations. For the pattern of life along the Indus civilization was shaped by forces outside of oneself. A mud house could be cooled by the sprinkling of water, or warmed by the sun to keep out the night chill. History and economics have added their presence to nature. Fifty-five centuries of civilization traditions and precedents moulded into concrete realities over a hundred and seventy generations – are sometimes an unmovable weight. Now with satellite imagery, Science positivist masculinity – like modern media – simplifies life in terms of black and white. That which is not understood is all too easily dismissed as myth. Narratives don’t like complexity and conquerors usually recreate the past. With its four facades facing north, east, south, and west, Mount Kailas looks like an enormous diamond. Seventy-five percent as high as Mount Everest, the mountain is one of the tallest peaks in the Himalayas. Nearby is the source of the Indus, Sutlej, and Brahmaputra Rivers. The source of the Ganges is not far away. On its southern face, a vertical gash crosses horizontal layers, creating the image of a swastika. The word comes from svastika, Sanskrit for well-being and good fortune. Buddhists regard the mountain as a mandala -— the sacred circle from which the 70 sacred rivers flow like the spokes of the eternal wheel.” – Colin Wilson[1] At 6714 metres it is dwarfed when compared to Everest, but hidden behind a sea of Himalayan mountains, and seen from a distance, its isolated snow capped beauty, overlooks the blue-green emerald of lake Mansarovar and the Rakshas TaI, in the south, evokes a sense of the infinite cosmos that embraces our minute world. It brings men to their knees as if before divinity in solid form. Each face has its own moods: snowy splendor to the south, compassion and benevolence to the West, stark foreboding to the north, and distant, inaccessible mystery to the south. Within 100 kilometres, flow Asias four largest rivers: the Indus flows to the north, the Brahmaputra to the east, the Sutlej to the west, and the Karnali to the south, leading to the Ganges. The Jains believe Rishabhanatha, the first of our ages twenty-four saviors, was enlightened on Kailash,. Nearby, Shenrab, the legendary founder of Bon, taught and meditated. Sikhs revere Hemkund, a mountain lake near the source of the Ganges, as the place where Guru Gobind Singh, the last of their ten principal teachers, meditated in a previous life. Here, the Tibetan yogi Milarepa, attained enlightenment. Colonial politics of the Tibetan Plateau and the Himalayas have since shaped the public narrative. Now the Tibetan Plateau is world confused by ideology: West vs communism, when India was “non aligned” and the Dalai Lama had fled to India. In the 17th century it’s mystery was whispered to in the West. Herodotus had written about gold digging ants, others spoke of haunt of the yeti or the one footed Theurang, wind horse and snow line, magical saddhus, and the Dalai Lama. From the mystical north, the theosophist Madame Blavatsky claimed she encountered monks capable of telekinesis., Himmler tried to find proof of Aryan supremacy and James Hilton set his Shangrila. Throughout this distant land were rumors of lost Christians, that the Jesuits discovered were Tibetan Buddhists, the Dutch were ‘Red Hairs’ the Spanish ‘shape shifting foreigners’ t the Chinese who under a circular heaven that had corresponding place above for every place on earth. 71 THERE ARE ALSO UNIVERSAL THEMES: Metaphysical Meru, or Tise, was believed manifest on earth as Kalais (the crystal), or Kang Rinpoche (Jewel of Snows). Claimed the navel of the earth ( a term used by Jews of Jerusalem, and Olympus by the Greeks), axis of the universe, and source of Asia’s four great rivers, the hidden source of the Ganga, Sutler, Indus and Brahmaputra were revealed behind the ramparts of the Himalayas. Four great rivers? From Eden is said in the Hebrew texts to have had a river that broke into four heads, and historians like Josephus tried to maps the Ganges, Nile, Euphrates and Tigris to a central point. So as I look at this mandala of the world, I see Meru, not mapped with cartographic precision, but by a code of meaning. It cannot be described as “wrong” because we have not figured out it’s code. In that world, the myths of religion are outside of time and space, unable to be touched by science, and so should not criticise or be criticised by the different world views. The Mandela of Meru offers a profound reflection on the possibilities and perils of pursuing cross cultural understanding. From a top this world perhaps we can view the world of soul as did James Hillman: Let us imagine the anima mundi [world soul] neither above the world encircling it as a divine and remote emanation of spirit, a world of powers, archetypes, and principles transcendent to things, nor within the material world as its unifying panpsychic life-principle. Rather let us imagine the anima mundi as that particular soul-spark, that seminal image, which offers itself through each thing in its visible form. For myriad myths and fantasies shape the polytheism of our psychic lives, just the constellations astrologers have fantasized onto our maps of the heavens. The conquest of science, a noble pursuit as it is, is fuelled by positivist masculinity, as well as creativity which too many seems feminine. Aren’t we both masculine and feminine, right and left brained? LET US FOR A MOMENT -TRAVEL BACK IN TIME BEFORE INDUSTRIALISATION REPLACED NATURAL RHYTHMS OF FAITH. Kalais appears the Olympus of the East and seemed to improbable to believe in. So the Western world preferred Ptolemy’s cartography. Tibetans claim a compassionate Bodhisattva cut an outlet through the Himalayan peaks to form the Tibetan plateau. Geologists claim the plateau preceded the mountain wall forced up from clashing continental plates and eroded down over eons. The lofty peaks can easily be imagined a home of the gods. The Aryans described the abode of snow, Himavant, Himachala, or Himalaya. In the cosmology of Meru, it is a mountain of blazing appearance. In the Mahabhrarata the ranges are “kissing the heavens by its height” “shining like the morning sun and like a fire without smoke, immeasurable and unapproachable by men of manifold sins.” A top Meru is Swarga, the heavenly city of Indra, Vedic god rain and storm, “a paradise “furnished with heavenly flowers and fruit and covered everywhere with bright gold dwellings[” 72 “According to ancient religious texts, the abode of creator Brahma is called Brahmaloka, the abode of Lord Vishnu is called Vaikunta ad the abode of Lord Shiva is called Kailash. Of the three, one can only go bodily and return in this life from Kailash having experienced divinity.” Navel of the earth, and the axis of the universe, from where water flowed into a mountain lake, four rivers flow. The Himalayan was to south, and west deserts of Takla Makan to and Gobi to north and east. The world made of seven continents with seven oceans. From centre island rises Meru “like the pericap of a lotus’ that sits between three mountains to the north and three to the south, claims the Vishnu Purana. Eighty- four thousand leagues high, with four faces like crystal, ruby, gold and lapis lazuli. From the big toe of Vishnu’s left foot comes ‘the stream that washes away all sin, the river Ganga, embrowned with the unguents of the nymphs of heaven, who sported in its waters.’ After washing the inner orb, circling the mountain, it divides into for mighty rivers t each corner of the earth: Sita, Alaknanda, Chaksu and Badra. The first, flowing upon the tops of the inferior mountains on the east side of Meru, flows upon their crests and passes through the country of Bhadrashva to the ocean: the Aleknanda flows south, to the country of Bharatha and, dividing into seven rivers on the way, falls into the sea: the Chaksu falls into the sea after traversing all the western mountains and passing through the country of Ketumala: and the Badra washes the country of the Uttara Karus and empties itself into the northern ocean.’ This image is mirrored in the Jain swastika mantra, the tantric mandela of Tibet, the Hindu yantra and the upturned bowl of Sanchi’s great stupa, crowned with its symbolic tree. The yogi mentally places himself within the image his spinal column at one with meru, deepened into an earth consciousness. He achieves union of opposing forces of earth water, male and female,, light and dark,what Taoists call , yin and yang; Tibetans call yab and yum, and the Shaivite Tantra calls Shiva-Shakti . Modern scholars suggest that as the Aryans pushed eastward the Ganges became the most vital and sacrosanct of rivers. As the form of mother goddess Ganga Mai , she provides for 1/3 of India’s population. The Jaganmatri, or Divine Mother has so many forms: Parvati, with smooth and clear skin under her veil. Ouma is also called Parvati, daughter of the Himalaya, literally “abode of the snows”. She can also turn into Kali for victory. 73 The dwelling place of God Siva, the Supreme Yogi, naked and smeared with ashes, sits on a tiger skin, matted hair coiled o his head in meditative bliss. Though the supernatural power of his third eye he calmly surveys the illusion of life’s and is able to destroy the illusion binding us to the cycle of death and rebirth. j When He rises to dance, He takes on the functions of Brahma and Vishnu and creates and preserves the universe itself. Here, the King of the mountains, Himalaya, lives with his queen, the Goddess Mena, in a palace of gold, attended by divine guardians, maidens, and magical beings. It is hard to imagine a more potent symbol of inspiration. he Himalayas stretch 1,500 miles rising from the monsoon- drenched jungles north of Burma to sweep its great arc along the borders of India and Tibet, through Bhutan, Sikkim and Nepal, up to the glaciers of the Karakoram on the remote desert between Pakistan and China. Millions of years ago the summit of Mount Everest lay beneath an ancient sea, called Tethys, separating Asia from India. Over eons the tectonic plates collided to fold and thrust up the peaks of the Himalayas and the Tibetan Plateau, The fractured crust filled magma, and glacial action, formed walls and peaks of granite and preexisting rivers have cut through the range creating the deepest valleys in the world. The Kali Gandaki Valley between Annapurna and Dhaulagiri in central Nepal is nearly four miles deep. “The Earth’s most dramatic features, mountains are to Hindus the abode of Gods, the haunt of holy sages and the supreme pilgrimage destination. Viewed through the eyes of a Buddhist or Hindu, mountains are mystical realms of Gods, heavens, spirits and spiritual masters. – Edwin Bernbaum The ancient poets and sages regarded the range as an earthly paradise sparkling with streams and forests set beneath snowy beautiful peaks. Above this earthly paradise lie the heights of heaven.. 74 To die on her banks and be caste in her waters is to be delivered to heaven. Dip 3 times under the waters is to be cleansed of all sins. As devotees bathe, change into a a clean dhoti , they are for at least that moment changed into a new person , who has completed a turn in the wheel of life, death and rebirth. High caste Hindus in 4th final stage of life begin their final pilgrimage from Ganga – Dwara. So inaccessible are holiest of places a pilgrim places their life in the lap of the gods and to free them self from the cycle of rebirth. They shave their head and beard, conduct their own funeral and take on pale ochre robes symbolising their purification in a funeral pyre. “One of the greatest and most austere pilgrimages, Mount Kailas, Himalayan abode of Lord Siva, is sacred to five religions. Pilgrims perform a three-day, 33-mile circumambulation of the peak. At the foot of Kailas lies Lake Manasarovara, symbolizing a quieted mind, free from all thought. Kailas is the Mount Meru of Hindu cosmology, center of the universe. Within 50 miles are the sources of four of India’s auspicious rivers.[5]“ 75 MERU AS A MODEL OF THE UNCONSCIOUS MIND AND HEALING Religion imbues meaning to space: think of Jerusalem, Mecca, Rome, Karbal, or Kailas. For place is an idea, consciously and deliberately constructed, then propagated in an ordered fashion an imposed on the physical landscape . We also map these values onto our bodies and on time: certain body parts are purer, certain times more auspicious, so some places are charged more with energy. Kalais is mapped for great meaning as a mandala for the souls pursuit of enlightenment. The Buddhist mandala of Demchog on Kailas portrays the universe as a circle of mountains, oceans and continents arrayed around a mountain Meru at its centre. Called Sumeru by Buddhists and Meru by Hindu’s. As the divine access of the cosmos, it is important to both Hindu and Buddhist thought. Brahma is said to live on its summit with other deities surrounding him. In the early texts, Kalais and Meru are separate peaks bt later traditions merged them into one idealized peak. Some devotees say the Kailash is the Shivalinga; others that it is Mount Meru, the presence of eternal in time. 76 Today both there are Tibetans and Indians view Kailas meeting of earth and divine, where the heavenly Meru meets the earthly plane. A pilgrimage to Meru is a journey to the center of the universe, where all begins and ends. “As dew is dried up by the morning sun so are sins of men dried up by the sight of the Himalaya, where Shiva lived and whee the Ganga falls from the foot of Vishnulike the slender thread of a lotus flower. There are no mountains like the Himalaya, for in them are Kalais and Manasarovar.” Astonished travelers, passing below that inaccessible peak, view afar a vast snow formation resembling a palace, with icy domes and turrets. The Kailas peak full of dark black rocks with head adorned with glittering white snow stood like a leader amongst the long stretch of black mountains. “My body experienced horripilation and my mind immersed in the ocean of bliss was overcome with joy” – Sri Swami Tapovanam The yantra to circle Kalaish can be performed in three days, a walk of around 50 kilometers, paying homage to Siva or Demchog, makes contact with something deep within themselves to a vision of the supreme reality that infuses our cosmos. Every step is rich with prayers and praise of those who have walked the way for eons before them . Tibetans make three, five, or thirteen circumambulations of Mount Kailash, or even more. Sometimes they prostrate themselves, rising to walk the length of one prostration only, then once again falling to the ground. To circle the mountain in this way may take up to four weeks of patient and meditative movement. These pilgrims may then turn and return, rapt in their awareness of the eternal. The way has no beginning and no end.” – Jennifer Westwood[6] Hence, to many Hindus and Buddhists, the pilgrimage to Kailas is is the most ardous and sacred journey in the pursuit of enlightenment. Many believe at Kalaish, the Ganges, holiest river of all, cascades from heaven to first touch the Earth and course invisibly through the locks of Siva’s hair before spewing forth from a glacier 140 miles to the west. 77 Source: Thetrellingworld.com Nearby is Lake Mansarovar, Lake of the Mind . Hindu myth claims the lake was first created in the mind of the Lord Brahma. Myths claim it was the summer home of swans, considered sacred and wise. Buddhists link it to Anotatta Lake, where legend claims Queen Maya conceived the Buddha. Annually during the Kailash Mansarovar Yatra the hardiest of Hindu pilgrims take the dangerous journey over high passes to bathe in Manasarovar’s icy waters and cleanse their minds of sins by ancient monasteries, like Chiu Gompa Monastery built into a hill as if carved from the rock. Interestingly in South India, the Tamil Sangam spoke of a legendary continent Kumari Kandam, named after a gentle maiden, the Divine Feminine. So perhaps we imagine our collective mind and its archetypes, not as an iceberg, but as the Himalayan plateau, eroded by Yugas of time. MAKING LIFE A SACRED EXPERIENCE Source: Chinese Buddhist Encyclopedia India and the river mirror each other bubbling ever changing and like India the river is impossible to grasp entirely. India’s elusive deep eddies and currents are like game within a game of her politics. Surface shines clear but a river can also prove dangerous to strangers To many the Indus and Ganges are the cradle of life. We could say India’s great gifts are her five great rivers that cradled life to civilizations. From mountain abodes of eternal snow along the long Indus, carry mineral sediment and the rites of mourners from Tibet, to the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea. As environmentalists battle over what is sacred, I am struck in in grief for the earth Is our environmental pain a blocked grieg denied by emotional block of disconnected logic? We need to recover the sacred masculine, the spiritual warrior, the father and beat the drum in prayer lest our addictive grief turn to anger and violence. If clouds be the calligraphy of god, then the earth is a Mandala that connects us through our first chakra. Meru asks us to connect earth to heaven, and we beneath are a caterpillar do we know deep inside us to become a butterfly. 78 Faced with a problem African singers that sing back and forward dance imagine, evoke, strum and sing the issue and see what happens. They go into an inner state of being something they incarnate the essence of the challenge. Similarly, a Mandala offers us a focal point for the power of ritual. Making Ritual builds community. India and Tibet have their own rituals, as does the West, with festivals that bring art to the streets, psychoanalysis and politics. To often they are more show than transformational and economics overpowers sensitivity. Let us look at the ancient mandala, not as a map, but a cosmological, geographic, historical divination and psycho-spiritual puzzle. Kalaish is said to be the naval of the world reminding me of the cosmic Purusha, the cosmic man. The disciple leads the prana until Mooladhara. The air thus inspired awakens the lower Fire which was asleep, meditating on Pranava that is nothing else than Brahman, And concentrating his thought, he rises the breath until to the lower Fire, until the navel and beyond, within the subtle body. On the top of the body, over the head there is the lotus with thousand petals, shining like the heavenly Light. It’s that which gives the liberation. Its secret name is Kailash, the mountain where Shiva abides. The one who knows this secret place is delivered from samsara. – Amritananda Upanishad In india, life was accepted as it is, a child knew not to reach under a tablecloth, or into an unlit cupboard in case there lay a coiled cobra. The Night guards thump stout lathes into ground warning would be thieves keeping innocents awake . Meanwhile, deep in the jungles and atop the Himalayas, yogis sit so still that in the forest jungle a predator ignore them as part of the fauna. Most may still walk from the village to the field with a bullock or buffalo cart, but now the modern incarnation in the city has pneumatic tyres. Millions on cycles and a growing number of motor bikes The world is changing and the problems in one culture can be solved with the solutions of another WHATEVER CHOICE INDIA MAKES REQUIRES DEEP CONTEMPLATION OF OPPOSING YET COMPLEMENTARY FORCES. The four rivers said to flow from meru, like the rivers from biblical Eden, remind me of four elements medieval metaphysics:, water, air, fire, and earth, match the four qualities of warmth, dryness, wet, and cold[7]. The feminine the waxing, moist, and cold moon and the warm dry sun are balanced when coupled like a woman open to her husband. Even the very first alchemists said not to think that this was meant concretely, that it was just a way of introducing order into our ideas” wrote psychoanalyst Marie-Louise von Franz. “which means you see clearly an image of totality through the four qualities projected onto matter; even in those days it was simply a symbolic network which the human mind projected onto matter to bring order into it. 79 SO WHAT DO I SEE IN MERU? Paramahansa Yogananda[8] reminds us “Mythological tales in the Purana say that the Himalayas are the abode of Shiva …” explaining “Parvati, Kali, Durga, Uma, and other goddesses are aspects of the Divine Mother of the World, variously names to signalize particular functions. God or Shiva in His para or transcendental aspect is inactive in creation. His shakti (energy, activating force) is relegated to His “consorts,” the productive “female” powers that make possible the infinite unfoldments in the cosmos. The duality of sun and moon, ireinds me of the bridge between heaven and earth. A scientist knows particle, energy, time-space, and electro-magnetism are interwoven, they are useful as separate concepts. Similarly, a man sees in his lover the feminine in himself, as the moon reflects the sun and on earth the divine finds a reflection of our own personal experience of heaven at Meru. Women emphasize process, inner world connectivity inner weaving are as important the fullness not just the outcome. Men seem outcome driven. India, like her ancient rivers have a beautiful feminine quality, and how will it merge with the overpowering masculinity of economic demand? The coniunctio as a harmonious balance between heaven and earth, like the moon and sun, and man and woman. What is unknown in our self is found in completeness of union of the other in love. Meister Ekhart called it the marriage of the sacred masculine and divine feminine. 80 Meru offers devotion and contemplation of divine love. It allows us, in the words of poet Mary Oliver “to love what is mortal; to hold it against your bones knowing your own life depends on it; and, when the time comes to let it go, to let it go.” To look deep within and find what we know from somewhere deep within. To love, and to let go, in the cycle of life. [1]Colin Wilson, The Atlas of Holy Places & Sacred Sites, Penguin Books Ltd., 1996 p. 119. [2] Charles Allen, A Mountain in Tibet: 18. [3] Dr. Sethumadhava Mount Kailash, Where the Heaven meets the Earth [4] Charles Allen, A Mountain in Tibet: 21-23. [5] Hinduism Today, May 1997 [6] Jennifer Westwood, Sacred Journeys , Henry Holt and Company, Inc., 1997 p.78. [7] In the ancient scheme there were five, as there are in Ayurveda and TCM. Ayurveda and Western schemes list fire, earth, water, earth and more other worldly ether. The Chinese system replaces ether with metal. [8] Paramahansa Yogananda, Autobiography of a Yogi, Self-Realization Fellowship, 1974, p. 194-95 81 CHAPTER V Impersonalism and the Earth-Globe Ideology What is the point you are trying to make? That the world is exactly like this? You were the one talking about karmic vision a second ago... Yes. Meaning that we as humans are not able to percieve Devaloka. Some can. Regardless, just because we cannot see something does not mean it does not exist. Anyway, even at the most basic level, different animals see the same world differently, which one sees it properly? https://dharmawheel.net/viewtopic.php?f=36&t=31665&start=120-tatpurusa wrote: ↑Sat Aug 10, 2019 12:53 pm 82 In the forthcoming series of papers we hope to show that the modern idea of Earth being a globeshaped planet floating in space is not a result of any scientific observation, but is rather a product of an anti-Vedic ideology that is essentially impersonalistic, and asuric in nature. The Earth-globe ideology is directly connected with impersonalism because it denies and covers the true form of the Earth goddess (Bhumi), both in her personified form, and in her expansion as the Bhu-mandala—a form which is described in the Puranas by the Vedic seers and devas with specific details of the particular shape, extent, and other wonderful features of this colossal landscape. Srila Prabhupada's desire was to counter impersonalist conceptions of life and the universe by presenting Vedic Cosmology in the Temple of Vedic Planetarium. Bhu-mandala is the centerpiece of this great exhibition, and is a direct challenge to the propaganda of the modern asuras regarding the nature of Earth and the universe; indeed the revealing of Bhu-mandala will mark the beginning of the end of the present asuric control on Earth. The sankirtan movement (congregational chanting of the Holy Names of God), was inaugurated by the Golden Avatari, Sri Krishna Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, who appeared in Navadvipa, India in the year 1486. The sankirtan movement is universal, and thus not limited to the Earth as we know it (the so-called Earth-globe); indeed, the sankirtan movement will gradually expose this conception of Earth to be nothing but a false ideology, and will ultimately reveal the factual nature and true extent of the Bhu-mandala (Earth circle) that has been hidden for many centuries. The sankirtan movement will duly release the people of the world from their mental and spiritual captivity in a false world paradigm that is largely the construct of asuric (demoniac) ideology. The revealing of the true size and shape of the Earth (Bhu-mandala/Earth circle) via the Mayapur Temple of Vedic Planetarium is part of the on-going mission began by Sri Krishna Chaitanya Mahaprabhu that will eventually connect and unify all parts of the universal family in love of Godhead. Knowledge of the Bhu-mandala is manifesting at this time due to the presence on Earth of the Supreme Personality of Godhead in the form of the Nama Avatar (the sound incarnation of Sri Krishna), and in the form of Srimad Bhagavatam (the literary incarnation of Sri Krishna). When the Absolute Truth appears, all forms of untruth, falsehood, lies, illusion, and deception are revealed. As the rising sun disperses darkness and reveals things in their true form, so the distribution of Srimad Bhagavatam through-out the world, along with chanting of the Holy Names of Sri Sri Radha-Krishna has awakened many people (not just members of ISKCON) to a higher state of consciousness. The 21st Century is the century for the conditioned souls to hear the truth of both their material and spiritual existence. This includes the truth about the Earth as it is revealed in Srimad Bhagavatam. In a later paper we shall hear of how exalted personalities came from all over the greater Earth circle (Bhu-mandala) to participate in Sri Krishna Caitanya Mahaprabhu's harinama sankirtan whilst he resided at Jagannatha Puri. The accounts of personalities coming from areas of the Earth that are beyond our known Earth make no sense whatsoever within the existing globe paradigm, and are a further evidence that the Earth is not what we think. Sri Krishna Chaitanya Mahaprabhu met not only with representatives from the seven great islands (saptadvipa) of the Earth, but also with representatives of the great asuras and nagas who reside in the seven underground worlds of Bhu-mandala, as well as representatives of the devas and other 83 celestial beings from the seven upper realms of the universe. From these accounts we can garner that the universal sankirtan movement is already underway and is being headed by Sri Krishna Chaitanya Mahaprabhu's representatives in the various lokas. In forthcoming papers we shall elaborate on the connection between the appearance of Sri Krishna Chaitanya Mahaprabhu's sankirtan movement, the destruction of the present world satanic system, and the revealing of the true size and shape of the Vedic Earth, via the Mayapur Temple of Vedic Planetarium. All this is a necessary part of the great spiritual transformations in the world that will eventually reconnect our own world to other civilizations throughout the greater Earth. From Sri-dhama Mayapur, in India, the Sankirtan movement has already begun to spread throughout the Bhu-mandala, and throughout the universe as predicted in the following verses: "The more the five members of the Pancha-tattva cause the rains of love of Godhead to fall, the more the inundation increases and spreads all over the world (tri-bhuvane—all over the three worlds)." (Caitanya-caritamrta, Adi-lila, 7.28) "In the activities of Lord Sri Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, the three worlds dance and chant (tribhuvana nace) having come in touch with love of Godhead. This is the characteristic of His pastimes." (Caitanya-caritamrta, Antya-lila,3.267) "Sri Krishna Chaitanya Mahaprabhu and His associates of the Pancha-tattva distributed the holy name of the Lord to invoke love of Godhead throughout the universe (vishva) and thus the entire universe was thankful." (Caitanya-caritamrta, Adi-lila, 7.163) "The Lord is situated in all the universes in different forms just to please His devotees. Thus the Lord destroys irreligious principles and establishes religious principles." (Caitanya-caritamrta, Madhya-lila 20.219) 84 From Sri Dhama Mayapur, Sri Krishna Caitanya Mahaprabhu (the Golden Avatar or Avatari) will cause the entire universe to chant and dance in ecstatic love of Godhead. "I shall personally inaugurate the religion of the age—nama-sankirtana, the congregational chanting of the holy name. I shall make the world (bhuvana) dance in ecstasy, realizing the four mellows of loving devotional service. (Caitanya-caritamrta Adi-lila, 3.19) THE PERSONIFIED EARTH GODDESS In the above verse, the Lord says that he will make the world (bhuvana) dance in ecstasy. Apart from the people in the world who are obviously both personal and conscious and thus receptive to the inundation of spiritual energy that is predicted to transform the Earth, the Earth itself (Bhu-mandala) is also conscious and personal, and not an impersonal energy as the asuric ideology of atheistic scientism propagates. The Bhu-mandala (Earth circle) is a manifestation of Bhu-shakti, the eternal consort of Lord Vishnu. In Krishna-lila, Bhu-shakti appears as Satyabhama, the wife of Lord Krishna (see purport Srimad Bhagavatam 10.42.1). In Chaitanya-lila, Bhu-shakti incarnated as Vishnu-priya, the wife of Sri Chaitanya (see Srila Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati Thakura's commentary to Chaitanya Bhagavata, Adi Khanda 1.2). This statement is confirmed by Sri Kavi Karnapura: "That Srimati Vishnupriya is an incarnation of Bhu-devi is described in the Sri Chaitanya Candradoya Nataka, where Kali says, "Understanding that Srimati Vishnupriya was the incarnation of bhu-devi, Lord Caitanya accepted her hand in marriage". (Sri Kavi Karnapura, Sri Gaura Ganodesa Dipika 48) It is only natural, therefore, that Lord Gauranga (The golden Avatari) wishes Bhu-shakti to be known in her true form by the people of the world; and that Bhu-devi similarly wishes for the people of the world to know Her husband, the Lord of the universe (Sri Gaura-Hari). It is fitting, therefore, that Bhu-mandala will be exhibited at the Temple of Vedic Planetarium in the Lord's own Holy abode at Sri Dhama Mayapur, West Bengal. Sri Krishna Chaitanya Mahaprabhu once manifested his form of Sri-Varaha to Murari Gupta indicating that he would again raise and protect the Earth: "I accepted the incarnation of Varaha to lift the material world out of the waters of nescience. Know Me to be the ultimate goal of the Vedas. The purpose of My present incarnation is to propagate the congregational chanting of the Holy Names of Krishna. In this incarnation, as in other incarnations, I will annihilate the miscreants for the protection and pleasure of My devotees." (Sri Chaitanya Bhagavata, Madhya-kanda, chapter 3) The image below shows Lord Varaha lifting Bhu-devi (the personified Earth Goddess). Below the lotus foot of Lord Varaha is Lord Ananta-sesha who is seen depicted in both His serpent and 85 personified form. As Varaha holds Bhu-devi in Her personified form, so Ananta-sesha holds Bhu-devi in Her form as the Bhu-mandala (the physical landscape upon which all the living beings reside). The Padma Purana narrates that after Lord Varaha rescued the Earth and killed the demon Hiranyaksha, He replaced Bhu-mandala on the head of Ananta-sesha: "Seeing the Earth fallen (from the demon's head), He lifted it with his tusk, and putting it on Sesha's head as before, took up the form of a Tortoise. Seeing great Vishnu of the form of the hog, all deities and sages, with their bodies bowed with devotion, praised him." (Padma Purana, Vl.237.17-19) Bhu-Varaha at Mamallapuram, 6th Century The modern image (below) shows the scene more clearly with the personified Earth goddess held by Varaha-deva, and Ananta-sesha depicted both in personal and serpentine form: We hope also that a beautiful shrine to Sri Sri Bhu-Varaha ( Picture below) will be incorporated within the Temple of Vedic Planetarium complex, so that Bhu-devi in both Her personified form and Bhu-mandala form, will be seen and worshiped by the world-wide pilgrims. The images below show the magnificent Bhu-Varaha deity at Kallahali in Mysore: 86 87 The above Sri-Sri Bhu-Varaha deity at Kallahalli is 18 foot tall, and was originally dug out of the Earth by the Hoysala King Veera Ballala III, who established a Temple on the spot. It is not known if the deity is self-manifested, though it is believed to have been originally installed by sage Gautama. The temple has only been recently rediscovered and the worship resumed. The website for the temple states: "The ancient Bhoo Varahaswamy Temple built by the Hoysala king Veera Ballala III was undiscovered and unprotected until a few years back. It must be either a divine intervention or that we Indians have started tracing back our rich heritage and culture that has brought this temple to its present light and glory". The reappearance of Sri-Sri Bhu-Varaha at Kallahalli is perhaps an auspicious sign that the true form of Bhu-devi will soon manifest to the world. We hope our pujari department at Sri Mayapur Chandrodaya Mandir in Mayapur will also install a deity of Sri-Sri Bhu-Varaha at the Temple of Vedic Planetarium, along with insisting that the arca-vigraha of Bhu-mandala is also correctly depicted in the main dome exhibition. At the very least the present utsava deity of Varaha lifting an Earth globe ought to be replaced by a deity of Varaha lifting Bhu-devi in Her personified form. Unquestionably Lord Varaha has accepted all the first class worship and devotion of the 88 devotees at Sri Chandrodaya Mandir, but the murtis and images of Varaha-deva holding a globeshaped Earth are incorrect. There is no precedence in the shilpa shastra to depict Varaha lifting the Earth in the form of a globe. Traditional murtis always show Lord Varaha lifting the personified Earth Goddess. The depiction of Lord Varaha lifting an Earth globe is an icon of modern invention. The thousands of modern images showing Varaha lifting an Earth globe are the ultimate in 'fake news' propaganda because Varaha-deva lifted the entire Bhu-mandala, not a so-called Earth globe. In the above link one can read the transcription of a conversation wherein Srila Prabhupada personally corrected the misunderstanding that arose from his earlier instruction to depict the Earth as a globe in the paintings of Varaha. We hope devotee artists will understand the issue and paint images that correctly depict Varaha lifting the entire Bhu-mandala. We hope also that pujaris will worship forms of Bhu-Varaha that are made according to the traditional shilpa-shastra. The proliferation of images of Varaha-deva lifting an Earth globe simply continue to hide the true form of Bhu-devi and reinforce a false Earth paradigm. The abhisheka of Sri Sri Bhu-Varaha at Kallahalli, near Mysore in India 89 THE ABODE OF THE EARTH GODDESS The Srimad Bhagavatam reveals that the Earth Goddess in Her personified form lives with Lord Vishnu (in His form as Varaha-deva) in Uttara-kuru varsha which is on the northern side of Jambudvipa: "Sukadeva Gosvami said: Dear King, the Supreme Lord in His boar incarnation [bhagavan yajna-purushah krita-varaha-rupa], who accepts all sacrificial offerings, lives in the northern part of Jambudvipa. There, in the tract of land known as Uttara-kuru-varsha [uttareshu ca kurushu], mother Earth [devi haisha bhuh] and all the other inhabitants worship Him with unfailing devotional service by repeatedly chanting the following Upanishad mantra." (Srimad Bhagavatam 5.18.34) The Devi Purana describes the location and situation of Bhu-Varaha in this way: "The Bhagavan Yajna Purusa is manifest in Uttara Kuru Mandala in the form of Adi Varaha. The Earth Herself worships Him always. The Goddess Earth praises Hari, the Yajna Varaha, the Destroyer of the Daityas and worships duly that Deva, with Her heart lotus, naturally devoted, rendered more devoted by Her attachment to the Lord". (Devi Purana, Tenth Book, Chapter 10, verse 6-7) Jambudvipa is the very center of Bhu-mandala, and is the first of the Earth's seven great islands. Jambudvipa has a diameter of 100,000 yojana (800,000 miles). The image below shows the circular island of Jambudvipa with Bharata-varsha in the south and Uttara-kuru-varsha on the far side of the island. The Golden Mount Meru marks the Axis Mundi or center of the universe and is situated in Ilavrita-varsha: 90 The Himalaya Mountain marked here is 80,000 yojana (640,000 miles) across and forms the boundary mountain between Bharata-varsha and Kimpurusha-varsha which is to the north of Bharata-varsha. South of the great Himalaya is Bharata-varsha which extends to the southern shore of Jambudvipa Jambudvipa is completely surrounded by a great ocean which is 100,000 yojana (800,000 miles across). The size of Bharata-varsha between the great Himalaya Mountain and the southern shore of Jambudvipa is 9,000 yojana (72,000 miles). Thus Bharatavarsha is 72,000 miles north to south, and 640,000 miles east to west. Our known Earth is somewhere in the vast Bharata-varsha region. Our own area of the Earth is thus south of Mount Meru, and the residence of the personified Earth Goddess is on the far side of Mount Meru, specifically in Uttara-Kuru varsha. The image below depicts the division of Jambudvipa into nine varshas, and shows the location of various incarnations of the Supreme Lord in each varsha. Sri Sri Bhu-Varaha are in the northern part of Jambudvipa known as Uttara-kuru-varsha. The Lord in His form as Nara-Narayana is located in Bharata-varsha. Hanuman worships the form of Sita-Rama in Kimpurusha-varsha, and Prahlada Maharaja worships Nrsingha-avatar in Hari-varsha, etc: 91 The Puranas thus inform us not only of a greater Earth landscape, but also of the whereabouts of the personified Earth Goddess. The modern secular cosmology denies both of these aspects to the Earth, and is thus is inherently impersonalistic and asuric. We refer to globe ideology as asuric because (as we shall see in later papers) the covering of the real feature of the Earth is a deliberate policy! When various parties present an ideology that states there is no such thing as a personified Earth goddess, such an ideology is deemed by Vaishnavas to be impersonalistic because it is a denial of the conscious and personal form of the Earth as she is revealed through the Puranas. Likewise, when various parties present a cosmology in which the material or physical form of the Earth is that of a globe floating in space, such ideologies can also be deemed impersonalistic because that conception covers or blocks out the actual rupa or form of the Earth (Bhu-mandala) as described in the Puranas. We shall explain this point in more depth in the second part of this paper. The devotees of Sri Krishna need to become conscious of how the asuric ideology is negatively affecting our perception of the reality described in Srimad Bhagavatam. Despite producing images such as the one above showing the location of Bhu-Varaha in Jambudvipa, the purport of Srimad Bhagavatam doesn't seem to register—since we (in Bharata-varsha) are at the southern side of an 800,000 mile island, and Bhu-Varaha are at the other side, then we cannot be on an isolated globe-shaped planet floating in space. Despite Srimad Bhagavatam describing our location on a colossal flat Earth-circle, the question of flat-Earth has become taboo. Why? WHY DOES IT MATTER IF THE EARTH IS GLOBE-SHAPED OR FLAT? Many devotees have unquestionably lived and died in Krishna consciousness without the question of a flat or globe Earth ever being raised or even a concern; however, due to the construction of the Temple of Vedic Planetarium, the question of the Earth is being raised for this generation of devotees, and thus presents a unique test of faith for all of Krishna's devotees present at this time. Although the appearance of the Earth is temporary, it is not false. Some yogis may reject the whole question of the Earth as something belonging to the category of maya (illusion), and that the question of whether Earth is flat or globular is not worth considering since the whole material world in any case is a place of illusion. But such reasoning is a serious mistake because although the material world creates an illusion for the soul, it is nonetheless a real illusion. A magician, for example, creates different illusions using various props, but the props are real and the magicians trick is a real event—not simply a figment of the audiences imagination. Likewise, Sri Krishna (the supreme magician) creates illusion for the soul using 'props' such as the Earth, but the Earth itself has reality, it is not false. The sooner one understands the true nature of the Earth, the sooner one will get out of imprisonment in maya. Srila Prabhupada explains the difference between the Vaishnava and Mayavadi attitude in the following statement: "So we don't say that "It is mithya, it is false." That is Mayavadi's ver... Brahma satyam jagan mithya. "This material world is false." We don't say false. We don't say false, because we have to take work from it. Why shall I say false? When I take some work from the typewriter or some other machine, why shall I say it is 92 false? It is real. So our philosophy is, we don't neglect this material world as false. That is pseudo, pseudo renunciation. You cannot give up. Why should you call it false? Sometimes...Just like some materialists, they criticize that "You are using material things. Why do you say false?" So that criticism is applicable to the Mayavadi philosophy, who says jagan mithya, "This whole material world is false." Brahma satyam jagan mithya. We don't say false. We say, "It is temporary. It is temporary, and I have to take some benefit out of it." (Srimad Bhagavatam 2.4.2. Los Angeles, June 26, 1972) Again: "So we are not these so-called Mayavadi sannyasis, brahma satyam jagan mithya. Why jagan mithya? Mithya means false. They say that jagan mithya, this whole material world is false. We don't say false. We say it is temporary, and so long it is in use, you utilize it for Krishna. That even this material world will be utilized for Krishna consciousness, this is our proposal. We don't reject anything." (Srimad Bhagavatam 1.6.5. Los Angeles, January 2, 1974) Accepting that the world is temporarily manifest, and that it has reality (and is not false), the question of the Earth's shape and size cannot be rejected by the bhakti-yogis as maya; indeed, the proper understanding of the Earth's shape and size is essential, otherwise we will certainly continue living in a completely false reality. The idea that the Earth has the form of a globe, is merely that—an idea! However, the 'idea' has taken on a reality of its own. The 'idea' has not only created a mass delusion that we live on a spinning ball floating in space, the idea is unfortunately propped up by deception via various agencies such as NASA who are engaged in propagating this false idea as a fact. The Earth-globe ideology is directly connected with impersonalism because it hides or covers the true form of Bhumi in her expansion as Bhumandala. If we are to accept Srimad Bhagavatam as a description of reality, then the Earth we live on is not an isolated globe floating in space, but is actually only a small part of a greater Earth plane—there is more Earth all around us. By understanding and accepting the Earth as it is described in Srimad Bhagavatam, the present generation of devotees will come a step closer to Sri Krishna. By accepting Srimad Bhagavatam's version of reality one will obviously develop faith in Sri Krishna, and subsequently lose faith in a world paradigm created by maya's agents. Contrarily if we go on placing absolute faith in NASA's version of reality, we will most certainly begin to lose faith in Srimad Bhagavatam. By accepting that the Earth is temporarily manifest, but not false, the devotee is able to offer proper respect to Bhu-devi in the form of Bhu-mandala. The same form or design of Bhumandala always reappears in each creation (and according to the Devi Purana in each universe as well). The devotees of Sri Krishna, therefore, are expected to understand, appreciate, and preach the nature of the Earth as it is revealed in Srimad Bhagavatam. By connecting personally with the shakti of Sri Krishna one will experience the ultimate spiritual nature of the material energy, indeed one will perceive Sri Krishna in everything, and thus everything as spiritual. Srila Prabhupada explains the ultimate spiritual nature of the material world in many places, for example: 93 "Another example is the sun and the sunshine. As soon as you see the sunshine, you can immediately think of the sun. Is that not so? In the morning, as soon as you see the sunshine shining in your window, you can immediately remember the sun. You are confident the sun is there, because you know that without the sun there cannot be any sunshine. Similarly, whenever we see something, we should immediately think of Krishna with reference to that particular thing, because that thing is a manifestation of Krishna's energy. And because the energy is not different from the energetic, those who have understood Krishna along with His energies do not see anything except Krishna. Therefore for them there is no material world. To a perfect devotee, everything is spiritual (sarvam khalu idam brahma)." (Journey of Self-Discovery, 3.3, Krishna, The Enchanter of the Soul) Again: "The entire cosmic manifestation is but an expansion of the Lord's energy; everything rests in Him, yet He exists separately, beyond creation, maintenance and annihilation. The varieties of creation are performed by His external energy. Because the energy and energetic are one, everything is one (sarvam khalu idam brahma). Therefore without Krishna, the Parabrahman, nothing can exist. The difference between the material and spiritual worlds is that His external energy is manifested in the material world, whereas His spiritual energy exists in the spiritual world. Both energies, however, belong to the Supreme Lord, and therefore in a higher sense there is no exhibition of material energy because everything is spiritual energy. The energy in which the Lord's all-pervasiveness is not realized is called material. Otherwise, everything is spiritual. Therefore Prahlada prays, ekas tvam eva jagad etam: "You are everything." (Srimad Bhagavatam 7.9.30 purport) By relating to the Earth in a personal, non-exploitative, and devotional way, Bhu-devi in in Her natural role as mother will create a heaven on Earth. Contrarily if one adopts an exploitative mentality towards the Earth, one will only suffer. The point is explained in Mahabharata: "Earth, if its resources are properly developed according to its qualities and prowess, is like an ever-yielding cow, from which the three-fold fruits of virtue, profit, and pleasure, may be milked. Brave kings conversant with virtue and profit have become covetous of Earth. Endued with activity, they would even cast away their lives in battle, from hunger of wealth. Earth is certainly the refuge of creatures endued with celestial bodies as also of creatures endued with human bodies. Desirous of enjoying Earth, the kings, O chief of the Bharatas, have become like dogs that snatch meat from one another. Their ambition is unbounded, knowing no gratification. It is for this that the Kurus and the Pandavas are striving for possession of Earth, by negotiation, disunion, gift, and battle, O Bharata. If Earth be well looked after, it becometh the father, mother, children, firmament and heaven, of all creatures, O bull among men." (Mahabharata, Jambu-khanda, Nirmana Parva, Section IX) 94 The Earth-circle is immense beyond our conception, and there is enough space and resources for everyone. The conception of Earth as a small isolated planet floating in space creates a fearful struggle for existence as the asuras mislead everyone into fighting over seemingly limited space and resources. An impersonal cosmology leads to impersonal dealings both with mother Bhumi, and also with one's brothers and sisters who share the Earth plane. The Vedic cosmology restores personalism, respect, and love for all souls regardless of their placement in various species of life. Srila Prabhupada expresses the Krishna conscious vision of universal harmony in the following verse: "One should treat animals such as deer, camels, asses, monkeys, mice, snakes, birds and flies exactly like one's own son. How little difference there actually is between children and these innocent animals. (SB 7.14.9) PURPORT One who is in Krishna consciousness understands that there is no difference between the animals and the innocent children in one's home. Even in ordinary life, it is our practical experience that a household dog or cat is regarded on the same level as one's children, without any envy. Like children, the unintelligent animals are also sons of the Supreme Personality of Godhead, and therefore a Krishna conscious person, even though a householder, should not discriminate between children and poor animals. Unfortunately, modern society has devised many means for killing animals in different forms of life. For example, in the agricultural fields there may be many mice, flies and other creatures that disturb production, and sometimes they are killed by pesticides. In this verse, however, such killing is forbidden. Every living entity should be nourished by the food given by the Supreme Personality of Godhead. Human society should not consider itself the only enjoyer of all the properties of God; rather, men should understand that all the other animals also have a claim to God's property. In this verse even the snake is mentioned, indicating that a householder should not be envious even of a snake. If everyone is fully satisfied by eating food that is a gift from the Lord, why should there be envy between one living being and another? In modern days people are very much inclined toward communistic ideas of society, but we do not think that there can be any better communistic idea than that which is explained in this verse of Srimad Bhagavatam. Even in the communistic countries the poor animals are killed without consideration, although they also should have the right to take their allotted food with which to live." Throughout Srimad Bhagavatam, Srila Prabhupada advocates simple living/ high-thinking, and condemns the ugra-karma (terrible activities) involved in exploiting Earth, people, animals, trees, rivers, and oceans. If we treat the Earth and the other living beings as spirit souls, not exploitable matter, then by the grace of Sri Krishna, everything will be provided for, and the whole material world will become Vaikuntha: "This is the only solution: to push on Krishna consciousness movement, love of Godhead. Everyone will be happy, the human society. Vishvam purnam 95 sukhayate. Whole universe will be just like Vaikuntha. Vaikuntha means without anxieties." (Lecture on Srimad Bhagavatam 2.2.5, Los Angeles, December 2, 1975) Srila Prabhupada mentions in the same lecture that even if the rest of the world remains in illusion, on an individual level one can live in Vaikutha consciousness: "Here is reality, love of God. You take it. Don't expect that it will be taken by all the nations, all the people. You take it individually and see how much you are happy. Individual. That is our request". Srila Prabhupada makes a similar point in the following purport: "When such acknowledgement is given, either by a family, nation or society, their abode becomes almost like Vaikuntha, and it becomes free from the operation of the threefold miseries of this material world". (Srimad Bhagavatam 3.22.31 purport) The Narada Purana states that though living in Kali-yuga, the devotees of Hari will not be oppressed: "Kali does not oppress those persons who perform the worship of Hari or who repeat his names and glorify Hari day and night. Kali does not affect those men who with or without desire for the fruits there-of glorify the deity saying "Obeisance to Narayana." 0 Brahmana, in the terrible Kali yuga, only those are contented and blessed, those who are absorbed in the names of Hari. Kali does not harass them." (Narada Purana: 1.41.93-95) The beginning of treating the Earth personally is obviously to know both the personality of the Earth (Bhu-shakti), as well as the true form of Bhu-mandala. Bhu-mandala is not in some subtle dimension of existence, but is the real, physical, and tangible surface upon which all living beings reside. IMPERSONALISM AND DUALITY Hearing the description of the Vedic Earth (Bhu-mandala) and its relation to the rest of the universe is necessary so that we can overcome the separatist mentality of seeing a duality between Sri Krishna and His creation: "My dear Lord, You alone manifest Yourself as the entire cosmic manifestation, for You existed before the creation, You exist after the annihilation, and You are the maintainer between the beginning and the end. All this is done by Your external energy through actions and reactions of the three modes of material nature. Therefore whatever exists—externally and internally—is You alone." (Srimad Bhagavatam 7.9.30) "The true variegatedness which exists in the Absolute Truth is a product of His inconceivable energy. Indeed, it can be safely concluded that this cosmic manifestation is but a by-product of His inconceivable energies. Once we accept 96 the inconceivable energies of the Supreme Lord, we will find that there is no duality at all. The expansion of the energy of the Supreme Lord is as true as the Supreme Lord." (Teachings Of Lord Chaitanya, TLC 20, The Goal of Vedanta Study) "Nirdvandvo hi maha-baho sukham bandhat pramucyate [Such a person, free from all dualities, easily overcomes material bondage and is completely liberated, O mighty-armed Arjuna]. One who has attained such consciousness, Krishna consciousness, he becomes nirdvandva. Nirdvandva means he has no duality because he sees everything in Krishna relationship. He sees everything. Actually, everything is the manifestation of Krishna's energy. So highest stage, in the highest stage of Krishna consciousness, the person sees everything in relationship with Krishna. Nirdvandvo hi maha-baho sukham bandhat pramucyate. And if we are fortunate enough to come to that stage of Krishna consciousness then very easily and very happily we'll become liberated from this entanglement of material life." (Lecture on Bhagavad-gita 5.3-7, New York, August 26, 1966) Indian man: But why there is so..., there is duality in this world? Prabhupada: There is no duality. There is one, Krishna. But you have created duality. That is maya. When you forget Krishna, that is duality. When you think that there is something else other than Krishna, that is duality. (Bhagavad-gita lecture 7.1-3, London August 4, 1973) "There is no duality. Anything you perceive, that is Krishna." (Lecture on Srimad Bhagavatam, 6.2.13, Vrindavana, September 15, 1975) Fear arises due to seeing the material world as separate from Krishna (SB 11.2.37-38). Krishna is not only the gardener (creator), He is also the garden (creation). The creation is simultaneously one, but different from the creator. The pure devotees of the Lord thus give respect to all things, perceiving them as not separate from Sri Krishna: "A devotee should not see anything as being separate from the Supreme Personality of Godhead, Krishna. Ether, fire, air, water, earth, the sun and other luminaries, all living beings, the directions, trees and other plants, the rivers and oceans—whatever a devotee experiences he should consider to be an expansion of Krishna. Thus seeing everything that exists within creation as the body of the Supreme Lord, Hari, the devotee should offer his sincere respects to the entire expansion of the Lord's body." (Srimad Bhagavatam 11.2.41) Although the Earth itself is not separate from Sri Krishna, it simultaneously serves as the ground for His own various lilas (pastimes). As a gardener enjoys their own garden, so Sri Krishna enjoys pastimes on the Earth. How then can one hope to have faith in the descriptions of Sri Krishna's lila upon the Earth, whilst simultaneously doubting or denying the description of the Earth as revealed by Sri Krishna Himself? As we mentioned earlier, many devotees have undoubtedly lived and died in Krishna consciousness without the question of the Earth's shape, 97 size, and location ever being raised, or even a concern; however, due to the construction of the Temple of Vedic Planetarium, the question of the Earth is being raised for this generation of devotees, and thus presents a unique test of faith for all of Krishna's devotees present at this time. Sukadeva Goswami explained to King Parikist that the Srimad Bhagavatam (which contains the description of the Earth) was directly spoken by Sri Krishna Himself: "Your Majesty Maharaja Pariksit, know that all that I have described in reply to your proper inquiry is just according to the version of the Vedas, and it is eternal truth. This was described personally by Lord Krishna unto Brahma, with whom the Lord was satisfied upon being properly worshiped." (Srimad Bhagavatam 2.2.32) Since Sri Krishna's representatives describe Bharata-varsha as part of a greater Earth (and not as an isolated Earth globe floating in space), why do devotees of Sri Krishna think the Earth can be anything different than as described in Srimad Bhagavatam? THE BHU-MANDALA AND THE FUTURE SPIRITUAL DIRECTION OF ISKCON The topic of the Earth is not a mundane question and is directly related to bhakti-yoga. Sri Krishna Chaitanya Mahaprabhu said to Devananda pandit: "The Lord began to explain the essence of the Srimad Bhagavatam, "Listen, O learned brahmama, interpret the Bhagavatam only in the light of bhakti, devotion. Do not enter into any other process. The beginning, middle, and end of the Bhagavatam establish that devotional service to the Supreme Lord is eternal, absolute, and infallible... The Bhagavatam is saturated with divine krisha-prema. It is in fact the body of Sri Krishna, for it contains the confidential pastimes of Sri Krishna." (Caitanya Bhagavata, Antya-lila, chapter 3) As with every other verse in the Srimad Bhagavatam, the description of the virat-rupa (universal form) covering ten chapters of the fifth canto is saturated with love for Krishna, and also establishes devotional service to Krishna as the ultimate goal in life. The description of the viratrupa counters all impersonalism because it reveals the entire universe including the Earth itself to be nothing other than an expansion of Sri Krishna. Prahlada Maharaja says: "This cosmic manifestation, the material world, is also Your body" (tasya—of that Supreme Personality of Godhead; eva—certainly; te—of You; vapuh—the cosmic body; idam—this universe) (Srimad Bhagavatam 7.9.33) Again in SB 2.1.24, the universe is described as the cosmic body of Sri Krishna: "This gigantic manifestation of the phenomenal material world as a whole is the personal body of the Absolute Truth. (Srimad Bhagavatam 2.1.24) 98 visheshah—personal; tasya—His; dehah—body; ayam—this; sthavisthah— grossly material; ca—and; sthaviyasam—of all matter" For those devotees who think the topic of the Earth is mundane and inessential to bhakti-yoga, may we remind the reader that the subject of the Earth was raised by King Pariksit when he had only a few days to live. Since the mind is to be concentrated on the Personality of Godhead at the time of death, one may wonder why King Pariksit raised the question of a seemingly mundane topic like the size, shape, and characteristics of the Earth. We have addressed the question in this paper. At the end of his narration on the Bhu-mandala (fifth canto chapter 26), Sukadeva Goswami says that those who listen to, and faithfully accept the description of virat-rupa (Sri Krishna's expansion as the rupa (form) of the virat (material universe), are blessed to eventually understand the transcendental form and personality of the Supreme Personality of Godhead (5.16.38-40; see also Srila Prabhupada's purport to SB 5.16.3). We can infer from these statements that the converse is true: that (once the actual truth of Bhu-mandala has been explained), those who continue to reject or speculate on the rupa (form) of Bhu-mandala or other features of Virat-rupa as it is described in the Puranas, will become victims of impersonalism; and as a consequence of such impersonalism (denial of the true form of Bhumi) they will remain bewildered by false forms, or illusory forms, or deceptive forms of the Earth that emerge courtesy of maya-devi to keep people trapped in a world of illusion. Srimad Bhagavatam's revelation of the Vedic flat-Earth (Bhu-mandala) is a direct personal challenge to everything that each individual in the modern world holds as true and real about the world we live in. What to speak of one's faith in Krishna, since one's very sense of reality is at stake, the question of whether the Earth is an isolated globe floating in space or whether it is a colossal circular landscape with more countries, oceans, and people as described by the Vedic Puranas is a question that is likely to agitate and polarize people like no other. And since the issue of the shape, size, and nature of the Earth has major implications in terms of who to trust and what to believe, the presentation of the Earth at the Mayapur Temple of Vedic Planetarium will be a decisive factor in establishing the future spiritual direction of ISKCON. The question of the Earth's presentation in the Temple of Vedic Planetarium is a matter of spiritual concern both for the members of ISKCON and for the rest of the world because the shape and size of the Earth is a definitive point on which the Vedic world-views clashes with the modern secular world-view in a spectacular manner. The two world-views are radically and fundamentally opposed in terms of what is to be considered real and true about the nature of the world and the universe that we live in. If one is real, the other is most certainly false. Thus, whatever presentation of the Earth is established at the Temple of Vedic Planetarium will create a paradigm or 'perception of reality' regarding what is true or false about the world we live in. The issue is whether members of the International Society for Krishna Consciousness will remain within and continue to support the present world-view that Earth is an isolated globe floating in space, or whether they will follow the world-view of Vedic teachings which state that our own Earth area in Bharata-varsha is surrounded by other parts of a greater Earth plane. The question is whether the final presentation of the Earth will be aligned to the reality described by great rishis and spiritual authorities such as Narada, Vyasa, and Sukadeva, or whether it will be 99 dictated by what is essentially an anti-Vedic cosmology began by Copernicus, developed by Kepler, Newton, etc., and solidified by so-called space agencies like NASA. The answer to this question will have powerful implications in regards to the spiritual direction of the Krishna consciousness movement. Since we are not hopeful that the present leadership of the International Society for Krishna Consciousness will challenge the prevailing Earth globe ideology, we write for the benefit of individual members of the society who at least on a personal level can enter into a new era of the Bhu-mandala paradigm. In Part Two of this paper we shall present some specific examples of how the globe ideology covers the real form of Bhu-mandala, and creates an impersonal, center-less universe. Impersonalism and Globe Ideology, Part 2 meruh sikharinam aham "And of Mountains I am Meru" (Bg 10.23) In this paper we shall discuss Mount Meru's location at the center of the Vedic universe, and why knowledge of Mount Meru is important for becoming physically and spiritually centered. The asura cosmology describes the universe as having no center or end, and creates a sense of cosmic dis-orientation in which people feel adrift in a meaningless impersonal universe. We shall point out some important instances in which this impersonal ideology has affected the so-called 'Vedic cosmology' being perpetrated by members of ISKCON. We shall also show how Srimad Bhagavatam's description of Bharata-varsha's location to Mount Meru is yet another indication that the Vedic Puranas (histories) describe our Earth as part of a continual flat-Earth plane, and not an isolated globe-shaped planet floating in space. STEALING THE EARTH Various Puranas relate different occasions and circumstances when the Bhu-mandala becomes submerged in the waters of Garbodhaka Ocean, and is then raised by Varaha-deva. Usually the Earth is submerged in the water as a normal occurrence at the time of the prayala, however, the Linga and Padma Puranas narrate a time when Bhu-mandala was actually stolen and hidden by the great asura Hiranyaksha: "Suta said: the brother of Hiranyakashipu is known as Hiranyaksha. He was comparable to Kala the destroyer. He was the father of Andhaka the lord of the 100 Asuras. This leading Daitya defeated all Devas. He bound the Earth that had the luster of blue lotus and took it to the nether regions. He made it his prisoner." (Linga Purana, 94.3-4) The Padma Purana narrates the history of Hiranyaksha stealing the Earth in the passage below. Please note that after the demon Hiranyaksha was killed, the Earth (Bhu-mandala) was not placed in space, but was replaced on the head of Ananta-sesha—the Puranas describe that the great Earth-circle is held by Ananta-sesha. "That Hiranyaksha of an immeasurable body and very haughty removed, with his thousands of arms, the Earth along with mountains, oceans, islands, and all living beings. Having removed it out and put it on his head he entered the lower world. Then all the hosts of gods, afflicted by fear, cried. They sought the shelter of Narayana, Vishnu. Then knowing that wonder, He, Vishnu, the holder of a conch, a disc, and a mace, took up the Boar-form, existing everywhere and having no beginning, middle or end. The highest lord full of everything, having hands and feet on all sides, having large fangs and arms, struck the demon with one fang. The mean son of Diti, with his huge body pounded, died. Seeing the Earth fallen (from the demon's head), he lifted it with his fang, and putting it on Sesha's head as before, took up the form of a Tortoise. Seeing great Vishnu of the form of the hog, all deities and sages, with their bodies bowed with devotion, praised him." (Padma Purana, Vl.237.10-19) Just as Bhu-devi was once stolen by the great asura Hiranyaksha and had to be rescued by Varaha-deva, so Bhu-devi has again been stolen by the asuras and awaits to be released by Sri Krishna Chaitanya Mahaprabhu's sankirtan movement. In the present circumstance, the Bhumandala has not been physically stolen and dislocated, but her real form (rupa) has been mentally stolen from the minds of people, and been replaced with an ideological conception known as the Earth-globe. In previous papers we have argued that the idea of an Earth-globe floating in space actually has no basis in Vedic cosmology, and that the idea is never even mentioned in the commentaries on Vedic cosmology by Vaishnava acharyas. Despite the Vedas describing an entirely different conception of Earth, the actual understanding of the Vedic Earth has been hidden/covered and usurped by a foreign or non-vedic cosmology. We have further argued that this the modern cosmology which presents Earth as a globe-shaped floating in space actually has no factual or scientific basis, and that it is a purely an ideological construct. However, many centuries of ideological propaganda (so-called 'science'), and in recent decades the use of fraudulent and deceptive means such as photographs and videos of a supposed Earth globe floating in space, have convinced the people of the world that these images of Earth are the unquestioned reality. On this illusory conception of an Earth-globe floating purposelessly in an infinite, impersonal darkness, the bewildered people have lost their center, and have been thrown into spiritual disorientation, confusion, and derangement. The center of the Vedic Earth is Mount Meru. Mount Meru is the central axis of the universe by which one can get their bearings, orientation, and sense of direction both physically and spiritually. The modern materialistic cosmology teaches that the universe has no center—that it came from nothing and evolved without any spiritual 101 direction or intelligence; it further teaches that the Earth is a globe spinning purposelessly in the void of an infinite, ever-expanding dark space. Since modern cosmologists cannot determine an edge or end to the universe, they obviously cannot speak of the universe having a center. It is not at all surprising, therefore, that people in a world without either a spiritual or material center have become dis-orientated, traumatized, and maddened due to having to live with cosmological conceptions that create such imbalance and dis-location. The Earth globe idea goes hand in hand with other atheistic ideas such as big bang, and the theory of Evolution. In a universe that supposedly came from nothing, and evolved without direction or purpose, and produced life without soul, on a supposed planet that floats aimlessly in an ever-expanding dark Godless space, it is not surprising that the poor people have lost their true cosmic bearings, and thus their sense of spiritual direction. The idea of having no center is terrifyingly expressed by the Irish poet WB Yeats in his nightmarish poem, The Second Coming. The word gyre used here refers to a spiral, spinning, or circular motion much like a vortex in which the falcon loses sight of his master: "Turning and turning in the widening gyre The falcon cannot see the falconer Things fall apart; the center cannot hold Mere anarchy is loosed upon the world The blood-dimmed tide is loosed, and everywhere The ceremony of innocence is drowned; The best lack all conviction, while the worst Are full of passionate intensity. Surely some revelation is at hand; Surely the Second Coming is at hand." (W. B. Yeats, The Second Coming) "Things fall apart; the center cannot hold." The asuric teachings that there is no center to the universe, and that the universe is infinitely expansive without boundaries, creates a paradigm in which the individual feels adrift in a universe with no center, end, or purpose to it. "They say that this world is unreal, with no foundation, no God in control" (Bg 16.8) In this cosmic abyss there are no moral absolutes, nor any idea that one's actions in this life will be the cause of births in future lives in different parts of the universe. It is the perfect ideological breeding ground for asuras to flourish, and cause catastrophic physical and spiritual destruction in the world. In such material and spiritual confusion the people become easy prey for the asuras: "The best lack all conviction, while the worst are full of passionate intensity". In the midst of the chaos, the spiritually intuitive W. B. Yeats felt instinctively that 'surely some revelation is at hand; surely the Second Coming is at hand'. Only decades later, the Sound Incarnation of Godhead manifested to restore dharma in the world: "So Krishna comes here, as it is stated in the Bhagavad-gita, paritranaya sadhunam vinasaya ca dushkritam [Bg. 4.8]. So Krishna appeared to kill so many 102 demons. At that time... Whenever there will be demons, Krishna will come. At the present moment, now, the world is full of demons. Therefore Krishna has come in the form of Hare Krishna. Devotees: Hare Krishna. Prabhupada: That is Krishna avatara. Kali-yuge nama-rupe avatara. So don't think that Krishna, this vibration Krishna, is different from that Krishna. The same Krishna. The same Krishna. (Srimad Bhagavatam 1.16.23, Los Angeles, July 13 1974) MOUNT MERU THE AXIS MUNDI An understanding of Mount Meru's location on the Bhu-mandala is one of the essential aspects of Vedic knowledge that has been disastrously lost in the Age of Kali with the result that people experience a complete physical and spiritual dis-orientation in regards to their relative location in the brahmanda (universe). Mount Meru is connected to the lotus flower that originally sprang from the navel of Garbhodakashayi Vishnu. The lotus flower later expanded into the physical Earth (Bhu-mandala), and the center of the lotus became the gigantic Mount Meru. Lord Brahma, along with the devas such as Indra, Vayu, and Agni, etc., have their celestial abodes on top of Mount Meru. 103 Jambudvipa is the inner whorl of the lotus (SB 5.16.5) and Mount Meru is the pericarp of the lotus ( See my book on COSMOLOGY of THER LOTUS on academia.edu) Knowledge of Mount Meru as the physical center of the universe takes us out of the false ego of thinking oneself the center of the universe, and reconnects us again with the actual center of the universe and source of all creation—Sri Vishnu. The Wikipedia article for Axis Mundi describes it as follows: "The axis mundi (also cosmic axis, world axis, world pillar, center of the world, world tree), in certain beliefs and philosophies, is the world center, or the connection between Heaven and Earth. As the celestial pole and geographic pole, it expresses a point of connection between sky and earth where the four compass directions meet. At this point travel and correspondence is made between higher and lower realms. Communication from lower realms may ascend to higher ones and blessings from higher realms may descend to lower ones and be disseminated to all. The spot functions as the omphalos (navel), the world's point of beginning. The image relates to the center of the earth (perhaps like an umbilical providing nourishment). It may have the form of a natural object (a mountain, a tree, a vine, a stalk, a column of smoke or fire) or a product of human manufacture (a staff, a tower, a ladder, a staircase, a maypole, a cross, a steeple, a rope, a totem pole, a pillar, a spire). Its proximity to heaven may carry implications that are chiefly religious (pagoda, temple mount, minaret, church) or secular (obelisk, lighthouse, rocket, skyscraper). The image appears in religious and secular contexts. The axis mundi symbol may be found in cultures utilizing shamanic practices or animist belief systems, in major world religions, and in technologically advanced "urban centers". In Mircea Eliads opinion, "Every Microcosm, every inhabited region, has a Centre; that is to say, a place that is sacred above all." It is interesting to note here how the author of the above article also links the axis mundi to an umbilical (the lotus stem that grows from the navel of Sri-Vishnu is like an umbilical cord). Although almost every ancient culture speaks of the the Holy Mountain (the abode of the gods), the Vedic teaching of a 100,000 yojana (800,000 mile) high golden mountain is simply dismissed by the asuric propagandists as a quaint reminder of primitive mythology that has been 104 rendered obsolete by discoveries made in the scientific and space age. Although the asuras (among themselves) acknowledge the existence of Mount Meru, (and often try to capture it from the devas), it suits their purposes to control other peoples perception of reality by replacing knowledge of the Bhu-mandala (Earth circle) with an ideological conception of Earth known as the Earth globe. Although the Earth globe ideology is in direct opposition to the Vedic system, at the present moment the ideologues within ISKCON cannot see the opposition due to being conditioned by the Earth globe paradigm. The devotees working in this field are mis-guided in their attempts in trying to reconcile the Earth globe idea with the Bhu-mandala concept. Instead of working to dispel the Earth globe ideology and establish the new paradigm of Bhu-mandala, the very opposite is taking place, namely that the Bhu-mandala is relegated to the nebulous realms of 'other dimensions', whilst the Earth-globe idea remains in place as the firm and unshakable reality. But if the Earth globe is the reality, then where is the center or axis mundi to be found in the visual images of Earth produced by NASA? According to NASA, if you take a rocket into space, all that is to be seen (except for distant stars) is dark space. But according to Srimad Bhagavatam, if you took a rocket high above the Earth plane, you would see the rest of Bhumandala with Mount Meru (axis mundi) in the center: The Srimad Bhagavatam narrates a history of Krishna taking Arjuna in His flying chariot to retrieve the dead sons of a brahmana from the realm of Maha-Vishnu. As they crossed the universe they looked down upon the Bhu-mandala with seven islands and oceans in their wonderful concentric pattern: "Having thus advised Arjuna, the Supreme Personality of Godhead had Arjuna join Him on His divine chariot, and together they set off toward the west. The 105 Lord's chariot passed over the seven islands (sapta-dvipa) of the middle universe, each with its ocean (sa-sindhums ca) and its seven principal mountains." (SB 10.89.46) Sage Agastya also spoke of the time he looked from Mount Meru and saw the seven islands and oceans: "I saw that place, that sage, and myself at the top of mount Meru. О king, I then saw the seven oceans, the seven principal mountains, and the seven islands constituting the Earth. Even now I remain thinking of that glorious world and how and when I could get there (again)." (Varaha Purana, 69:16-18) If the Earth-globe conception is not asuric and impersonalistic, then where is the rest of the Bhumandala in NASA's images of Earth floating isolated in dark space. Where is the majestic Mount Meru? Where are the seven islands and oceans of Bhu-mandala? When NASA presents images of the Earth as a globe in space, it is not because the Earth really is that way and our imperfect senses simply cannot detect the rest of Bhu-mandala which is in 'another dimension'; rather the Earth appears as a globe floating in space simply because the asuras behind these presentations have displayed a false concept of the Earth. The images of astronauts above an Earth-globe in space are simply movies made in film studios here on the terra firma. The reason why Mount Meru is not seen from outer space is because no one from NASA or any other space agency has been to outer space in order to see it. If American astronauts had left the Earth and traveled a purported 238,900 miles to the moon, for sure they would have seen the rest of Bhu-mandala. [NB: the actual height of the moon above the Earth according to Srimad Bhagavatam is 1,600,000 miles, so Srimad Bhagavatam exposes yet another detail of their story to be false]. THEY NEVER LEFT THE EARTH In the discussion below Tamala Krishna Goswami comes to the conclusion that since American astronauts make no report of seeing Mount Meru, then they must have never left the Earth. Srila Prabhupada agrees with Tamala Krishna Goswami's analysis, and says that is the point he has been making from the beginning: Tamala Krisha: …Every explanation is given in the Bhagavatam, and it's all in contradiction to the so-called scientists. They say that the reason we experience day and night is that the earth is rotating on its axis and at the same time circumambulating the sun. Prabhupada: Double. Double motion. Tamala Krishna: Yes. So they say, therefore, when you're on this side and the sun is here, you won't see, but when it turns around, then you'll see the sun. But the Bhagavatam does not agree with that description. The Bhagavatam says that you don't see the sun because it's blocked by the Meru. The sun is moving, and Meru is blocking. And they never even heard of Meru. What is their knowledge? Such a big mountain and they don't even know about it. That means they 106 never left the Earth's sphere. They never went more than a few hundred miles in the air, Srila Prabhupada. It's all lies. Prabhupada: All. That I am speaking from the very beginning. Now it is proved. They are also saying. (Room Conversation, July 8, 1977, Mayapur) Srila Prabhupada says "Now it has been proved. They are also saying." Despite the controlled media's massive hype and propaganda surrounding the fiftieth anniversary of the moon-landing, Srila Prabhupada's words have proven prophetic as we now have tens of thousands of articles, books, and video documentaries that expose the so-called space travels as a colossal hoax. On the basis of Srimad Bhagavatam, it is the duty of those responsible for the TOVP to see that these hoax images of the Earth are exposed as such. The hoax began with the fake moon-landing and continues to the present day with images of so-called astronauts on board a so-called International Space Station: Jayapataka: ...exhibit the farce of modern science...Farce of modern science, and every philosophy and science group, where they are just cheating the public. Then exhibit how Krishna consciousness is showing the real way. Prabhupada: Yes. So do that in this planetarium. If we can expose that they never went to the moon planet, their life will be finished." (Morning Walk June 4 1976, Los Angeles) PAUSE FOR A MOMENT! THE EARTH DOES NOT MOVE! We have discussed above how the asura cosmology creates a sense of being both physically and spiritually lost and adrift in an impersonal universe without a center, an end, or a purpose. Life within this godless paradigm is characterized by fear, instability, constant movement, and uncertainty. An understanding of our bearings in relation to Mount Meru at the center of the universe, will enable us to regain both physical and spiritual stability. Physical and mental stability comes by understanding that the Earth itself is not moving. The great Earth-circle is held by Ananata-sesha, and is neither floating or moved by air (vayu) as is the case with the other stars and planets like the sun and moon (SB 5.23.3). Unlike the modern asura cosmology which states that the Earth along with the other planets are moving at terrific speed through infinite space, the Vedic cosmology states that the Earth is fixed, stable, and unmoving, and that the other stars and planets—though moving—move around a fixed center known as the Druva or the Pole star. Thus, the stars and planets are not adrift and flying around an infinite universe with no destination or purpose ahead. The stars and planets are all contained within the four billion diameter shell of the universe, and simply rotate around a fixed center (Druva). The asura presentation of Earth as a globe-shaped spinning on its axis at a 1,000 mph, whilst moving at 66,667 mph around the sun, whilst the sun itself along with the other planets moves at 514,000 mph around the galaxy, and the galaxy itself moves at some unknown speed to some unknown destination, is all calculated to create an idea of the cosmos that encourages the hectic mode of passion lifestyle that characterizes Kali-yuga (wherein people are constantly on the move with never a free moment to contemplate the meaning of their lives). All of the above 107 descriptions of the Earth and other planets being adrift and moving at terrific speed through an infinite universe are simply hocus pocus to spellbind people into an artificial construct of reality. By understanding that the Earth does not move (as every scientific experiment actually demonstrates), and that the stars and planets orbit around a fixed center, the hectic mode of passion lifestyle will grind to a halt, and one will regain stability, gravitas, calmness, and a sense of purpose in Sri-Krishna's creation. In reality the Earth itself is stopped and does not move. Therefore let us learn to walk consciously and without anxiety on the plane of the Earth. "Arjuna said: O Krishna, what are the symptoms of one whose consciousness is thus merged in transcendence? How does he speak, and what is his language? How does he sit, and how does he walk?" (Bg 2.54) Would we walk at a different pace upon the Earth if we knew the Earth itself was not moving? Would we walk with a different attitude if we found out the Earth is not a globe, and that there is more Earth? Would we walk without fear if we truly accepted the nature of Creator and creation as described in Srimad Bhagavatam? As the rest of the people zoom around at an almost impossible pace, just pause for a moment and contemplate that the Earth itself does not move. See how it feels to think that the Earth itself is not moving. One merged in transcendence will sit and walk upon the Earth with the understanding that the Earth is as it is described in the Puranas by transcendentalists such as Narada Muni, Vyasadeva, and Sukadeva Goswami. Krishna's stress-free and happy manner of walking on the Earth is compared to the stride of a regal elephant (dvirada-raja, SB 10.35.24-25) "As Krishna respectfully greets His well-wishing friends, His eyes roll slightly as if from intoxication. He wears a flower garland, and the beauty of His soft cheeks is accentuated by the brilliance of His golden earrings and the whiteness of His face, which has the color of a badara berry. With His cheerful face resembling the moon, lord of the night, the Lord of the Yadus moves with the grace of a regal elephant. Thus He returns in the evening, delivering the cows of Vraja from the heat of the day." (SB 10.35.24.25) Compare this to the mode of walking in Kali-yuga: "In the demoniac way of civilization, people are interested in getting a body constructed in such a way that when they walk on the street, the Earth will tremble." (SB 3.17.17 purport) As people go to and fro from work in an agitated, stressed, angry, unsmiling, and unhappy manner, would their whole soul-killing civilization not collapse if they learnt that they'd been lied to, and that the Earth they walk upon is not a globe-shaped planet spinning and flying through space? THE LOCATION OF BHARATA-VARSHA TO MOUNT MERU 108 Knowledge of the location of Bharata-varsha to Mount Meru negates all speculation in regards to the idea that Bharata-varsha is a supposed Earth-globe floating, spinning, and hurtling through space. The current preaching from the TOVP that the Earth is a globe does not correctly convey our true location and relation to the cosmic center or Mount Meru (as it is explained in Srimad Bhagavatam), and is another indication of how the impersonalist ideology has affected so-called Vedic Cosmology. The following verse from Srimad Bhagavatam clearly describes the location of Bharata-varsha in Jambudvipa: "Similarly, south of Ilavrita-varsha and extending from east to west are three great mountains named (from north to south) Nishadha, Hemakuta and Himalaya. Each of them is 10,000 yoganas [80,000 miles] high. They mark the boundaries of the three varshas named Hari-varsha, Kimpurusha-varsha and Bharata-varsha [India]". (SB 5.16.9) The description of the universe in Srimad Bhagavatam begins with a description of Jambudvipa. Jambudvipa is the central island of the Earth and is measured at 100,000 yojana (800,000 miles). The above verse mentions Ilavrita-varsha which is the central region (varsha) of Jambudvipa where Mount Meru is located as seen in the image below. The verse states that by going south of Ilavrita-varsha (evam dakshinenelavritam) one eventually comes to Bharata-varsha. Notice how the above verse is describing movement along a continuous landscape, (not movement through space). Going south (dakshinena) from Ilavrita-varsha to Bharata-varsha one must pass three huge mountains (Nishadha, Hemakuta, and Himavat/Himalaya). These mountains are 10,000 yojana (80,000 miles) high, and hundreds of thousands of miles long. Between these mountains are the tracts of land known as Hari-varsha, Kimpurusha-varsha, and Bharata-varsha. The Puranas including Srimad Bhagavatam describe the fascinating civilizations and conditions in these other parts of the Earth. 109 By simply following the description in Srimad Bhagavatam we can understand the actual location of Bharata-varsha to the rest of Jambudvipa. Mount Meru stands in the center of Jambudvipa in a region called Ilavrita-varsha. Going south from Ilavrita-varsha one passes the Nishadha Mountain which is 80,000 miles high, 16,000 miles wide and 100,000 yojanas (800,000 miles) long. After crossing this great mountain one comes to a tract of land called Hari-varsha which is 9,000 yogana (72,000 miles) across. After crossing Hari-varsha one comes to the Hemakuta Mountain which is also 80,000 miles high and 16,000 miles wide, but slightly shorter in length at 90,000 yogana (720,000 miles). After crossing the Hemakuta Mountain, one comes to a tract of land called Kimpurusha-varsha which like the other varshas is 9,000 yogana (72,000 miles) across. After crossing Kimpurusha-varsha one comes to the Himalaya which as mentioned is 80,000 miles high, 16,000 miles wide, but again slightly shorter in length at 80,000 yogana (640,000 miles) across [the decline in the length of the great border mountains is due to the curve of Jambudvipa]. It should be noted that although we have a mountain in India called Himalaya, the Mountain mentioned here is 80,000 yogana (640,000 miles) across. Srimad Bhagavatam describes the great Himalaya as 80,000 miles high, 16,000 miles wide, whilst Vayu Purana and Matsya Purana confirm the length of Himalaya as being 80,000 yogana , 640,000 miles long: "And mountains Himalaya and Srngavan are each eighty thousand yogana (640,000) miles in length." (Vayu Purana: 34.24-31) "The Mount Himavan [Himalaya] is 80,000 yoganas (640,000 miles), from east to west." (Matsya Purana CXIII, verse 25) Himalaya creates the boundary between Bharata-varsha and Kimpurusha varsha. Lord Shiva confirms the 640,000 mile length of Bharata-varsha's east-west border as follows: "lsvara said: What is remembered as Jambudvlpa is exactly at the center of the Earth. It is divided into nine regions, 0 beautiful woman, known as the different Varshas ( regions). Therein, the first Varsha is Bharata. It is also remembered as being divided into nine parts. From south to north it measures nine thousand yoganas (72,000 miles). The distance from east to west is eighty thousand yogana (640,000 miles). Himavan is in the north. The ksiroda (ocean) is in the south." (Skanda Purana: VII.I.ll.6-8) After crossing the great Himalaya, one comes to Bharata-varsha which is also 9,000 yogana (72,000 miles across from north to south). Our own region of the Earth is situated somewhere in this vast southern territory of Bharata-varsha. Thus Bharata-varsha is not floating above Meru, nor is it floating in the void of space, rather it is situated on the plane of Jambudvipa along with the other varshas and great mountains that form part of the Earth's great landscape. The great civilizations along this Earth plane are all described through-out the various Puranas. SOUTH OF MOUNT MERU 110 The use of the word 'south' is important to help us get our bearings in relation to Mount Meru. The directions north and south indicate directions along the horizontal plane, such as when we speak of North London or South London, or North England and South England. The globe ideology has confused everyone into believing that north and south mean up and down. When we look at a map of the world on a globe, for example, Canada is at the top or upper part of the globe, whilst Argentina is at the bottom or lower part of the globe. Thus people think of north and south as meaning the up and down side of a globe. However, in Vedic cosmology north, south, east, and west refer to the directions along the horizontal plane of Bhu-mandala. Up and down refer to the directions that are above (uparishtat) and below (adhastat) the plane of Bhumandala. Thus the sun is measured at 800,000 miles above the plane of the Earth, whilst Anantasesha is located at a certain measurement below the plane of the Earth. This is important to consider in relation to the location of Bharata-varsha. If Sukadeva Goswami had wished to inform us that Bharata-varsha is a globe floating above the plane of Bhu-mandala, he would have mentioned its altitude above the Earth along with the other planets that are mentioned in chapter 22 of the fifth canto. Thus we cannot accept Mayesa dasa's idea that Bharata-varsha is a planet floating above Bhu-mandala, as Sukadeva Goswami clearly describes Bharata-varsha as south (dakshinena) of Ilavrita-varsha (where Mount Meru is located), not above (uparishtat) Ilavritavarsha. The distance from Mount Meru to Bharata-varsha is a measurement for a stretch of land along the horizontal plane of the Earth-circle; it is not a measurement for the distance of a planet situated vertically above the Earth-circle. The measurements for the planets situated vertically above the Earth are provided in chapter 22 of the fifth canto of Srimad Bhagavatam, and there is no mention of a second Earth globe floating above the Earth-circle itself. Since Bharata-varsha is located on the southern side of Jambudvipa and (hence on the vast plane of Bhu-mandala), it cannot be regarded as a separate Earth planet floating in space—that is not what is being described! Just as Italy is south of Europe and part of the same Earth plane, so Bharata-varsha is south of Jambudwipa and likewise part of the same Earth plane. This is the obvious conclusion. If Italy is south of Germany, then Germany is obviously to the north of Italy. If Bharata-varsha is at the south of Jambudwipa, then Jambudwipa is obviously to the north of Bharata-varsha. Thus going South from Meru to Bharata-varsha is like this: "The Nishadha is to the south of the Meru. Still south of it is the Mountain Hemakuta. The Himavata is to its south." (Linga Purana, 49.4) Going back north from Bharata-varsha to Meru one passes the same mountains and varshas in the opposite direction: "The varsha south of the Himavat is known as Bharata. Hemakuta is beyond that. The varsha within it is called Kimpurusha. Nishadha is beyond Hemakuta. Its varsha is called Hari-varsha. Beyond Hari-varsha is the splendid Ilavrta-varsha and Mount Meru." (Linga Purana 49.7-10) The above descriptions from Srimad Bhagavatam and other Puranas unquestionably locate our area of the Earth in Bharata-varsha as part of a greater flat-Earth landscape. So there we have it! There is no argument! And Srila Prabhupada instructed that the Vedic cosmology be presented in the Temple of Vedic Planetarium as it is described in Srimad Bhagavatam: 111 Prabhupada: We are intending to make a huge planetarium... Exactly to the description of Fifth Canto, we want." (Room Conversation, May 8 1977, Hrishikesh) Prabhupada: ...from the Bhagavatam. So this should be mentioned. It is not only a temple, but a planetarium according to Bhagavatam, where which planet is situated, where is Vaikunthaloka, where is Goloka Vrndavana, where is Mahar... (Morning Walk, Feb 9, 1976, Mayapur) So who can argue with the above description of where Bharata-varsha is situated on the flatEarth landscape? Since the complete north-south distance of Bharata-varsha is 9,000 yogana (72,000 miles), residents at the very southern tip of Bharata-varsha would have to cross all of this area before coming to the mainland of Jambudvipa; however, those on the northern part of Bharata-varsha would be only a few hundred miles from the mainland. In any case, even 9,000 yogana or 72,000 miles is not an inconceivable distance to cover before coming to the rest of Jambudvipa. The Srimad Bhagavatam's cosmology is thus unquestionably describing a greater Earth plane with more land and ocean surrounding our known Earth area. Whether travelling by sea or vimana or simply travelling by yoga power, the rest of Jambudvipa is only a few thousand miles away. Despite the short distance, people from Bharata-varsha are incapable of travelling to Jambudvipa without the requisite qualification that comes from Vedic yajna. FOLLOWING SRIMAD BHAGAVATAM AND SRILA PRABHUPADA Rajasekhara dasa's childish jubilation at having 'torpedoed' the idea of Sailing to Jambudvipa only reveals his own lack of faith in Srimad Bhagavatam's teaching that our known Earth continues into other areas of the greater Earth circle. As is usually the case with Rajasekhara dasa, his own deviation from guru and shastra got torpedoed and sunk in the process. Rajasekhara dasa can only continue his belief in the Earth globe at the cost of denying his faith in Srimad Bhagavatam. Since Srimad Bhagavatam clearly states that there is a land mass stretching for hundreds of thousands of miles of land to the north of Bharata-varsha, the idea that Bharata-varsha is an isolated Earth globe floating in space stands in complete opposition to the reality described by Sukadeva Goswami. If one goes north around the supposed globe, one travels in a loop and comes back to the same point. In this conception of reality there is no more Earth to speak of, and the rest of Jambudvipa simply disappears from existence. However, according to the Sriimad Bhagavatam's description, the rest of Jambudvipa is further north along the Earth plane by a distance of only a few thousand miles from our known area of the Earth. By north we mean in the direction of the North Star [Druva], not the north on a compass which simply takes one in circles around the local north pole. By going north following the north star, one eventually comes to Mount Meru [the north star is above Mount Meru]. As we have pointed out with many instances, Srila Prabhupada's explicit and repeated instruction was to present the version of Srimad Bhagavatam at the Temple of Vedic Planetarium, but rather than accepting the Srimad Bhagavatam's clear description of our known Earth's location in Jambudvipa, and rather than following his own spiritual master's instruction, Rajasekhara dasa continues in his nescient ('not knowing') conviction that the Vedas describe the Earth as a globe 112 floating in space. Rajasekhara dasa clearly does not believe in the Srimad Bhagavatam's cosmological description of the names, distances and directions of one place on the Earth to another. The historical accounts in Srimad Bhagavatam and Mahabharata inform us that Yudhisthira Maharaja and Pariksit Maharaja were ruling the whole of Jambudvipa from India only 5,000 years ago. If India is part of a 24,900 mile globe-shaped planet, then where is the rest of Yudhisthira's 800,000 mile kingdom? Supporters of the Earth globe ideology cannot answer this question with reference to Srimad Bhagavatam because Srimad Bhagavatam describes regions of India (Mathura, etc.) as part of an Earth-circle, not as part of a globe floating in space. Since Bharata-varsha is described as part of Jambudvipa, and Jambudvipa is described as part of Bhu-mandala (a 500 million yogana circular plane), then the clear conclusion of Vedic cosmology is that we on live on part of a colossal flat-Earth, not an isolated globe floating in space. THE DISTANCE FROM BHARATA-VARSHA TO MOUNT MERU We can measure the distance between Bharata-varsha and Mount Meru in the following way: starting at the southern-most part of Bharata-varsha to the beginning of the great Himavata or Himalaya, the distance is 9,000 yogana (72,000 miles). After crossing Bharata-varsha one comes to the Himavata/Himalaya Mountain which is 2,000 yogana (16,000 miles) wide. After crossing Himalaya one comes to Kimpurusha-varsha which is 9,000 yogana (72,000 miles) across. After crossing Kimpurusha-varsha one comes to Hemakuta Mountain which is 2,000 yogana (16,000 miles) across. After crossing Hemakuta mountain ones comes to Hari-Varsha which is 9,000 yogana (72,000 miles) across. After crossing Hari-varsha one comes to the Nishadha Mountain which is 2,000 yogana (16,000 miles across). After crossing Nishadha Mountain one travels a further 9,000 yogana (72,000 miles) and comes to the foot of Mount Meru. Thus the distance from the southern shore of Bharata-varsha to the foot of Mount Meru is 42,000 yogana (336,000 miles). The distance to the very center of Mount Meru is 50,000 yogana (400,000 miles or half the length of Jambudvipa). 113 The Pandavas made the journey to Mount Meru on several occasions: "…the brothers continued peak of Mount Himavat. over a desert and came gods." (Krishna Dharma Pandavas Retire) their journey, seeing in the distance the cloud-covered Eventually passing that great mountain, they crossed at last to Mount Meru where lay the abode of the dasa, Mahabharata, Part Two, Chapter 35, The The base of Mount Meru is 16,000 yogana (128,000 miles). Mount Meru has a height of 84,000 yogana (672,000 miles) above the ground, and 16,000 yogana (128,000 miles) is below the ground forming the root of the Mountain: "Amidst these divisions, or varshas, is the varsha named Ilavrta, which is situated in the middle of the whorl of the lotus. Within Ilavrta-varsha is Sumeru Mountain, which is made of gold. Sumeru Mountain is like the pericarp of the lotus-like Bhu-mandala planetary system. The mountain's height is the same as the width of Jambudvipa—or, in other words, 100,000 yoganas [800,000 miles]. Of that, 16,000 yoganas [128,000 miles] are within the earth, and therefore the mountain's height above the earth is 84,000 yoganas [672,000 miles]. The mountain's width is 32,000 yoganas [256,000 miles] at its summit and 16,000 yoganas [128,000 miles] at its base." (SB 5.16.7) Despite reading that Mount Meru is made of gold, stands 100,000 yogana (800,000 miles) in height, and is some hundreds of thousands of miles to the north of Bharata-varasha, Sadaputa dasa—who has been one of the major influences in developing ISKCON's Vedic Cosmology— states that 'The Pamir Mountains can be identified with Mount Meru. ' By identifying Mount Meru with an insignificant mountain to the north of India, a proper understanding of the actual Mount Meru gets lost in transit, and life on the so-called Earth globe goes on as before. In such a conception of Mount Meru, we are no closer to understanding our relative position to the center of the cosmos, or to understanding that we (in Bharata-varsha) are part of a greater flat-Earth landscape—not residents of an Earth-globe floating in space. The reason why Sukadeva Goswami states that he will give the rupa (names) and mana (measurements) for the various places on the Bhu-gola (see SB 5.19.4) is so that we will not mistake such places as the Pamir Mountains (which is in Bharata-varsha) with the gigantic Mount Meru (which is in Ilavrtavarsha—the center of Jambudvipa). Sadaputa dasa's mistaken association of Mount Meru with the Pamir Mountains is a clear example of a devotee not following the description provided, and showing no obvious faith in the Earth's landscape as it is described in Srimad Bhagavatam. If devotees actually accepted and believed in Bharata-varsha's location in Jambudvipa (as it described in Srimad Bhagavatam), then they would actively preach against the globe ideology, not support it. The idea widely accepted in ISKCON that Mount Meru, Jambudvipa, and the other islands and oceans of Bhu-mandala are in a higher dimension and thus invisible to our senses is a completely misleading idea that bears all the hallmarks of impersonalism as we have discussed in a previous paper entitled, "The Rest of the Earth is not in Another Dimension". 114 We have pointed out in our previous debate with Danavir Goswami how the same influence of impersonalism pervades his work. For example, when Srimad Bhagavatam's description of the Earth requires Danavir Goswami to present the nine islands of Bharata-varsha as part of Jambudvipa, Danavir Goswami correctly shows Bharata-varsha in context with the rest of Jambudvipa. The image below is a still at 16.07 minutes into Part 1 of Danavir Goswami's Vedic Cosmos video depicting one of Bharata-varsha nine islands as the supposed globe-shaped Earth planet: Danavir Goswami's Earth-globe conditioning is obvious in the presentation of Bharata-khanda as a globe-shaped planet floating on water, rather than as a mass of land surrounded by water as it is described in the Puranas. Moreover, since Danavir Goswami has to find a way to reconcile Bharata-khanda as the familiar globe floating in space, he simply switches from presenting Bharata-khanda as part of Jambudvipa to presenting Bharata-khanda as an Earth-globe floating in space. However, notice that when Bharata-varsha requires to be presented as a globe in space, the rest of Jambudvipa's landscape becomes an obvious problem, and is seen to suddenly vanish from the picture. In the image below, taken from 0.09 minutes into part 2 of Danavir Goswami's Vedic Cosmos documentary, Danavir Goswami magically disappears the Bhumandala depicted minutes earlier in the video, and the Earth is no longer floating in water off the coast of Jambudvipa, but is suddenly back to its old self as a globe floating in dark space: What happened to the 800,000 mile salt-water ocean and the rest of the 800,000 mile island of Jambudvipa as it was depicted in the earlier image? In our previous articles on "Flat-Earth in Mahabharata" and "Flat-Earth in Ramayana" we gave details of the Vedic history which tell of Yudhisthira, for example, governing the entire Jambudvipa only 5,000 years ago. King Yudhisthira ruled the entire Jambudvipa from India, but where is his kingdom in the above presentation of Earth as a globe floating in space? The rest of Jambudvipa has simply been 'impersonalized'. The Earth globe ideology is promoted as the 'reality', and meanwhile the actual reality of the Bhu-mandala which Sukadeva Goswami is attempting to explain, is concealed behind the rhetoric of it being 'too subtle' to see, or in 'another dimension', and thus not capable of being comprehended. I do not by any means wish to suggest that either Sadaputa dasa or Danavir Goswami are impersonalists, but merely to point out how the idea of Earth in modern asura cosmology (which is of non-Vedic origin, and intrinsically impersonal) has influenced Western devotees who seem obviously conditioned by modern scientific and materialistic conceptions of what is real. I hope the description of Bharata-varsha's location on Jambudvipa and distance to Mount Meru is clear to everyone. Let us all please accept the location as it described by Vedic authorities, and not speculate on the basis of the modern assumption that Earth is a globe floating in space. Bharatavarsha is part of the greater Jambudvipa landscape and the movements of the sun, the creation of day and night, seasons, eclipses, etc., have to be explained with reference to this flat-Earth model. We will address Srila Prabhupada's numerous statements that Bharata-varsha is 'this Earth planet' in a later paper called Following Srila Prabhupada in Presenting the Earth at the Temple of Vedic Planetarium. THE INFLUENCE OF IMPERSONALISM AT THE TEMPLE OF VEDIC PLANETARIUM 115 Since this paper specifically addresses the influence of impersonalism in Vedic cosmology we shall mention again the TOVP's depiction of the seven islands and oceans of Bhu-mandala which have been depicted here as voids in circles of space: The islands and oceans of Bhu-mandala are certainly not described in Srimad Bhagavatam as circles voids in space. In the Srimad Bhagavatam, Sukadeva Goswami describes the great mountains, trees, rivers, people, animals, birds, and aquatics that inhabit the islands and oceans of Bhu-mandala. The above image completely 'impersonalizes' the rest of the Earth and basically renders Sukadeva Goswami's words as meaningless—what relevance has a void in space? By presenting the Earth's islands and oceans as voids in space, Sukadeva Goswami's description of these other parts of a greater Earth will not be taken seriously. The above depiction of Bhumandala completely losses the idea conveyed by Sukadeva Goswami in Srimad Bhagavatam, namely that the Earth is a great circular landscape, and that our own area of the Earth (in Bharata-varsha) continues into other areas of the greater Earth-circle. The TOVP will not create a revolution in the world simply by presenting some vague model of the universe which depicts the islands and oceans of Bhu-mandala as voids in circles of space; the thing that is going to cause shock-waves through-out the world is the news that there is no Earth globe, and that our known Earth is part of a greater Earth circle. Further influences of impersonalism can be seen in the absence of any depiction of the universal shell in the models for the TOVP. In order to know where we are in the universe, we have to know not only the center of the universe, but also the end of the universe. The Srimad Bhagavatam describes how all of the features of the universe are contained within a round, or egg-shaped shell (anda-koshah) measuring 500 million yogana (four billion miles) in diameter: andakoso bahir ayam pancasat-koti (SB 3.11.40) The image above shows the globe-shaped universe with the Garbhodaka Ocean filling the bottom half of the universal shell. Ananta-sesha resides on the Garbhodaka Ocean and holds the 116 great Earth circle on His hoods. The image below, by contrast, shows a model of the universal form presented by the Temple of Vedic Planetarium, but there is nothing here to suggest to the viewer that the brahmanda (universal egg) has a ball-like shape, and thus has an end. The conception of having a boundary is important to put across because we must know that we are confined in the world of maya. The universe is not an infinite limitless expanse without 117 borders or form as the asuras propagate. The statements by NASA's 'astrophysicists' that the universe goes on for indefinite billions of light years is simply propaganda. The so-called 'astrophysicists' are nothing more than hacks who are paid to create a false construct of reality. The universe has a definite shape and size because Sri-Krishna creates everything with form (rupa). Srimad Bhagavatam describes the virat-rupa or form of the universe, and that is what is meant to be displayed at the Temple of Vedic Planetarium. The absence of a round shell-like structure means that there is no indication of the Garbhodaka Ocean. Although the Garbhodaka ocean takes up half the space in the universe, it is not even represented here. The Garbhodaka Ocean needs to be depicted along with Ananta-Sesha holding up the Bhu-mandala. These things can all be nicely represented if the right information is given to the artists and construction team. Again the absence of the universal shell, the Garbhodaka Ocean, and Ananta-sesha are all subtle influences of the impersonalist asura ideology. We are not suggesting by any means that the devotees involved in the creation of these models are impersonalists or asuras, but just to point out that they are working from the wrong conception, and hence creating images that are impersonal. All of these features (Ananta-sesha, Garbodaka Ocean, and the shell or covering of the universe) are specifically mentioned by Srila Prabhupada in his letter to S. L. Dhani (see points 9 and 10): "Now here in India, we are planning construction of a very large "Vedic Planetarium" or "Temple of Understanding". Within the planetarium we will construct a huge detailed model of the universe as described in the text of the fifth canto of Srimad Bhagavatam. Within the planetarium the model will be studied by onlookers from different levels by use of escalators. Detailed information will be given on open verandas at the different levels by means of dioramas, charts, films, etc. The planetarium is planned to be approximately 400 feet high, and will have floor space of approximately 90,000 sq, ft.. The model will depict: (from top to bottom) 1) The lower planetary system (pataladi-saptaloka) 2) The earthly planetary system (bhu-mandala with Sumeru in center, seven islands (sapta-dvipa), seven oceans (sapta-samudra), Manosattara Parvata, Lokaloka Parvata, Alokavarsha 3) The Bhuvarloka (Siddha-caranadi-loka) 4) The upper Planetary system (Svarga-loka) beginning from the sun, showing with electrical apparatus both its horizontal and vertical rotations, Rahu, the Moon, the Naksatras, the other seven planets ending with Saturn (Saniscara), the Saptarsis, and Dhruvaloka with Ksirodakasayi Vishnu on the on the Ksirodaka Ocean. 5) Maharloka 6) Janaloka 7) Tapaloka 8) Satyaloka 9) Garbhodakasayi Visnu lying on the Sesanaga on the Garbhodaka Ocean 10) The seven coverings of the universe 118 11) Sivaloka 12) Karanarnavasayi Vishnu lying on the Karana-samudra 13) Impersonal bramajyoti 14) Vaikuntha with the various Visnumurtis 15) Goloka Vrindavana This model (approximately 200 feet high and 100 feet wide will be engineered to suspend from the structure of the dome and rotate according to the real movements of the planets. The plans for this very large project are being taken soley from the references found in fifth canto Srimad Bhagavatam and its authoritative commentaries by important acharyas, along with other Puranas and Sanhitas like Brahma Samhita etc." (Letter to Mr. S. L. Dhani, November 14, 1976) Another important point is that Goloka Vrindvana is described in the Puranas as being outside of the shell of the universe. Goloka is not part of the material world. The above presentation at the TOVP does not indicate Goloka as being outside of a round-shaped universe. I am not a designer, artist, or construction engineer, but surely it cannot be so difficult to construct something around the main features to create the idea of the universal globe. The idea needs to be impressed that we are confined within a measurable area of the spiritual sky. If the above image is what the pilgrims are meant to see when they enter the TOVP building, they will not get the right impression of the universe from this exhibit. Images construct a certain perception of reality. The globe image has created a false construct of reality. We do not want to create another false construct of reality by presenting erroneous or incomplete images of the universal form. By understanding that the universe has a specific edge or boundary, one can also understand that the universe has a center, indeed the Earth is the center of the universe and Mount Meru is the center of the Earth. The distance from the center of the universe to the edge of the universe is just under 2 billion miles [the universe has a total diameter of just under 4 billion miles]. The Bhumandala must be presented as the true shape and size of the Earth with the gigantic Mount Meru in the center forming the axis mundi. The true position and location of our known Earth on the Bhu-mandala and our specific position in relation to Mount Meru must likewise be taught at the TOVP as a factual reality. This is the great revelation of the Puranas, and this is the message that is meant to be preached by ISKCON to the rest of the world via the Temple of Vedic Planetarium. As mentioned, the TOVP will not create a revolution in the world simply by presenting the Earth as a globe in space and the rest of Bhu-mandala in another dimension; the revolution will begin with the news that there is no Earth globe, and that our known area of the Earth continues into a greater Earth circle. When the Bhu-mandala is properly presented at the Temple of Vedic Planetarium, the International Society for Krishna Consciousness will regain its credibility, integrity, and rightful place as a powerful spiritual movement that reveals the truth of both the material and spiritual world. I don't mean to make the naive assertion that the Hare Krishna society will gain credibility with the governments and controlled media of the world, nor (for the moment) with the mass of 119 people who are helplessly indoctrinated and conditioned by such forces, but the Hare Krishna society will certainly regain credibility with Sri-Krishna by taking on the asura-led governments of the world who are keeping the people in a false Earth paradigm. The issue will force the devotees to get real. Regaining credibility with Sri-Krishna is what the devotee community should deem important. Some members of ISKCON may feel that the society's credibility will be entirely destroyed by any denial of the Earth-globe ideology. There are those within the Hare Krishna society who will 'freak-out' at the prospect of a headline such as "Hare Krishna society says the Earth is flat" ever hitting the mainstream news, and of being associated with such an idea. But since Srimad Bhagavatam describes the Earth as circular and flat (a continual horizontal plane), why would a devotee of Sri-Krishna fear the news being declared to the world? If Srimad Bhagavatam is the truth, then why would the truth make one fearful or angry? The truth can only make an untruthful person fearful or angry, because when truth arises, one's falsehood and pretension are revealed. The question of the Earth will certainly separate the wheat from the chaff—at least in regards to those who will or won't accept the Earth as it is described in Srimad Bhagavatam. For the record, let's all be clear what we mean by 'flat-Earth'. Srimad Bhagavatam does not say the flat-Earth is a flat version of the Earth-globe floating in space; Srimad Bhagavatam says there is no Earth globe floating in space to begin with, and that the flat-Earth refers to the colossal Bhu-mandala. Our known area of the Earth is located near the center of this colossal Earth plane—some hundreds of thousands of miles south of Mount Meru. If presented with faith, courage, and intelligence, the Bhu-mandala will certainly put the Hare Krishna movement back in the news again, and provide a platform to completely destroy the asura ideological system that keeps the people spiritually and materially enslaved in a false Earth paradigm. When properly presented, the unveiling of the Bhu-mandala will bring about a new Earth paradigm that will raise the consciousness to such a point that very dramatic and miraculous changes in the world will follow. We shall discuss this point further in the following papers. Since design in the universe points to a designer God, it is imperative on the part of the asuras that knowledge of the design and form of the universe be kept hidden or obscured. Without a doubt there will be enormous influence exerted from asuras both within and without the Hare Krishna movement to prevent Bhu-mandala being presented as it is at the Temple of Vedic Planetarium. Since the description of Bhu-mandala takes up most of the narrative in Vedic cosmological accounts, it obviously has to be represented in some way, and can't be simply left out; however, the asuras will certainly try their damnedest to present Bhu-mandala as vaguely as possible and to mix the Earth-globe ideology into the equation. The last thing that the asuras want to hear preached is the Srimad Bhagavatam's actual message, namely that there is no Earth globe floating in space, and that our known part of the Earth is just a small part of a greater flat-Earth landscape. Already we have seen how the TOVP's representatives have presented Bhu-mandala in such a vague and impersonal way that Srimad Bhagavatam's description of our location on a greater Earth circle has been entirely lost. Since the Vedic Puranas are the only source of spiritual literature that reveal the actual design or form of the universe with its characteristics and measurements, it is essential that Sri-Krishna's devotees counteract the asuric ideology of a center-less, Godless, impersonal universe by accurately and boldly presenting the magnificent 'intelligent design' of Bhu-mandala within the Temple of Vedic Planetarium. The continuation of any Earth globe ideology within the TOVP 120 will simply reinforce the asura cosmology that creates physical and spiritual disorientation and bewilderment for the people of the Earth, making them easy prey for the asuras that gain ascendancy in the age of Kali. By presenting the true location of our world on the flat-Earth plane, one of the major ideological illusions of the asuras will be broken, and a new wave of Krishna consciousness will emerge. The new wave of Krishna consciousness will be characterized by a true sense of friendliness and equality towards all souls (SB 4.11.13). It will not bear the hallmarks of the present "churchianity" that ISKCON has become. Authoritarianism, bureaucracy, elitism, pride, arrogance, untruthfulness, hypocrisy, pretentiousness, etc., are all features of the demoniac system that will soon be displaced. As Lord Varaha once rescued the Earth from the demon Hiranyaksha, the Earth will once again be saved from the asuras by the Golden Avatari in the form of the sankirtan movement. Sri Krishna Chaitanya Mahaprabhu manifested his form of Sri Varaha to Murari Gupta indicating that he would again raise and protect the Earth: "I accepted the incarnation of Varaha to lift the material world out of the waters of nescience. Know Me to be the ultimate goal of the Vedas. The purpose of My present incarnation is to propagate the congregational chanting of the Holy Names of Krishna. In this incarnation, as in other incarnations, I will annihilate the miscreants for the protection and pleasure of My devotees." (Sri Chaitanya Bhagavata, Madhya-kanda, chapter 3) Varaha rescuing the Earth-circle and killing the demon Hiranyaksha 121 In following papers we shall discuss how the present asura system of government will be eventually displaced by Sri Krishna Chaitanya Mahaprabhu's sankirtan movement. The revealing of the true size and shape of the Earth via the Mayapur Temple of Vedic Planetarium will mark the beginning of a new cosmological paradigm that will accompany the next wave of Krishna consciousness. http://www.harekrsna.com/sun/editorials/07-19/editorials17123.htm BY: MAYESVARA DASA,Jul 06, 2019 —IRELAND (SUN) 122 C H A P T E R VIA Sacred Geometry Mandala Art Interdimensional Gateways to the Infinite following Jonathan Quintin: Pythagoras described geometry as visual music. Music is created by applying laws of frequency and sound in certain ways. States of harmonic resonance are produced when frequencies are combined in ways that are in unison with universal law. These same laws can be applied to produce visual harmony. Instead of frequency and sound it is angle and shape that are combined in ways that are in unison with universal law. Geometric shapes can be orchestrated in ways to produce visual symphonies that show the harmonic unification of diversity. Mandalas translate complex mathematical expressions into simple shapes and forms. They show how the basic patterns governing the evolution of life workout the most beautiful results. The word mandala arises from the Sanskrit and means sacred circle. The circle symbolizes the womb of creation; and mandalas are geometric designs that are made through uniform divisions of the circle. The shapes that are formed from these divisions are symbols that embody the mathematical principles found throughout creation. They reveal the inner workings of nature and the inherent order of the universe. Mandalas act as a bridge between the higher and lower realms. They are interdimensional gateways linking human consciousness to the realms of archetypes and the infinite. The relationship of form, movement, space and time is evoked by the mandala. Mandalas offer a way to engage with the inherent harmony and balance of nature. They bring the principles of nature into our field of awareness. For thousands of years, mandala imagery has served as a means to an expanded way of thinking. The images transcend language and the rational mind. They bring about a certain wisdom of universal knowledge and a deeper understanding of human consciousness. Yantras 123 Yantras are a particular field of mandala imagery that visually represent the harmonic tones of mantras (sacred sounds). By directing our thought patterns to these archetypal planes we invite the essence of these levels to penetrate our minds and thinking. An attunement of individual consciousness with the harmony of universal consciousness develops. Sri Yantra - or Yantra of Creation - is the most revered of all the Hindu yantras. There is a mysterious beauty that arises in the way that nine diverse triangles interlink to form a state of perfect balance and harmony, and the complementation of the yin and yang ~ creating 43 smaller triangles that define the Sri Yantra. The Sri Yantra is believed to be the image of the OM mantra, which in the Hindu tradition is understood to be the primordial sound of creation. In his book Rhythms of Vision, Lawrence Blair writes that when the OM is correctly intoned into a tonoscope (a device that transforms sound into a visual representation on a screen), it first produces a circle. As the tone is completed, the circle is filled sequentially with concentric squares, triangles and finally, as the last traces of the "mmm" have died away, the Sri Yantra. 124 Sri Yantra Eternal Fire: Primes the kundalini. For the serious soul intent on burning through karma and the obstructions to one's spiritual growth. The spiritual warrior. Whirling Squares: In sacred geometry the circle symbolizes the spiritual plane and the square symbolizes the material, physical plane. The whirling squares yantra design portrays the union of spirit and matter. It simultaneously expresses the spiritualization of matter and the cloaking of spirit. The Golden Ratio The golden ratio, or it's mathematical term the phi ratio is a mathematical principle that pervades the universe. This principle can be found from molecules (including the dna molecule) to spiral galaxies. It is a universal relationship that exists between two elements of an equation in a natural situation. In sacred geometry the golden ratio can be expressed in numbers, lengths, shapes and forms, which include golden proportioned triangles, rectangles and spirals. The golden ratio is the golden thread that links all levels of creation. If the emotion of love is the pervading principle of the universe, the golden ratio is the mathematical equation of it. 125 The golden ratio is also present in the Sri Yantra. Pentagram star with radiating spiral. Awakening and metamorphisis. New beginnings. A link to the universal heart. A key to realms of higher awareness. Pentagram star rainbow with yin and yang spirals forming universal heart. A nuturing and enriching connection with universal abundance and empathy. The designs are part of a collection of sacred geometric art-work by Jonathan Quintin, P.O. Box 1621 Solana Beach, CA 92075 126 CHAPTER VIB Mandala as a Governing Device in Architecture and Design The role accorded to the mandala within traditional Indian architecture. It is generally held that the mandala-in particular the Vāstupuruṣamaṇḍala, the mandala associated with vāstu (inhabited or built site)-has played a determining role in the genesis of architectural form in India. Within more popular, and less circumspect, writings, this influence is held to be directly formal; the Vāstupuruṣamaṇḍala is traditionally drawn within a square grid, and any sign of an orthogonal planning or a grid-like layout is taken to be a sign that the form in question was based upon the mandala. In investigating the foundations of such a belief, this paper reviews two bodies of literature. The first is modern art-historical scholarship, an examination of which shows that the idea of a morphogenetic mandala emerged only recently, and that it was not so much culled from the traditional writing as constructed afresh by art historians such as Kramrisch. The other body of literature examined is that of the traditional writings on architecture, many of which are cited as key sources of evidence for this idea. Here it is argued that there is almost no direct evidence for the use of mandalas in laying out complexes or designing buildings, and that such ideas of the use of mandalas rest on several assumptions that must themselves be questioned.1 What makes a single number so interesting that ancient Greeks, Renaissance artists, a 17th century astronomer and a 21st century novelist all would write about it? It's a number that goes by many names. This “golden” number, 1.61803399, represented by the Greek letter Phi, is known as the Golden Ratio, Golden Number, Golden Proportion, Golden Mean, Golden Section, Divine Proportion and Divine Section. It was written about by Euclid in “Elements” around 300 B.C., by Luca Pacioli, a contemporary of Leonardo Da Vinci, in "De Divina Proportione" in 1509, by Johannes Kepler around 1600 and by Dan Brown in 2003 in his best selling novel, “The Da Vinci Code.” With the movie release of the “The Da Vinci Code”, the quest to know Phi was brought even more into the mainstream of pop culture. The allure of “The Da Vinci Code” was that it creatively integrated fiction with both fact and myth from art, history, theology and mathematics, leaving the reader never really knowing what was truth and …More on Math, Myth and Truth Golden Ratio Myth, Fact and Misunderstanding: The missing evidence 127 There are many misconceptions and misrepresentations about the golden ratio. Some look too fervently for patterns and say it exists where it really doesn't. Some whose goal is to debunk golden ratio myth say it doesn't exist where it really does, missing the obvious and often not stating what proportions appear instead. People on both sides often just repeat what they've heard rather than personally performing the analysis required to support their conclusions. Intelligence and education are not always factors in getting to the truth, as even Ph.D.'s in mathematics sometimes get it wrong. As the author of this site since 1997, I've changed my views and the information on this site as well. Let's look at some of the common points of confusion and debate, covering beauty, the Parthenon, the UN Secretariat Building, the Great Pyramid, Nautilus shell, use by famous artists (Da Vinci, Botticelli, Seurat, etc.) and other topics. I'll provide objective answers, with additional evidence in the .2 https://www.goldennumber.net/ The Parthenon and the Golden Ratio: Myth or Misinformation? The application of the golden ratio by the designers of the Parthenon is a common point of confusion and dissension. Multiple seemingly credible sources state that the golden ratio was not used in the design of the Parthenon. Most of these, however, trace back to a single very inaccurate and incomplete article as their source. Once this information was published by a few recognized authorities, more people yet then quoted them as a "reputable" source, and the misinformation grew. No disrespect is intended for those who have unknowingly created or passed along inaccurate or incomplete information. The objective here is to investigate the sources, examine the evidence, present the facts, and allow readers to have all information needed to come to their own evidence-based conclusions. What the expert sources say As of this writing in August 2020, Wikipedia's article on the Parthenon says this: Some studies of the Acropolis, including of the Parthenon and its façade, have …More on this article 128 Donald Duck visits the Parthenon in “Mathmagic Land” In 1959, Walt Disney produced a 27-minute educational film called "Donald in Mathmagic Land." This memorable film was nominated for an Academy Award, and has been seen by countless students over the years. It explores the impact of mathematics in a variety of topics, including art, architecture, gaming, music, nature and the human body. Donald discovers the Golden Ratio At about 9 minutes into the film, Donald Duck visits the Parthenon of ancient Greece. Here, he is shown in a 15 second segment that its design embodies a number of golden rectangles. In the next 5 minutes, he learns about other appearances and applications of the golden ratio. Click below to watch on YouTube: As popular as the film was in mathematics classes, it seems that some students who went on to earn their PhDs in Mathematics may have missed it, or perhaps they just disagree. On Wikipedia, for instance, they're quoted saying things like "the entire story about the Greeks and golden ratio seems to be without “The Golden Ratio” book – Author interview with Gary B. Meisner on New Books in Architecture Gary B. Meisner, author of the website GoldenNumber.net and developer of PhiMatrix software, did an interview on the New Books Network (NBN) for his 2018 book, “The Golden Ratio – The Divine Beauty of Mathematics.”To listen to the podcast, click on the image above or the links below: Apple iTunes Podcast New Books Network Podcast The interview was conducted by Tricia Keffer, as host for NBN's Architecture Podcast. The podcast aired on November 23, 2019. Coincidentally, this is celebrated by some as Fibonacci Day as the date 11/23 corresponds to the first digits in the Fibonacci sequence of 1, 1, 2, 3. (Some references start with zero). NBN is in 129 the top 2% of podcast downloads. Questions that Tricia posed in the interview included: What is the Golden Ratio, aka Phi, and why is it important to understand and study? Can you talk about some examples of divine ratio in Architecture? Can you talk about how paintings are designed? Seurat and Monet, Da Vinci? Where else can we find divine . APPLICATIONS FOR BETTER ART, DESIGN AND COMPOSITION Carwow, best-looking beautiful cars and the golden ratio. In November 2019, Samantha James of Carwow published a very interesting article titled "Bestlooking cars of the last decade." What made it more interesting yet is that their review applied golden ratio analysis techniques used for human faces to the front end view of automobiles. Headlights became eyes. Emblems became noses. Grills became mouths. Makes good sense, right? I've been showing the golden ratio in human faces since the late 1990s. London plastic surgeon Dr. Julian Silva is recognized for giving a golden ratio score of famous celebrity faces, as shown below left. Carwow used a very similar approach, as shown on the right: Carwow is UK company that helps consumers to make choosing and buying their perfect car easy and enjoyable. Stefanie Finch of their PR agency, Propellernet.co.uk, contacted me on behalf of Carwow to ask if I'd be interested in covering their story on this site. I of course said "YES!" She and the Carwow team were kind enough to provide me with the Golden Ratio, Phi and Fibonacci Commemorative Postage Stamps 130 Governments around the world commemorate the Golden Ratio, Phi and Fibonacci sequence. Stamp collecting is one of the world's most popular educational hobbies, and is enjoyed by people of all ages and nationalities. The most popular stamp ever is US 1993 Elvis stamp, with over 124 million collected. So, the Golden Ratio and Fibonacci sequence may not compete with Elvis in popularity anytime soon, but they too have been recognized with commemorative stamps issued by governments around the world. In addition to adding some "phi" to "philately," they offer some interesting expressions of golden ratio concepts, as well as its application in design. Liechtenstein 2013 Commemorative Fibonacci Sequence and Phi Stamp set: The Principality of Liechtenstein, a landlocked micro-state bordered by Switzerland and Austria, issued a set of three stamps in 2013 that illustrate the Fibonacci sequence and its relationship to the golden ratio. Note that interesting presentation of concepts: The first. The Golden Ratio in Character Design, Cartoons and Caricatures The golden ratio is Stephen Silver's secret weapon of character design. Stephen Silver is a character designer and art teacher who has designed characters for Disney Television Animation, Sony Feature Animation and Nickelodeon Animation. In this role he has designed the style of the shows such as "Kim Possible", Kevin Smith's "Clerks" the animated series, "Danny Phantom" and many others. He is also the author and artist of seven books on the art of character design, caricature, sketching and life drawing. In addition to his freelance work and lectures, he owns an art school called Silver Drawing Academy in Simi Valley, CA. He has two online character design courses online at www.schoolism.com. Those are some great credentials. And what does he say is his "secret weapon" for character design? Yes, it's the golden ratio. The golden ratio is flawless because it gives the "small, medium and large" that design is built upon. He describes the golden ratio is just perfect, flawless, 131 Golden ratios in Great Pyramid of Giza site topography Overview: Analysis of the site of the Great Pyramid of Giza reveals that the positions and relative sizes of the pyramids may be based on the golden ratio. Evidence of the Golden Ratio in the Great Pyramid complex. There are many pyramid theories and questions as to who built the pyramids in ancient Egypt. It's commonly known though in Egyptology that the proportions of the Great Pyramid of Egypt are within inches of a golden ratio-based pyramid. This is discussed in detail in my article Phi, Pi and the Great Pyramid. Some say, however, that this single piece of evidence is just a simple coincidence. The primary rationale given to deny this claim is that there is no written historical evidence that the ancient Egyptians had any knowledge of the golden ratio. That's a reasonable objection, but what if the evidence showed that the application of the golden ratio at Giza was not limited to the Great Pyramid? That evidence is presented in this article. The golden ratio connection …More on Art and Design Michelangelo and the Art of the Golden Ratio in Design and Composition New study unveils Michelangelo's extensive use of the golden ratio in the Sistine Chapel. In 2013, I reported that Michelangelo used the golden ratio in his painting "The Creation of Adam" in the Sistine Chapel. This Divine Proportion appears at the point at which Adam's finger is touched by the finger of God, as God breathes life into Adam. In July 2015, Clinical Anatomy published an article by a team from Brazil titled "More than a neuroanatomical representation in The Creation of Adam by Michelangelo Buonarroti, a representation of the Golden Ratio." (PDF here.) The article claimed, incorrectly, that there was no previous association of Michelangelo's 132 works with the golden ratio. It identified the very same golden ratio touch point as the one reported here two years earlier. It also claimed, however, a new finding. It claimed that the fingers touched at the golden ratio point of the length of all the paintings on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel. My analysis of this claim …More on Art and Design Google Logo and the Golden Ratio in Design New Google logo design finds visual harmony using the Golden Ratio. Google's design follows in the footsteps of Leonardo da Vinci and other masters When Luca Pacioli published "The Divine Proportion" in 1509 (with illustrations by Leonardo da Vinci), he described his work on this "golden ratio" of 1.618 as a "very delicate, subtle and admirable teaching" that would "delight in diverse questions touching on a very secret science." Johannes Kepler later called it "a precious jewel" of geometry. The designers at Google have apparently found its value too, as we see when we study and appreciate the underlying design of Google's new logo, iconic G, the microphone icon and even the layout of the Google search page. This is the kind of thoughtful design work that follows in the footsteps of Leonardo, Michelangelo, Raphael, Botticelli, Seurat, Le Corbusier and other masters of design, and that would make Pacioli proud. Here's a version without the arrows for a clearer. Raphael and the Golden Ratio in Renaissance Art Raphael was one of three Master artists of the Renaissance Raffaello Sanzio da Urbino, known as Raphael, was an Italian painter and architect of the High Renaissance and lived from 1483 to 1520. He is recognized as one of the three great masters of that period, accompanied by Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci. His work is admired for its form, composition, and visual achievement of the ideal of human grandeur. One of his most famous works is The School of 133 Athens, a fresco in the Apostolic Palace in the Vatican. It captures the spirit of the Renaissance, and is revered as his masterpiece. It was painted between 1509 and 1511. The School of Athens: Inspired by a union of art and mathematics It was also in 1509 that Luca Pacioli published the book De Divina Proportione (The Divine Proportion), with illustrations by Leonardo da Vinci. MonaLisa.org reports that The School of Athens "incorporates many of the mathematical theories of Luca and Leonardo. Leonardo Da Vinci, Salvator Mundi and the Divine Proportion See the YouTube video "Leonardo da Vinci's "Salvator Mundi" and the Divine Proportion." 2017 Update - Salvator Mundi, "the last Leonardo" sells for a record-breaking $450,312,500, decimating the prior world record for the most expensive work of art sold at auction. See Christie's article and learn below some of what makes this piece so incredible and valuable. In 2011, the discovery of a lost painting by Leonardo da Vinci was announced to the world. This painting, Salvator Mundi, had been in the art collection of King Charles I of England in 1649, was auctioned in 1763 and then lost for many years. Its recovery was led by Robert Simon, an art historian and private art dealer, and it was restored by Dianne Dwyer Modestini. Many unique qualities of this painting led experts to confirm that it is indeed an original work of Leonardo da Vinci, one of only fifteen now in existence. Da Vinci and the Golden Ratio in Art Composition. A lesson for all artists and designers. 134 Phi and Football Strategy’s Golden Ratio Rule Using the Golden Ratio to win at football. The golden ratio is found in many places, but here's one you might not have expected: It can be found in football gaming strategy when making the "point after touchdown" decision as to whether to kick for 1 extra point or go for a 2 point conversion. This applies to the situation when a team is trailing by 14 points late in a football game, and then scores a touchdown to be trailing the other team by 8 points. So what should you do: Kick for 1 point after touchdown (PAT) or go for a 2 point conversion? Most football teams kick the PAT in this situation, but in fact it is (almost) always better to go for 2. Stock Market Analysis, Phi and the Fibonacci Sequence Human expectations occur in a ratio that approaches Phi. Changes in stock prices largely reflect human opinions, valuations and expectations. A study by mathematical psychologist Vladimir Lefebvre demonstrated that humans exhibit positive and negative evaluations of the opinions they hold in a ratio that approaches phi, with 61.8% positive and 38.2% negative. Phi and Fibonacci numbers are used to predict stocks Phi (1.618), the Golden Mean and the numbers of the Fibonacci series (0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, ...) have been used with great success to analyze and predict stock market moves, known as retracements. Forbes ASAP featured a story on the work of scientist Stephen Wolfram in cellular WHAT DETERMINES OUR PERCEPTIONS OF BEAUTY? Meisner Beauty Guide for Golden Ratio Facial Analysis Facial golden ratios are simple, clear and abundant. Since my first investigation of human facial proportions in 1997, it seemed clear that the most important features that define a human face are the simplest and most obvious: An oval head and the positions and dimensions of the eyes and 135 the mouth. As evidence, consider the "smiley face." It expresses a variety of facial expressions with nothing more than a circular head, two eyes and a mouth line: We immediately recognize this icon as a face, but it clearly does not represent the proportions of a human face. Let's instead express these same facial markers with normal human proportions, and with the simplest possible representation. This requires a vertical oval, two lines for the eyes and a line for the mouth. The resulting face will look something more like this: This simple facial configuration is easily mapped to very natural human proportions with the use of four simple golden ratio proportions: The next important human Facial Analysis and the Marquardt Beauty Mask A template for human beauty is found in phi, the pentagon and dodecagon Dr. Stephen R. Marquardt is the world's most recognized expert on facial analysis and beauty. He has appeared in many documentaries and been referenced in countless articles, including the Beauty episode of BBC's 2001 documentary "The Face." Dr. Marquardt, also CEO of Marquardt Aesthetic Imaging, has studied human beauty for decades in his practice of oral and maxillofacial surgery, and now continues his studies full time. His work includes cross-cultural surveys on beauty, in which he found that all groups had the same perceptions of facial beauty. He also analyzed the human face from ancient times to the modern day. Through his research, he discovered that beauty is not only related to phi, but can be defined for both genders and for all races, cultures and eras with the beauty mask which he developed and patented. This mask uses the pentagon and decagon as its foundation. Both of these geometric shapes embody. The Human Face and the Golden Ratio 136 The human face is based on Phi and Golden Ratio proportions. The human face abounds with examples of the Golden Ratio, also known as the Golden Section or Divine Proportion. We'll use a succession of golden ratios to create a golden ruler to understand design in the face: The head forms a golden rectangle with the eyes at its midpoint. The mouth and nose are each placed at golden sections of the distance between the eyes and the bottom of the chin. The beauty unfolds as you look further. Even when viewed from the side, the human head illustrates the Divine Proportion.The first golden section (blue) from the front of the head defines the position of the ear opening. The successive golden sections define the neck (yellow), the back of the eye (green) and the front of the eye and back of the nose and mouth (magenta). The dimensions of the face from top to bottom also exhibit the Divine Proportion, in the positions of the eye brow (blue), nose (yellow) and mouth . Beauty, the perfect face and the Golden Ratio, featuring Florence Colgate What determines the beauty of a perfect face? We may never answer the question "how many angels can dance on the point of a needle," but how about this one: "How many Divine proportions ratios are there in the face of an angel?" The YouTube video and information in this article may give some insight into the answer, with details on the contest, a recap of explanations of beauty that fall short and new insights and a video illustrating the impact of the golden ratio in beauty. The British contest in 2012 to find "Britain's Perfect Face" draws over 8,000 entries, and finds Florence Colgate as the winner British company Lorraine Cosmetics sponsored a contest in 2012 to find “Britain’s Perfect Face.” Billed as the "Naked Competition," and seeking the most perfect makeup-free face, contestants were required to have completely natural faces, without make-up, botox or cosmetic surgery. The competition drew entries from 8,045 contestants, who were initially screened by a panel that included . 137 The Golden Ratio, Beauty and Design: It’s time to ‘face’ the facts. Another attempt to debunk the Golden Ratio is fundamentally wrong. In October 2015, Dr. Keith Devlin was interviewed by science writer Julia Calderone in an article titled "The one formula that's supposed to 'prove beauty' is fundamentally wrong." Professor Devlin is a accomplished Ph.D. in mathematics at Stanford University and NPR's Math Guy. His comments have reach and impact, but his views on the golden ratio are not always accurate, complete, consistent, objective or supported by evidence. Earlier in 2015, he was featured by a leading online design magazine in an article titled "The Golden Ratio: Design’s Biggest Myth – The Golden Ratio is Total Nonsense in Design. Here’s Why." The article drew hundreds of negative responses (which were later censored and deleted by the magazine) because of its inaccuracies and misrepresentations. A highly regarded NYC designer, Darrin Crescenzi, described the article as "dangerous" and "under-informed nonsense,". Best practice techniques for facial and beauty analysis. Numerous studies have been done to investigate the existence and/or relationship of golden ratio proportions in the human face. Surprising few get it right, so the results of many of these studies are inaccurate and misleading. There are four important keys to selecting photographs that are suitable for facial measurements. Next, it is critical to understand and measure the facial markers that commonly reflect golden ratio proportions. In this article I'll cover these key points, the common mistakes made and the best practices to yield results that are both accurate and meaningful. 1. Orientation of the head, and eliminating the impacts of perspective. As simple as it sounds, one of the most important aspects of any image used for facial analysis is that the subject be looking directly into the camera. The front of the face must be parallel to the lens of the camera. WHAT IS PHI?---What is Phi? (The Basics of the Golden Ratio) Phi for "Neo-Phi-tes:" Phi ( Φ = 1.618033988749895... ), most often pronounced fi like "fly," is simply an irrational number like pi ( p = 3.14159265358979... ), but one with many unusual mathematical properties. Unlike pi, which is a transcendental number, phi is the solution to a quadratic equation. Phi is the basis for the Golden Ratio, Section or Mean The ratio, or proportion, determined by Phi (1.618 ...) was known to the Greeks as the "dividing a line in the extreme and mean ratio" and to Renaissance artists as the "Divine Proportion" It is also called the Golden Section, Golden Ratio and the Golden Mean. Phi, like Pi, is a ratio defined by a geometric construction Just as pi (p) is the ratio of the circumference of a circle to its diameter, phi () is simply the ratio of the line segments that result when a line is divided in one very special and unique way. Divide a line so that: the ratio of the length of the entire line (A) to the length of larger line . What is the Fibonacci Sequence (aka Fibonacci Series)? 138 Leonardo Fibonacci discovered the sequence which converges on phi. In the 1202 AD, Leonardo Fibonacci wrote in his book "Liber Abaci" of a simple numerical sequence that is the foundation for an incredible mathematical relationship behind phi. This sequence was known as early as the 6th century AD by Indian mathematicians, but it was Fibonacci who introduced it to the west after his travels throughout the Mediterranean world and North Africa. He is also known as Leonardo Bonacci, as his name is derived in Italian from words meaning "son of (the) Bonacci". Starting with 0 and 1, each new number in the sequence is simply the sum of the two before it. 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144, 233, 377 . . . This sequence is shown in the right margin of a page in Liber Abaci, where a copy of the book is held by the Biblioteca Nazionale di Firenze. Click to enlarge. The relationship of the Fibonacci sequence to the golden ratio is this: The ratio of each successive pair of … More on Phi APPEARANCES IN LIFE AND NATURE Is the Nautilus shell spiral a golden spiral? Nautilus shell spirals may have phi proportions, but not as you may have heard. The Nautilus shell if often associated with the golden ratio. There is a fair amount of confusion, misinformation and controversy though over whether the graceful spiral curve of the nautilus shell is based on this golden proportion. Some say yes, but offer no proof at all. Some show examples of spirals, but incorrectly assume that every equi-angular spiral in nature is a golden spiral. Several university math professors say no, but they only compared the nautilus spiral to the spiral created from a golden rectangle. Another university professor says no, but only measured height and width of the entire shell. Let's look at this objectively and solve this mystery and debate. The Golden Spiral constructed from a Golden Rectangle is NOT a Nautilus Spiral. A traditional Golden Spiral is formed by the nesting of Golden Rectangles with a Golden Rectangle. This resulting Golden Spiral is often associated with … More on Nature 139 APPEARANCES IN THE COSMOS Stars that Pulsate to the Golden Ratio A research article called "Strange Nonchaotic Stars" published at the American Physical Society reported the discovery of a class of white-blue variable stars that pulsate in a fractal pattern at frequencies close to the golden ratio. Download the paper in PDF format here: strangenonchaotic-stars-pulsate-golden-ratio-1501.01747v2 Pulsations described as "strange nonchaotic behavior." Phi and the Solar System The dimensions of the Earth and Moon are in Phi relationship, forming a Triangle based on 1.618. The illustration shows the relative sizes of the Earth and the Moon to scale. Draw a radius of the Earth (1). Draw a line from the center point of the Earth to the center point of the Moon (square root of Phi). Draw a line to connect the two lines to form a Golden Triangle (Phi). Using dimensions from Wikipedia and geometry's classic Pythagorean 140 UNIQUE PROPERTIES IN GEOMETRY Phi and Geometry Phi (Φ) was described by Johannes Kepler as one of the "two great treasures of geometry." (The other is the Theorem of Pythagoras.) Phi appears in many basic geometric constructions. 3 lines: Take 3 equal lines. Lay the 2nd line against the midpoint of the 1st. Lay the 3rd line against the midpoint of the 2nd. The ratio of AG to AB is Phi, the Golden Ratio. (Contributed by Jo Niemeyer) 3 sides: Triangle Insert an equilateral triangle inside a circle, add a line at the midpoint of the two sides and extend that line to the circle. The ratio of AG to AB is Phi. 4 sides: Square Insert a square inside a semi-circle. The ratio of AG to AB is Phi. 5 sides: Pentagon Insert a pentagon inside a circle. Connect three of the five points to cut one line into three sections. The ratio of AG to AB is Phi. When the basic phi relationships are used to create a right triangle, it forms the dimensions of the great pyramids of Egypt, with the geometry shown below creating an angle of 51.83 Pi, Phi and Fibonacci Phi (Φ) and pi (Π) and Fibonacci numbers can be related in several ways: The Pi-Phi Product and its derivation through limits The product of phi and pi, 1.618033988... X 3.141592654..., or 5.083203692, is found in golden geometries: Golden Circle Golden Ellipse Circumference = p * Φ Area = p * Φ Ed Oberg and Jay A. Johnson have developed a unique expression for the pi-phi product (pΦ) as a function of the number 2 and an expression they call "The Biwabik Sum,"a function of phi, the set of all odd numbers and the set of all Fibonacci numbers, as follows: p Phi = 2² {1 + [ (2/3) / (F1+F2 Phi) + (1/5) / (F3+F4 Phi) (1/7) / (F5+F6 Phi) ] - [ (2/9) / (F7+F8 Phi) + (1/11) / (F9+F10 Phi) - (1/13) / (F11+F12 Phi) ] + [ (2/15) / (F13+F14 Phi) + (1/17) / (F15+F16 Phi) - (1/19) / (F17+F18 Phi) ] - … } = 5.083203692.... This relationship was derived after Oberg noticed an interesting relationship between pi and phi while contemplating geometric ratios. 141 Mathematics of Phi, 1.618, the Golden Number Phi, Φ, 1.618…, has two properties that make it unique among all numbers. If you square Phi, you get a number exactly 1 greater than itself: 2.618…, or Φ² = Φ + 1. If you divide Phi into 1 to get its reciprocal, you get a number exactly 1 less than itself: 0.618…, or 1 / Φ = Φ - 1. These relationships are derived from the dividing a line at its golden section point, the point at which the ratio of the line (A) to the larger section (B) is the same as the ratio of the larger section (B) to the smaller section (C). This relationship is expressed mathematically as: A = B + C, and A / B = B / C. Solving for A, which on both sides give us this: B + C = B²/C Let's say that C is 1 so we can determine the relative dimensions of the line segments. Now we simply have this: B + 1 = B² This can be rearranged as: B² - B - 1 = 0 Note the various ways that this equation can be rearranged to express the relationship of the line segments, and also Phi's unique Phi Mandalas,May 13, 2012 by Gary Meisner Phi-based geometric shapes produce interesting mandala designs. A mandala is a geometric design, often symbolic of the universe and used in Eastern religions as an aid to meditation.Phi-based geometric shapes can be used to create some interesting phi mandalas, embodying the phi proportion found throughout creation and iterating into the infinitely large and the infinitely small, much as the universe itself.Phi Corbett contributed the mandala design below (inspired by Bruce Rawles’ Sacred Geometry Page) which uses the pentagram, also based on phi, to collapse into an infinite series of smaller pentagrams. 142 EXAMPLE : The Durga Yantra: It is a well known yantra, and expresses phi using triangles. (see http://bridgetlyonsyoga.files.wordpress.com/2011/09/durga_yantrasm.jpg or just image search durga yantra) The three smallest triangles, usually yellow, are “1” to the “phi” of the next size up (there are six of these, usually a pinkish color). These six are “1” to the “phi” of the next size up, the central triangle. This central triangle is “1” to the “phi” of the next size up, the three triangles that intersect to form the central triangle. (The largest triangle is 2x the size of the central triangle, so not exactly “phi” to anything there. If the circle’s radius is 1, each side of the central triangle is √3/2, I’m sure you can phi-gure the rest out yourself.) Phi-tastic! Many crop circles remind me of Phi. The word “mandala” has, by this time, made the transition from its literal roots in eastern religion, to become a more generalized English term for any complex pattern, which may not even be religious. I arrived at this section after trying to find a post which I had read some time ago,It requested information on how Phi may be used in the geometry of the Christian cross. I’m sure that there are several ways that that may be accomplished. However, a few months before reading that post, and even before finding this site, I had constructed a satisfactory arrangement. It’s fairly simple, and amenable to verbal description.First, you construct two contiguous golden rectangles in portrait position, like quotation marks. Then you construct another identical pair, which overlap the bottom of the first pair, such that the area of overlap is a square. The proportionate cross is formed by the vertical mid-line intersected by the top of the square. This construction provides two golden rectangles (landscape) above the cross-bar, and two (portrait) below.The standard construction method for golden rectangles is used throughout. 143 144 145 146 147 148 Mathematics of Phi, 1.618, the Golden Number by Gary Meisner Phi, Φ, 1.618…, has two properties that make it unique among all numbers. 1. If you square Phi, you get a number exactly 1 greater than itself: 2.618…, or 2. Φ² = Φ + 1. 3. If you divide Phi into 1 to get its reciprocal, you get a number exactly 1 less than itself: 0.618…, or 1 / Φ = Φ – 1. These relationships are derived from the dividing a line at its golden section point, the point at which the ratio of the line (A) to the larger section (B) is the same as the ratio of the larger section (B) to the smaller section (C). This relationship is expressed mathematically as: A = B + C, and A / B = B / C. Solving for A, which on both sides give us this: B + C = B²/C Let’s say that C is 1 so we can determine the relative dimensions of the line segments. Now we simply have this: B + 1 = B² This can be rearranged as: B² – B – 1 = 0 Note the various ways that this equation can be rearranged to express the relationship of the line segments, and also Phi’s unique properties: B2 = B + 1 1/B=B–1 B2 – B1 – B0 = 0 Note: Bx means n raised to the x power. Some browsers may not display exponents as superscripts or raised characters. Now we have a formula that can be solved using the Quadratic formula. This formula allows you to solve a quadratic equation for an unknown x, with a, b, and c as constants. A quadratic equation has this form: ax² + bx + c = 0 The solution to this is found with the quadratic formula: So our formula for the golden ratio above (B2 – B1 – B0 = 0) can be expressed as this: 1a2 – 1b1 – 1c = 0 The solution to this equation using the quadratic formula is (1 plus or minus the square root of 5) divided by 2: ( 1 + √5 ) / 2 = 1.6180339… = Φ 149 ( 1 – √5 ) / 2 = -0.6180339… = -Φ The reciprocal of Phi (denoted with an upper case P), is known often as by phi (spelled with a lower case p). Phi, curiously, can also be expressed all in fives as: 5 ^ .5 * .5 + .5 = Φ This provides a great, simple way to compute phi on a calculator or spreadsheet! Determining the nth number of the Fibonacci series You can use phi to compute the nth number in the Fibonacci series (fn): fn = Φ n / 5½ As an example, the 40th number in the Fibonacci series is 102,334,155, which can be computed as: f40 = Φ 40 / 5½ = 102,334,155 This method actually provides an estimate which always rounds to the correct Fibonacci number. You can compute any number of the Fibonacci series (fn) exactly with a little more work: fn = [ Φ n – (1-Φ)n ] / √5 Note: √5 can be expressed as 2Φ-1 to use Φ for all the terms above. Determining Phi with Trigonometry and Limits Phi can be related to Pi through trigonometric functions: Phi can be related to e, the base of natural logs, through the inverse hyperbolic sine function: Φ = e ^ asinh(.5) It can be expressed as a limit: or Other unusual phi relationships There are many unusual relationships in the Fibonacci series. For example, for any three numbers in the series Φ(n-1), Φ(n) and Φ(n+1), the following relationship exists: Φ(n-1) * Φ(n+1) = Φ(n)2 – (-1)n ( e.g., 3*8 = 52-1 or 5*13=82+1 ) Here’s another: 150 Every nth Fibonacci number is a multiple of Phi(n), where Phi(n) is the nth number of the Fibonacci sequence. Given 0, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144, 233, 377, 610, 987, 1597, 2584, 4181, 6765 (Every 4th number, e.g., 3, 21, 144 and 987, are all multiples of Phi(4), which is 3) (Every 5th number, e.g., 5, 55, 610, and 6765, are all multiples of Phi(5), which is 5) And another: The first perfect square in the Fibonacci series, 144, is number 12 in the series and its square root is 12! 0, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144 or, if not starting with 0: 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144 We should develop a logical system based on powers of phi to define itself. if you start with φ^-∞ for zero state. Next φ^-2 would be useful to add to φ and φ^2 to get 2 and 3. With zero power you have 1 together with 0,2,3 whole numbers represented in endless possible combinations of powers of φ. Each combination could represent a different set of logic. I am only barely grasping what kind of operations would be possible in virtual machine code! With a base of φ…Your logical systems resembles that of Godel on the primes for p>p, where the series is 2,3,5,7 taken in powers representing characters, such that p=0,>=1. The 2^0 * 3^1 * 5^0 = 1*3*1 = 3, which is a prime representing p>p. To do the same on the Fibonacci series 0,1,1,2 …. 0^1 * 1^1 *1^0 = 0*1*1= 0 If you divide phi into 1, you get a number exactly 1 less than phi: 0.61804…:1 / Phi = Phi – 1 = 0.3 + 1/pi = 1.61804 – 1 = 0.3 + 0.318.. 1/Phi – 1/pi = 0.3 For example 34/55 = 0.6181818181818182…, 34 and 35 are Fibonacci numbers; 1/pi = 7/22 = 0.3181818181818182, which difference is 0.3; and 34/55 – 7/22 = 1/11 *(34/5 -7/2) = 1/11 * (68 – 35)/10 = 33/11 * 1/10 = 0.3 Even though I agree that recursion is not the right way to find a Fibonacci number, I have to say using it to teach recursion is a good idea. Because its simple. Easy to get the concept thru this example.The most common real world application for recursion is to walk thru a tree structure. That example will be complicated. Also you will have to have an understanding of trees and stuff before hand.Then again, there may be a simple, but real world example that I’m not yet aware of. If someone knows of one, let me know. 1 Vesica Pisces on Axis 1 = 1 1 Vesica Pisces on Axis 2 = Square Root of 5 2 Vesica Pisces on Axis 3 = 2 Axis 1 is measured by the radius of the center to the circumference of a circle Axis 2 is measured by the center to center of two flower of life circles. Axis 3 is measured by the point where axis 1 penetrates the circular form and to the center of the adjacent circle (along axis 2) irst of all i would like to thank and appreciate you for this tremendous work and the content you have used in this site. but can you please tell me the logic behind the series given below?…………here is the series 2 3 8 21 55 The series you list is part of the Fibonacci series, in which each number is the sum of the two before it. In the case of your particular series the logic appears to be that you ignore every other result, i.e., the 5, 13 and 34. Another way of getting to the same result is to use this logic: 2+3+8*2=21 and 3+8+21*2=55 so the next number in the series should be 8+21+55*2=139. 151 I believe, though I could be wrong, that you made a mistake in the sequence 3+8+21*2=55 therefore 3 + 8 + (21 x 2) = 11 + 42 = 53 not 55 this sequence that guarav has listed includes all the numbers not just the last three. so you need to include the 2 of the first number to get 55 so the next number would be 2 + 3 + 8 +21 + 2(55) = 144 2 + 3 + 8 + 21 + 55 + 2(144) = 377 2 + 3 + 8 + 21 + 55 + 2(377) = 843 oops the last line should include 144 2 + 3 + 8 + 21 + 55 + 144 + 2(377) = 987 How do you know all of this math (golden number)? I’m in the 8 grade i want to learn this. How do I get help?I can help! I am also in the 8th grade, and have developed an unhealthy obsession with this lovely number.Phi is commonly expressed as a ratio; if you imagine that the longer portion of the following line is 1.618, or Phi, and the shorter section is one (following the ratio 1.618/1), then you get a visual representation of the golden ratio: |————-|——–|ab a/b = a+b/a This might be a little confusing, but bear with me! The Fibonacci Sequence is the crazy relative of Phi. It starts with the numbers 1 and 1 and then progresses as follows: 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13… Now for the pattern! Adding 1 + 1 = 2, right? Now, if you add 1 + 2, you get 3. 2 + 3 = 5. To find a number of the sequence, you add the two previous numbers. So, to find the next one of my example sequence, you would add 8 and 13 to get 21. Which will then get you to 13 + 21 = 34. If you quickly google Fibonacci Sequence, you will find a great visual depiction of this series. To give another example of Phi in use: a golden rectangle, which can be found in many architectural projects, has a height of 1 and a length of 1.618. The human face has at least 30 different representations of the golden ratio in it. Sunflower seeds grow in a Fibonacci Spiral pattern from the center of the flower. The examples are endless! If you have any more questions (or maybe want some real pictures, as it’s a little hard to grasp the concept with no visual aid.I want to know what is the englis equivalent word of greek word ‘phi’ Phi is a letter of the Greek alphabet, so its closest English equivalent is the letter F. Phi was chosen to represent the golden ratio to recognize the Greek sculptor Phidias, who lived from about 480 – 430 BC. He is regarded as one of the greatest sculptors of classical Greece. His statue of Zeus at Olympia was one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. He also designed the statues of the goddess Athena on the Athenian Acropolis. Mark Barr, a mathematician, first used the Greek letter phi (Φ) to designate the golden ratio. See the Golden Ratio History page for more.I learned how the square root of 1 plus the square root of 1 plus square root of 1… etc. if you let x=squareroot(1+squareroot(1+squareroot(1…))) then square both sides you get x^2 = 1 + squareroot(1+squareroot(1+square root(1….))) then substitute x in for the squareroot(1+…) x^2=1+x then subtract both sides by (1+x) to get x^2-x-1 = 0 Then use the quadratic formula 152 x=(1 +/- squareroot((-1)^2 – 2*(1)*(-1)))/(2*1) Clean everything up to get: x= (1 +/- squareroot(5))/2 Take the positive outcome, and get phi!! Φ^n = F(n)*Φ + F(n-1) When F(n) is the “n”th Fibonacci number (n≠1, obviously) Has anyone else noticed this? This family of equations has other solutions besides phi, (i.e. (1-sqrt5)/2 and complex numbers) but phi is a solution for all of them, and also the only positive solution for any of them. And you mentioned the second root of eq. n^2 – n – 1 = 0: let’s call it phi (small phi, it is < 0) Here is another nice recursion for Fibonacci, using Phi and phi: F[n] = Phi^(n-1) + phi * F[n-1] How do you show that [1+√5/2][1+√5/2]= [1+√5/2]+1. I’ve tried it in so many ways but I never make it equal.. Help..The proof you are looking for is as follows;(1 + √5)/2 * (1 + √5)/2 = ((1 + √5) * (1 + √5)) /4 = (1 + 2*√5 +5) /4 = (6 + 2*√5) /4 = (6 + 2*√5)/4 – 4/4 + 4/4 = (6 + 2*√5 – 4)/4 + 1 = (2 + 2*√5) /4 + 1 = (1 + √5) /2 + 1 Also if anyone’s interested here is the proof of Φ = 1/Φ + 1 ;Since Φ = (1 + √5) / 2 Then, if Φ = 1/Φ + 1, it follows that;(1 + √5) / 2 = 2/(1 + √5) +1 2/(1 + √5) + (1 + √5)/(1 + √5) = (2+ 1 + √5)/(1 + √5) = (3 + √5)/(1 + √5) = (3 + √5)/(1 + √5) * 1 = (3 + √5)/(1 + √5) * (2/(1 + √5))/(2/(1 + √5)) = ((3 + √5) * (2/(1 + √5))) / ((1 + √5) * (2/(1 + √5))) = ((6 + 2√5) / (1+√5)) / 2 = ((1 + √5)^2) / (1+√5)) / 2 = (1 + √5) / 2 Therefore Φ = 1/Φ + 1 For any number in the sequence… determining the next number is just a matter of multiplying the current number by Phi and rounding it… (after the pair of 1s, mind you). I have found design drawing of pyramid by the fractal perspective based on the legendary theory of the circle. square and triangle the first in the world. It would be correct answers for your questions. My point of view, now humankind is backward mentally and physically since 11,000years ago. There are a lot of new knowledge and special information that humankind must know the fact such as 153 1) Origiof alphabets 2) Origin of numbers 3) Origin of languages 4) Origin of civilization 5) Mono-genesis species 6) The moving theory of the axis of the earth 7) Origin of trigonometry 8) Origin of equation 9) Origin of integration 10) Origin of differentiation 11) Origin of coordinates 12) Origin of STEM 13) Origin of origin etc much more The pyramid of time capsule was a historical civilization. I have few evidence. use equation x squared-xy-y squared to show that x over y is = phi I have come across this equation called the fibonacci activation function. How it it derived and how it it related to the golden ratio? Phi(y) = ((sqrt(5) – 1)y^3)/2 + ((3 – sqrt(5))y^5)/2 Golden ratio: for any segment c, find a and b segments – YouTube http://youtu.be/cp3dpvqns_4 Golden ratio Phi Space – YouTube http://youtu.be/JLzX2XxSVgs i hear—because i have a spiral cochlea doesn’t mean i understand–that takes a mind willing i honestly believe there’s a solution and if i look-i have a chance of finding and that’s my truth need significance of phi equation:The significance of the equation, ( 1 + √5 ) / 2 = 1.6180339… = Φ, is that this gives the value of the relationship that appears when dividing a line such that the ratio of the entire line to the larger segments is the same as the larger segment to the smaller segment. This dividing is the golden ratio that appears extensively in mathematics, geometry and nature. It has thus also been applied to the design arts to achieve a natural appearance in composition and to enhance aesthetics. We – the human species -, and in relation to Phi, is in need of a Mathematician for an altruistic job. There is a unique pattern always applied by Nature when organizing matter/energy into a working complete system. This pattern is built by the process of life cycle. You know, it is about the phenomena that makes our bodies – as systems – born,glow,mature,degeneration,death – when our bodies changes its shapes all time. So, using this process of life cycle Nature has created systems, from atoms to galaxies to cells to human bodies. How? Nature build an inanimate object body from any nebulae, or dust. Then Nature applies the force upon several inanimate objects of same shape/constitution, which will have their shapes, functions, changed into new shapes. When Nature gets 6 different shapes from that kind of object, it arranges the shapes in a linear sequence. But the location of each object must obeys the sequence of life cycle ( birth,grow,maturation,etc.). As the shape of your body known as teenage has as left neighbor 154 the shape of kid and as the right neighbor the shape of adult ( so, there is a link about time, etc., between neighbors) and the natural tendency of neighbors to keep together, the different objects are aligned mimicking the life cycle sequence, which creates links between them and finally, a running circuit. The system is ready. We make no idea how this knowledge is important for us to make the word a better place for everybody. this is the natural principle of automation productive process, reproduction, life, etc. I got the metaphorical representation of all these process into a working system as a formula, em shape of software diagram. With this formula I am understanding every natural and event phenomena from a very interesting new perspective. But, we need to learn how to reproduce this formula as material tools for practical applications. And for making plans, strategies, creating new systems, etc. I am merely a naturalist philosopher observing Nature in the Amazon jungle, with no knowledge of modern technology, complex Math. We need to find a way for representing the formula as an equation. That’s why we are in need of a Mathematician that grasp something of this new idea and trying to find the equation. my research job is not profitable, I am selling nothing ( only spending), it is merely altruistic, so, I can’t hiring a Mathematician, but, if the mathematical equation based on the formula gets some donations, by sure, we will share it half and half. Someone there?… I haven’t figured out math notation on a computer yet. Let X = arccosine of the reciprocal of phi. Y = sine of one half X. Phi mutiplied by the reciprocal of y is the square root of two, precisely.I understand your confusion, and I’ve been studying this topic for over twenty years. I’ve seen the usages of upper and lower case phi in conflict in varying sources, and it’s not clear who or which body gets to define what is standard or correct. Earlier sources seemed to most often used upper case phi, but more recently the shift is towards lower case phi. As Wikipedia states, “The Greek letter phi symbolizes the golden ratio. Usually, the lowercase form (φ or φ) is used. Sometimes the uppercase form is used for the reciprocal of the golden ratio, 1/φ.” The source for this is shown as ” Weisstein, Eric W. “Golden Ratio Conjugate” MathWorld. I emailed him years back asking to know his source, but never received a response. Po-tay-to, po-tah-to?Can anyone explain to me how, at the start of the Fibonacci series, we get from zero to one? Okay, I get it that the two previous numbers are added together to get the next one in the series, but why did we add 1 to 0 to kick it off? If we started with nothing (i. e. emptiness or non-existence) where did the “one” suddenly appear from? Looking at it on a cosmic scale, it seems similar to the explanation of the big-bang theory: “first there was nothing, and then it exploded.”If we assume Phi(n) is equal to the distance of the centre of two flower of life circles, axis 12 Vesica Pisces must be equal to (1x-√5)/(2^1/2)ª. This is also proof that Φ = 1/Φ + 1 and also brings to light the significance of Φ in aesthetics. REFERENCES 1.https://www.jstor.org/stable/991561?seq=1 On the Idea of the Mandala as a Governing Device in Indian Architectural Tradition Sonit Bafna,Journal of the Society of Architectural HistoriansVol. 59, No. 1 (Mar., 2000), pp. 26-49 (24 pages)Published By: University of California Press 155 CHAPTER VII A Universe Connected, John Boyce, 2018 Excerpt from Fibonacci’s Liber Abaci from the Biblioteca Nazionale di Firenzes In the year 1202 AD, a mathematician from Italy asked a very simple question: “A certain man put a pair of rabbits in a place surrounded on all sides by a wall. How many pairs of rabbits can be produced from that pair in a year if it is supposed that every month each pair begets a new pair which from the second month on becomes productive?” A question notably found in the third section of a publication called Liber Abaci which was written by Leonardo Pisano Fibonacci. The above question led to a sequence of numbers that the Western world knows as the “Fibonacci Sequence”. Although most accredit Fibonacci with the discovery of this numerical sequence, its existence had been observed long before Leonardo’s lifetime. 156 With each turn of a Rubik’s cube creates a permutation (rearrangement of color tiles) With each turn of a Rubik’s cube creates a permutation (rearrangement of color tiles)The study of permutations and combinations has long been a subject of research in areas of South Asia, particularly in India. Variations in numerical arrangements became popular in ancient Indian society and applied to astrology, medicine, music, and architecture. The first notable hint of this sequence’s existence came around 200 BC through the work of an ancient Indian mathematician named Pingala through his work with Chandaḥśāstra (metrical sciences). Following the work of Pingala, various other Indian mathematicians such as Virahanka, Gopala, and Hemachandra contributed work that gave evidence of the existence of this numerical anomaly. Not to discredit the brilliant work of Fibonacci but his most recognized contribution to mathematics, not necessarily his most significant, led to the discovery of a ratio that has scientists in most practices mystified. This ratio, as observed numerically, appears to be ingrained within the fabric of universal order. Before going into too much detail about this ratio, it is essential first to understand how the Fibonacci sequence works and how through this sequence the ratio was discovered. 157 One of the most consistent and elusive numbers ever discovered is 1.161803398874989. The Golden Ratio, as it is known to those seeking to discern the underlying architecture of the cosmos, is a ratio apprised in quantum physics and in the overall construct of galaxies. This ratio has been applied to and observed in geometry, nature, and architecture. 158 Figure 1 is a basic geometrical representation of the Fibonacci sequence. The first two squares (the smallest squares) both have an area of 1 unit squared (1 unit by 1 unit). The square labeled “2” has an area double of the 2 squares labeled “1”. At this point, the ratio between the sizes does not equal that of the Golden Ratio (Ratio 2:1 or 2), however, as the tiles grow larger by building on the base predicated by the previous two larger squares, the ratio approaches and will eventually equal that of the Golden Ratio. For instance: the area of the largest square of the image above is 21 units X 21 units or 21 units². The next largest squares have an area of 13 units² and 8 units² after that. Both the squares labeled 13 and 8 have a base that’s’ sum equals 21. Mathematicians have added additional geometry to the square Fibonacci tiling to create a spiral pattern. This is known as the Fibonacci spiral: illustrated below. Figure 3: an illustration of a Fibonacci spiral The Fibonacci spiral is incorporated into a tile pattern based on the sequence. As previously stated and observed in Table 1, ratios calculated from smaller integers of the Fibonacci sequence do not exhibit the Golden Ratio or Phi (φ)(Phi is the Greek letter denoting 1.61803…). As the numbers become larger throughout the calculation, the more a Fibonacci spiral resembles the Golden Spiral. A Golden spiral is based on geometrical square tiling similar to figure 1 except all correlating tiles are designed to have a ratio of φ (Phi) as seen below. Sequence 1 is a Golden spiral continuously winding through Golden-square tiles. This also resembles a Fib spiral at larger values as they approach affinity. Sequences, tiles, and spirals may all exhibit φ, but there are plenty of different ways to observe this ratio. The golden ratio isn’t just a number or proportion; it is a reminder of the inherent connectivity that exists within our universe. The existence of the Fibonacci sequence and Golden ratio preceded mathematics as it can be observed in nature within human DNA and even within the anatomical structure of certain 159 flowers. Now that some fundamentals have been discussed, let’s dive into a few real-world examples. The number of possible ancestors on the X chromosome inheritance line at a given ancestral generation follows the Fibonacci sequence. (This caption was directly copied from wikipedia page where image was found) Although mathematics has deep-seeded roots in human history, DNA and mammalian procreation preceded human existence and therefore arithmetic. In 2005, a team of genealogists led by Luke Hutchison stumbled across some interesting results. In their research article entitled “Growing the Family Tree: The Power of DNA in Reconstructing Family Relationships” Hutchinson et al. retroactively studied the number of ancestors that could potentially be the source of specific genes on a particular, heritable X chromosome (sex chromosome carried by both parents). This study used advanced genomic technology to discover what Leonardo Pisano Fibonacci had centuries ago, that in a controlled environment the Fibonacci sequence and Phi may be witnessed within aspects of mammalian lineage. This is one example of how the Fibonacci sequence appears to shape natural order, but another biological example is found in the anatomy of some flowers. 160 Geometrical overlay of a flower illustrating well defined symmetry with the “flower of life” visible at the center The disk florets of sunflowers have an arrangement that illustrates a spiral pattern that has Fibonacci undertones. In sunflowers, the spirals that are created within the disk florets’ pattern (reproductive buds at the center of the flower) often have 34 spiral turning clockwise and 21 moving counter clockwise. Another Fibonacci anomaly may be found in the number of petals on certain flowers. For instance, Lillies have 3 petals, Roses have 8 interior plus 5 exterior petals, and Pyrethrum have 34 petals: all Fibonacci numbers. Even the way plants branch from their trunk follow a Fibonacci pattern. Although there is an exact correlation between these numbers and the Golden Ratio, because these numbers are too low to give the precise value of Phi, these patterns may be dictated by some underlying force exhibited by Phi. This force appears to manifest itself within the human psyche as evidenced by ancient architects use of dimensions inspired by the Fibonacci sequence Golden Ratio. In 432 BC the construction of a world renown temple dedicated to the Grecian goddess Athena was completed. The Parthenon isn’t just a testament to ancient Greek engineering, and it is also known as the first impression of the Golden Ratio on architecture. The Fibonacci sequence and Phi were not limited by culture concerning religious Temple architecture and practices. 161 8X8 Mandala (Temple floor plan) Buddhism is rooted in Hinduism, in fact, Siddhartha Gautama ( known as Buddha) practiced Hinduism before finding enlightenment which is believed to have occurred in Bihar, a state of India. In ancient India, temple construction was a very well thought out process, veritably, ancient Hindu architects created a science designed to structure dwellings and temples to be in sync with the natural and cosmic order. Vāstu śāstra translates to “science of architecture,” is an ancient Sanskrit manual, which outlines appropriate geometry and alignment for temple construction. The general layout of a Hindu temple is called its “Mandala.” The Mandala of a temple did not always abide by Fibonacci sequence or the Golden Ratio, but some examples have been discovered. However, as Buddhism developed as a separate belief system, variations of Hindu practices were incorporated into Buddhist temple architecture and rituals. As Buddhism moved East so has various aspects of Hindu practice. In Central Java, Indonesia resides Borobudur, the world’s largest Buddhist temple. The Mandala of Borobudur illustrates Phi 162 when comparing the dimension of the square base to the diameter of the largest circular terrace. However, temple floor plans are not the only type of Mandala exhibiting the Golden Ratio. If the term “Mandala” sounds familiar, that is because the word is still used today. Mandala: once used to describe the underlying architecture of Hindu and Buddhist temples is now a ritual synonymous with Buddhist meditation. In Vajrayana Buddhism, mandalas are created in the form of a sand painting, which is an incredibly tedious task. Tibetan monks are often recognized for their intricate, highly detailed sand Mandalas. These Mandalas are designed to encompass a Universal understanding as discovered in Buddhist teachings. The Tzolk’in wheel of time known as the Mayan calendar Although there is a direct correlation between this sacred design between Eastern religions, there are examples of Mandalas observed in Mayan (Tzolk’in: wheel of time), Aztec (Sun Stone) and even Christian cultures. Eastern Asian cultures have no historical connection with Mesoamerican cultures; however, many of the elements observed in Mandala’s across these cultures share sacred geometry (Fibonacci numbers, Golden Ratio, yantra and the flower of life). This is what makes the concept of the Mandala fascinating; it is a sacred design that spans across time and cultures that have no known physical connections. Mandala truly embraces the philosophy behind its concept: A UniverseConnected The internet brought the world together, but with the emergence of Blockchain technology comes another mechanism of connectivity. Unity across the global society is bolstered through the instantaneous creation, transfer, and storage of data, in almost all forms, and Blockchain technology delivers just that. 163 As humans, we live in a world constricted by imaginary and physical barriers where financial institutions are required centralization to grant access. Humanity is seeing the dawn of a new era where technology is breaking barriers and Blockchain technology embraces our innate desire to share an objective. Two innovators with a mutual desire constructed a team that shares the same passion for creating a digital asset exchange that will bring aspiring and seasoned digital asset traders together on a platform designed with the hope of accommodating and educating the masses. With the goal of Connecting the Universe through Blockchain in mind, there is not a more appropriate name for a company striving to do so than Mandala. Parallel to the explosion of new Blockchain based digital assets is a surge of Blockchain related exchanges. Digital asset trading differs from most traditional markets in that it is 24/7, this style of trade is international and never sleeps. For this market and Blockchain to exist the way that it does, speed and international cooperation are pertinent. With these two elements already in place and mass adoption under 5%, one could only imagine the potential of this technology across the global community. Science and Golden Ratios in Mandala Architecture Hardcover – Import, 1 December 2011 by Rekha Rao 164 Connecting the Universe through Inclusion John Boyce 2018 Following their first meeting of 2018, G20 Finance Ministers & Central Bank Governors released the following statement, “We acknowledge that technological innovation, including that underlying crypto- assets, has the potential to improve the efficiency and inclusiveness of the financial system and the economy more broadly.” This sentiment towards cryptocurrency has been a fundamental argument for mass adoption. The United States has a top-tier financial infrastructure forged through experimentation, trial & error, and innovation; nurtured by a free market. Aspiring American businesses have multiple options to acquire or raise capital, and prospective homeowners have access to banks for loan acquisition. Even failing companies can find ways to tread water long enough to restructure and prosper. Although not perfect, top-tier financial access is the hemoglobin that controls the distribution of oxygen (capital), to flow throughout the larger economic body. A loss of financial access is the equivalent of carbon monoxide poisoning, causing large-scale commercial failure. Mitigating the potential destruction of commerce and the middle class that would be caused by a bottleneck of capital flow requires the existence of a financial foundation. The first step to building a robust economic infrastructure and a healthy middle class is financial inclusion. Financial inclusion is simply access to monetary services such as banking and credit. Many residents in wealthy countries take financial inclusion for granted. In contrast, financial seclusion is the lack of access to such instruments. Even in the United States, where people live in rural areas, access may be limited. Rural areas are most susceptible to financial seclusion. Countries 165 like India, with a population ~ 1.3 Billion, has struggled with financial inclusion since ~ 67% of its people reside in rural areas. Which is why the Indian Government is working hard to increase inclusion throughout its nation.Mid-August of 2014, Prime Minister Narendra Modi launched the first phase of Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana (PMJDY), a campaign to facilitate universal access to banking facilities, basic banking accounts with an overdraft facility and a program to bolster financial literacy. By January 31st, 2015, a total of 125,473,289.00 bank accounts opened as a result of PMJDY. Of the 125 million accounts, nearly 60% of them were created in rural areas. At today’s conversion rate, a total of $1.5 billion was deposited in less than six months. Rohit Azad and Dipa Sinha of The Hindu reported, in their article entitled “The Jan-Dhan Yojana, four years later,” that 80% of adults owned a banking account in 2017 compared to 53% in 2017. They also noted that access to formal credit did not improve. This article, however, was published only months before the implementation of PMJDY phase 2, launched in mid-August of 2018, which aims to address this problem along with adding overdraft protection, microinsurance, and a pension scheme for the unorganized sector. India is on track to have the second largest share of middle-class consumption by 2030, possibly pulling ahead of the United States. Before the push by the Indian Government to increase financial inclusion, India had the means to implement such a bold agenda: countries without such economic development would struggle with a program of this caliber. Technological innovations have broken barriers for individuals in less developed nations. Mobile devises, such as cell phones, have become more prevalent and useful as a gateway for financial services. Mobile money is a wallet service used on mobile devices to store, send and receive money. The largest cohort of mobile money users is in Sub-Saharan Africa where 21% of Adults have an account. Access to a mobile wallet is a significant step forward but miles behind the level of inclusion seen in developed nations. However, it does illuminate the possible solutions that technology can offer moving forward. There is another emerging technology that has the potential to overcome geographical barriers and allow for accessibility of a variety of financial services. Blockchain technology has the potential to increase financial inclusion cost-effectively. Without the need to build banks across vast terrain, blockchain-based money (cryptocurrency) can maintain transaction ledgers without a third party, reducing cost and local resources. Smartcontracts can allow for escrow services and provide the capability to offer other utility through rules built within the contract. Some companies use a blockchain to match a potential borrower to a suitable lender. The immutable yet accurate ledger of a blockchain may help insurance companies reduce cost. Blockchain technology has also given people in underdeveloped nations the ability to invest in ways never thought imaginable. These are just a few examples that this technology, through a mobile device or personal computer, can offer. Does blockchain hold all of the solutions to bring about global financial inclusion? Only time will tell, the fact that G20 Finance Ministers & Central Bank Governors see its potential should reverberate the possibilities of this technology. Connecting the universe isn’t just about bringing people together, it also means building each other up. It is time to leave behind the era of exploitation for personal gain and champion inclusion. It’s our world, let’s enjoy it together. 166 C i r c l e o f K u r i s u Jung recognized that the urge to make mandalas emerges during moments of intense personal growth. As Jungian analyst Marie Louise von Franz explains: “The mandala serves a conservative purpose—namely, to restore a previously existing order. But it also serves the creative purpose of giving expression and form to something that does not yet exist, something new and unique….The process is that of the ascending spiral, which grows upward while simultaneously returning again and again to the same point.” (C. G. Jung: “Man and His Symbols,” p. 225) When you see circles encompassing other patterns or hosting their own sacred geometry in nature, you are viewing a natural mandala. Mandalas are everywhere if you take time to look. Plants and flora, trees, fruit, vegetables and even animals can hold the power of the mandala within them. It is not only impressive to look at a mandala – you can design one yourselves as well! Especially during cold days lounging in the armchair with a delicious homemade Yogi Tea you can grab your pencils and start to doodle! At this site you can get some help! 167 Lotus Mandala They represent different aspects of the universe and are used as instruments of meditation and symbols of prayer. Mandalas can be understood externally as a visual representation of the universe and internally as a guide for several spiritual practices like meditation. The basic explanation of their form can be described as circles contained within a square and arranged into sections that are all organized around a single or a central point. And it is believed that by proceeding towards its center, you are guided through the cosmic process of transforming the universe from one of suffering into one of joy and happiness. They serve as a representation of the universe and a guide on the path to enlightenment. Even today the mandalas are used in a variety of ways. In yoga, mandalas represent the same ancient ideals, signifying a sacred space to shut away external influences or the negative energy. Not only in spiritual practices, but also in Arts and Architecture, mandalas play a very magnificent part. We can find them also at the stained glass rose in gothic churches, Persian art, archeology, etc. I remember myself when I was very little that I used to draw circular shapes or flower petals one after another or in my notebook during classes when I was bored. Little did I know that I was drawing mandalas…I was just passing the time and anything seems much more interesting to do than following a boring class right? According to psychological interpretations creating mandalas helps stabilize, integrate, and re-order inner life because its symbolic nature can help one to access progressively deeper levels of the unconscious, ultimately assisting the meditator or creator to experience a mystical sense of oneness with the ultimate unity from which the cosmos in all its manifold forms arises. “The mandala serves a conservative purpose – namely, to restore a previously existing order. But it also serves the creative purpose of giving expression and form to something that does not yet exist, something new and unique… The process is that of the ascending spiral, which grows upward while simultaneously returning again and again to the same point.” – Jungian analyst, Marie-Louise von Franz 168 CHAPTERVIII Phylogeny Mandala & other Scientific Concepts A circular phylogeny with photos or drawings of species is named a phylogeny mandala. This is one of the ways for illustrating the Tree of Life, and is suitable to show visually how the biodiversity has developed in the course of evolution as clarified by the molecular phylogenetics. To demonstrate the recent progress of molecular phylogenetics, six phylogeny mandalas for various taxonomic groups of life were presented; i.e., (1) Eukaryota, (2) Metazoa, (3) Hexapoda, (4) Tetrapoda, (5) Eutheria, and (6) Primates.1 The Tree of Life (ToL) has been of central importance in the biological sciences, usually understood as a model or a metaphor, and portrayed in various graphical forms to summarize the history of life as a single diagram. If it is seen as a mathematical construct—a rooted graph theoretical tree or, as more recently viewed, a directed network [Network of Life (NoL)]—then its proper visualization is not feasible, for both epistemological and technical reasons. As an overview included in this study demonstrates, published ToLs and NoLs are extremely diverse in appearance and content, and they suffer from inevitable bias towards particular groups, or are restricted to a single major taxon. Metaphorical trees are even less useful for the purpose, because ramification is the only property of botanical trees that may be interpreted in an evolutionary or phylogenetic context. This paper argues that corals, as suggested by Darwin in his early notebooks, are superior to trees as metaphors, and may also be used as mathematical models. A coral diagram is useful for portraying past and present life because it is suitable: (1) to illustrate bifurcations and anastomoses, (2) to depict species richness of taxa proportionately, (3) to show chronology, extinct taxa and major evolutionary innovations, (4) to express taxonomic continuity, (5) to expand particulars due to its self-similarity, and (6) to accommodate a genealogy-based, rank-free classification. This paper is supplemented with a figure, The Coral of Life (CoL), which is, to the author’s knowledge, the first attempt to combine all of the above features in a single diagram for the entirety of life, thus serving as a prototype for further analysis and improvement. The discussion is partly historical: references to classical and modern writings help the reader to understand how biological thinking and methods of visualization have evolved to reach this achievement. Introduction Biologists have long been interested in a diagrammatic representation of the evolutionary history of Life. The first illustration of this kind was Jean-Baptiste Lamarck’s “Tableau. Servant à montrer l’origine des diffèrens animaux” (Lamarck 1809, vol. 2, p. 463Footnote1) depicting his ideas about the phylogenetic relationships between major animal groups. The most striking feature of this scheme is not that groups are derived directly from one another, reflecting the old concept of the scala naturae (Great Chain of Being), but the emergence of a branching pattern of change for some pairs of these groups. The theory behind this phenomenon, namely the 169 principle of evolutionary divergence, was elaborated and published 50 years later by Charles Darwin (1859, hereafter “Origin”) and visualized by his book’s single “accompanying diagram” (inserted facing page 117) for a small collection of hypothetical species and genera. He then argued that “a great tree” is sometimes used to represent the affinities of all members of a given class, and then extended this statement to the entirety of life on earth in the following famous passage (Darwin 1859, p. 130): As buds give rise by growth to fresh buds, and these, if vigorous, branch out and overtop on all sides many a feebler branch, so by generation I believe it has been with the great Tree of Life, which fills with its dead and broken branches the crust of the earth, and covers the surface with its ever branching and beautiful ramifications. Notably, this is the only occurrence of the term “Tree of Life” (ToL) in Darwin’s work published in his lifetime.Footnote2 For him and most of his audience, ToL might have appeared to be no more than an idealized goal that can never be achieved, and therefore the term remained almost completely dormant for more than a century in the biological literature.Footnote3 Terminology, even at the level of metaphors, was much more strongly influenced by Ernst Haeckel, who published a large number of phylogenetic diagrams, with different styles and theoretical backgrounds, for various groups of organisms. Of these, the “Monophyletische Stammbaum der Organismen” (Tafel I in Haeckel 1866) is the first attempt in the history of science to depict phylogenetic relationships for all extant life (Hossfeld and Levit 2016).Footnote4 Perhaps, this figure facilitated most effectively the rapid spread and wide use of the term “tree”, which has since been routinely used in evolutionary and phylogenetic investigations. For 100 years after the publication of the Origin, these studies were largely based on observed similarities among groups of organisms and the correlations of their attributes (Mayr 1988, pp. 269–270), which was challenged significantly by the rise of cladistics around the middle of the 20th century. Bifurcating tree graphs, called cladograms, were generated more objectively than any previous phylogenetic diagrams, with the goal of hypothesizing evolutionary relationships within selected taxonomic groups. The tree of all life was still illusory, however, because no phenetic data could cover prokaryotes together with eukaryotes, for obvious reasons. Very few or no morphological characters were available to describe all members of large groups, such as metazoans or plants, and the problem of universal morphology existed at even lower levels, as well. The situation changed radically with the advent of molecular cladistics in the late 1980s, when the analysis of nucleotide sequences of universal (ribosomal) genes made possible the “reconstruction” of the phylogeny of all extant organisms. A literature search in the Web of Science (WoS) Core Collection reveals that the expression “Tree of Life” re-appeared in the subject matter and/or the title of biological papers in 1989, and after 10 years the number of occurrences started to increase dramatically, reaching 42 per year in the title and more than 190 appearances per year in the topic by 2018 (Supplementary Fig. S1). Another search in the same database shows that papers mentioning “Tree of life” in the title or in the abstract often receive a large number of citations, further illustrating that this expression has taken a central role in the life sciences (Supplementary Table S1). The trend is evident even though the increases may be partly due to the extensions of journal coverage by WoS in the past decade. Moreover, these figures could be even larger, because WoS actually covers only a fraction of the scientific literature. In addition to periodicals, many books include the “Tree of life” (or its translation) in their title, and several internet applications, online resources and databases also bear the term in their names. Thanks to the joint effort of thousands of biologists, 170 we are getting increasingly closer to (although still a long way from) the realization of Darwin’s dream of a historical drawing that shows all buds, branches and ramifications of the living world that exists—and has existed—on our planet. The obvious correlation between the increased use of ToL and the rapid expansion of molecular systematics suggests that the single candidate for the long-sought historical diagram is indeed “The One True Tree of Life”Footnote5 (title of Chapter 10 in Dawkins 1986). As Eiserhardt et al. (2018) have recently put it: “It is a fundamental infrastructure of scientific knowledge that is as central to biology as the periodic table is to chemistry”. However, in sharp contrast to Dmitri Mendeleev’s chemical chart, it is extremely surprising and embarrassing that no exact definition for its underlying concept has been given for the ToL. Indeed, the methodology for preparing the ToL does not follow any standard, and its use freely fluctuates around “metaphor, model and heuristic device” (Mindell 2013; Morrison 2014, 2016). Some glossaries provide a short and even circular description; for example, when ToL is understood as a “tree-like representation of the history of all living and extinct organisms” (Gogarten and Townsend 2005). A more fortunate formulation is due to O’Malley et al. (2010), who say that the ToL is “intended to represent the pattern of evolutionary processes that result in bifurcating species lineages” thus symbolizing powerfully “the unity of evolutionary process and pattern”. Footnote6 But bifurcation and pattern may be manifested in different ways in a diagram. Many instances of the ToL are rigorously graph theoretical trees, such as cladograms or their weighted variants (phylograms and chronograms or “timetrees”), whereas others are much more like metaphors and thus resemble “botanical trees” in shape. Critical reviews and point-of-view articles devoted to this matter are relatively scarce, and they are concerned mostly with incongruent “gene trees” and phenomena that are said to violate the tree condition (HGT and hybridization; see Wolf et al. 2002; Puigbò et al. 2009; Morrison 2014, 2016; Doolittle and Brunet 2016 and most contributions in O’Malley 2010), or with methods of visualization (Page 2012). In some cases, although “Tree of life” appears in the title, its role is marginal in the main text (e.g., Szklarczyk et al. 2015; Wanntorp and Ronse de Craene 2011), with the ToL thus serving merely as a vague metaphor of the living world. The information content in most diagrams published to date is insufficient to demonstrate appropriately “the grandest earthly enterprise”: details are restricted usually to one or a few aspects of the history of life, mostly to divergence and the associated timing or molecular change. In addition, however, I think that facts from paleontology (e.g., fossil groups, extinctions), estimated dates of major evolutionary events, a temporally meaningful hierarchical classification of species, and the known diversity of life should also be demonstrated properly by one and the same diagram. Although much information has been available to prepare such a figure, the details do not yet form a coherent, comprehensive diagrammatic representation. In this paper, I suggest a solution that is not a tree in the graph theoretical sense of the word (because a tree cannot fulfill the above requirements, as explained later), but follows Darwin’s early concept by revitalizing the coral metaphor he mentioned only once in his notebooks. A mathematically well-defined coral allows illustrating the history of life by combining cladistic, chronological, paleontological, historical and taxonomic data in a synthesis never before portrayed. A preliminary attempt to compile the first version of the Coral of Life (CoL) is thus provided here, which is admittedly heuristic in many parts, but which can be refined and 171 elaborated continuously when new phylogenetic hypotheses arise and more details are revealed and clarified. Main Features of ToLs Published ToLs, as noted above, are extremely diverse regarding their main characteristics. Supplementary Table S2 provides relevant information on 32 selected diagrams that cover all major groups of extant life (plus fossils in some cases) at least at the level of domains. All of them were designated as ToL by the author(s)—with the exception of Haeckel’s Stammbaum and Whittaker’s five-kingdom system, both of which deserve inclusion in the table for their importance in the history of ToL. Criteria for feature evaluation are as follows: 1. (1) if the diagram may be interpreted as a graph-theoretical tree, with nodes representing taxonomic entities (e.g., species or their groups aggregated into “higher” taxa) and edges representing relationships (see Glossary), or interpreted as an image of another kind; 2. (2) whether or not the diagram is embedded into the time dimension, and if so whether the timescale is linear or logarithmic; 3. (3) if the diagram is based on a single gene, allowing measurement of molecular distances along the edges of the graph, or whether there is no genetic distance measured at all; 4. (4) the proportion of labeled nodes representing prokaryotes and those corresponding to eukaryotes, which indicates bias towards either group (usually towards prokaryotes); 5. (5) if the diagram includes additional information on macroevolution (e.g., endosymbiotic events, significant genetic novelties, position of Last Universal Common Ancestor, etc.) or major ecological changes on Earth; 6. (6) if there is a classification (partitions or a hierarchy) superimposed over the phylogeny; 172 7. (7) the taxonomic status of entities represented by nodes or branches (e.g., species, genera, higher Linnaean ranks or clades); 8. (8) if the relations depicted are of sister group (SG) or ancestor–descendant (AD) type; 9. (9) if extinct organisms (fossils) also appear as labeled nodes; and 10. (10) typification of the diagram according to Podani (2013, 2017). Purely stylistic properties are excluded from this list because I do not see any essential difference, for example, between trees arranged in traditional rectangular manner and alternatives such as radial trees, the so-called phylogenetic mandalas (Hasegawa 2017)—if they otherwise agree in all other features from the above list. Orientation, color, line thickness, fonts, presence of photos and other artistic details are also irrelevant here, although such features may be important from an aesthetic viewpoint (as in Lima 2013). It is apparent that for visualizations of the Tree of Life the various authors have felt absolutely free to combine the fundamental properties listed above. There are hardly any two diagrams that completely agree in all of these features—the world of ToLs appears to be extremely diverse in this respect. Therefore, in the following sections I provide a detailed discussion of published variants of the tree of life, show the disadvantages associated with the use of mathematical trees, and outline the possibility for adapting a different type of drawing, the coral, to summarize the history and diversity of life in a single figure. The Scale Problem: Levels of Organization The first and most fundamental question is the choice of the basic taxon entities, the welldistinguishable operational units of visualization or—to put it another way—the level of biological organization at which the history of life is to be conceived and displayed. Biological organization may be viewed as a hierarchical arrangement of entities, either ecological or genealogical (Tëmkin and Eldredge 2015, see their Fig. 5). The ecological hierarchy relates to the functioning of its components and their spatial associations, while the genealogical one focuses on the information flow through time. In a historical context, therefore, we are concerned with the genealogical hierarchy. 173 In this hierarchy, the lowest relevant level would be that of cells (Doolittle and Brunet 2016): since all cells originate from previously existing ones,Footnote7 the cellular history of life may be modeled as a mathematical graph (see Glossary) with vertices representing cells and directed edges corresponding to parent–offspring relations, which may therefore be embedded in the time dimension. Parts of this enormous imaginary graph are trees, where each parent cell gives rise to new cells by division (binary fission in prokaryotes and mitosis or meiosis in eukaryotes). However, new cells may also be formed by the merger of two cells, such as cellular fusions in the prokaryotic world (e.g., haloarchaeans)—which may also have created the first eukaryotic cell—and the fusion of gametes in sexually reproducing eukaryotes. Due to these events, which may connect closely related and very distant lineages as well, the tree-condition (no cycles) is violated, and the diagram becomes a network—the cellular Network of Life (NoL). There is a third type of cellular union, phagocytosis, which normally means that one cell consumes the other as food, and is thus irrelevant in the present context. On rare occasions, however, the engulfed cell survives and is gradually integrated into the host cell, a process known as symbiogenesis,Footnote8 which may have lead to the formation of the mitochondrion and various types of plastids. In every such case, the new organelle performs functions that greatly increase the host’s fitness; and genetic material is carried over into its nucleus, thereby modifying the genome. Therefore, this type of fusion may be conceived as a major mutation event, by which evolutionary changes and diversification along the host’s lineage are greatly enhanced, whereas the line of the engulfed cell as a separate entity is eliminated. Evidently, the cellular NoL has only theoretical importance as a mental model for the unique (one true) cellular history, which involved an astronomical number of units for which I would never try to provide any estimate. The next hierarchical level pertains to individual organisms (Dennett 1995; Doolittle and Brunet 2016), a large part of which is unicellular and is therefore present in the cellular network discussed above. Here, innovation is multicellularity, which has evolved several times independently, producing the metazoans and different groups of plants, meta-algae and fungi. The NoL of individuals derives (“simplifies”) from the above network by combining nodes that represent cells of the same individual organism. These are considered physically separable for simplicity, although in many cases (e.g., clonal plants, animal colonies) it is hard to make a distinction between individuals; in such cases these “superorganisms” are viewed as units. In this graph, the edges show parent–offspring relationships as in the cellular NoL. It is partly composed of trees for asexually propagating organisms and partly of networks in the case of sexually reproducing species. It also has theoretical significance as a model to explain the one true network of organismal history (called “tokogenetic relationships” by Hennig 1966, see his Fig. 6 as a hypothetical example for speciation), with a size several magnitudes smaller than the graph of cells. The next two levels of organization involve classification of individuals into the basic units of taxonomy, i.e., species. The historical diagrams with species as entities derive theoretically from the graph of individuals, such that nodes assigned to the same species are aggregated. This means that continuity of the lineages of cells and individuals is maintained in the graphs. At these levels arise the uncertainties with the definition of species. There are at least 30 different species concepts (Zachos 2016, pp. 80–96), and none of them apply equally to all groups of organisms and to extant and extinct species alike. Nevertheless, since most species are distinct (genetically, morphologically, ecologically, etc.) from the others at one time point, the species 174 delineation problem is less apparent at the population level—i.e., when a node represents a living population of a species at time t, while an edge connects a parent population to its offspring at time t + 1. Darwin’s single tree-like model diagram in the Origin is the first one of this kind (“tree-like” because dotted links are used to represent many subsequent generations and nodes appear only where a population splits). However, hybridization may occur even between distinct and well-established populations of two related species, mostly in plants and less commonly in animals, giving rise to an offspring population that must show up in our theoretical diagram no matter whether it is fertile or sterile. Hybridization of species is almost the rule rather than the exception in the plant world: according to some estimates a large proportion of extant species are hybridogeneous (percentages vary, up to 80% for dicots, Briggs and Walters 2016). A consequence is that the historical diagram of life can only be a network at the population level. Needless to say, this NoL is no more knowable than are the previous two graphs. Populations of a given species from all times can be further amalgamated into a single node, thus giving a species diagram. Evolutionary theory suggests that temporal species boundaries are not sharp—while moving from parent to offspring species identity is unlikely to change, unless some dramatic genomic modifications happen (e.g., autopolyploidization or hybridization) that warrant taxonomic switch as well. In general, speciation is a slow, gradual process, thus questioning the meaningfulness of discrete mathematical tools, such as graphs, for its Footnote9 modeling. Nevertheless, this is the lowest level at which scientists ever attempted to draw historical diagrams of life, and thus species are assumed as discrete spatio-temporal evolutionary entities in most attempts to determine ToL. Loops are inherited from the previous levels; therefore a complete species graph can only be a network. In summary, the mere existence of sexual reproduction, i.e., the fusion of gametes, at these four levels of organization is the principal reason explaining the network structure in the history of life, with other processes being rare or affecting mostly prokaryotes. The tree property comes into focus again if we consider that increased biological distances between distinct lineages prevent interbreeding, which means that they can never fuse again. The minimum distance for complete separation is indirectly reflected by traditional systematics: species belonging to different families, orders or higher Linnaean taxa never form hybrids, and the history of life, if viewed at a large taxonomic scale, will be dominated by ramifications. At first glance, then, one may think that aggregation of species into nodes representing higher taxa resolves the tree versus network dilemma in favor of the former. Historically important examples for this view are Lamarck’s Tableau and some of Haeckel’s trees (e.g., for plant phylogeny, see Fig. 3 in Dayrat 2003). Interestingly, Darwin also played with this idea when he drew a sketch for mammalian evolution in 1857 or 1858 (see Fig. 4.6 in Archibald 2014): this figure is in fact a graph theoretical tree, with a question at the top of the diagram: “Let dots represent genera???” No matter how attractive, the proposal that Linnaean taxa are nodes, and that the edges depict their AD relations in a tree, is untenable for several reasons discussed later. Here, one of them deserves attention: if agglomeration of individuals into species is problematic because the temporal boundaries are not sharp, then the same problem transfers to groups of species as well. Jumping from one family into another when going from parent to offspring is even more unrealistic than the change of species identity (Podani 2009). 175 Finally, we can go down one step below the cells in the biological hierarchy, and construct “gene-trees” that are often associated with the notion of the ToL. Similarly to cells, individuals, populations and species, each single gene also has a unique history, which is predominantly treelike (Maddison 1997; Dickerman 1998). This is shaped by various processes of mutation, recombination, gene duplication and extinction, and horizontal gene transfer via cell fusions, viruses and extracellular parasites, as well as by the physical environment. Genes or their encoded proteins, sampled from individuals of selected species, have been generally used for phylogenetic studies, and comparisons suggest that species-level trees based on individual genes may be remarkably different from one another and rarely identical. Some authors therefore suggest (Puigbò et al. 2009, 2013; the idea originated in Dickerman 1998) that no universal ToL exists, and that the concept should be substituted by the Forest of Life (FoL), consisting of gene trees. Puigbò et al., on the other hand, agree that the congruence among many gene trees is much higher than expected by random, suggesting the existence of a single statistical ToL. Forterre (2015) concludes that the history of genes is “incredibly complex” and the universal tree should reflect the evolutionary history of cells, as envelopes of the genetic apparatus, rather than the change of their genome composition. Unlike cells or individuals, genes are not living entities, and may only be—more or less reliable—markers of phylogenetic relationships. Under what circumstances this history can be shown by a mathematical tree is an issue to be examined later in this paper. In the next sections, I shall first assume what most authors do: the ToL (i.e., a tree) is a meaningful summary at the level of species. Scope, Taxon Sampling and Diversity Whereas the ToL has obvious connotation to the entirety of life, its use is often confined to a subset of the living world: expressions such as the “prokaryotic tree of life” (McInerney et al. 2008), “plant tree of life” (Soltis et al. 2018), “fungal tree of life”, “tree of life of birds” or “amphibian tree of life” (Supplementary Table S1) are not uncommon. This is unfortunate, because in this way the ToL may end up with the same fate as the infamous “family tree”, for example, which in most publications had nothing to do with actual families (understood either in the everyday sense of the word or as a rank in systematics). Footnote10 To clarify the issue, I suggest the use of the mathematically well-established term subtree (e.g., “avian subtree of life”) whenever attention is focused on a well-circumscribed set of species, i.e., a higher taxon. The true ToL is therefore expected to include the widest possible range of cellular organisms, representing both domains of prokaryotes as well as eukaryotic protists, fungi, plants, animals and other groups (viruses excluded, see Moreira and López-Garcia 2009; Forterre 2015, for arguments). For extant species, most published phylogenies are based directly or indirectly on molecular data, and the resulting tree has as many leaves (terminal nodes or vertices) as the number of species examined. In such trees, especially those published before 2010, eukaryotes are usually underrepresented, since a higher proportion of bacterial species had been analyzed for nucleotide sequences than eukaryotes. ToLs with prokaryote-dominance (see column 6 in Supplementary Table S2) provide a strongly biased view on the richness of (extant) life, because the number of known species in this group is two magnitudes smaller than that of eukaryotes (ca. 20,000 vs. ca. 2 million). 176 The one graph theoretical ToL biologists are looking for should theoretically include around 2 million terminals, which is impossible in practice even with the currently popular circular arrangements. Some authors have tried to circumvent the problem by a more balanced taxon sampling: for example, Hillis et al. (Fig. 230 in Pietsch 2012; Supplementary Table S2) reduced the proportion of prokaryotes to less than 2%. Hedges et al. (2015) included more than 50,000 species in a large tree arranged in a spiral format, with a proportion of eukaryotes close to the true value of 99.5%. A very large number of species are found in the ToL diagram compiled by Yifan Hu (reproduced on pp. 120–121 in Lima 2013, see also at http://yifanhu.net/TOL/tol_9_19_2011.jpg), allegedly more than 90,000, but the choice of taxa is completely arbitrary, most of them are unlabeled, and the overall appearance of the tree is chaotic; and thus it does not improve our understanding of the natural order of life. One might suggest therefore that the ToL need not be shown at the species level, but “higher” taxa should appear as terminal nodes. This solution, although not uncommon (e.g., families or “family-level” taxa in Hedges and Kumar 2009; Supplementary Table S2) is problematic for two main reasons: (1) the choice of higher taxa (either Linnaean or cladistic) can only be subjective, and (2) the species richness of these groups cannot be demonstrated graphically by proper mathematical trees. As a result, taxon sampling is still unbalanced, and some groups receive too much emphasis (vertebrates take ca. one-third of the tree tips in the ToL of Hedges and Kumar 2009). Even the number of higher taxa may be exceedingly large: in this diagram the total number of tips exceeds 1600, so that the terminal edges of the tree do not separate, and large clades cannot be distinguished without the use of different colors. The same is true for the spiral ToL (Hedges et al. 2015), in which tips are actually species but only large clades are labeled and colored differently. Again, this ToL is biased: about twice as many vertebrates as arthropods are included (actual richness values are ca. 67,000 vs. ca. 1,170,000). As well, angiosperms and vertebrates are exposed at the order level but major invertebrate groups are overlooked: names such as Mollusca, Insecta, Coleoptera and Lepidoptera do not even appear in the diagram. Although the spiral arrangement allowed an increased taxon sampling, the tree itself is squeezed into a narrow strip, and the bifurcating pattern is hard—if not impossible—to ascertain. The tree drawn by Hedges et al. is therefore more like a curiously arranged classification than an easily conceivable ToL. In conclusion, a mathematical tree cannot visualize the phylogenetic relationships of known extant life without bias towards particular groups. Drawing a species-level tree is definitely a big data problem: the enormous technical difficulties are demonstrated lucidly by Eiserhardt et al. (2018): a tree even for extant plant species only would require a ca. 1660 m long piece of paper if the labels were given in a nine-point font—twice as much as the height of the tallest man-made construction in the world (Burj Khalifa in Dubai). For a similar graph for 2 million species, the paper length would be around 10 km! Some authors suggest, therefore, that no single drawing of the ToL is appropriate; and the use of several subtrees in a suitable navigational environment is recommended—a practice already followed by some books (e.g., Lecointre and Le Guyader 2007; Hedges and Kumar 2009; Vargas and Zardoya 2012) and internet applications (e.g., Maddison and Schulz 2007; Rosindell and Harmon 2012; de Vienne 2016). Representing Extinct Species and Their Groups 177 While the large number of species induces serious problems in tree (and network) visualization, it is generally agreed that, if the ToL is to be about the history of life, then extinct species or their groups should also be included (Donoghue and Cracraft 2004, p. 3; Gogarten and Townsend 2005). This further increases the number of entities to be represented in the graph. Darwin probably agreed with this requirement—the only figure in the Origin may be interpreted as a model tree showing ancestor–descendant relationships (Dayrat 2005) at the population level, as said above. Of course, a ToL determined merely on the basis of molecular information cannot include fossils—it refers to the past of organisms living in a single slice of time and stratigraphic information is only used for calibration (Benton 2001; Benton and Ayala 2003; Benton and Donoghue 2007; Forest 2009; Clarke and Boyd 2015). However, depicting who is sister to whom is only part of the story; such cladograms are therefore by no means “reconstructions” of phylogeny. Simultaneous representation of extinct and extant species in the same tree requires careful synthesis of molecular and morphological cladograms, which is a great challenge for contemporary biology. This practice is relatively rare at the level of the ToL, and extinct taxa, if included, usually appear only in subtrees of life. For example, in diagrams of the Tree of Life project (Maddison and Schulz 2007), extinct and extant species or genera appear as sister nodes—that is, all entities are terminals on the tree. The same is true for the internet application developed by Rosindell and Harmon (2012) and de Vienne (2016). Recent approaches to modelbased phenetic reconstruction of phylogeny (Puttick et al. 2017) also provide cladograms with all taxa as terminal nodes. This is a problem, because one cannot exclude the possibility that any fossil is an ancestor to another or to an extant species (Foote 1996), especially if the fossil lacks apomorphic characters.Footnote12 The sister group relationship is thus questionable, so that the branching topology is not necessarily a faithful representation of evolutionary pathways.Footnote13 Since we can rarely (or never) answer the question as to whether a fossil is ancestor of or an extinct sister to another species, a historical ToL will always be impossible to derive for theoretical reasons. There is also a more or less practical problem well-known for everyone from Darwin’s time to our molecular era: the fossil record is extremely incomplete and unbalanced. The fact that only 250,000 or so fossil species have been described until now clearly demonstrates our limited knowledge about past life. Clearly, the various taxonomic groups have very different probabilities of being preserved (Donoghue and Yang 2016), e.g., for soft-bodied organisms it is nearly zero; and the discovery of fossils has always been the matter of luck. Raup (1992) estimates that at least 99% of “all species that lived in the past have disappeared forever, and these are not only unicellular organisms. We can safely say, therefore, that the Darwinian, truly historical, ToL together with its subtrees is absolutely unknowable with species as nodes. The same statement holds true for a historical NoL with similar taxonomic resolution. If the idea of illustrating ancestor–descendant relationships by a tree is unrealistic, then do we have to give up every attempt at visualizing the paleontological past? Can we still compile a diagram that shows at least the known diversity of extinct groups and its change over time as well? To find an answer we have to go back in time: this goal is achieved by an old-style graphical tool that has become almost completely forgotten, the so-called romerogram, or spindle (bubble-, balloon-) diagram formerly so popular in paleontology. 178 Archetypes of these diagrams were drawn by paleontologists (including the non-evolutionists Louis Agassiz and Edward Hitchcock) in the nineteenth century. Thanks to Osborn (1917), Vialleton (1929) and especially to Romer (1945), after whom this type of diagram is named, such images were extensively used for demonstrating temporal changes in the richness of vertebrate groups in the fossil record. Other uses include paleobotany (Stewart and Rothwell 1993) and echinoderm systematics (Sprinkle 1992), but see Pietsch (2012), for a fuller account. More apt are the other informal terms for the diagram, because the “spindles” are meant to illustrate the beginning and the end of the existence of a (higher Linnaean) taxon over geological time. The width of the spindle is proportional to the diversity of the represented group at any point of time. Its widest part corresponds to the period when the taxon reached its highest diversity, and a given spindle may have submaxima as well. Within-group relationships of taxa are thus omitted; this problem is set aside by using the completely filled spindle shape. In Romer’s work, some spindles were directly connected to others, demonstrating “ancestordescendant” relationships between these groups, but the connecting lines were dotted in most cases, reflecting uncertainty of the relationships. The cladistic component in these diagrams was therefore weak, if present at all. Viewed by modern eyes, there was another disadvantage: derivation of one group from another leads to obvious paraphyly of the ancestor. For these reasons, romerograms are no longer used in the form originally proposed. More recently, another vertebrate paleontologist, Benton (2005) combined the advantages of romerograms with cladograms. In his diagrams, no group was derived directly from another while the terminal “edges” were drawn like spindles to illustrate relative diversity of the groups.Footnote15 Although the author himself, and other sources as well, refer to these diagrams as evolutionary “trees” (e.g., Fig. 4.21 on p. 105 in Benton 2005), these are neither mathematical trees nor do they bear any resemblance to woody plants. But then, what in fact are they? Is the Tree the Best Metaphor? As generally accepted, bifurcations during the evolutionary process may be best illustrated by “tree-like” diagrams. Rooted mathematical trees are applicable to depict both SG and AD relationships, but their use as a true ToL necessarily is burdened by visualization problems and epistemological limitations. Diagrams resembling “botanical” trees in shape are less often displayed in scientific publications (but see examples in Supplementary Table S2) while they are more commonly used for educational purposes (e.g., museum displays, MacDonald 2010), and may serve as alternatives. An internet search for biologically relevant images reveals that in fact the “Tree of life” takes the form of a plant almost as often as it does the mathematical construct. In this section I examine whether this botanical simile is indeed useful for scientific purposes. It was Darwin himself who realized early in his career that the tree (of life) metaphor may not be the best choice. After returning from his voyage around the world, he first formulated his 179 pioneering ideas on the transmutation of species, and drew several branching diagrams for hypothetical taxa in his notebooks. By examining these writings, not published until the 20th century and made available on the internet only fairly recently, we find that he was more hesitant than suggested by the passage cited in the Introduction from the Origin. After “discovering” the ToL (as Eldredge 2005 put it), in Notebook B (Darwin 1837, p. 23) he added a most remarkable comment (Darwin 1837, p. 25), as pointed out by many authors (De Beer 1960, p. 44; Hull 1985; Bredekamp 2005; Voss 2007; Gayon 2011): The tree of life should perhaps be called the coral of life, base of branches dead; so that passages cannot be seen. This is a clear reference to the branching true corals,Footnote16 which he examined at several stops during his travel; and it may also recall some coralline red algae collected in South America (Bredekamp 2005; Maderspacher 2006). The coralline algae had a branched macroscopic structure similar to corals, and were fossilized thanks to a hard crust of lime deposited on their surface. Two small drawings on the next page of the same notebook may be considered as illustrations of the coral concept (Fig. 1a). 180 a Darwin’s drawings on page 26 of his Notebook B—which may be considered as the first instances of corals, which he specifically mentions on the previous page. Heuristic visual models for the Coral of Life, as simplified from b Zhaxybayeva and Gogarten (2007) and c Gaucher et al. (2010). Lineages leading to extant entities are in black Darwin did not elaborate this idea any further; and later in the same notebook he used “Tree of life” again, just as he had in Notebooks C and D (1838), and later in the manuscript form of the Origin (“Natural Selection”, Stauffer 1975) and its final version. We can only assume that Darwin gave up his early musing on corals under strong influence from Victorian society because: a) the Tree of Life as a metaphor taken from the Bible appeared to him as more convincing and attractive for religious readers of his writings; b) genealogical (or “family”) trees for ruling dynasties and large families were also common and well-known in the 19th century; and c) the heavily and sometimes nicely branching tree plants were more familiar to everyone than corals, which are simple and obscure organisms observable only in marine environments. Thus, choice in favor of trees was almost a necessity, “historically and culturally, not scientifically, predicated” (Hellström 2012). However, as some authors note today, Darwin’s skepticism was well-grounded—the tree is inferior to (branching) corals, even as a metaphor for populations, which form a continuous stretch in space and time, very often “decorated” by splits (bi- or multifurcations) and broken by extinctions. First of all, as implied by Darwin’s comment, only the uppermost parts of a coral are alive, with the older branches being dead. The fragments may be accumulated over millions of years on the sea floor, thus producing atolls, for example, which Darwin knew very well. A potentially 1000 m thick layer of dead material may be a better allegory of the extinct past than is a tree, since trees are alive from the lowest parts (apical root cells) to the tips of ultimate leaves. Furthermore, a coral starts to grow upwards on the rock (or other) surface as a tiny polyp, and ramifies later. Contrarily, a tree grows from seed into two directions, to develop underground parts, the roots, which may be just as large and similarly branched as the distal part, the crown. Therefore, the root-trunk-crown system, i.e., the entire plant, cannot serve at all as an appropriate metaphor of evolution or phylogeny. The third problem has to do with the shape of the parts: coral branches may be fairly even in diameter, sometimes wider above than below, suggesting that the abundance of organisms they may represent diagrammatically did not necessarily change much over time. An average tree, regarding its visible parts, is the thickest at the ground level, and then decreases gradually in diameter along the trunk, towards the limbs, smaller branches and then to twigs. This gives the false impression that richness (in whatever sense) or abundance of populations is continuously diminishing over time, which is obviously not the case. The fourth serious difficulty with the tree metaphor is the most widely recognized argument against its use. Once bifurcated, tree branches do not fuse again under normal circumstances, whereas separate evolutionary lineages may be merged through cell fusions. At this point I will recall what has been said in the section on biological hierarchy: a complete ToL cannot be a mathematical tree, but is a network at all levels from the cellular to the species. Several authors 181 have argued that Darwin’s almost forgotten suggestion may resolve this problem, as well. In particular: the compact dump of fragmented coral may stand for the effect of lateral relationships that confound the vertical pattern of inheritance (Fournier et al. 2009); corals grow on each other, thus symbolizing competitive struggle (Müller-Ville 2009); and many coral species (fan corals) exhibit a more or less anastomosing structure anyway (Olendzenski and Gogarten 2009), especially near the base of the colony. Olendzenski and Gogarten (2009) and Müller-Ville (2009) even suggested that the unknown past of lineages may be best represented by an entire coral reef. Zhaxybayeva and Gogarten (2007) presented first a graphical model they called tentatively the “tree of life/coral of life” with several merging extinct lineages (see Fig. 1b). In another graphical scheme, Gaucher et al. (2010) used corals to distinguish between two major phases of evolution, the first dominated by horizontal inheritance and the second by vertical (Fig. 1c). These early heuristics were not elaborated further, and no other uses of the coral have been published in this context. The question remains: trees or corals? To clarify the problem of confounding mathematical trees and botanical tree metaphors, which often cause misinterpretation of phylogenetic relationships, I have suggested (Podani 2017) as a first step the use of the term Branching Silhouette Diagram (BSD). This refers to drawings conveying phylogenetic/evolutionary information, but which do not qualify as mathematical trees. I also provided a definition for its four main types, according to whether time is considered or disregarded and whether the BSD portrays AD or SG relationships; this elevates these images from the status of metaphors to that of mathematical constructs. By revitalizing Darwin’s early musing and operationalizing all other proposals mentioned above, I defined corals as diachronous BSDs, embedded into the time dimension— thereby showing AD relationships. This is in full agreement with Darwin’s note and its subsequent interpretations. Each point in the coral may represent an individual, a population, a species or even a higher taxon, depending on the objectives of the researcher. Thus, it contains as special cases the romerograms, the stem “trees” (Wiley and Lieberman 2011) and other tree-like structures within which certain events or processes (e.g., lineage sorting) may be displayed (the latter often referred to as “species trees” in the literature of molecular genetics, e.g., Maddison 1997Footnote18; Nakhleh 2013). The horizontal time slice of the coral corresponds to a partition of organisms, and the width of the branches may be drawn to be proportional to the relative diversity of the corresponding class in the partition. By zooming deeply into the coral, it becomes a graph with individuals as nodes and links depicting parent/offspring relationships (“tokogenetic” graphs of Hennig 1966; as in Maddison and Maddison 1992; Baum and Smith 2013). The other type of BSD which shows AD relationships is the achronous cactus (named after Bessey’s famous diagram, see e.g., Pietsch 2012, Fig. 112), in which pads (nopales) represent higher taxonomic categories. In this diagram, a descendant higher taxon may be extinct, while its ancestor taxon is still surviving. Consequently the time dimension is scrambled, whence the name. BSDs depicting the SG (rather than AD) relationship among entities have two different versions, both reminiscent of the traditional “botanical” or figurative tree diagrams drawn by Haeckel (1866): the synchronous and asynchronous oaks. They are, in practice, cladograms for organisms 182 living at a given point of time or at any point of time, respectively; but they may be artistically designed with a thick trunk and continuously tapered branches and twigs. Figure 2 summarizes this classification of BSDs, allowing a comparison with the analogous four groups distinguished among mathematical trees. In Supplementary Table S2, there are examples of these categories, represented by icons reduced from the original figures (col. 2) and classified into tree or BSD types (col. 12). This table demonstrates that all eight possible combinations (tree or BSD × time considered or disregarded × AD or SG) of tree-like phylogenetic/evolutionary diagrams are represented in the sample collection of ToLs, the most common type being the synchronous tree (= cladogram), which is the typical result of molecular phylogenetic investigations. Fig. 2 183 Typification and illustration of trees and tree-like phylogenetic diagrams according to Podani (2013, 2017). Upper four: mathematical trees, lower four: branching silhouette diagrams, ADR ancestor–descendant relationships, SGR sister group relationships. (filled circle) extant entity, (open circle): extinct entity (except for the coral and the oak branches) To recapitulate what has been said so far, corals are more suitable than trees to express both phylogenetic relationships and the changing diversity of groups simultaneously, i.e., the history of life, as both metaphors and mathematical objects. The use of coral branches solves many problems that a tree cannot: (1) species need not appear as separate nodes, as in trees, and this way the species delineation problem is circumvented; (2) the relative richness of groups and its changes over time may be visualized; (3) AD relationships are assumed to exist along the branches, without the need to explicitly display any particular fossil, known or hypothetical; and (4) different genetic events and processes associated with evolution may be drawn onto the corals. Importantly, the coral has a cladistic component, i.e., the relation corals ⊃ trees exists. A further advantage is that corals may be modified, if necessary, to accommodate horizontal events as well, leading to fan corals for which the definition is given in Supplementary Fig. S2. Fan corals are thus analogous to networks. We must keep in mind that coral diagrams have a branching structure because the partition of organisms changes over time (due to speciation and extinction), i.e., there must be a temporally interpretable underlying classification. This leads us to the last topic to be discussed in detail, namely historical taxonomy. The classification of organisms is traditionally Linnaean (= rank-based): species are grouped into genera, genera into families, families into orders, and so on, up to phyla and then to kingdoms. In other words, there is an inclusive hierarchy that implies that species in the same genus are more closely related morphologically to each other than to members of other genera. Likewise, genera in a given family are closer to one another than they are to genera in other families. As a consequence, the morphological gap is narrower between two genera in the same family than between two families in the same order; and these relationships hold true all the way up the hierarchy. Also, the system of ranks implies that differences between plant genera in the same family are “commensurable”, for example, with those between genera of a given animal family. This system was developed long before the theory of evolution, with the intention to classify organisms living at the present slice of time. Although Linnaeus did have some knowledge about fossils as well, he deliberately classified them among the rocks. For him, classification of petrified forms was not a real problem to worry about, for reasons I need not elaborate here. Evolutionary theory has always been a major challenge to this system. Lamarck (1809, p. 20) asserted that nature did not produce classes, orders, families and even species, only individual organisms, which follow one another in time and resemble each other—taxa are merely our inventions, he said. Darwin (1862, pp. 330–331) warned that the system of ranks would not work if we knew more details about past life. It is due to the absence of extinct forms and “to the consequent wide gaps in the series, that we are enabled to divide the existing species into definable groups, such as genera, families, and tribes”. In the Origin (Darwin 1859, p. 330), he commented that groups that clearly separable at present, based on many characters, have much 184 fewer differences for their ancient members, In other words: (1) ranks are arbitrarily assigned to groups; (2) in the evolutionary continuum taxa can only be separated artificially; and (3) the Linnaean hierarchy is meaningless if the recent grouping is projected into the past, because the morphological gaps diminish when we go back in time. Thus, the Linnaean system is meaningful, at best, at a given slice of time (as Crowson 1970 has suggested), but the assignment of ranks still remains arbitrary anyway. The conceptual basis for a classification that is fully compatible with evolution is almost as old as the idea of natural selection itself. Darwin, in yet another book (Darwin 1871, vol. 1, p. 188) wrote: [The natural system,] …it is now generally admitted, must be, as far as possible, genealogical in arrangement,– that is, the co-descendants of the same form must be kept together in one group, apart from the co-descendants of any other form; but if the parent-forms are related, so will be their descendants, and the two groups together will form a larger group… In this way, Darwin makes clear that there is a single, natural system in the organic world, the one true classification governed by a natural process, evolution. Darwin’s proposal was made operational by Hennig (1966), who launched the cladistic approach. He made central to his theory the requirement that every group in a classification should consist of an ancestor and all of its descendants—any other groups are non-natural. The natural groups, called clades, can be circumscribed in (mathematical) tree representations differently, depending on the type of the underlying graph (Supplementary Fig. S3ab). In trees showing AD relations, a clade contains an ancestor node and all of its descendant nodes. In cladograms, which depict SG relations, a clade is the set of all and only those terminal nodes that derive from the same ancestor node, i.e., a complete sister group system (Nelson 1971), in which case the ancestor is usually unknown and hypothetical. The contents of a clade, however, need not be enumerated extensively; another possibility is to define clades intensionally through membership rules (described in detail in the PhyloCode; Cantino and de Queiroz 2010). For example, an apomorphy-based clade contains a—usually hypothetical—ancestor in which the apomorphic character originated, and all of its descendants. To illustrate this concept, the ancestor is placed somewhere between two nodes in the phylogenetic “tree”—which means that visualization is in fact by corals rather than trees (Supplementary Fig. S3c). In a coral model, branches are analogous to monophyletic groups, or clades in AD trees: a branch contains an ancestor class (group of organisms) and all of its descendant classes (Supplementary Fig. S3d). Despite his pioneering role in disseminating cladistic thinking, Hennig did not refute the Linnaean system, and supported assignment of ranks to clades. This is not logical, however, because increasing ranks imply the existence of increasing gaps, as noted above, while there are no restrictions regarding minimum (morphological or molecular) differences between clades. The genealogical hierarchy, although it is also inclusive (large clades include smaller ones, etc.) does not require this. Although there is increasing support in the scientific community to place the classification of the living world onto an evolutionary basis, the Linnaean view persists. Newly discovered fossils are still forced into the straightjacket of the rank-based scheme. Many recent “reconstructions” of the molecular phylogeny of particular groups aim to revise or refine the Linnaean classification, 185 thereby rearranging the contents of families, orders and other higher taxa, and reallocating many species from one genus to the other. There is no consensus, even between the supporters of the cladistic approach, regarding the implementation of classifications and nomenclature—for historical, practical, technical and personal reasons. Direct followers of the Hennigian approach usually insist upon ranks even though the classification is derived entirely from a cladistic framework. For example, Benton (2005, Appendix), who was the first to combine clades with romerograms, adopts a completely ranked classification for vertebrates, with an inevitable over-proliferation of categories (for example, superlegion, legion, sublegion, infralegion, cohort, magnorder, grandorder, mirorder, etc. inserted between standard ranks). Through all versions published to date, the (APG (Angiosperm Phylogeny Group 2016) insists that angiosperms be divided first into unranked clades (such as eudicots ⊃ superasterids ⊃ campanulids) but then—all of a sudden—arranged into Linnaean orders and families. Many articles in Wikipedia refer to classifications in which clades and ranked categories are intermingled—thereby triggering taxonomic chaos rather than clarifying the concept of a natural genealogical order, which confuses the readers of this popular digital encyclopedia. In published ToLs, as columns 8–9 in Supplementary Table S2 indicate, the use of ranks is a fairly general practice, with some authors explicitly referring to families and orders, for example, as integral parts of the classification projected to, or deducted from, the tree. A few ToLs that show only major groups of life (up to 30–40) rely apparently on clades, but these diagrams do not provide classification details within these groups, so that the authors’ attitude towards ranks remains undisclosed. Parts of ToLs visualized as subtrees contain Linnaean taxa (for instance, those inherited from the APG classification of plants) in all of the books and internet resources listed in the supplement. To my knowledge, therefore, no high-resolution ToL is available that is completely free from the non-evolutionary idea of Linnaean ranks. The Coral of Life After examining major criteria for tree-like diagrams of life in detail, relying largely upon published work and my own evaluation, we may conclude that the graphical scheme showing as many aspects of the history of life as possible should ideally be:  Cladistic: evolutionary divergence events, as the most essential elements of the phylogenetic process, are depicted similarly to trees;  Chronological: the diagram is embedded in the time dimension, preferably at a linear scale, which demonstrates the depth of time needed for evolution more sensibly than the logarithmic or any other scale;  Paleontological: known extinct organisms (fossils) and their groups are also represented; 186  Historical: major events of macroevolution are noted, and other comments (about geological events, mass extinctions, for example) are included in the drawing area;  Self-similar: while a single main diagram should convey as much information as possible, its parts should be zoomable to show particulars;  Continuous: in the mathematical sense: in this way it is free from constraints imposed by discrete mathematics (graph theory), which is especially critical when species (or higher taxa) are taken as distinct historical entities;  Anastomosing: the diagram tolerates reticulation events, which are either hidden within coral segments or are explicitly shown as links between two segments;  Rank-free: a classification of past and present life is superimposed on the diagram, and groups are named such that the non-evolutionary taxonomic concept of ranks is neglected Proportional to diversity: species richness is visualized at the same scale for all groups, according to the best available information, thus illustrating faithfully how biodiversity is distributed over the different groups.  All of these criteria are satisfied simultaneously by a coral diagram inserted into a 2 dimensional coordinate system (Fig. 3, a high resolution poster-size image is supplied as Supplementary Fig. S4), with time as the vertical axis and species richness as the horizontal axis, and with each point representing a population of a species. Timing, and the division of geological time into eons, eras, periods and epochs (the latter appearing only in insets), follow the standards established by the International Commission of Stratigraphy (2018). The entire range of the horizontal axis corresponds to the 2 million species known today. The ordering of groups along this axis is arbitrary, because the diagram may be rotated at every branching point: usually larger or “more developed” groups are placed on the right. Here, prokaryotes are at the left, followed by excavates, plants, various groups of meta-algae and other protists, amoebozoa, fungi and then metazoa. Within the latter group, some “basal” branches, such as sponges are arranged first, followed by deuterostomia and protostomia. The small red arrow points to the position of our species, Homo sapiens, within the vertebrates. This group is deliberately positioned in the middle, to break with the long—selfish and misleading—tradition of placing humans at the end of a uni-dimensional ordering of life. Consistent with this, the most successful group in terms of species richness, namely the insects, and within this group, the beetles, are positioned at the right. Fig. 3 187 188 To the casual eye, the diagram is most reminiscent of romerograms, but in the coral the cladistic component is stronger and the classification is cladistic, rather than rank-based. This is meant to be a prototype of the Coral of Life, prepared using phylogenies and species richness data published in various sources, and divergence dates from the TimeTree of Life (timetree.org). Since estimated divergence dates are burdened with high uncertainty, and therefore have high variance for a given event (Morrison 2009), I used mean values whenever there was no conflict with the sequence of bifurcations—otherwise the dates had to be shifted a bit. The width of coral segments is proportional to species richness, scaled to the entire axis. The smallest line width is used for branches for which no richness data are available. Also, due to the constraining effect of line width, species richness of small groups cannot be visualized proportionally. This problem may be solved in the future by increasing the resolution of the figure. For many branches of the coral, where fossils are scarce or unavailable, the shapes were drawn to indicate gradual diversification, starting from the latest divergence event. This means that the coral still has a strong heuristic component—which may be reduced by experts of particular groups in further editions and revisions of the diagram. There is also an artistic element regarding the arched shape of branches, which may also be drawn differently. Colors are used to make distinctions between major branches of life: magenta for eubacteria, orange for archaea, black for various non-photosynthetic protists, green for photosynthetic eukaryotes and blue for unikonts (Amorphea: amoebozoa, fungi and animals). Classification into large nested branches is shown at the top using curly brackets. The self-similarity of the diagram is illustrated by four insets, gradually expanding the details for monocots (Monocotyledoneae), and within them for the branch of orchids (Orchidaceae), and then for Lady’s slipper orchids (Cypripedioideae), and finally for species assigned to the genus Cypripedium. The last inset is the only one explicitly using a fan coral, which demonstrates the ease with which orchids hybridize. Only natural hybrids are shown—in the laboratory hybrids may be formed for practically every pair species. Details of the other branches of life may be visualized similarly—presumably using a zooming tool, to be developed and implemented later, and preferably as an internet application. Major horizontal events in the main diagram are indicated by dotted or dashed arrows. At the current scale, I can show relatively few events involving cell fusion (as hypothesized for the origin of eukaryotes, for example), which means that at this point the diagram is anastomosing, and is in fact a fan coral (Supplementary Fig. S2). Strongly zoomed parts of the diagram would have more horizontal coral segments, demonstrating hybridization, as shown for Cypripedium. Small stickers are used to label important evolutionary innovations (appearance of cell types, large branches) and to show the approximate position of enigmatic groups (Ediacara fauna). The red explosion marks on the right refer to the dates of major mass extinctions, including the one we experience today. The Tree of Life has its origins outside biology, being linked in a number of ways to religion, spirituality, mythology, ancient and folk art, literature, and the history of civilization. Consequently, it may be—and in practice is—interpreted with considerable freedom in the 189 humanities. This explains, but does not justify, why the meaning of the ToL in biological publications is also extremely ambiguous: it may be understood as a concept, a diagram, a metaphor, or a model, each visualized in many different ways. Although the ToL is expected to incorporate several features of the history of life on Earth simultaneously, most published ToL diagrams are limited in scope and taxonomic resolution; they have little or no paleontological relevance; they often neglect the time dimension; and the underlying classification contradicts evolution, i.e., is rank-based. The question as to whether the ToL can be drawn at all is raised mostly by microbiologists, who usually emphasize: (1) the discrepancy between gene trees; (2) the relationships of the three domains and the position of the root; (3) different phenomena leading to loops in the graph; and (4) whether ToL is to be understood at the level of genes, cells, individual organisms or higher up in the hierarchy of life. Due to the strong bias towards prokaryotes, 99% of known species are thus down-weighted in their diagrams. Notwithstanding that the tree condition is easily violated in the microbial world, these are predominantly synchronous cladograms, rooted or unrooted, with some genetic events indicated along edges—while metaphorical forms are rare (e.g. Doolittle 1999; McInerney et al. 2008). In systematics outside microbiology, the species ToL is the primary target, such that: (1) many diagrams are restricted to depicting relationships within a single “higher” taxon; 2) fossils, if they appear, are displayed as sisters to extant species; 3) the time dimension is ignored except for “timetrees”; and 4) tree-thinking is often metaphorical rather than graph theoretical. The tree property (no loops) is rarely questioned, although it is widely acknowledged that hybridization among closely related species is common. The fact that the term Tree of Life still dominates biological thinking is due to two main factors: 1) fitting trees to morphological or genetic data is computationally more feasible than calculating networks (cf. Morrison 2013, 2016); and 2) for the actual subset (or sample) of species selected in a study, the tree is indeed an approximately correct summary of evolutionary relationships, in many cases. Tree-generating algorithms have contributed a lot to our understanding of evolution and phylogeny, and will continue to do so in the future. However, if we carefully consider the different levels of biological organization, from cells to species, we can easily see that the history of the entirety of life is not tree-like in most parts. This is not because the histories of genes are incongruent—the predominance of sexual reproduction in eukaryotes alone explains the existence of both vertical and horizontal links in the immense historical graph of life. This might suggest that an appropriate display would rather be a directed graph, and our goal would therefore be to strive for the Network of Life (NoL). For visualizing the history of all of life, the “grandest earthly enterprise”, as a single picture, however, neither trees nor networks are feasible, for several reasons. The use of cells, individuals, populations or species has an obvious epistemological limitation: we do not and will never know sufficient details to prepare, or even to imagine such a diagram. We could restrict the contents to known extant and extinct species, but their number is too large to be shown by a single mathematical graph. Sampling evenly from the—otherwise arbitrary—higher taxa is not a 190 solution, because in this way species diversity of these groups cannot be portrayed graphically. Furthermore, graphs are tools of discrete mathematics, in which we assume that the operational units are distinguishable entities. But the living world fails to satisfy the discreteness criterion both in space and time, when it comes to categorizing individuals into species, and species into larger groups. To demonstrate continuity and fuzziness in the history of life, some other means of visualization is required. The use of the tree as a metaphor is not free from difficulties, either. The term tree has two definitions in science: one is botanical and the other is mathematical (see Glossary)—any other usage of the word can only be ambiguous and should therefore be avoided. Trees have several limitations even as metaphors of evolution or phylogeny, rendering them useless for scientific communication, in practice. These include that: (1) a tree is a living entity from the root tips to the topmost leaves, (2) it has a root system comparable in size and complexity to the crown, (3) the trunk and the branches continuously decrease upwards in diameter and, last but not least, (4) the branches normally do not form anastomoses. There is only one fundamental feature of trees that remains meaningful metaphorically, namely ramification. This property alone explains why in the history of science trees have become metaphors of hierarchical classification (starting with Peter Simon Pallas and Augustin Augier) or phylogeny (pioneered by Haeckel)—while the inconsistency of the other botanical characteristics of a tree with evolutionary thinking was largely ignored. We have to consult another important person in the history of biology, Darwin, to find a solution at the level of both metaphors and mathematical objects. He suggested that corals or coral-like branching creatures (such as certain algae) of the sea could be a better metaphor of evolution than a tree. A branching coral is free from problems 1-3 mentioned above, and a fan-coral may have horizontally connected branches as well. Furthermore, an entire coral as a continuous object may also represent sensibly the spatio-temporal continuum of populations, species or their groups. This way, drawing a coral is not burdened with the necessity of specifying every detail in the diagram, unlike for trees and directed networks. Although the idea of a coral has long been neglected, many types of figures used in biology in the past 100 years are actually comparable to the concept Darwin had in mind. These include romerograms, “phylogenetic stem trees”, and gene-tree enclosing “species trees” of molecular genetics. The coral as a visual model of phylogeny re-appeared only a few years ago (Zhaxybayeva and Gogarten 2007; Gaucher et al. 2010), apparently escaping general attention, and was defined mathematically as the most common instance of branching silhouette diagrams even more recently (Podani 2017). Raising the coral to the level of mathematically definable constructs allows the examination of its potential for replacing trees and networks to illustrate the history of life as a single diagram. I have presented a prototype of the Coral of Life which, being embedded in the time versus species richness space, depicts simultaneously many meaningful aspects of the history of life, such as evolutionary divergence, chronology, paleontology, and some major evolutionary innovations. As such, this diagram is suitable for educational purposes even in its present form, while its precise structure may be continuously refined in the future. The coral diagram, and its zoomed parts, may not only capture biological history but also provide a solution to the problem raised by Avise (2009, p. 23), namely the need for a “first ever universally standardized scheme of biological classification”. The shift from tree- or network-thinking to coral-thinking is 191 inevitably complemented by a change from the Linnaean system to a genealogy-based classificatory scheme, in which coral branches are distinguished as taxa. This will not be easy, because the tree simile is at least as deeply anchored in our brains as is the rank-based classification of life. The Angiosperm Phylogeny Group, or APG, is an informal international group of systematic botanists who collaborate to establish a consensus on the taxonomy of flowering plants (angiosperms) that reflects new knowledge about plant relationships discovered through phylogenetic studies. As of 2016, four incremental versions of a classification system have resulted from this collaboration, published in 1998, 2003, 2009 and 2016. An important motivation for the group was what they considered deficiencies in prior angiosperm classifications since they were not based on monophyletic groups (i.e., groups that include all the descendants of a common ancestor). APG publications are increasingly influential, with a number of major herbaria changing the arrangement of their collections to match the latest APG system.         1Angiosperm classification and the APG 2Principles of the APG system 3APG I (1998) 4APG II (2003) 5APG III (2009) 6APG IV (2016) 7Updates 8Members of the APG o 8.1Listed as "author" of one or more of the papers o 8.2Listed as "contributor" to one or more of the papers Angiosperm classification and the APG In the past, classification systems were typically produced by an individual botanist or by a small group. The result was a large number of systems (see List of systems of plant taxonomy). Different systems and their updates were generally favoured in different countries. Examples are the Engler system in continental Europe, the Bentham & Hooker system in Britain (particularly influential because it was used by Kew), the Takhtajan system in the former Soviet Union and countries within its sphere of influence and the Cronquist system in the United States.[1] Before the availability of genetic evidence, the classification of angiosperms (also known as flowering plants, Angiospermae, Anthophyta or Magnoliophyta) was based on their morphology (particularly of their flower) and biochemistry (the kinds of chemical compounds in the plant). After the 1980s, detailed genetic evidence analysed by phylogenetic methods became available and while confirming or clarifying some relationships in existing classification systems, it radically changed others. This genetic evidence created a rapid increase in knowledge that led to many proposed changes; stability was "rudely shattered".[2] This posed problems for all users of 192 classification systems (including encyclopaedists). The impetus came from a major molecular study published in 1993 based on 5000 flowering plants and a photosynthesis gene (rbcL).[4] This produced a number of surprising results in terms of the relationships between groupings of plants, for instance the dicotyledons were not supported as a distinct group. At first there was a reluctance to develop a new system based entirely on a single gene. However, subsequent work continued to support these findings. These research studies involved an unprecedented collaboration between a very large number of scientists. Therefore, rather than naming all the individual contributors a decision was made to adopt the name Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification, or APG for short.[4] The first publication under this name was in 1998,[2] and attracted considerable media attention.[4] The intention was to provide a widely accepted and more stable point of reference for angiosperm classification. As of 2016, three revisions have been published, in 2003 (APG II), in 2009 (APG III) and in 2016 (APG IV), each superseding the previous system. Thirteen researchers have been listed as authors to the three papers, and a further 43 as contributors (see Members of the APG below).[5] A classification presents a view at a particular point in time, based on a particular state of research. Independent researchers, including members of the APG, continue to publish their own views on areas of angiosperm taxonomy. Classifications change, however inconvenient this is to users. However, the APG publications are increasingly regarded as an authoritative point of reference and the following are some examples of the influence of the APG system:     A significant number of major herbaria, including Kew, are changing the order of their collections in accordance with APG. The influential World Checklist of Selected Plant Families (also from Kew) is being updated to the APG III system.[7] In the United States in 2006, a photographic survey of the plants of the USA and Canada is organized according to the APG II system. In the UK, the 2010 edition of the standard flora of the British Isles (by Stace) is based on the APG III system. The previous editions were based on the Cronquist system.[9] Principles of the APG system The principles of the APG's approach to classification were set out in the first paper of 1998, and have remained unchanged in subsequent revisions. Briefly, these are:[2]    The Linnean system of orders and families should be retained. "The family is central in flowering plant systematics." An ordinal classification of families is proposed as a "reference tool of broad utility". Orders are considered to be of particular value in teaching and in studying family relationships. Groups should be monophyletic (i.e. consist of all descendants of a common ancestor). The main reason why existing systems are rejected is because they do not have this property, they are not phylogenetic. A broad approach is taken to defining the limits of groups such as orders and families. Thus of orders, it is said that a limited number of larger orders will be more useful. Families containing only a single genus and orders containing only a single family are avoided where this is possible without violating the over-riding requirement for monophyly. 193  Above or parallel to the level of orders and families, the term clades is used more freely. (Some clades have later been given formal names in a paper associated with the 2009 revision of the APG system.[10]) The authors say that it is "not possible, nor is it desirable" to name all clades in a phylogenetic tree; however, systematists need to agree on names for some clades, particularly orders and families, to facilitate communication and discussion. For a detailed discussion on phylogenetic nomenclature, see Cantino et al. (2007).[11]) APG I (1998 The initial 1998 paper by the APG made angiosperms the first large group of organisms to be systematically re-classified primarily on the basis of genetic characteristics.[2] The paper explained the authors' view that there is a need for a classification system for angiosperms at the level of families, orders and above, but that existing classifications were "outdated". The main reason why existing systems were rejected was because they were not phylogenetic, i.e. not based on strictly monophyletic groups (groups which consist of all descendants of a common ancestor). An ordinal classification of flowering plant families was proposed as a "reference tool of broad utility". The broad approach adopted to defining the limits of orders resulted in the recognition of 40 orders, compared to, for example, 232 in Takhtajan's 1997 classification.[2][1] In 1998 only a handful of families had been adequately studied, but the primary aim was to obtain a consensus on the naming of higher orders. Such a consensus proved relatively easy to achieve but the resultant tree was highly unresolved. That is, while the relationship of orders was established, their composition was not.[12] Other features of the proposed classification included:    Formal, scientific names are not used above the level of order, named clades being used instead. Thus eudicots and monocots are not given a formal rank on the grounds that "it is not yet clear at which level they should be recognized". A substantial number of taxa whose classification had traditionally been uncertain are given places, although there still remain 25 families of "uncertain position". Alternative classifications are provided for some groups, in which a number of families can either be regarded as separate or can be merged into a single larger family. For example, the Fumariaceae can either be treated as a separate family or as part of Papaveraceae. A major outcome of the classification was the disappearance of the traditional division of the flowering plants into two groups, monocots and dicots. The monocots were recognized as a clade, but the dicots were not, with a number of former dicots being placed in separate groups basal to both monocots and the remaining dicots, the eudicots or 'true dicots'.[2] The overall scheme was relatively simple. This consisted of a grade consisting of isolated taxa (referred to as ANITA), followed by the major angiosperm radiation, clades of monocots, magnolids and eudicots. The last being a large clade with smaller subclades and two main groupings, rosids and asterids, each in turn having two major subclades.[12] APG II (2003) 194 As the overall relationship between groups of flowering plants became clearer, the focus shifted to the family level, in particular those families generally accepted as problematic. Again, consensus was achieved relatively easily resulting in an updated classification at the family level.[12] The second paper published by the APG in 2003 presented an update to the original classification of 1998. The authors stated that changes were proposed only when there was "substantial new evidence" which supported them.[13] The classification continued the tradition of seeking broad circumscriptions of taxa, for example trying to place small families containing only one genus in a larger group. The authors stated that they have generally accepted the views of specialists, although noting that specialists "nearly always favour splitting of groups" regarded as too varied in their morphology.[13] APG II continued and indeed extends the use of alternative 'bracketed' taxa allowing the choice of either a large family or a number of smaller ones. For example, the large family Asparagaceae includes 7 'bracketed' families which can either be considered as part of the Asparagaceae or as separate families. Some of the main changes in APG II were:    New orders are proposed, particularly to accommodate the 'basal clades' left as families in the first system. Many of the previously unplaced families are now located within the system. Several major families are re-structured.[13] In 2007, a paper was published giving a linear ordering of the families in APG II, suitable for ordering herbarium specimens, for example.[14] APG III (2009) The third paper from the APG updates the system described in the 2003 paper. The broad outline of the system remains unchanged, but the number of previously unplaced families and genera is significantly reduced. This requires the recognition of both new orders and new families compared to the previous classification. The number of orders goes up from 45 to 59; only 10 families are not placed in an order and only two of these (Apodanthaceae and Cynomoriaceae) are left entirely outside the classification. The authors say that they have tried to leave longrecognized families unchanged, while merging families with few genera. They "hope the classification [...] will not need much further change."[6] A major change is that the paper discontinues the use of 'bracketed' families in favour of larger, more inclusive families. As a result, the APG III system contains only 415 families, rather than the 457 of APG II. For example, the agave family (Agavaceae) and the hyacinth family (Hyacinthaceae) are no longer regarded as distinct from the broader asparagus family (Asparagaceae). The authors say that alternative circumscriptions, as in APG I and II, are likely to cause confusion and that major herbaria which are re-arranging their collections in accordance with the APG approach have all agreed to use the more inclusive families. This approach is being increasingly used in collections in herbaria and botanic gardens. In the same volume of the journal, two related papers were published. One gives a linear ordering of the families in APG III; as with the linear ordering published for APG II, this is intended for ordering herbarium specimens, for example. The other paper gives, for the first time, a classification of the families in APG III which uses formal taxonomic ranks; previously only informal clade names were used above the ordinal level. 195 APG IV (2016 In the development of a fourth version there was some controversy over the methodology, [18] and the development of a consensus proved more difficult than in previous iterations.[5] In particular Peter Stevens questioned the validity of discussions regarding family delimitation in the absence of changes of phylogenetic relationships. Further progress was made by the use of large banks of genes, including those of plastid, mitochondrial and nuclear ribosomal origin, such as that of Douglas Soltis and colleagues (2011). The fourth version was finally published in 2016.[12] It arose from an international conference hosted at the Royal Botanical Gardens in September 2015[4] and also an online survey of botanists and other users. The broad outline of the system remains unchanged but several new orders are included (Boraginales, Dilleniales, Icacinales, Metteniusales and Vahliales), some new families are recognised (Kewaceae, Macarthuriaceae, Maundiaceae, Mazaceae, Microteaceae, Nyssaceae, Peraceae, Pete naeaceae and Petiveriaceae) and some previously recognised families are lumped (Aristolochiaceae now includes Lactoridaceae and Hydnoraceae; Restionaceae now reincludes Anarthriaceae and Centrolepidaceae; and Buxaceae now includes Haptanthaceae). Due to nomenclatural issues, the family name Asphodelaceae is used instead of Xanthorrhoeaceae, and Francoaceae is used instead of Melianthaceae (and now also includes Vivianiaceae). This brings the total number of orders and families recognized in the APG system to 64 and 416, respectively. Two additional informal major clades, superrosids and superasterids, that each comprise the additional orders that are included in the larger clades dominated by the rosids and asterids are also included. APG IV also uses the linear approach (LAPG) as advocated by Haston et al. (2009).In a supplemental file Byng et al. provide an alphabetical list of families by orders. Peter Stevens, one of the authors of all four of the APG papers, maintains a web site, the Angiosperm Phylogeny Website (APWeb), hosted by the Missouri Botanical Garden, which has been regularly updated since 2001, and is a useful source for the latest research in angiosperm phylogeny which follows the APG approach.[22] Other sources include the Angiosperm Phylogeny Poster and The Flowering Plants Handbook.[24] Members of the APG Listed as "author" of one or more of the papers Name APG APG I II APG III APG IV Birgitta Bremer c a a Swedish Academy of Sciences Kåre Bremer a a a Uppsala University; Stockholm University 196 Institutional affiliation James W. Byng Mark Chase Wayne a a a Maarten J.M. Christenhusz Michael F. Fay c c a Walter S. Judd David Mabberley J. James L. Reveal Alexander Sennikov N. Douglas Soltis E. a a Plant Gateway; University of Aberdeen a Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew a Plant Gateway; Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew a Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew a University of Florida a University of Oxford; Universiteit Leiden; Naturalis Biodiversity Center; Macquarie University; National Herbarium of New South Wales a University of Maryland; Cornell University a Finnish Museum of Natural History; Komarov Botanical Institute c a a a University of Florida Pamela S. Soltis c a a a Florida Museum of Natural History Peter F. Stevens a a a Harvard University Herbaria; University of Missouri-St. Louis and Missouri Botanical Garden a a = listed as an author; c = listed as a contributor 197 Listed as "contributor" to one or more of the papers Name APG I APG II APG III APG IV Arne A. Anderberg c Anders Backlund c Barbara G. Briggs c c c c Samuel Brockington c Alain Chautems c John C. Clark c John Conran c Peter K. Endress c Peter Goldblatt c Mats H.G. Gustafson c c Elspeth Haston c Sara B. Hoot c Walter S. Judd c c 198 Mari Källersjö c Jesper Kårehed c c Elizabeth A. Kellogg c Kathleen A. Kron c Donald H. Les c Johannes Lundberg c c Michael Moller c Michael J. Moore Cynthia M. Morton c Daniel L. Nickrent c c Richard G. Olmstead c c Bengt Oxelman c c c c c Mathieu Perret J. Chris Pires c c 199 Robert A. Price c Christopher J. Quinn c James E. Rodman c c Paula J. Rudall c c Vincent Savolainen c c c Laurence Skog c James Smith c Kenneth J. Sytsma c c David C. Tank Mats Thulin c c c c Maria Vorontsova Michelle van der Bank c c Anton Weber Kenneth Wurdack c c c 200 Jenny Q.-Y. Xiang c c Sue Zmarzty c c c = listed as a contributor In biology, phylogenetics /ˌfaɪloʊdʒəˈnɛtɪks, -lə-/ (Greek: φυλή, φῦλον – phylé, phylon = tribe, clan, race + γενετικός – genetikós = origin, source, birth) is a part of systematics that addresses the inference of the evolutionary history and relationships among or within groups of organisms (e.g. species, or more inclusive taxa). These relationships are hypothesized by phylogenetic inference methods that evaluate observed heritable traits, such as DNA sequences or morphology, often under a specified model of evolution of these traits. The result of such an analysis is a phylogeny (also known as a phylogenetic tree)—a diagrammatic hypothesis of relationships that reflects the evolutionary history of a group of organisms. [4] The tips of a phylogenetic tree can be living taxa or fossils, and represent the 'end', or the present, in an evolutionary lineage. A phylogenetic diagram can be rooted or unrooted. A rooted tree diagram indicates the hypothetical common ancestor, or ancestral lineage, of the tree. An unrooted tree diagram (a network) makes no assumption about the ancestral line, and does not show the origin or "root" of the taxa in question or the direction of inferred evolutionary transformations. In addition to their proper use for inferring phylogenetic patterns among taxa, phylogenetic analyses are often employed to represent relationships among gene copies or individual organisms. Such uses have become central to understanding biodiversity, evolution, ecology, and genomes. Taxonomy is the identification, naming and classification of organisms. Classifications are now usually based on phylogenetic data, and many systematists contend that only monophyletic taxa should be recognized as named groups. The degree to which classification depends on inferred evolutionary history differs depending on the school of taxonomy: phenetics ignores phylogenetic speculation altogether, trying to represent the similarity between organisms instead; cladistics (phylogenetic systematics) tries to reflect phylogeny in its classifications by only recognizing groups based on shared, derived characters (synapomorphies); evolutionary taxonomy tries to take into account both the branching pattern and "degree of difference" to find a compromise between them.Inference of a phylogenetic trees Computational phylogenetics Usual methods of phylogenetic inference involve computational approaches implementing the optimality criteria and methods of parsimony, maximum likelihood (ML), and MCMCbased Bayesian inference. All these depend upon an implicit or explicit mathematical model describing the evolution of characters observed. Phenetics, popular in the mid-20th century but now largely obsolete, used distance matrix-based methods to construct trees based on overall similarity in morphology or similar observable traits (i.e. in the phenotype or the overall similarity of DNA, not the DNA sequence), which was often assumed to approximate phylogenetic relationships. 201 Prior to 1950, phylogenetic inferences were generally presented as narrative scenarios. Such methods are often ambiguous and lack explicit criteria for evaluating alternative hypotheses. HISTORY: The term "phylogeny" derives from the German Phylogenie, introduced by Haeckel in 1866and the Darwinian approach to classification became known as the "phyletic" approach. Ernst Haeckel's recapitulation theory During the late 19th century, Ernst Haeckel's recapitulation theory, or "biogenetic fundamental law", was widely accepted. It was often expressed as "ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny", i.e. the development of a single organism during its lifetime, from germ to adult, successively mirrors the adult stages of successive ancestors of the species to which it belongs. But this theory has long been rejected. Instead, ontogeny evolves – the phylogenetic history of a species cannot be read directly from its ontogeny, as Haeckel thought would be possible, but characters from ontogeny can be (and have been) used as data for phylogenetic analyses; the more closely related two species are, the more apomorphies their embryos share. Timeline of key points Branching tree diagram from Heinrich Georg Bronn's work (1858) 202 Phylogenetic tree suggested by Haeckel (1866) Ernst Heinrich Philipp August Haeckel (German: [ˈʔɛɐ̯nst ˈhɛkl̩ ]; 16 February 1834 – 9 August 1919) was a German zoologist, naturalist, eugenicist, philosopher, physician, professor, marine biologist, and artist who discovered, described and named thousands of new species, mapped a genealogical tree relating all life forms, and coined many terms in biology, including ecology,[2] phylum, phylogeny, and Protista.[5] Haeckel promoted and popularised Charles Darwin's work in Germany and developed the influential but no longer widely held recapitulation theory ("ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny") claiming that an individual organism's biological development, or ontogeny, parallels and summarises its species' evolutionary development, or phylogeny. The published artwork of Haeckel includes over 100 detailed, multi-colour illustrations of animals and sea creatures, collected in his Kunstformen der Natur ("Art Forms of Nature"). As a philosopher, Ernst Haeckel wrote Die Welträthsel (1895–1899; in English: The Riddle of the Universe, 1901), the genesis for the term "world riddle" (Welträtsel); and Freedom in Science and Teaching support teaching evolution. Haeckel was also a promoter of scientific racism[8] and embraced the idea of Social Darwinism. 203 Christmas of 1860 (age 26) Ernst Haeckel was born on 16 February 1834, in Potsdam (then part of the Kingdom of Prussia). In 1852 Haeckel completed studies at the Domgymnasium, the cathedral high-school of Merseburg. He then studied medicine in Berlin and Würzburg, particularly with Albert von Kölliker, Franz Leydig, Rudolf Virchow (with whom he later worked briefly as assistant), and with the anatomist-physiologist Johannes Peter Müller (1801–1858). Together with Hermann Steudner he attended botany lectures in Würzburg. In 1857 Haeckel attained a doctorate in medicine, and afterwards he received the license to practice medicine. The occupation of physician appeared less worthwhile to Haeckel after contact with suffering patients.[12] Ernst Haeckel studied under Karl Gegenbaur at the University of Jena for three years, earning a habilitation in comparative anatomy in 1861, before becoming a professor of zoology at Jena, where he remained for 47 years, from 1862 to 1909. Between 1859 and 1866 Haeckel worked on many phyla, such as radiolarians, poriferans (sponges) and annelids (segmented worms). During a trip to the Mediterranean, Haeckel named nearly 150 new species of radiolarians. From 1866 to 1867 Haeckel made an extended journey to the Canary Islands with Hermann Fol. On 17 October 1866 he arrived in London. Over the next few days he met Charles Lyell, and visited Thomas Huxley and family at their home. On 21 October he visited Charles Darwin at Down House in Kent. In 1867 he married Agnes Huschke. Their son Walter was born in 1868, their daughters Elizabeth in 1871 and Emma in 1873. In 1869 he traveled as a researcher to Norway, in 1871 to Croatia (where he lived on the island of Hvar in a monastery), and in 1873 to Egypt, Turkey, and Greece. In 1907 he had a museum built in Jena to teach the public about evolution. Haeckel retired from teaching in 1909, and in 1910 he withdrew from the Evangelical Church of Prussia. 204 In later life On the occasion of his 80th birthday celebration he was presented with a two-volume work entitled Was wir Ernst Haeckel verdanken (What We Owe to Ernst Haeckel), edited at the request of the German Monistenbund by Heinrich Schmidt of Jena. Haeckel's wife, Agnes, died in 1915, and he became substantially frailer, breaking his leg and arm. He sold his "Villa Medusa" in Jena in 1918 to the Carl Zeiss foundation, which preserved his library. Haeckel died on 9 August 1919. Haeckel became the most famous proponent of Monism in Germany. Politics Haeckel's affinity for the German Romantic movement, coupled with his acceptance of a form of Lamarckism, influenced his political beliefs. Rather than being a strict Darwinian, Haeckel believed that the characteristics of an organism were acquired through interactions with the environment and that ontogeny reflected phylogeny. He saw the social sciences as instances of "applied biology", and that phrase was picked up and used for Nazi propaganda. In 1906 Haeckel founded a group called the Monist League (Deutscher Monistenbund) to promote his religious and political beliefs. This group lasted until 1933 and included such notable members as Wilhelm Ostwald, Georg von Arco (1869-1940), Helene Stöcker and Walter Arthur Berendsohn. He was the first person to use the term "first world war" 205 Sea anemones from Ernst Haeckel's Kunstformen der Natur (Art forms of Nature) of 1904 Haeckel was a zoologist, an accomplished artist and illustrator, and later a professor of comparative anatomy. Although Haeckel's ideas are important to the history of evolutionary theory, and although he was a competent invertebrate anatomist most famous for his work on radiolaria, many speculative concepts that he championed are now considered incorrect. For example, Haeckel described and named hypothetical ancestral microorganisms that have never been found. He was one of the first to consider psychology as a branch of physiology. He also proposed the kingdom Protista in 1866. His chief interests lay in evolution and life development processes in general, including development of nonrandom form, which culminated in the beautifully illustrated Kunstformen der Natur (Art forms of nature). Haeckel did not support natural selection, rather believing in Lamarckism. 206 Embryology theories of Ernst Haeckel and Karl Ernst von Baer compared Haeckel advanced a version of the earlier recapitulation theory previously set out by Étienne Serres in the 1820s and supported by followers of Étienne Geoffroy SaintHilaire including Robert Edmond Grant. It proposed a link between ontogeny (development of form) and phylogeny (evolutionary descent), summed up by Haeckel in the phrase "ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny". His concept of recapitulation has been refuted in the form he gave it (now called "strong recapitulation"), in favour of the ideas first advanced by Karl Ernst von Baer. The strong recapitulation hypothesis views ontogeny as repeating forms of adult ancestors, while weak recapitulation means that what is repeated (and built upon) is the ancestral embryonic development process. Haeckel supported the theory with embryo drawings that have since been shown to be oversimplified and in part inaccurate, and the theory is now considered an oversimplification of quite complicated relationships, however comparison of embryos remains a powerful way to demonstrate that all animals are related. Haeckel introduced the concept of heterochrony, the change in timing of embryonic development over the course of evolution. 207 Haeckel (left) with Nicholai Miklukho-Maklai, his assistant, in the Canaries, 1866 Haeckel was a flamboyant figure, who sometimes took great, non-scientific leaps from available evidence. For example, at the time when Darwin published On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection (1859), Haeckel postulated that evidence of human evolution would be found in the Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia). At that time, no remains of human ancestors had yet been identified. He described these theoretical remains in great detail and even named the as-yet unfound species, Pithecanthropus alalus, and instructed his students such as Richard and Oskar Hertwig to go and find it. One student did find some remains: a Dutchman named Eugène Dubois searched the East Indies from 1887 to 1895, discovering the remains of Java Man in 1891, consisting of a skullcap, thighbone, and a few teeth. These remains are among the oldest hominid remains ever found. Dubois classified Java Man with Haeckel's Pithecanthropus label, though they were later reclassified as Homo erectus. Some scientists of the day suggested. Dubois' Java Man as a potential intermediate form between modern humans and the common ancestor we share with the other great apes. The current consensus of anthropologists is that the direct ancestors of modern humans were African populations of Homo erectus (possibly Homo ergaster), rather than the Asian populations exemplified by Java Man and Peking Man. (Ironically, a new human species, Homo floresiensis, a dwarf human type, has recently been discovered in the island of Flores). The creationist polygenism of Samuel George Morton and Louis Agassiz, which presented human races as separately created species, was rejected by Charles Darwin, who argued for the monogenesis of the human species and the African origin of modern humans. In contrast to most of Darwin's supporters, Haeckel put forward a doctrine of evolutionary polygenism based on the ideas of the linguist August Schleicher, in which several different language groups had arisen separately from speechless prehuman Urmenschen (German: proto-humans), which themselves had evolved from simian ancestors. These separate languages had completed the transition from animals to man, and under the influence of each main branch of languages, humans had evolved – in a kind of Lamarckian use-inheritance – as separate species, which could be subdivided into races. From this, Haeckel drew the implication that languages with the most potential yield the human races with the most potential, led by the Semitic and IndoGermanic groups, with Berber, Jewish, Greco-Roman and Germanic varieties to the fore.[29] As Haeckel stated: We must mention here one of the most important results of the comparative study of languages, which for the Stammbaum of the species of men is of the highest significance, namely that human languages probably had a multiple or polyphyletic origin. Human language as such probably developed only after the species of speechless Urmenschen or Affenmenschen (German: ape-men) had split into several species or kinds. With each of these human species, language developed on its own and independently of the others. At least this is the view of Schleicher, one of the foremost authorities on this subject. ... If one views the origin of the branches of language as the special and principal act of becoming human, and the species of humankind as distinguished according to their language stem, then one can say that the different species of men arose independently of one another. 208 Haeckel's view can be seen as a forerunner of the views of Carleton Coon, who also believed that human races evolved independently and in parallel with each other. These ideas eventually fell from favour. Haeckel also applied the hypothesis of polygenism to the modern diversity of human groups. He became a key figure in social darwinism and leading proponent of scientific racism, stating for instance: The Caucasian, or Mediterranean man (Homo Mediterraneus), has from time immemorial been placed at the head of all the races of men, as the most highly developed and perfect. It is generally called the Caucasian race, but as, among all the varieties of the species, the Caucasian branch is the least important, we prefer the much more suitable appellation proposed by Friedrich Müller, namely, that of Mediterranese. For the most important varieties of this species, which are moreover the most eminent actors in what is called "Universal History", first rose to a flourishing condition on the shores of the Mediterranean. ... This species alone (with the exception of the Mongolian) has had an actual history; it alone has attained to that degree of civilisation which seems to raise men above the rest of nature. Haeckel divided human beings into ten races, of which the Caucasian was the highest and the primitives were doomed to extinction. Haeckel claimed that '[t]he Negro' had stronger and more freely movable toes than any other race, which, he argued, was evidence of their being less evolved, and which led him to compare them to '"four-handed" Apes'.Haeckel also believed 'Negroes' were savages and that Whites were the most civilised. In his Ontogeny and Phylogeny Harvard paleontologist Stephen Jay Gould wrote: "[Haeckel's] evolutionary racism; his call to the German people for racial purity and unflinching devotion to a 'just' state; his belief that harsh, inexorable laws of evolution ruled human civilization and nature alike, conferring upon favored races the right to dominate others ... all contributed to the rise of Nazism." In his introduction to the Nazi party ideologue Alfred Rosenberg's 1930 book, The Myth of the Twentieth Century, Peter Peel affirms that Rosenberg had indeed read Haeckel. In the same line of thought, historian Daniel Gasman states that Haeckel's ideology stimulated the birth of Fascist ideology in Italy and France. However, Robert J. Richards notes: "Haeckel, on his travels to Ceylon and Indonesia, often formed closer and more intimate relations with natives, even members of the untouchable classes, than with the European colonials." and says the Nazis rejected Haeckel, since he opposed antisemitism, while supporting ideas they disliked (for instance atheism, feminism, internationalism, pacifism etc.). Asia hypothesis Haeckel claimed the origin of humanity was to be found in Asia: he believed that Hindustan (Indian subcontinent) was the actual location where the first humans had evolved. Haeckel argued that humans were closely related to the primates of Southeast Asia and rejected Darwin's hypothesis of Africa. 209 Haeckel later claimed that the missing link was to be found on the lost continent of Lemuria located in the Indian Ocean. He believed that Lemuria was the home of the first humans and that Asia was the home of many of the earliest primates; he thus supported that Asia was the cradle of hominid evolution. Haeckel also claimed that Lemuria connected Asia and Africa, which allowed the migration of humans to the rest of the world.[40][41] In Haeckel’s book The History of Creation (1884) he included migration routes which he thought the first humans had used outside of Lemuria. Illustrations of dog and human embryos, looking almost identical at 4 weeks then differing at 6 weeks, shown above a 6-week turtle embryo and 8-day hen embryo, presented by Haeckel in 1868 as convincing proof of evolution. The pictures of the earliest embryonic stages are now considered inaccurate.[42] When Haeckel was a student in the 1850s he showed great interest in embryology, attending the rather unpopular lectures twice and in his notes sketched the visual aids: textbooks had few illustrations, and large format plates were used to show students how to see the tiny forms under a reflecting microscope, with the translucent tissues seen against a black background. Developmental series were used to show stages within a species, but inconsistent views and stages made it even more difficult to compare different species. It was agreed by all European evolutionists that all vertebrates looked very similar at an early stage, in what was thought of as a common ideal type, but there was a continuing debate from the 1820s between the Romantic recapitulation theory that human embryos developed through stages of the forms of all the major groups of adult animals, literally manifesting a sequence of organisms on a linear chain of being, and Karl Ernst von Baer's opposing view, stated in von Baer's laws of embryology, that the early general forms diverged into four major groups of specialised forms without ever resembling the adult of another species, showing affinity to an archetype but no relation to other types or any transmutation of species. By the time Haeckel was teaching he was able to use a textbook with woodcut illustrations written by his own teacher Albert von Kölliker, which purported to explain human development while also using other mammalian embryos to claim a coherent sequence. Despite the significance to ideas of transformism, this was not really polite enough for the new popular science writing, and was a matter for medical institutions and for experts who could make their own comparisons. Darwin, Naturphilosophie and Lamarck Darwin's On the Origin of Species, which made a powerful impression on Haeckel when he read it in 1864, was very cautious about the possibility of ever reconstructing the history of life, but 210 did include a section reinterpreting von Baer's embryology and revolutionising the field of study, concluding that "Embryology rises greatly in interest, when we thus look at the embryo as a picture, more or less obscured, of the common parent-form of each great class of animals." It mentioned von Baer's 1828 anecdote (misattributing it to Louis Agassiz) that at an early stage embryos were so similar that it could be impossible to tell whether an unlabelled specimen was of a mammal, a bird, or of a reptile, and Darwin's own research using embryonic stages of barnacles to show that they are crustaceans, while cautioning against the idea that one organism or embryonic stage is "higher" or "lower", or more or less evolved.[45] Haeckel disregarded such caution, and in a year wrote his massive and ambitious Generelle Morphologie, published in 1866, presenting a revolutionary new synthesis of Darwin's ideas with the German tradition of Naturphilosophie going back to Goethe and with the progressive evolutionism of Lamarck in what he called Darwinismus. He used morphology to reconstruct the evolutionary history of life, in the absence of fossil evidence using embryology as evidence of ancestral relationships. He invented new terms, including ontogeny and phylogeny, to present his evolutionised recapitulation theory that "ontogeny recapitulated phylogeny". The two massive volumes sold poorly, and were heavy going: with his limited understanding of German, Darwin found them impossible to read. Haeckel's publisher turned down a proposal for a "strictly scholarly and objective" second edition. Embryological drawings Haeckel's tree of life Haeckel's aim was a reformed morphology with evolution as the organising principle of a cosmic synthesis unifying science, religion, and art. He was giving successful "popular lectures" on his 211 ideas to students and townspeople in Jena, in an approach pioneered by his teacher Rudolf Virchow. To meet his publisher's need for a popular work he used a student's transcript of his lectures as the basis of his Natürliche Schöpfungsgeschichte of 1868, presenting a comprehensive presentation of evolution. In the Spring of that year he drew figures for the book, synthesising his views of specimens in Jena and published pictures to represent types. After publication he told a colleague that the images "are completely exact, partly copied from nature, partly assembled from all illustrations of these early stages that have hitherto become known". There were various styles of embryological drawings at that time, ranging from more schematic representations to "naturalistic" illustrations of specific specimens. Haeckel believed privately that his figures were both exact and synthetic, and in public asserted that they were schematic like most figures used in teaching. The images were reworked to match in size and orientation, and though displaying Haeckel's own views of essential features, they support von Baer's concept that vertebrate embryos begin similarly and then diverge. Relating different images on a grid conveyed a powerful evolutionary message. As a book for the general public, it followed the common practice of not citing sources. In 1868 Haeckel illustrated von Baer's observation that early embryos of different species could not be told apart by using the same woodcut three times as dog, chick and turtle embryos: he changed this in the next edition. The book sold very well, and while some anatomical experts hostile to Haeckel's evolutionary views expressed some private concerns that certain figures had been drawn rather freely, the figures showed what they already knew about similarities in embryos. The first published concerns came from Ludwig Rütimeyer, a professor of zoology and comparative anatomy at the University of Basel who had placed fossil mammals in an evolutionary lineage early in the 1860s and had been sent a complimentary copy. At the end of 1868 his review in the Archiv für Anthropologie wondered about the claim that the work was "popular and scholarly", doubting whether the second was true, and expressed horror about such public discussion of man's place in nature with illustrations such as the evolutionary trees being shown to non-experts. Though he made no suggestion that embryo illustrations should be directly based on specimens, to him the subject demanded the utmost "scrupulosity and conscientiousness" and an artist must "not arbitrarily model or generalise his originals for speculative purposes" which he considered proved by comparison with works by other authors. In particular, "one and the same, moreover incorrectly interpreted woodcut, is presented to the reader three times in a row and with three 212 different captions as [the] embryo of the dog, the chick, [and] the turtle". He accused Haeckel of "playing fast and loose with the public and with science", and failing to live up to the obligation to the truth of every serious researcher. Haeckel responded with angry accusations of bowing to religious prejudice, but in the second (1870) edition changed the duplicated embryo images to a single image captioned "embryo of a mammal or bird". Duplication using galvanoplastic stereotypes (clichés) was a common technique in textbooks, but not on the same page to represent different eggs or embryos. In 1891 Haeckel made the excuse that this "extremely rash foolishness" had occurred in undue haste but was "bona fide", and since repetition of incidental details was obvious on close inspection, it is unlikely to have been intentional deception. The revised 1870 second edition of 1,500 copies attracted more attention, being quickly followed by further revised editions with larger print runs as the book became a prominent part of the optimistic, nationalist, anticlerical "culture of progress" in Otto von Bismarck's new German Empire. The similarity of early vertebrate embryos became common knowledge, and the illustrations were praised by experts such as Michael Foster of the University of Cambridge. In the introduction to his 1871 The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex, Darwin gave particular praise to Haeckel, writing that if Natürliche Schöpfungsgeschichte "had appeared before my essay had been written, I should probably never have completed it". The first chapter included an illustration: "As some of my readers may never have seen a drawing of an embryo, I have given one of man and another of a dog, at about the same early stage of development, carefully copied from two works of undoubted accuracy" with a footnote citing the sources and noting that "Häckel has also given analogous drawings in his Schöpfungsgeschichte." The fifth edition of Haeckel's book appeared in 1874, with its frontispiece a heroic portrait of Haeckel himself, replacing the previous controversial image of the heads of apes and humans. 1874 illustration from Anthropogenie showing "very early", "somewhat later" and "still later" stages of embryos of fish (F), salamander (A), turtle (T), chick (H), pig (S), cow (R), rabbit (K), and human (M) A phylogenetic tree or evolutionary tree is a branching diagram or "tree" showing the evolutionary relationships among various biological species or other entities— their phylogeny (/faɪˈlɒdʒəni/)—based upon similarities and differences in their physical or genetic characteristics. All life on Earth is part of a single phylogenetic tree, indicating common ancestry. In a rooted phylogenetic tree, each node with descendants represents the inferred most recent common ancestor of those descendants, and the edge lengths in some trees may be interpreted as time estimates. Each node is called a taxonomic unit. Internal nodes are generally called hypothetical taxonomic units, as they cannot be directly observed. Trees are useful in fields of 213 biology such as bioinformatics, systematics, and phylogenetics. Unrooted trees illustrate only the relatedness of the leaf nodes and do not require the ancestral root to be known or inferred. The idea of a "tree of life" arose from ancient notions of a ladder-like progression from lower into higher forms of life (such as in the Great Chain of Being). Early representations of "branching" phylogenetic trees include a "paleontological chart" showing the geological relationships among plants and animals in the book Elementary Geology, by Edward Hitchcock (first edition: 1840). Charles Darwin (1859) also produced one of the first illustrations and crucially popularized the notion of an evolutionary "tree" in his seminal book The Origin of Species. Over a century later, evolutionary biologists still use tree diagrams to depict evolution because such diagrams effectively convey the concept that speciation occurs through the adaptive and semirandom splitting of lineages. Over time, species classification has become less static and more dynamic. The term phylogenetic, or phylogeny, derives from the two ancient greek words φῦλον (phûlon), meaning "race, lineage", and γένεσις (génesis), meaning "origin, source" Rooted tree Rooted phylogenetic tree optimized for blind people. The lowest point of the tree is the root, which symbolizes the universal common ancestor to all living beings. The tree branches out into three main groups: Bacteria (left branch, letters a to i), Archea (middle branch, letters j to p) and Eukaryota (right branch, letters q to z). Each letter corresponds to a group of organisms, listed below this description. These letters and the description should be converted to Braille font, and printed using a Braille printer. The figure can be 3D printed by copying the png file and using Cura or other software to generate the Gcode for 3D printing. A rooted phylogenetic tree (see two graphics at top) is a directed tree with a unique node — the root — corresponding to the (usually imputed) most recent common ancestor of all the entities at the leaves of the tree. The root node does not have a parent node, but serves as the parent of all other nodes in the tree. The root is therefore a node of degree 2 while other internal nodes have a minimum degree of 3 (where "degree" here refers to the total number of incoming and outgoing edges). The most common method for rooting trees is the use of an uncontroversial outgroup—close enough to allow inference from trait data or molecular sequencing, but far enough to be a clear outgroup. 214 Unrooted tree An unrooted phylogenetic tree for myosin, a superfamily of proteins Unrooted trees illustrate the relatedness of the leaf nodes without making assumptions about ancestry. They do not require the ancestral root to be known or inferred.[6] Unrooted trees can always be generated from rooted ones by simply omitting the root. By contrast, inferring the root of an unrooted tree requires some means of identifying ancestry. This is normally done by including an outgroup in the input data so that the root is necessarily between the outgroup and the rest of the taxa in the tree, or by introducing additional assumptions about the relative rates of evolution on each branch, such as an application of the molecular clock hypothesis. Bifurcating versus multifurcating Both rooted and unrooted trees can be either bifurcating or multifurcating. A rooted bifurcating tree has exactly two descendants arising from each interior node (that is, it forms a binary tree), and an unrooted bifurcating tree takes the form of an unrooted binary tree, a free tree with exactly three neighbors at each internal node. In contrast, a rooted multifurcating tree may have more than two children at some nodes and an unrooted multifurcating tree may have more than three neighbors at some nodes. Labeled versus unlabeled Both rooted and unrooted trees can be either labeled or unlabeled. A labeled tree has specific values assigned to its leaves, while an unlabeled tree, sometimes called a tree shape, defines a topology only. Some sequence-based trees built from a small genomic locus, such as Phylotree feature internal nodes labeled with inferred ancestral haplotypes. SPECIAL TREES-Dendrogram 215 Dendrogram of the phylogeny of some dog breeds A dendrogram is a general name for a tree, whether phylogenetic or not, and hence also for the diagrammatic representation of a phylogenetic tree. Cladogram A cladogram only represents a branching pattern; i.e., its branch lengths do not represent time or relative amount of character change, and its internal nodes do not represent ancestors.[ Phylogram A phylogram is a phylogenetic tree that has branch lengths proportional to the amount of character change. 216 Chronogram[ A chronogram of Lepidoptera. this phylogenetic tree type, branch lengths are proportional to geological time. A chronogram is a phylogenetic tree that explicitly represents time through its branch lengths. Dahlgrenogram A Dahlgrenogram is a diagram representing a cross section of a phylogenetic tree Phylogenetic network A phylogenetic network is not strictly speaking a tree, but rather a more general graph, or a directed acyclic graph in the case of rooted networks. They are used to overcome some of the limitations inherent to trees. Spindle diagram A spindle diagram, showing the evolution of the vertebrates at class level, width of spindles indicating number of families. Spindle diagrams are often used in evolutionary taxonomy. 217 A spindle diagram, or bubble diagram, is often called a romerogram, after its popularisation by the American palaeontologist Alfred Romer It represents taxonomic diversity (horizontal width) against geological time (vertical axis) in order to reflect the variation of abundance of various taxa through time. However, a spindle diagram is not an evolutionary tree: the taxonomic spindles obscure the actual relationships of the parent taxon to the daughter taxon and have the disadvantage of involving the paraphyly of the parental group. This type of diagram is no longer used in the form originally proposed. Coral of life The Coral of Life Darwin[19] also mentioned that the coral may be a more suitable metaphor than the tree. Indeed, phylogenetic corals are useful for portraying past and present life, and they have some advantages over trees (anastomoses allowed, etc.). Computational phylogenetics Phylogenetic trees composed with a nontrivial number of input sequences are constructed using computational phylogenetics methods. Distance-matrix methods such as neighbor-joining or UPGMA, which calculate genetic distance from multiple sequence alignments, are simplest to implement, but do not invoke an evolutionary model. Many sequence alignment methods such as ClustalW also create trees by using the simpler algorithms (i.e. those based on distance) of tree construction. Maximum parsimony is another simple method of estimating phylogenetic trees, but implies an implicit model of evolution (i.e. parsimony). More advanced methods use the optimality criterion of maximum likelihood, often within a Bayesian framework, and apply an explicit model of evolution to phylogenetic tree estimation.[10] Identifying the optimal tree using many of these techniques is NP-hard,[10] so heuristic search and optimization methods are used in combination with tree-scoring functions to identify a reasonably good tree that fits the data. Tree-building methods can be assessed on the basis of several criteria:    efficiency (how long does it take to compute the answer, how much memory does it need?) power (does it make good use of the data, or is information being wasted?) consistency (will it converge on the same answer repeatedly, if each time given different data for the same model problem?) 218   robustness (does it cope well with violations of the assumptions of the underlying model?) falsifiability (does it alert us when it is not good to use, i.e. when assumptions are violated?) Tree-building techniques have also gained the attention of mathematicians. Trees can also be built using T-theory Symbols used in astrology overlap with those used in astronomy because of the historical overlap between the two subjects. Frequently used symbols include signs of the zodiac and for the classical planets. These have their origin in medieval Byzantine codices, but in their current form are a product of the European Renaissance. Other symbols for astrological aspects are used in various astrological traditions. History & Origins: Symbols for the classical planets, zodiac signs, aspects, lots, and the lunar nodes appear in the medieval Byzantine codices in which many ancient horoscopes were preserved.[1] In the original papyri of these Greek horoscopes, there were found a circle with the glyph representing shine( ) for the Sun and a crescent for the Moon.The written symbols for Mercury, Venus, Jupiter, and Saturn have been traced to forms found in late Greek papyri. The symbols for Jupiter and Saturn are identified as monograms of the initial letters of the corresponding Greek names, and the symbol for Mercury is a stylized caduceus. A. S. D. Maunder finds antecedents of the planetary symbols in earlier sources, used to represent the gods associated with the classical planets. Bianchini's planisphere, produced in the 2nd century, shows Greek personifications of planetary gods charged with early versions of the planetary symbols: Mercury has a caduceus; Venus has, attached to her necklace, a cord connected to another necklace; Mars, a spear; Jupiter, a staff; Saturn, a scythe; the Sun, a circlet with rays radiating from it; and the Moon, a headdress with a crescent attached.[5] A diagram in Johannes Kamateros' 12th century Compendium of Astrology shows the Sun represented by the circle with a ray, Jupiter by the letter zeta (the initial of Zeus, Jupiter's counterpart in Greek mythology), Mars by a shield crossed by a spear, and the remaining classical planets by symbols resembling the modern ones, without the cross-mark seen in modern versions of the symbols.[5] The modern sun symbol, pictured as a circle with a dot (☉), first appeared in the Renaissance. The conventional symbols for the signs of the zodiac also develop in the Renaissance period as simplifications of the classical pictorial representations of the signs. Symbols for Uranus and Neptune were created shortly after their discovery. For Uranus, two variant symbols are seen. One symbol, , invented by J. G. Köhler and refined by Bode, was intended to represent the newly discovered metal platinum; since platinum, sometimes confused 219 with white gold, was found by chemists mixed with iron, the symbol for platinum combines the alchemical symbols for iron, ♂, and gold, ☉. Another symbol, , was suggested by Lalande in 1784. In a letter to Herschel, Lalande described it as "un globe surmonté par la première lettre de votre nom" ("a globe surmounted by the first letter of your name").[8] After Neptune was discovered, the Bureau des Longitudes proposed the name Neptune and the familiar trident for the planet's symbol. The astrological symbols for the first three objects discovered at the beginning of the 19th century—Ceres, Pallas, and Juno—were also created after their discovery. Firstly, they were listed as planets, and half a century later, renamed as asteroids. Shortly after Giuseppe Piazzi's discovery of Ceres, a group of astronomers ratified the name, proposed by the discoverer, and chose the sickle as a symbol of the planet.[10] The symbol for Pallas, the spear of Pallas Athena, was invented by Baron Franz Xaver von Zach, and introduced in his Monatliche Correspondenz zur Beförderung der Erd- und Himmels-Kunde.[11] Karl Ludwig Harding, who discovered and named Juno, assigned to it the symbol of a scepter topped with a star. The modern astrological symbol for Vesta, ⚶, was created by Eleanor Bach who is credited with pioneering the use of the Big Four asteroids with the publication of her Ephemerides of the Asteroids. Bach's symbol for Vesta is a simplified version of other representations of Vesta's altar. The original form of the symbol for Vesta, , was created by German mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss. Olbers, having previously discovered and named one new planet (as the asteroids were then classified), gave Gauss the honor of naming his newest discovery. Gauss decided to name the planet for the goddess Vesta, and also specified that the symbol should be the altar of the goddess with the sacred fire burning on it. Pluto, like Uranus, has multiple symbols in use. One symbol, ♇, is a monogram of the letters PL (which can be interpreted to stand for Pluto or for astronomer Percival Lowell), was announced with the name of the new planet by the discoverers on May 1, 1930.. Another symbol, which was popularized in Paul Clancy's astrological publications, is based on the symbol for Mercury, with the circle and arc of Mercury trading positions. This symbol is described by Dane Rudhyar as "suggest[ing] the planetary character of the Pluto mind by the circle, floating above the open cup." Although, this meaning is readily debatable due to Blavatskian origins, rather than a properly traditional understanding, such as may be found in the hermetic sciences. The symbol for the centaur Chiron, ⚷ , is a key with the letter K (for discoverer Charles T. Kowal) was proposed by astrologer Al Morrison, who presented the symbol as "an inspiration shared amongst Al H. Morrison, Joelle K.D. Mahoney, and Marlene Bassoff. The symbol for retrograde motion is ℞, a capital R with a tail stroke. An R with a tail stroke was used to abbreviate many words beginning with the letter R; in medical prescriptions, it abbreviated the word recipe[23] (from the Latin imperative of recipere "to take and in missals, an R with a tail stroke marked the responses Astrological planets 220 The glyphs of the planets are usually (but not always) broken down into four common elements: A circle denoting spirit, a crescent denoting the mind, a cross denoting practical/physical matter and an arrow denoting action or direction. Name Image Text Unicode Symbol represents Sun ☉ U+2609 Moon ☽ U+263D A crescent Mercury ☿ U+263F Mercury's winged helmet and caduceus Venus ♀ U+2640 Hand mirror or (emoji variation is ♀) ⊕ U+2295 Earth; a Solar symbol (sun cross) ♁ U+2641 Alternate symbol, a stylized globus cruciger Mars ♂ U+2642 Mars's shield and spear (emoji variation is ♂) Jupiter ♃ U+2643 Jupiter's thunderbolt or eagle Saturn ♄ U+2644 Saturn's sickle Uranus ♅ U+2645 H in symbol taken from discoverer's last name, Herschel Earth Solar symbol (circled dot) 221 necklace (see Venus symbol) Neptune ⛢ U+26E2 Derived from a combination of the Mars and Sun symbols ♆ U+2646 Neptune's trident ฀ U+2BD3 Pluto's circle and a cross or bident (the arc under the circle). ♇ U+2647 PL monogram for Pluto and Percival Lowell ฀ U+2BD4 Variant symbol used mainly by French, Spanish, and Italian speaking astrologers.[26] ฀ Variant symbol invented by German astrologer Hermann U+2BD5 Lefeldt in 1946. Used mostly by those that follow the Hamburg School of Astrology. ฀ U+2BD6 Pluto Variant symbol used mostly used in German-speaking countries and Denmark.[26] The Hamburg School of Astrology, also called Uranian Astrology, is a sub-variety of western astrology. adds eight hypothetical trans-Neptunian planets to the normal ones used by western astrologers: Name Image Text Unicode Cupido ฀ U+2BE0 Hades ฀ U+2BE1 222 Zeus ฀ U+2BE2 Kronos ฀ U+2BE3 Apollon ฀ U+2BE4 Admetos ฀ U+2BE5 Vulcanus ฀ U+2BE6 Poseidon ฀ U+2BE7 Signs of the zodiac Name Meaning Image Text Emoji Unicode Symbol Represents Aries Ram ฀ ฀ U+2648 Face and horns of ram. Also Ovaries and a woman's reproductive organ. Taurus Bull ฀ ฀ U+2649 Face and horns of bull. Horned torus. Gemini Twins ฀ ฀ U+264A Companion Cancer Crab ฀ ฀ U+264B 223 Connection to both material and spiritual worlds Leo Lion ฀ ฀ Circle-Spirit and tail. Cosmic U+264C Snake. Sperm. A lion's head and mane. Virgo Virgin ฀ ฀ Derived from the Greek letters ΠΑΡ, which are the first three U+264D letters of the Greek word parthenos, which means "virgin" Libra Scale ฀ ฀ U+264E Scales Scorpio Scorpion ฀ ฀ U+264F Stinger of a scorpion Sagittarius Archer ฀ ฀ U+2650 ฀ ฀ U+2651 Arrow of the centaur, aiming to higher realms Capricorn Sea-Goat or Mountain Goat Aquarius Waterbearer ฀ ฀ U+2652 Ripples of water, disruption Pisces Fish ฀ ฀ U+2653 Two fish tied together yet swimming in opposite directions [28] Body and head of a goat with the tail of a fish or face and horns of goat. Aspects In astrology, an aspect is an angle the planets make to each other in the horoscope, also to the ascendant, midheaven, descendant, lower midheaven, and other points of astrological interest. Aspects are measured by the angular distance in degrees and minutes of ecliptic 224 longitude between two points, as viewed from Earth. According to astrological tradition, they indicate the timing of transitions and developmental changes in the lives of people and affairs relative to the Earth. As an example, if an astrologer creates a horoscope that shows the apparent positions of the celestial bodies at the time of a person's birth (a natal chart), and the angular distance between Mars and Venus is 92° of arc, the chart is said to have the aspect "Venus square Mars" with an orb of 2° (i.e., it is 2° away from being an exact square; a square being a 90° aspect). The more exact an aspect, the stronger or more dominant it is said to be in shaping character or manifesting change.[1] The astrological aspects are noted in the central circle of this natal chart, where the different colors and symbols distinguish between the different aspects, such as the square (red) or trine (green) Approach: In medieval astrology, certain aspects, like certain planets, were considered to be either favorable (benefic) or unfavorable (malefic). Modern usage places less emphasis on these fatalistic distinctions. The more modern approach to astrological aspects is exemplified by research on astrological harmonics of which John Addey was a major proponent, and 225 which Johannes Kepler earlier advocated in his book Harmonice Mundi in 1619. But even in modern times, aspects are considered either hard (the 90° square, the 180° opposition) or easy (the 120° trine, the 60° sextile). The conjunction aspect (essentially 0°, discounting orb) can be in either category, depending on which two planets it is that are conjunct. A list of aspects below presents their angular values and a recommended orb for each aspect. The orbs are subject to variation, depending on the need for detail and personal preferences. The traditional major aspects are sometimes called Ptolemaic aspects since they were defined and used by Ptolemy in the 1st Century, AD. These aspects are the conjunction (0°), sextile (60°), square (90°), trine (120°), and opposition (180°). It is important to note that different astrologers and separate astrological systems/traditional utilize differing orbs (the degree of separation between exactitude) when calculating and using the aspects, though almost all use a larger orb for a conjunction when compared to the other aspects. The major aspects are those that can be used to divide 360 evenly and are divisible by 10 (with the exception of the semi-sextile). Conjunction A conjunction (abrv. Con) is an angle of approximately 0–⁠10°. An orb of approximately 10° is usually considered a conjunction, but if neither the Sun nor Moon is involved, some consider the conjunction to have a maximum orb of only about 8°. Conjunctions are said to be the most powerful aspect, mutually intensifying the effects of the planets involved; they are major point in an individual's chart. Whether the conjunction in question is regarded as beneficial or detrimental depends on the specific planets involved. In particular, conjunctions involving the Sun, Venus, and/or Jupiter, in any of the three possible conjunction combinations, are considered highly favourable, while conjunctions involving the Moon, Mars, and/or Saturn, again in any of the three possible conjunction combinations, are considered highly unfavourable. Exceptionally, the Sun, Venus, and Jupiter were in a 3-way (beneficial) conjunction on November 9–10, 1970, while on March 10 of that same year, the Moon, Mars, and Saturn were in 3-way (detrimental) conjunction. If either of two planets involved in a conjunction is also under tension from one or more hard aspects with one or more other planets, then the added presence of the conjunction aspect will further intensify the tension of that hard aspect. A planet in very close conjunction to the Sun (within 17 minutes of arc, or only about 0.28°) is said to be cazimi, an ancient astrological term meaning "in the heart" (of the Sun). For example, "Venus cazimi" means Venus is in conjunction with the Sun with an orb of less than ≈ ⁠0.28°. Such a planetary position is a conjunction of great strength. A related term is combust, applicable when the planet in conjunction with the Sun is only moderately close to the Sun. In the case of combust, specific orb limit will depend on the particular planet in conjunction with the Sun. The Sun and Moon experience a conjunction every single month of the year ⁠— ⁠during the New Moon. 226 Sextile — intermediate major/minor aspect "Sextile" redirects here. For the symbol on telephone keypads and viewdata terminals, see Viewdata § Viewdata keypad symbols: the square and the sextile. For the band, see Sextile (band). A sextile (abrv. SXt or Sex) is an angle of 60° (1/6 of the 360° ecliptic, or 1/2 of a trine [120°]). An orb between 3-4 is allowed depending on the planets involved. The sextile has been traditionally said to be similar in influence to the trine, but less intense. It indicates ease of communication between the two elements involved, with compatibility and harmony between them. A sextile provides opportunity and is very responsive to effort expended to gain its benefits. See information on the semisextile below. Square A square (abrv. SQr or Squ) is an angle of 90° (1/4 of the 360° ecliptic, or 1/2 of an opposition [180°]). An orb of somewhere between 5° and 10°[3] is usually allowed depending on the planets involved. As with the trine and the sextile, in the square, it is usually the outer or superior planet that has an effect on the inner or inferior one. The square's energy is strong and usable but has a tension that needs integration between 2 different areas of life, or offers a choice point where an important decision needs to be made that involves an opportunity cost. It is the smallest major aspect that usually involves houses in different quadrants. Trine A trine (abbrev. Tri) is an angle of 120° (1/3 of the 360° ecliptic), an orb of somewhere between 5° and 10° depending on the planets involved. The trine relates to what is natural and indicates harmony and ease. The trine may involve talent or ability which is innate. The trine has been traditionally assumed to be extremely beneficial. When involved in a transit, the trine involves situations that emerge from a current or past situation in a natural way. Opposition 227 An opposition (abrv. Opp) is an angle of 180° (1/2 of the 360° ecliptic). An orb of somewhere between 5° and 10°[3] is usually allowed depending on the planets. Oppositions are said to be the second most powerful aspect. It resembles the conjunction although the difference between them is that the opposition is fundamentally relational. Some say it is prone to exaggeration as it is not unifying like the conjunction but has a dichotomous quality and an externalizing effect. All important axes in astrology are essentially oppositions. Therefore, at its most basic, it often signifies a relationship that can be oppositional or complementary. Minor Aspects: Quincunx (Inconjunct) — intermediate major/minor aspect A quincunx is an angle of 150° (5/12 of the 360° ecliptic). An orb of ±3.5° is usually allowed depending on the planets involved. Unlike all the other aspects, it does not offer equal divisions of the circle. Its effect is most obvious when there is a triangulating aspect of a 3rd planet in any major aspect to the 2 planets which are quincunx. Its interpretation will rely mostly on the houses, planets, and signs involved. The effect will involve different areas of life being brought together that are not usually in communication since the planets are far enough apart to be in different house quadrants, like the trine, but often with a shift in perspective involving others not previously seen clearly. Keywords for the quincunx are mystery, creativity, unpredictability, imbalance, surreal, resourcefulness, and humor. Semi-sextile A semi-sextile is an angle of 30° (1/12 of the 360° ecliptic). An orb of ±1.2° is allowed. It is the most often used of the minor aspects perhaps for no other reason than it can be easily seen. It indicates a mental interaction between the planets involved that is more sensed than experienced externally. Any major aspect transit to a given planetary position will also involve the other planet that is in semi-sextile aspect to it. The energetic quality is one of building and potentiating each other gradually, but planets, houses and signs involved must be considered. Similar to a sextile in offering a quality of opportunity with conscious effort to benefit from. Quintile A quintile is an angle of 72° (1/5 of the 360° ecliptic). An orb of ±1.2° is allowed. It indicates a strong creative flow of energy between the planets involved, often an opportunity for something performative, entertaining or expressive. Septile A septile is an angle of roughly 51.5° (1/7 of the 360° ecliptic). An orb of ±1° is allowed. It is the only prime number aspect that is an inexact number. It is a mystical aspect that indicates a hidden flow of energy between the planets involved, often involving spiritual or energetic sensitivity and an awareness of finer and more subtle, hidden levels of reality involving the planets in septile aspect. Semi-square A semi-square is an angle of 45° (1/8 of the 360° ecliptic). An orb of ±2° is allowed. 228 It is an important minor aspect and indicates a stimulating or challenging energy like that of a square but less intense and more internal. Novile A novile is an angle of 40° (1/9 of the 360° ecliptic). An orb of ±1° is allowed. It indicates an energy of perfection and/or idealization. The parallel and antiparallel (or contraparallel) are two other aspects which refer to degrees of declination above or below the celestial equator. They are not widely used by astrologers.   Parallel: same degree± 1-degree 12-minutes of arc. This may be similar to a semi-square or quincunx in that it is not clearly seen. It represents an opportunity for perspective and communication between energies that requires some work to be made conscious. Contraparallel: opposite degree± 1-degree 12-minute of arc. Said to be similar to the parallel. (Some who use the parallel do not consider the contraparallel an aspect.) Name Image Text Unicode Conjunction ☌ V V U+260C Semisextile Undecile U SD 0° Two or more planets in the same sign. A circle with a line implying two objects are in the same place (also, the starting point of an angle) 18° Also known as semidecile. One sign apart The intersecting lines from the inner angles of the upper half of a hexagon (see Sextile). Also known as dodecile. U+0056 Vigintile SD Angle Explanation U+0053 U+0044 ⚺ U+26BA 30° U U+0055 33° 229 D D U+0044 Decile 36° ⊥ Novile N Semi-square Septile N ∠ S Sextile Q S U+22A5 U+004E 40° Also known as nonile. U+2220 45° The bisecting line of a right angle (see Square). Also known as semiquartile and octile. U+0053 51° ⚹ U+26B9 Q U+0051 Quintile Binovile 72° N² Square Biseptile 60° Two signs apart The intersecting lines from the inner angles of a hexagon S² ⬠ U+2B20 N² U+004E U+00B2 80° Also known as binonile. Three signs apart / Same modality A regular quadrilateral that represents the right angle. Also known as quartile. □ U+25A1 90° S² U+0053 U+00B2 103° 230 D³ D³ U+0044 U+00B3 Tredecile ∓ Trine △ Biquintile Triseptile U+25B3 U+26BC Q² Q² U+0051 U+00B2 bQ bQ U+0062 U+0051 ± U+00B1 Quincunx S³ Also known as tridecile. 120° Four signs apart / Same elemental triplicity An equilateral triangle. Also known as trinovile. 135° The glyph of the Semi-Square under the glyph of the Square, implying the sum of them both. Also known as the sesquisquare, square-and-a-half, and trioctile. U+2213 ⚼ Sesquiquadrate 108° 144° ⚻ U+26BB 150° Five signs apart The intersecting lines from the inner angles of the lower half of a hexagon (see Sextile). Also known as the inconjunct. S³ U+0053 U+00B3 154° Also known as tridecile. 231 Quadranovile N⁴ U+004E U+2074 N⁴ 160° Also as quadnovile and quadranonile. known Six signs apart Opposition U+260D ☍ 180° The glyph of the Conjunction plus a circle on top of its line, implying two objects are in front (opposed) of each other. In addition to the aspect symbols above, some Russian astrologers use additional or unique aspect symbols: Name Image Text Unicode Angle Vigintile ฀ U+2BF3 18° Novile ฀ U+2BF4 40° Quintile ฀ U+2BF5 72° Binovile ฀ U+2BF6 80° Centile (Sentagon) ฀ U+2BF7 100° Tredecile ฀ U+2BF8 108° Lunar phases[ Name Image Text Emoji Unicode 232 Explanation New moon Crescent moon First quarter moon ฀ ฀ ฀ Denotes the new moon or a solilunar arc in the range 0°-45°. ฀ U+1F311 ฀ Denotes a waxing crescent moon U+1F312 or a soli-lunar arc in the range 45°-90°. ฀ Denotes a first quarter moon or a U+1F313 soli-lunar arc in the range 90°135°. Gibbous moon ฀ ฀ Denotes a waxing gibbous moon U+1F314 or a soli-lunar arc in the range 135°-180°. Full moon ฀ ฀ U+1F315 ฀ Denotes a waning gibbous moon U+1F316 or a soli-lunar arc in the range 225°-270°. ฀ Denotes a last quarter moon or a U+1F317 soli-lunar arc in the range 270°315°. ฀ Denotes a waning crescent moon U+1F318 or a soli-lunar arc in the range 315°-360°. Disseminating moon Last quarter moon Balsamic moon ฀ ฀ ฀ 233 Denotes a full moon or a solilunar arc in the range 180°-225°. Miscellaneous symbols[edit] Category Name Imag e Text Unicode Ascendant Angle Midheaven Apparent retrograde motion Retrograde motion ℞ U+211E Asteroid Ceres ⚳ U+26B3 Pallas ⚴ U+26 B4 A spear (variant has triangle on top) Alchemi cal symbol f or sulfur (both variants) see also Aste roids in astrolog y) Juno ⚵ U+26 B5 The scepter 234 (of a queen, Juno is the Roman equivale nt of Greek H era) topped with a star Vesta ⚶ U+26 B6 Astraea[33] ฀ U+2B D9 ⚕ U+26 95 Hygiea ฀ The fire on the hearth or altar (Roman equivale nt of Greek H estia) A serpent coiled around Asclepiu s' rod U+2B Two serpents DA coiled 235 around the rod. (Alternat ive astrologi cal symbol)[ 33] Centaur Comet Dwarf planet Chiron ⚷ U+26B7 Nessus ฀ U+2BD C Pholus ฀ U+2BD B Comet ฀ U+2604 ฀ U+2BF0 ฀ U+2BF1 Eris 236 Haumea Makemake Proserpina ฀ U+2BD8 Transpluto[33] ฀ U+2BD7 ⊗ U+2297 ⚸ U+26B8 True or Osculatin g Black Moon Lilith ฀ U+2BD E White Selena ฀ U+2BD D ฀ U+2BD F Hypothetical Planet Lot Lot of fortune Black Lilith Moon Lunar apogee Moon True Light Moon Arta or True White Moon Ascending Node ☊ U+260A Descending Node ☋ U+260B Lunar node 237 Plutino Ixion Scattered disk Typhon object Quaoar Small body Sedna ฀ U+2BF2 Zodiacal modalities: cardinal ฀ U+1F70 D ฀ U+1F71 4 Alchemical 'Three primes' fixed mutable U+263F ☿ 238 18th-century axonometric plan, Port-Royal-des-Champs CHAPTER IX Mandala in Architecture An architectural drawing or architect's drawing is a technical drawing of a building (or building project) that falls within the definition of architecture. Architectural drawings are used by architects and others for a number of purposes: to develop a design idea into a coherent proposal, to communicate ideas and concepts, to convince clients of the merits of a design, to assist a building contractor to construct it based on design intent, as a record of the design and planned development, or to make a record of a building that already exists. Architectural drawings are made according to a set of conventions, which include particular views (floor plan, section etc.), sheet sizes, units of measurement and scales, annotation and cross referencing. Historically, drawings were made in ink on paper or a similar material, and any copies required had to be laboriously made by hand. The twentieth century saw a shift to drawing on tracing paper, so that mechanical copies could be run off efficiently. The development of the computer had a major impact on the methods used to design and create technical drawings,[1] making manual drawing almost obsolete, and opening up new possibilities of form using organic shapes and complex geometry. Today the vast majority of drawings are created using CAD software. The size of drawings reflects the materials available and the size that is convenient to transport – rolled up or folded, laid out on a table, or pinned up on a wall. The drafting process may impose limitations on the size that is realistically workable. Sizes are determined by a consistent paper size system, according to local usage. Normally the largest paper size used in modern architectural practice is ISO A0 (841 mm × 1,189 mm or 33.1 in × 46.8 in) or in the 239 USA Arch E (762 mm × 1,067 mm or 30 in × 42 in) or Large E size (915 mm × 1,220 mm or 36 in × 48 in).[3] Architectural drawings are drawn to scale, so that relative sizes are correctly represented. The scale is chosen both to ensure the whole building will fit on the chosen sheet size, and to show the required amount of detail. At the scale of one eighth of an inch to one foot (1:96) or the metric equivalent 1 to 100, walls are typically shown as simple outlines corresponding to the overall thickness. At a larger scale, half an inch to one foot (1:24) or the nearest common metric equivalent 1 to 20, the layers of different materials that make up the wall construction are shown. Construction details are drawn to a larger scale, in some cases full size (1 to 1 scale). Scale drawings enable dimensions to be "read" off the drawing, i.e. measured directly. Imperial scales (feet and inches) are equally readable using an ordinary ruler. On a oneeighth inch to one foot scale drawing, the one-eighth divisions on the ruler can be read off as feet. Architects normally use a scale ruler with different scales marked on each edge. A third method, used by builders in estimating, is to measure directly off the drawing and multiply by the scale factor. Dimensions can be measured off drawings made on a stable medium such as vellum. All processes of reproduction introduce small errors, especially now that different copying methods mean that the same drawing may be re-copied, or copies made in several different ways. Consequently, dimensions need to be written ("figured") on the drawing. The disclaimer "Do not scale off dimensions" is commonly inscribed on architects drawings, to guard against errors arising in the copying process. Standard views used in architects' drawings Principal floor plans of the Queen's House, Greenwich (UK). Mandala: The Architecture of Enlightenment 240 In the fall of 1997, the Asia Society presented "Mandala: The Architecture of Enlightenment," the first exhibition ever devoted to the multiple manifestations of the mandala throughout Asia. A mandala is an ancient Hindu and Buddhist graphic symbol of the universe a cosmic diagram that functions as a powerful aid to meditation and concentration. On view at the Asia Society from September 24, 1997 through January 4, 1998, this exhibition featured more than fifty mandalas and related objects, including sculptures and models of sacred spaces, from Tibet, Nepal, China, Japan, Bhutan, India and Indonesia. Co-organized by the Asia Society and Tibet House,"Mandala: The Architecture of Enlightenment" highlighted the stunning artistry and diversity of this ancient artform and explored the artistic genesis and religious role of the mandala in Buddhism. In honor of the exhibition, a Kalachakra sand mandala was constructed at the Asia Society by monks from the Namgyal monastery, H.H. The Dalai Lama's personal monastery, it remained on view throughout the exhibition. Also during the run of the exhibition, a series of public events at the Asia Society explored the wide appeal of the mandala and its affinities with representations of sacred space in other religions and cultures. The mandala is likened by some to a "floor plan of the universe." The type most familiar in the West is an intricately patterned painting on cloth or paper that often takes the general form of a circle within a square. The word "mandala" comes from the Sanskrit verbal root "mand" (meaning to mark off, decorate, set off) and the Sanskrit suffix "la" (meaning circle, essence, sacred center). The mandala's symbolic power can be traced back to millennia-old roots in Indian temple architecture, which created sacred spaces linking the worshiper to the larger cosmos. In these temples, time and space were represented in a vocabulary of circles and squares. Similarly, a mandala helps believers visualize the universe and their place in it, often in relation to a specific deity found in the center of the image. 241 The mandalas on display at the Asia Society tracked the evolution of the symbol throughout Asia under the influence of various religious and artistic traditions. Some were exquisitely complex; others quite simple. A portable soapstone model of a stone temple found in tenth-century India is one kind of mandala; another is the Tibetan assemblage of miniature bronze deities that resembles a sacred chess setA 15th-century silk scroll from Japan might be mistaken for an elegant nature-study of a lone deer except for the cloud-borne gathering of deities just below the mandala moon.More contemporary mandalas made from thread and sand offered proof of the continuing vitality of the mandala and its role in Buddhist devotions.Co-curators of Mandala: The Architecture of Enlightenment are Robert A. F. Thurman, Professor of Religions at Columbia University, and Denise Patry Leidy, Associate Curator/Administrator, Department of Asian Art, the Metropolitan Museum of Art. Mandala: The Architecture of Enlightenment and related programs are co-organized by the Asia Society and Tibet House and funded in part by the National Endowment for the Arts, The Henry Luce Foundation, Michael Marsh, Mary Livingston Griggs and Mary Griggs Burke Foundation, The Woodcock Foundation, Ellen Bayard Weedon Foundation and Frank and Lisina Hoch. Support for the Asia Society Galleries exhibitions and education programs has been provided by the Friends of Asian Arts, The Starr Foundation, The Armand G. Erpf Fund, and the Arthur Ross Foundation. 242 Architectural drawing combining elevation, section and plan: Reveley of Jeremy Bentham's proposal for a Panopticon prison, 1791 drawings by Willey Views: Floor plan A floor plan is the most fundamental architectural diagram, a view from above showing the arrangement of spaces in building in the same way as a map, but showing the arrangement at a particular level of a building. Technically it is a horizontal section cut through a building (conventionally at four feet / one metre and twenty centimetres above floor level), showing walls, windows and door openings and other features at that level. The plan view includes anything that could be seen below that level: the floor, stairs (but only up to the plan level), 243 fittings and sometimes furniture. Objects above the plan level (e.g. beams overhead) can be indicated as dashed lines. Geometrically, plan view is defined as a vertical orthographic projection of an object on to a horizontal plane, with the horizontal plane cutting through the building. Site plan A site plan is a specific type of plan, showing the whole context of a building or group of buildings. A site plan shows property boundaries and means of access to the site, and nearby structures if they are relevant to the design. For a development on an urban site, the site plan may need to show adjoining streets to demonstrate how the design fits into the urban fabric. Within the site boundary, the site plan gives an overview of the entire scope of work. It shows the buildings (if any) already existing and those that are proposed, usually as a building footprint; roads, parking lots, footpaths, hard landscaping, trees and planting. For a construction project, the site plan also needs to show all the services connections: drainage and sewer lines, water supply, electrical and communications cables, exterior lighting etc. Site plans are commonly used to represent a building proposal prior to detailed design: drawing up a site plan is a tool for deciding both the site layout and the size and orientation of proposed new buildings. A site plan is used to verify that a proposal complies with local development codes, including restrictions on historical sites. In this context the site plan forms part of a legal agreement, and there may be a requirement for it to be drawn up by a licensed professional: architect, engineer, landscape architect or land surveyor. p Elevation of the principal façade of the Panthéon, Paris Elevation 244 An elevation is a view of a building seen from one side, a flat representation of one façade. This is the most common view used to describe the external appearance of a building. Each elevation is labelled in relation to the compass direction it faces, e.g. looking toward the north you would be seeing the southern elevation of the building.[5] Buildings are rarely a simple rectangular shape in plan, so a typical elevation may show all the parts of the building that are seen from a particular direction. Geometrically, an elevation is a horizontal orthographic projection of a building onto a vertical plane, the vertical plane normally being parallel to one side of the building. Architects also use the word elevation as a synonym for façade, so the "north elevation" is the north-facing wall of the building. Section drawing of the Observatorium at Potsdam. Cross section A cross section, also simply called a section, represents a vertical plane cut through the object, in the same way as a floor plan is a horizontal section viewed from the top. In the section view, everything cut by the section plane is shown as a bold line, often with a solid fill to show objects that are cut through, and anything seen beyond generally shown in a thinner line. Sections are used to describe the relationship between different levels of a building. In the Observatorium drawing illustrated here, the section shows the dome which can be seen from the outside, a second dome that can only be seen inside the building, and the way the space between the two accommodates a large astronomical telescope: relationships that would be difficult to understand from plans alone. A sectional elevation is a combination of a cross section, with elevations of other parts of the building seen beyond the section plane. Geometrically, a cross section is a horizontal orthographic projection of a building on to a vertical plane, with the vertical plane cutting through the building. Isometric and axonometric projections Isometric and axonometric projections are a simple way of representing a three dimensional object, keeping the elements to scale and showing the relationship between several sides of the same object, so that the complexities of a shape can be clearly understood. There is some confusion over the distinction between the terms isometric and axonometric. "Axonometric is a word that has been used by architects for hundreds of years. Engineers use the word axonometric as a generic term to include isometric, diametric and trimetric drawings."[6] This article uses the terms in the architecture-specific sense. Despite fairly complex geometrical explanations, for the purposes of practical drafting the difference between isometric and axonometric is simple (see diagram above). In both, the plan is drawn on a skewed or rotated grid, and the verticals are projected vertically on the page. All lines are drawn to scale so that relationships between elements are accurate. In many cases a different scale is required for different axes, and again this can be calculated but in practice was often simply estimated by eye. 245    An isometric uses a plan grid at 30 degrees from the horizontal in both directions, which distorts the plan shape. Isometric graph paper can be used to construct this kind of drawing. This view is useful to explain construction details (e.g. three dimensional joints in joinery). The isometric was the standard view until the mid twentieth century, remaining popular until the 1970s, especially for textbook diagrams and illustrations. Cabinet projection is similar, but only one axis is skewed, the others being horizontal and vertical. Originally used in cabinet making, the advantage is that a principal side (e.g. a cabinet front) is displayed without distortion, so only the less important sides are skewed. The lines leading away from the eye are drawn at a reduced scale to lessen the degree of distortion. The cabinet projection is seen in Victorian engraved advertisements and architectural textbooks, but has virtually disappeared from general use. An axonometric uses a 45 degree plan grid, which keeps the original orthogonal geometry of the plan. The great advantage of this view for architecture is that the draftsman can work directly from a plan, without having to reconstruct it on a skewed grid. In theory the plan should be set at 45 degrees, but this introduces confusing coincidences where opposite corners align. Unwanted effects can be avoided by rotating the plan while still projecting vertically. This is sometimes called a planometric or plan oblique view,[9] and allows freedom to choose any suitable angle to present the most useful view of an object. Traditional drafting techniques used 30–60 and 45 degree set squares, and that determined the angles used in these views. Once the adjustable square became common those limitations were lifted. The axonometric gained in popularity in the twentieth century, not just as a convenient diagram but as a formal presentation technique, adopted in particular by the Modern Movement. Axonometric drawings feature prominently in the influential 1970's drawings of Michael Graves, James Stirling and others, using not only straightforward views but worms-eye view, unusually and exaggerated rotations of the plan, and exploded elements. The axonometric view is not readily generated by CAD programmes which create views from a three dimensional model. Consequently, it is now rarely used. Detail drawings Detail drawings show a small part of the construction at a larger scale, to show how the component parts fit together. They are also used to show small surface details, for example decorative elements. Section drawings at large scale are a standard way of showing building construction details, typically showing complex junctions (such as floor to wall junction, window openings, eaves and roof apex) that cannot be clearly shown on a drawing that includes the full height of the building. A full set of construction details needs to show plan details as well as vertical section details. One detail is seldom produced in isolation: a set of details shows the information needed to understand the construction in three dimensions. Typical scales for details are 1/10, 1/5 and full size. In traditional construction, many details were so fully standardised, that few detail drawings were required to construct a building. For example, the construction of a sash window would be left to the carpenter, who would fully understand what was required, but unique decorative details of the facade would be drawn up in detail. In contrast, modern buildings need to be fully detailed because of the proliferation of different products, methods and possible solutions. 246 Perspective in the manner of the classic Ideal city by Jean-Max Albert,1977./Two point perspective, interior of Dercy House by Robert Adam, 1777. Perspective in drawing is an approximate representation on a flat surface of an image as it is perceived by the eye. The key concepts here are:      Perspective is the view from a particular fixed viewpoint. Horizontal and vertical edges in the object are represented by horizontals and verticals in the drawing. Lines leading away into the distance appear to converge at a vanishing point. All horizontals converge to a point on the horizon, which is a horizontal line at eye level. Verticals converge to a point either above or below the horizon. The basic categorization of artificial perspective is by the number of vanishing points:    One-point perspective where objects facing the viewer are orthogonal, and receding lines converge to a single vanishing point. Two-point perspective reduces distortion by viewing objects at an angle, with all the horizontal lines receding to one of two vanishing points, both located on the horizon. Three-point perspective introduces additional realism by making the verticals recede to a third vanishing point, which is above or below depending upon whether the view is seen from above or below. The normal convention in architectural perspective is to use two-point perspective, with all the verticals drawn as verticals on the page. Three-point perspective gives a casual, photographic snapshot effect. In professional architectural photography, conversely, a view camera or a perspective control lens is used to eliminate the third vanishing point, so that all the verticals are vertical on the photograph, as with the perspective convention. This can also be done by digital manipulation of a photograph taken with a standard lens. Aerial perspective is a technique in painting, for indicating distance by approximating the effect of the atmosphere on distant objects. In daylight, as an ordinary object gets further from the eye, its contrast with the background is reduced, its colour saturation is reduced, and its colour 247 becomes more blue. Not to be confused with aerial view or bird's eye view, which is the view as seen (or imagined) from a high vantage point. In J M Gandy's perspective of the Bank of England (see illustration at the beginning of this article), Gandy portrayed the building as a picturesque ruin in order to show the internal plan arrangement, a precursor of the cutaway view. A montage image is produced by superimposing a perspective image of a building on to a photographic background. Care is needed to record the position from which the photograph was taken, and to generate the perspective using the same viewpoint. This technique is popular in computer visualisation, where the building can be photorealistically rendered, and the final image is intended to be almost indistinguishable from a photograph. Architect's early concept sketches. A sketch is a rapidly executed freehand drawing, a quick way to record and develop an idea, not intended as a finished work. A diagram could also be drawn freehand but deals with symbols, to develop the logic of a design. Both can be worked up into a more presentable form and used to communicate the principles of a design. In architecture, the finished work is expensive and time consuming, so it is important to resolve the design as fully as possible before construction work begins. Complex modern buildings involve a large team of different specialist disciplines, and communication at the early design stages is essential to keep the design moving towards a coordinated outcome.[12] Architects (and other designers) start investigating a new design with sketches and diagrams, to develop a rough design that provides an adequate response to the particular design problems. 248 There are two basic elements to a building design, the aesthetic and the practical. The aesthetic element includes the layout and visual appearance, the anticipated feel of the materials, and cultural references that will influence the way people perceive the building. Practical concerns include space allocated for different activities, how people enter and move around the building, daylight and artificial lighting, acoustics, traffic noise, legal matters and building codes, and many other issues. While both aspects are partly a matter of customary practice, every site is different. Many architects actively seek innovation, thereby increasing the number of problems to be resolved. Architectural legend often refers to designs made on the back of an envelope or on a napkin.[13] Initial thoughts are important, even if they have to be discarded along the way, because they provide the central idea around which the design can develop. Although a sketch is inaccurate, it is disposable and allows for freedom of thought, for trying different ideas quickly. Choice becomes sharply reduced once the design is committed to a scale drawing, and the sketch stage is almost always essential. Diagrams are mainly used to resolve practical matters. In the early phases of the design architects use diagrams to develop, explore, and communicate ideas and solutions. They are essential tools for thinking, problem solving, and communication in the design disciplines. Diagrams can be used to resolve spatial relationships, but they can also represent forces and flows, e.g. the forces of sun and wind, or the flows of people and materials through a building.[15] An exploded view diagram shows component parts dis-assembled in some way, so that each can be seen on its own. These views are common in technical manuals, but are also used in architecture, either in conceptual diagrams or to illustrate technical details. In a cutaway view parts of the exterior are omitted to show the interior, or details of internal construction.[16] Although common in technical illustration, including many building products and systems, the cutaway is in fact little-used in architectural drawing. Types: Architectural drawings are produced for a specific purpose, and can be classified accordingly. Several elements are often included on the same sheet, for example a sheet showing a plan together with the principal façade. Presentation drawings Drawings intended to explain a scheme and to promote its merits. Working drawings may include tones or hatches to emphasise different materials, but they are diagrams, not intended to appear realistic. Basic presentation drawings typically include people, vehicles and trees, taken from a library of such images, and are otherwise very similar in style to working drawings. Rendering is the art of adding surface textures and shadows to show the visual qualities of a building more realistically. An architectural illustrator or graphic designer may be employed to prepare specialist presentation images, usually perspectives or highly finished site plans, floor plans and elevations etc. Survey drawings of existing land, structures and buildings. Architects need an accurate set of survey drawings as a basis for their working drawings, to establish exact dimensions for the construction work. Surveys are usually measured and drawn up by specialist land surveyors. Record drawings Historically, architects have made record drawings in order to understand and emulate the great architecture known to them. In the Renaissance, architects from all over Europe studied and 249 recorded the remains of the Roman and Greek civilizations, and used these influences to develop the architecture of the period. Records are made both individually, for local purposes, and on a large scale for publication. Historic surveys worth referring to include:    Colen Campbell's Vitruvius Brittanicus, illustrations of English buildings by Inigo Jones and Sir Christopher Wren, as well as Campbell himself and other prominent architects of the era. The Survey of London, founded in 1894 by Charles Robert Ashbee and now available through English Heritage. A record of notable streets and individual buildings in the former County of London. Historic American Buildings Survey, records of notable buildings drawn up during the 1930s Depression, this collection is held by the Library of Congress and is available copyright-free on the internet. Record drawings are also used in construction projects, where "as-built" conditions of the completed building are documented to take account of all the variations made during the course of construction. Working drawings A comprehensive set of drawings used in a building construction project: these will include not only architect's drawings, but structural and other engineering drawings as well. Working drawings logically subdivide into location, assembly and component drawings. 250    Location drawings, also called general arrangement drawings, include floor plans, sections and elevations: they show where the construction elements are located. Assembly drawings show how the different parts are put together. For example, a wall detail will show the layers that make up the construction, how they are fixed to structural elements, how to finish the edges of openings, and how prefabricated components are to be fitted. Component drawings enable self-contained elements e.g. windows and doorsets, to be fabricated in a workshop, and delivered to site complete and ready for installation. Larger components may include roof trusses, cladding panels, cupboards and kitchens. Complete rooms, especially hotel bedrooms and bathrooms, may be made as prefabricated pods complete with internal decorations and fittings. Formerly, working drawings would typically combine plans, sections, elevations and some details to provide a complete explanation of a building on one sheet. That was possible because 251 little detail was included, the building techniques involved being common knowledge amongst building professionals. Modern working drawings are much more detailed and it is standard practice to isolate select areas of the project on separate sheets. Notes included on drawings are brief, referring to standardised specification documents for more information. Understanding the layout and construction of a modern building involves studying an often-sizeable set of drawings and documents. Drafting Until the latter part of the 20th century, all architectural drawings were manually produced, if not by the architects, then by trained (but less skilled) draftsmen (or drafters), who did not generate the design, but did make many of the less important decisions. This system has continued with CAD drafting: many design architects have little or no knowledge of CAD software programmes, relying upon others to take their designs beyond the sketch stage. Draftsmen often specialize in a type of structure, such as residential or commercial, or in a type of construction: timber frame, reinforced concrete, prefabrication, etc. The traditional tools of the architect were the drawing board or drafting table, T-square and set squares, protractor, compasses, pencil, and drawing pens of different types. Drawings were made on vellum, coated linen, and tracing paper. Lettering would either be done by hand, mechanically using a stencil, or a combination of the two. Ink lines were drawn with a ruling pen, a relatively sophisticated device similar to a dip-in pen, but with adjustable line width, capable of producing a very fine controlled line width. Ink pens had to be dipped into ink frequently. Draftsmen worked standing up, keeping the ink on a separate table to avoid spilling ink on the drawing. Developments in the 20th century included the parallel motion drawing board, as well as more complex improvements on the basic T-square. The development of reliable technical drawing 252 pens allowed for faster drafting and stencilled lettering. Letraset dry transfer lettering and halftone sheets were popular from the 1970s until computers made those processes obsolete] CGI and computer-aided design Computer generated perspective of gears Computer-aided design (generally referred to by the acronym CAD) is the use of computer software to create drawings. Today the vast majority of technical drawings of all kinds are made using CAD. Instead of drawing lines on paper, the computer records equivalent information electronically. There are many advantages to this system: repetition is reduced because complex elements can be copied, duplicated and stored for re-use. Errors can be deleted, and the speed of drafting allows many permutations to be tried before the design is finalised. On the other hand, CAD drawing encourages a proliferation of detail and increased expectations of accuracy, aspects which reduce the efficiency originally expected from the move to computerization. 253 An example of a drawing drafted in AutoCAD Professional CAD software such as AutoCAD is complex and requires both training and experience before the operator becomes fully productive. Consequently, skilled CAD operators are often divorced from the design process. Simpler software such as SketchUp and Vectorworks allows for more intuitive drawing and is intended as a design tool. CAD is used to create all kinds of drawings, from working drawings to photorealistic perspective views. Architectural renderings (also called visualisations) are made by creating a threedimensional model using CAD. The model can be viewed from any direction to find the most useful viewpoints. Different software (for example Autodesk 3ds Max) is then used to apply colour and texture to surfaces, and to represent shadows and reflections. The result can be accurately combined with photographic elements: people, cars, background landscape. Building information modeling Building information modeling (BIM) is the logical development of CAD drawing, a relatively new technology but fast becoming mainstream. The design team collaborates to create a threedimensional computer model, and all plans and other two-dimensional views are generated directly from the model, ensuring spatial consistency. The key innovation here is to share the model via the internet, so that all the design functions (site survey, architecture, structure and services) can be integrated into a single model, or as a series of models associated with each specialism that are shared throughout the design development process. Some form of management, not necessarily by the architect, needs to be in place to resolve conflicting priorities. The starting point of BIM is spatial design, but it also enables components to be quantified and scheduled directly from the information embedded in the model. 254 Architectural animation An architectural animation is a short film showing how a proposed building will look: the moving image makes three-dimensional forms much easier to understand. An animation is generated from a series of hundreds or even thousands of still images, each made in the same way as an architectural visualisation. A computer-generated building is created using a CAD programme, and that is used to create more or less realistic views from a sequence of viewpoints. The simplest animations use a moving viewpoint, while more complex animations can include moving objects: people, vehicles, and so on.[ Architectural reprography Blueprint Reprographics or reprography covers a variety of technologies, media, and support services used to make multiple copies of original drawings. Prints of architectural drawings are still sometimes called blueprints, after one of the early processes which produced a white line on blue paper. The process was superseded by the dye-line print system which prints black on white coated paper (Whiteprint). The standard modern processes are the ink-jet printer, laser printer and photocopier, of which the ink-jet and laser printers are commonly used for large255 format printing. Although colour printing is now commonplace, it remains expensive above A3 size, and architect's working drawings still tend to adhere to the black and white / greyscale aesthetic. Sun City arizona 256 257 Renderings of Georgian Fan Lights, Baltimore 1. Almost all religious theories of the oriental civilization believe in the existence of a center from which everything instigates. This center is a point called the bindu. In Sanskrit, it is also referred to as ‘dapsa’ and ‘avayava’ meaning the physical body. Originally, the Supreme Reality represented by the symbol of the universe is the bindu as a central point of a circle or a triangle. It is the manifestation of creative dynamism. It also means the vibratory sound – the cosmic sound that relates to unconditional consciousness. In Hindu philosophy, the “bindu” forms the central part of mandala which is the cosmic model that organizes the spiritual world. For centuries, this formed the basis of creating architectural spaces 258 through the construction of temples and other religious cultural structures. The model interweaves natural elements essential for human survival and healthy spatial organization. The present research is the continuity of work since 1980 when the first temple of Vellore was documented as part of a student project. Further literary interest in bindu and mandala led to the investigation of these principles through practice and the maiden venture was the IGNCA Cultural Center in New Delhi in the year 1986. Though partially successful through practice, the concept of “bindu and mandala” has a great potential in the realm of sacred architecture and can reinvigorate architectural spaces to bring sacredness and well-being. Keywords: Bindu, Mandala, Culture, Built Environment, Sacred Architecture 2. MANDALA AND THE BINDU In Tantric philosophy, the moon or the indu is also associated with the basic concept of the bindu. Drops of dew located in the pinnacle of the body i.e. head is believed to be a manifestation of the bindu. The goal of the person practicing yoga is to attain liberation or moksha as a result of which the dew drops which are as cool as the moon melts and flows through the entire body. Voidness or sunnya is also represented by the bindu as it occupies a minute unit of space in a unique place. The second most important component of the mandala diagram is the nabhi. Nabhi or navel is the straight line that is generated when the bindu moves in a particular direction. Bindu or the center of the universe or of the body is considered to be the nabhi. This is also defined as the hub of a wheel i.e. Nabhi Chakra which comprises of three parts. Firstly, the center point around which everything revolves called the bindu. Secondly, the thick circular part to which the spokes of the wheel are fixed. And thirdly, the spokes itself or aras. [1] According to the Vaishnavaite mythology, Lord Vishnu or the protector of life is also referred to as Padmanabha (Padma – lotus), which means “one with lotus flower sized navel”. [2] It is believed to be the center of creative energy. The phenomenal universe is symbolized by Lord Brahma also known as God of creation emerging from the navel of Lord Vishnu. Some cultures in the oriental region believe that the mandala is represented as a lotus. The lotus, when represented as a central portion of the chakra, exposes three divisions –the karnika or the pericarps, the kesara or the filament and the petals. Hindu mythology regards the lotus as a symbol of the pedestal or the throne of Gods. In the practice of yoga, the ultimate aim is to focus the concentration on the central point of the nabhi to attain a greater level of realization. The third major component that forms the mandala is the chakra, which is nothing but a circling wheel with a center and circumference. It is the symbolical representation of the universe. The center of the wheel, which represents complete 259 emptiness, is imagined to possess the characters of dukha (pain) and sukha (pleasure) symbolized by black and white respectively. [1] 3. THE SRI YANTRA AND THE BINDU Figure 1. The Sri Yantra representing the “Evolution of Life and Involution of Life” Nine interlocking triangles around a bindu represent the Sri Yantra. It is also called a Navayoni Chakra because of the presence of nine (nava) triangles (yoni). Out of these nine triangles, five of them point downwards symbolize Sakti (feminine energy) and the remaining four points upwards symbolize Siva (masculine energy). The Sri Yantra shows the various stages of Sakti’s descent in expression. 260 The para bindu is the first stage of manifestation represented by a point being the nucleus of condensed energy. It represents the static and dynamic aspects of Siva and Sakti in one. Creation begins when this transforms into apara bindu when the center swells and becomes a form of a triangle. The interaction between the static and dynamic energy results in the formation of a triad – the Mula – trikona or the triangle. [3] Figure 2. (From Left to Right) Trailokya- Mohana Chakra; Sarvasaparipuraka Chakra; Sarva- Sankshobhana Chakra; and Sarva- Saubhagyadayaka Chakra Figure 3. (From Left to Right): Sarvartha- Sadhaka Chakra And Sarvarakshakara Chakra; Sarva- Rogahara Chakra; Sarva- Siddhiprada Chakra; and Bindu: Sarva- Anandamaya Chakra There are nine circuits that constitute the Sri Yantra from the outer plane to the bindu. The outermost periphery of the yantra consists of four gates located in the centers of the sides of a square and these are coloured white, red and yellow. Also called bhupara this is the ground plan of the Sri Yantra. There are three concentric circles inside the square called mekhala. The space between the square and the circles is the Trilokya-mohana or the Enchantress of the Triple World and this represents the stage when one is infatuated by objectives and wishes. Sarvarthasaddhaka meaning Accomplisher of All Purpose and Sarvarakshakara meaning Giver of Protection represent a period of self-realization and these two chakras are constituted of ten triangles each. Sarva – rogahara or the Remover of all Desires and Ills is the next chakra constituting eight triangles and represents the period of the inner circle of realization after freeing oneself from worldly ties. The Giver of All Accomplishments or the Sarva-siddhiprada is the stage just before realization and is represented by an inverted triangle. Colouring all the triangles red as they represent radiant energy reflects the dynamism. The culmination results in the last chakra, which is the bindu itself known as Sarva-anandamaya, which means Full of Bliss. This is the state when one participates in the union. This is represented as colourless as the point is light itself. [3] 4. VASTU PURUSHA MANDALA AND THE BINDU Vastu Purusha Mandala can be explained as the diagram of the universe in miniature. The word mandala in Sanskrit means a circle. It can be explained as a cosmic diagram that possesses radial 261 symmetry. Purusha can be explained as a cosmic man, an embodiment of pure consciousness. Also represented as a masculine divine he is contained in a square grid showing his union with the feminine divine or the Earth Mother. Thus, Vastu Purusha Mandala can be explained as a harmonious unification of the masculine divine and the feminine divine or the cosmic energy and the earth energy respectively. The Vastu Purusha Mandala contains a minimum of nine sections signifying the directions north, south, east, west, northeast, northwest, southeast, southwest and the center represented as square grids. In the Vastu Purusha Mandala, the Purusha’s head is located in the northeast direction and this is considered utmost sacred. In the southwest are his feet and his knees and elbows in the northwest and southeast. Kept open and clear in the center part of the diagram are his main organs and his torso. Starting from a single undivided square of 1 x 1 there are grid patterns ranging up to 32 x 32 thus making it 1024 sections. [4] Architecturally, the adaptation of the Vastu Purusha Mandala has been seen in the design of houses, palaces, temples and even cities. Integrating it into the design brings a certain amount of order in the design. Here, the squares are assumed as cubes of architectural spaces. [5] The five elements of earth, water, fire, air and space correspond with specific sections of the Vastu Purusha Mandala. The south-west direction is associated with the element of earth(Bhumi); south-east with the elements of fire (Agni); north-east with the element of water (Jala); north-west with the element of air (Vayu) and the center space with the element of space (Akasha) [4]. Figure 5. Manduka Purusha Mandala Showing the Concentric Zones of Energy 262 The commonly used ones are the 8 x 8 and the 9 x 9 grids. The 8 x 8 grid also called the Manduka Vastu Mandala is used mainly in temple architecture. The 9 x 9 grid also called the Parasayika Vastu Mandala is used for the design of residential spaces and spaces other than temples. The center of the mandala is both sunnya (the absolute Void) and bindu (the source of all energy). Located here is Lord Brahma (The Supreme creator). [5] The term Pada in Sanskrit means the section of the energy grid pattern in the Vastu Purusha Mandala. There are concentric padas of energy in the mandala. The primary source of energy that is highly changed is in the center called the Brahma Pada. The Deivika pada around this is the luminous space. These two padas should be kept free of no walls. The conscious space or the Manusha Pada surrounds the Deivika Pada. Finally, the material space encompasses all of it and is the Paisachika Pada. These two padas are for the built structure and human occupancy. [4] 5. MANDALA AND HINDU TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE Although there have been various arguments by authors of Indian temple architecture like Stella Kramrisch and Michael W. Meister about the applicability of the Vastu Purusha Mandala as a governing device for temple architecture, it is safe to say that for formulating the layout of the temple, the Vastu Purusha Mandala has been an imperative tool. [6] Though the 8 x 8 grid or the Manduka Vastu Mandala has been used in various temples of Indian architecture, it is to be noted that regional differences have played a major influence on the workability of the mandala design throughout India. [7] Customarily, mandalas were spaces for the symbolic consciousness of universal theories which help in the awakening of the individual psyche. [8] The mandalas can be thought of as diagrams that function as a cue to reach a contemplational state which is the primary aim of the tradition. [9] The form of the temples that are based on the regulating lines of the mandala were meant to create spaces that bring about a “physical and spatial” communion between God and man. [10] 6. MANDALA AND BUDDHIST TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE The mandala in Buddhism is a cosmic model depicting Buddha’s dwelling place as the center of the universe. Like in the Hindu temples, the structuring of the Buddhist temples has also been predominantly based on the spiritual model of the mandala. Illustrations can be seen both in the form of two-dimensional mandalas as well as three-dimensional mandalas. The two-dimensional mandalas which are drawings composed of squares and concentric circles could be temporarily painted on various material or drawn on the ground or sand or other natural substances using coloured powder. Customs involving ceremonious gatherings along with prayers and chantings while drawing the mandalas are believed to alleviate difficulties and be of greater good to an individual or a community. These ceremonies could even last up to a number of days. [11] Three-dimensionally, the mandala diagram becomes a visual model of the built environment. In the Buddhist worship place, the central space is significant having a statue of the Buddha fronted by a worshipping space surrounded by walls. This is encircled by a circumambulating space. The circumambulation pathway is a space of psychological awakening before reaching the spiritual pinnacle. [12] 263 7. THE HINDU AND BUDDHIST MANDALA – A SPECULATIVE PROJECT – PEACE MEMORIAL FOR THE TAMILS, SRI LANKA (2014) The continuing search for the mystery of sacral space by author1 led to an experiment on a speculative project called the Peace Museum for the Tamils in Sri Lanka. The Tamil peace memorial, proposed to be built in Mullaitivu, Sri Lanka, which was controlled by the LTTE and was witness to many killings of the Tamils during the civil war. The mandala is of significant importance in both Hinduism and Buddhism. Both religions adopt the mandala as a peaceful and creative symbol. Hence, the speculative project finds a balance to build a memorial, which will signify peace and harmony of the Tamil community. The scale of the mandala here is monumental imposing the idea of spirituality and peace. Contemplating the mandala does not only provide insight into reality, the Cosmos but also communion with it. Mandala is the mystery that pervades all existence. Mandala alleviates suffering individually as well as in society. Contemplation can help overcome antagonism, conflict, stress and even war. Bindu as a symbolism is the beginning of the process that culminates into a mandala. Here the mandala and the bindu is in three-dimension with the mandala rising above the sea level to be a visual spectacle defining the solid cube and its framework. The ritual pathway from the entry point contains the narrative and progresses to the main mandala. The plan of the museum is the Sri Yantra which is the representation of life from bindu and the unfolding universe. The memorial is primarily a cultural model represented through the mandala. [13] 9. CONCLUSION The position of the bindu in the Vastu Purusha Mandala as the seat of Lord Brahma symbolizes creative life. The process of bindu as a point and reaching the ultimate form of a mandala signifies the bindu’s transformation to mandala and back. This proves the theory of ‘Evolution and Involution.’ Bindu and mandala have inspired artists and architects in isolation. But the author experiments with the process itself by manifesting the philosophy through architectural form finding which is significant to spirituality and the context of the practice. The study of bindu and mandala and its interpretation into architecture can be a convenient way theoretically to root the design in tradition. It is important to balance this transformation to architecture with contemporary design. Without careful consideration, the outcome could be superficial. In architecture, sacral space can exist everywhere whether it is religious or non-religious. It becomes a difficult task for architects to create this space which takes on different meanings in different situations. It is culturally fluid and socially adaptable. Such a space is a meaningful fourth dimension of architecture which is both visible and invisible. And the most potent definition to support this idea can be found in Vedas, which defines this space as, “Space is that, which accommodates space”.2 REFERENCES [1] M. Shakya, “Basic Concepts of Mandala,” Voice of History, vol. 15(1), pp. 81 – 88, 2000. [2] “The Art of Living,” [Online]. Available: http://www.artofliving.org/padmanabha-lotus-navel.. 264 [Accessed 2014 November 2014]. [3] A. Mookerjee and M. Khanna, The Tantric Way – Art. Science. Ritual, London: Thames and Hudson, 1977. [4] S. Silverman, Vastu: Transcendental Home Design in Harmony with Nature, Utah: Gibbs Smith, 2007. [5] C. Kagal, Ed., Vistara – The Architecture of India, Bombay: The Festival of India, 1986, p. 36. [6] E. E. Raddock, “Listen how the wise one begins construction of a house for Viṣṇu,” Berkeley, 2011. [7] L. S. Thakur, “Application of Vāstupuraṣamaṇḍala in the Indian Temple Architecture: An Analysis of the Nāgara Temple Plans of Himachal Pradesh,” Artibus Asiae, vol. 50, no. 3/4, pp. 263-284, 1990. [8] M. Grey, “Encountering the mandala: the mental and political architectures of dependency,” Cultural Mandala: The Bulletin of the Centre for East-West Cultural and Economic Studies, vol. 4, no. 2, 11 1 2001. [9] S. Bafna, “On the Idea of the Mandala as a Governing Device in Indian Architectural Tradition,” J Soc Archit Hist, vol. 59, no. 1, pp. 26 – 49, March 2000. [10] G. Michell, The Hindu Temple – An Introduction to its Meaning and Forms, Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 1977, pp. 71-72. [11] T. Anderson, “Mandala: Constructing Peace through art,” Art Education, pp. 33-39, May 2002. [12] P. Xu, “The Mandala as a cosmic model used to systematically structure the Tibetan Buddhist Landscape,” J Archit Plan Res, vol. 27, no. 3, pp. 181-203, 2010. [13] Coherence of Tradition in Practice, Khan and Varadarajan. REFERENCES 1.http://www.wilbourhall.org/pdfs/suryasiddhanth035839mbp.pdf Check page 286 for the shlokas and the commentary.Phylogeny mandalas for illustrating the Tree of Life,MasamiHasegawa,The Institute of Statistical Mathematics, Midori-cho 10-3, Tachikawa, Tokyo 190-8562, https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1055790316303049?via%3Dihub The Coral of Life,János Podani ,Evolutionary Biology volume 46, pages123–144(2019) Japan 2.RESEARCH – APPLICATION OF BINDU AND MANDALA AS A MODEL FOR CULTURAL AND SACRED ARCHITECTURE, JAFFER KHAN https://architecturelive.in/research-application-of-bindu-and-mandala-as-a-model-for-cultural-and-sacredarchitecture/ 265 CHAPTER X The World Mountain – Mount Meru in myths and legends of peoples of the world The cosmic or World Mountain as axis mundi is mentioned in world mythology just as frequently as the World Tree. As a rule, these two images peacefully coexist, not excluding, but rather being superimposed on each other. The World Tree stretching to the heaven is often placed on top of a giant mountain in the middle of the universe. Both concepts serve as embodiments of the sacred axis in the world structure. In my opinion, the concept of the World Mountain is most profoundly revealed in Anastasia Novykh’s Sensei of Shambala – Book IV, so let us start with this very source: “What is the World Mountain?” Slava asked Sensei. “Well, generally speaking, it’s quite a well-known concept, frequently mentioned in the folklore of different peoples of the world,” Sensei started explaining in detail to our amazement. “Ideas of the World Mountain, or as it is also called the cosmic mountain, date back to extreme antiquity. According to mythology, the World Mountain is located in an inaccessible place in the centre of the universe or, to be more precise, in the place where the axis mundi, the axis of the universe runs through all worlds, including the disjoint ones located in the same space. It is deemed that all the elements and parameters of the universal order are reflected in the World Mountain. Legends say immortal gods gather together on it, and from there everything that happens in the universe is seen.” 266 “Immortal gods gather together there,” Kostya repeated Sensei’s phrase and directed his admiring gaze at the image of the ‘World Mountain’ gradually dissolving in the clouds.” Sensei shrugged his shoulders, “Well, gods in the sense like… As legends say, sages from the entire universe, that is spiritual beings who possess Knowledge and have achieved certain levels of spiritual development, like our Imhotep or Buddha who were able to leave their bodies during their life in the state of meditation and to appear on the World Mountain, to stay there, to communicate, to share their experience with similar enlightened representatives of other worlds. At that, immortality is meant not in the sense of one’s body, but immortality of the spiritual nature of those who visit that place.” “Wow, it’s the mountain for the select ones!” Kostya made his conclusion with admiration. “Well, what does ‘the select ones’ really mean?” Sensei objected. “Everybody is the select one if he or she exists. However, not everybody makes one’s life choice in favour the Spiritual Way, not to mention following it towards God. Though everything depends on a person oneself! Everyone is able, if he or she wants, to evolve to such a spiritual level that he or she will be able to participate in one of such high gatherings.” Stas could hardly wait until Sensei replies Kostya’s questions and uttered with impatience, “Does it mean the World Mountain doesn’t look like this mountain?” he motioned to the disappearing heavenly image of the mountain with melting-down snowy hat on its sharp-edged top. “Well, it’s not really a mountain,” Sensei slightly waved with his hand, lighting up a cigarette. “It looks like a bald little hill, with a big glade on its top. Well, not quite bald. It is covered with petty grass like our dark green moss, it’s a peculiar plant not from our world. The only interesting thing is that there is atmosphere, but no wind. That what is meant to be the ‘air’ there does not move…” “Does the World Mountain really exist?!” Andrew asked with distrust. Like all of us, he held his breath before that in order to hear Sensei’s answer to Stas better. In response Sensei said in quite a usual tone, as if it went without saying, “The World Mountain is located in the universe simultaneously on the crossroads of layers of this world. But materially its location is in no certain populated world of the universe. At the same time, it links up all the worlds on itself. It is absolutely real, even by touch…” “Many records and legends remained from extreme antiquity almost all over Eastern and Central Asia where it is called the great Mount Meru and considered to be the centre of the world located in an inaccessible place. Later, when people began to give their own interpretations of the original legends about this mountain, some ’interpreters’ placed it in the centre of the earth 267 under the Pole Star and encircled with the world ocean, others placed in the inaccessible Himalayas and associated it with Shambala…” “Is it associated even with Shambala?” Volodya got surprised. Sensei grinned. “Sure. There is plenty of such interweaving of legends about the World Mountain with legends about Shambala. But it is understandable. For people who know nothing about Shambala or the cosmic Mount Meru, both located ‘somewhere there’, nobody knows where, all these concepts will certainly merge together in one and the same idea. Though in fact there is a big difference between them. Shambala is located between the real eternal world of God and the temporarily existing material universe. It’s the abode of Bodhisattvas. Whereas the World Mountain is located amidst the worlds of the material universe, and it is a place of visit of wise beings, like our enlightened people or demigods as they were called by ancient people, that is those who reached a high spiritual level. Therefore in ancient legends this mountain was associated with achievement of the genuine human happiness and immortality. In the mythology of Ancient India there was a range of myths connected with Meru. According to such ancient views, Brahma, Shiva and other great gods live on the World Mountain located in the centre of the universe, with stars, planets and many suns revolving around it. There are also references to thirty-three gods who communicate with each other there. Their activities are described, too. For example, on this mountain Vishnu gives advices to other gods on how to extract the drink of immortality Amrita.” “Amrita… sounds nice,” Tatiana said. “Is it somehow connected with a female name?” “No. This word originates from ‘amrta’ meaning ‘immortal’. It is similar to a later ancient Greek myth about the Ambrosia drink which maintains immortality of Olympic gods and their eternal youth. Amrita, Ambrosia is the same as the Vedic juice of Soma. In Rigveda it is described as a juice of gods that causes an ecstatic state and grants immortality and extraordinary force. In ancient Hindu religious practice the very process of preparation of this juice represented a special ritual. In Avesta this juice is called Haoma, and its cult goes back to the ancient Iranian period. It was also worshipped by Sarmatians and Scythians. This juice was also called ‘death averting’. It not only changed space and time perception, but granted enormous power, enlightenment and knowledge. As ancient Iranians believed, it prepared the way for the soul in the best way. But as a matter of fact this juice of immortality has always been called the ‘juice of lotus’. In nearly all legends this sacred juice was described as the juice of an unusual heavenly plant connected with the earth, beautifully and rightly created, which had a white and yellow, and even golden colour…” 268 … Buddha became able to visit the World Mountain. Owing to Buddha and some of his followers who possessed this knowledge, the information about Mount Meru became known across the Orient. Buddhists, by the way, like Hindu, described this mountain as a pistil of the lotus flower – the sacred flower for both religions, and this image was more associated not with the mountain itself, but with main elements of a dynamic meditation for preparation to visit Meru. Or let us take our Slavonic ‘heathenism’. What is noteworthy about it is that knowledge and practices about the World Mountain were accessible to ordinary people, unlike ’usurpation’ of this knowledge by priests of other peoples. For a long time on Slavonic territories people practiced ancient rituals of magic ‘flights’ to the cosmic mountain, which were held on a sacred hill similar by its shape to outlines of the World Mountain. By the way, in old times people celebrated big holidays not because they wanted to enjoy themselves. From time immemorial holidays were arranged on the days that coincided with certain cosmic cycles, and people started celebrations not in the morning as it is habitual today, but in the evening, at the rise of the first star. In the course of time, when ‘heathenism’ was extirpated by fire and sword among Slavonic peoples and the Christian faith was imposed, they began to persecute servants of ‘heathen cults who were labelled as ‘devil’s offspring’, ’servants of the devil’. At that, ‘pagan’ ancient rituals were labelled as sabbaths and festivals of ‘satanic forces’ hostile to people. Generally speaking, after physical annihilation of most of the magi, the knowledge about the World Mountain was lost, and what remained was distorted to a negative side beyond recognition. Holidays were renamed, although due to such renaming the occurrence of certain cosmic cycles didn’t change of course, and neither did the holiness of relevant places. Thus, Christian churches were built on the sites of former heathen temples of chief pagan gods. But, as they say, this is already history. 269 A similar image of the World Mountain in the centre of the universe was known to Altaians, though they called it Altyn-Tu. According to their beliefs, the foundation of this golden cosmic mountain was fastened to the heaven (i.e. its widest part was above and its narrowest part was beneath), and its top hung above the earth at the distance ‘equal to the length of a human shin’. Moreover, they had other widespread names of the World Mountain, e.g. Mount Sumeru, with stars revolving around it. It was also known by Kalmyks and many other peoples in Central Asia. According to myths of the Altai people, there are 33 tengri, or 33 gods on it. The Chinese call the World Mountain Kunlun. According to their beliefs, it is possible to go through it to the highest spheres of the universe. It was considered to be something like ‘paradise’. There is a following record in one of ancient texts, “The one who would go up from Kunlun twice as high will reach the Mountain of Cool Wind and gain immortality; the one who would go up twice as high will reach the Hanging Ground and gain miraculous abilities, having learnt to manage the wind and the rain; the one who would go up twice as high will reach the heaven, the abode of Tai Di – the supreme lords, and will become a spirit.” For unconversant people it’s a nice fairy tale, while for knowledgeable people it is only a hint. 270 By the way, such association of the World Mountain with paradise is mentioned in the Bible as well. There you can find separate evidences pointing out to echoes of knowledge about the World Mountain, e.g. that it is located in the centre of the universe, that God descends to it, that there is kind of a paradise on it, that the mountain is surrounded with rivers that symbolize the primeval ocean. The text also says that only a righteous person with ‘innocent hands and pure heart’ is able to ascend it. It was associated with Mount Zion, and even with Mount Ararat to which Noah’s Ark moored according to the legend. Muslims describe the World Mountain in their texts in a quite interesting though a bit camouflaged way. Firstly, Islamic myths mention that Allah created a huge Mount Qaf which encircled the populated world and firmly supported the universe. The Creator created another earth behind this mountain, seven times bigger in size, which is populated by angels so densely that even a needle can’t fall down between them… Ideas of the World Mountain, just like of the World Tree, date back to the remote antiquity. These cosmological images are recorded in rock paintings of the Upper Palaeolithic, i.e. have a history of several tens of thousands of years. In any case, we can speak of people’s knowledge of the axis mundi during the Stone Age with certainty. This is exactly how we can interpret numerous images found by archaeologists on Neolithic ceramics and widespread from Western Asia through China. Having appeared on ceramics in the period preceding the emergence of the first great civilizations, the motif of the universe pillar preserved its popularity in visual arts in subsequent periods as well. Thus, for instance, Scythians believed Mount Meru was in the north, in the region of darkness and snow, “where stars, the Moon and the Sun revolve”. A common plot of many myths and legends was description of the magic abode behind the sacred mountains – the so-called “land of blissful”, situated on the northern slope of Mount Meru, on the shore of the Milky Ocean (Sea) – the Arctic Ocean. 271 The World Mountain (an image on Neolithic ceramics. the Mediterranean) The World Mountain (an image on Neolithic ceramics. the Mediterranean) 272 Altai Tatars imagine Bay Ulgen sitting amidst the Heaven on a golden mountain. Abakan Tatars call it the Iron Mountain; Mongols, Buryats and Kalmyks know it as Sumbur, Sumur or Sumeru. In Central Asian traditions and for many Altai peoples, the World Mountain, based on the image of Mount Meru (Sumeru, Sumur, Sumbur, etc.), is often represented as an iron pillar (the Iron Mountain) located in the middle of the earthly disc and joining heaven and earth, with its top touching the Pole Star. Sometimes the Mountain (Sumbur) stands on a navel of a turtle turned to its side, on each leg of which a particular continent is located. According to other versions, the Pole Star itself is the edge of God’s palace built on top of the Mountain. Kalmyks believe that stars revolve around Mount Sumeru. According to myths of some Altai peoples, 33 tengri live on top of the Mountain. There is a myth saying that Sumeru is three times surrounded by the enormous serpent Losun. Mongols and Kalmyks believe the World Mountain has three or four tiers; for Siberian Tatars the Mountain has seven tiers. In their mystic journeys Yakut shamans also ascend a seven-tier mountain. Its top rests against the Pole Star – “the navel of the heaven”. Buryats say the Pole Star is attached to the Mountain top. Description of the World Mountain in ancient Egyptian mythology From Sensei of Shambala – Book IV by Anastasia Novykh: In earlier times Ra was worshipped in Heliopolis as a god of the ‘mature’ daylight sun. Before the Archons’ priests started using the image of Ra, the god of the midday sun, people in Heliopolis worshipped Atum, the god of the evening sun and the creator of the world. However, the most interesting thing is that Atum is a later alteration of the name of goddess Atama who according to ancient legends showed herself as a hill originated from the primeval waters of Nun (the water chaos from which everything emerged). A lotus flower blossomed out on this hill, and bright light illumined the darkness. It was namely goddess Atama who played the main role in maintaining the world order. The all-seeing Eye knowing about everything in the world glared on her crown which consisted of lotus petals… Description of Mount Meru in the Mahabharata The most classical World Mountain is the great Mount Meru in Hindu mythology and cosmography. It is situated in the centre of the earth under the Pole Star and surrounded by the world ocean. On its three tops – golden, silver and iron – there reside Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva, or (according to other versions) 33 deities making up the pantheon; underneath the mountain there is the Asur Kingdom. A huge tree stands on each of the four mountains that surround Meru (including Ashvattha and Pippala which represent the World Tree), indicating a corresponding cardinal direction. In Buddhist texts, in addition to Mount Meru there is Himavat (“the King of Mountains”) serving as a pillow for Tathāgata. 273 Himavat – the King of Mountains In the Mahabharata, Meru is a mountainous land with sky-high peaks, where the main peak is Mount Mandara. The Mahabharata describes lands beyond the Himalayas: Tibet and Pamir ranges, Central Asian deserts, impenetrable forests, polar regions and such arctic phenomena as the stationary Pole Star, stars that neither rise nor set, but revolve in a horizontal plane, completing a circle every 24 hours, the high-standing constellation of Ursa Major (the Big Dipper, or the Great Bear), the sun that rises only once a year, nights and days lasting for six months, the polar aurora, the long darkness region, and so on. It is mentioned that on the edge of this region Mount Meru towers with its northern slope being the Milky Ocean coast. According to the Mahabharata: On the northern side, the mighty Meru stands, shining in its great glory; Brahma’s abode is on it, where the soul of all beings resides, Prajapati that created everything movable and immovable… The great Meru, the chaste, good abode… Here (over the mountain) seven divine Rishis with Vasishtha (constellation of the Bid Dipper) at their head set and rise again. All heavenly bodies revolve around Meru. The polar star hangs on it motionlessly, while Cassiopeia and Bootes circle around it together with the Bid Dipper. Here, the day lasts for six months and the night lasts for six months, one night and one day being equal to a year. To the north of the Milky Ocean there is a big island known as Shveta Dvila (“the Radiant White Island”). 274 This land is described as “the land of everlasting happiness”, “the tribe knows neither diseases nor age weakness”, “flocks of antelopes and birds are everywhere”, “having gone there, one does not return to his world again”. It’s “the Land of the Select”, “the Land of Saints”, “the Land of Blissful”. Devas used the Meru peak as a beater for the ocean churning, which resulted in emergence of Amrita: … and started beating the water to obtain Amrita. When devas and suras churned the ocean with Mandara, the great noise began, similar to rumble of monstrous clouds. Various water inhabitants, crushed by the great mountain, found their death in the salt water. Diverse creatures of the world of Varuna, as well as inhabitants of lower regions of the world, were destroyed by the mountain, the pillar of the earth. While it was rotating, mighty trees populated by birds collided and fell from the mountain top. The fire that emerged from their friction, blazing with lightning every minute as if a blue cloud, wrapped Mount Mandara round. It burned elephants and lions that turned out to be there. All other diverse beings lost their life, too. Then Indra, the best of the immortal, extinguished that burning fire with water begotten from the clouds. Thereafter variegated secretions of mighty trees and numerous herb juices flew into the ocean waters. Devas achieved immortality exactly from drinking of those juices endowed with an immortal power, as well as from the flow of gold. A way to Amaravati – the royal city of Indgra – runs through its top. Serpent Vasuki encircles Meru. 275 Churning of the Milky Ocean (bas-relief): Mount Mandara, Vishnu, Kurma, Lakshmi Mount Mandara, used by devas and suras for churning of the Milky Ocean, is an obvious “synonym” of the World Mountain – Mount Meru. The resemblance between the mountains is clearly seen in description given in the Mahabharata. “There is a mountain called Mandara adorned with cloud-like peaks. It is the best of mountains, and is covered all over with intertwining herbs. There countless birds pour forth their melodies, and beasts of prey roam about. The gods, the Apsaras and the Kinnaras visit the place. Upwards it rises eleven thousand yojanas, and descends downwards as much. The gods wanted to tear it up and use it as a churning rod, but failing to do so same to Vishnu and Brahman who were sitting together… There is a mountain named Meru, of blazing appearance, and looking like a heap of effulgence. The rays of the Sun falling on its peaks of golden lustre 276 are dispersed by them. Decked with gold and exceedingly beautiful, that mountain is the haunt of the gods and the Gandharvas. It is immeasurable and unapproachable by men of manifold sins. Dreadful beasts of prey wander over its breasts, and it is illuminated by many divine life-giving herbs. It stands kissing the heavens by its height and is the first of mountains. Ordinary people cannot even think of ascending it. It is graced with trees and streams, and resounds with the charming melody of winged choirs.” Description of Mount Meru in the Puranas According to one of myths, Shiva used Mandara as an axle for his chariot and an arc for his bow. As for Mount Meru, it is considered to be the centre of the earth and the universe; its top rises 84,000 leagues above the ground. The sun, the moon, planets and stars revolve round Meru. The heavenly river Ganga flows from the heaven first to this mountain, and only thereafter it flows to the world of people. On top of Mount Meru the city of Brahma is located, stretching for 14,000 leagues. Cities of Indra and other gods are situated nearby. The Bhagavata Purana describes one of the versions of emergence of river Ganga and explains how Ganga gets to various planets from the highest point of the universe. Once, when Maharaja Bali performed yajna, Vishnu came to him as Vamana and asked three steps of the earth from him. His request was satisfied: in two steps Vamana crossed all three planetary systems (lokas) and pierced a hole in the universe shell with the big toe of his left foot. Several drops of water from the Primordial Ocean leaked through the hole in the shell, fell on Shiva’s head and remained there for thousand yugas. These drops of water were the sacred river Ganga. It is described that it first runs to Dhruvaloka (the Pole Star) and purifies it, then it washes planets of the seven great Rishis (Marichi, Vasishtha, Atri and others) who reside on the planets located under Dhruvaloka, and then billions of heavenly spaceships carry its waters along the ways of devas – first to the Moon (Chandraloka) and finally to the abode of Brahma, which is situated on top of Mount Meru. Here is divides into four branches – Sita, Alakananda, Chakshu and Bhadra – which flow down from Meru slopes and reach middle-level planets, one of which is the Earth. From the Himalayan peaks the river branches run down, flow through Haridvar across India plains, cleaning everything on their way. 277 The foundation of Mount Meru rests upon the klobuk of the world serpent Shesha lying on the back of a giant turtle that swims in primordial waters. Under another version of the myth, Meru (and the earth as a whole) is supported by four elephants. In the same way gods in a Kalmyk myth used Sumer as a stick to “beat up” the Ocean and thus create the Sun, the Moon, and the stars. Another Central Asian myth reflects penetration of Hindu elements into the myth: having assumed the appearance of eagle Garida (Garuda), god Ochirvani (Indra) attacked serpent Losun in the primordial Ocean; he wound the serpent round Mount Sumer three times and broke his head. An idea was spread across Eastern and Central Asia that the main and most important pillar of the world is the mythical Mount Meru located in an inaccessible place (it was usually placed in the Himalayas). The source of such ideas was myths of Ancient India, later on adopted by Buddhism that made them very popular. Mount Meru was not only considered the centre of cosmos, but was regarded as the sacred abode of gods. In numerous legends and tales Meru was described via the brightest epithets and definitions: it was called golden, shining, brilliant, and was associated with happiness, abundance and immortality. Myths draw this mountain in different ways. Buddhists often depicted it as a colossal cylinder directed to the superior height. Sometimes it was described as the pistil of lotus – the sacred flower. Likening of the cosmic mountain to a plant, i.e. basically to the World Tree, is quite interesting. An unusual feature is that the foundation and the top as if swap places, thus an impression arises that the mountain grows from the heaven. According to the Puranas, all celestial bodies rotate around Mount Meru, and almighty devas reside on its top, including Indra and Brahma. Indraloka – the abode of the main Vedic deva Indra – is situated on the very top of Meru, where there is a magnificent palace of Indra with the Soma plant growing in the garden. The sacred drink of immortality is produced of the Soma plant. Matsya Purana says: It is of gold and shines like fire with no tinge of darkening smoke. Its four sides are of four different colours. The colour of the eastern side is white like the colour of brahmans; the colour of the northern side is red like the colour of kshatriyas, the colour of the southern side is yellow like the colour of vaishyas; the colour of the western side is black like the colour of shudras. Its height is 278 86,000 yojanas, of which 16,000 are inside the earth. Every edge of the four sides makes up 34,000 yojanas. On the mountain, there are rivers with fresh water and marvellous golden dwellings where diverse spiritual beings reside: devas together with gandharva singers and their mistresses apsaras, as well as asurs, daytias and rakshasas. Manasa reservoir is around the mountain, and on four sides of the reservoir lokapalas live – the keepers of the world and its inhabitants. Mount Meru has seven nodes, i.e. big mountains called Mahendra, Malaya, Sahya, Shuktibam, Pikshabam, Vindhya, Pariyatra, and there are so many small mountains that it’s almost impossible to count them; these are the mountains on which people live. As for the big mountains around Meru, they include: Himavat covered with eternal snows and populated by rakshasas, pishachis and yakshi; Hemakuta made of gold, on which gandharvas reside. In Vishnu Purana, one of the most authoritative Puranas in Hinduism, containing extensive information on philosophy, cosmology and theology, there is the following information about Mount Meru: The internal shell of the world egg endowed with great Atman was Mount Meru, while mountains were its external shell; the amniotic fluid is formed of the oceans. In this egg, oh brahman, there were mountains, continents, oceans, planets, worlds, devas, asurs, and people. On its outer side the egg is covered with water, fire, air, space, and the source of primary elements, the primary elements endowed with ten qualities and the great principle of creation. Such scheme of the world egg structure is common for Purana texts, epos and the Upanishads. However, the quantity and names of different worlds vary. In Buddhist cosmology the earth is deemed to be plane with Mount Meru (or Sumeru) in its centre. On Buddhist mandalas it is also depicted in the centre, surrounded by four big dvipas (islands) with eight small dvipas behind them. Mount Sumeru, according to Buddhist cosmology, consists of four 279 jewels, namely: its entire eastern side consists of silver, the southern side of lazurite, the western side of ruby, and the northern side of gold. For this reason, on the four sides of the eminence made on the mandala and intended to depict Mount Sumeru, lamas insert separate pieces of silver, lunar caustic, lazurite, ruby and gold. A similar image was known to Altaians who believed that the golden cosmic mountain Altyn-Tu was attached to the heaven and hung over the earth, not reaching the earth by a minimal distance of the length of a human shin. However, most traditionally Meru was depicted as a round or tetrahedral mountain gradually narrowing towards its top. In such form is was depicted on various Buddhist works of art. Altyn-Tu golden mountain of the Altaians It is no mere chance that the four facets were associated with a mythical pillar of the universe. One world river nourishing the universe with its waters was flowing down on each side of the mountain. This detail indicates another aspect of the cosmic symbolism of Meru: the meaning of its four rivers is equivalent to the four oceans, which surround the world according to Hindu myths. Thus, Meru itself is a reduced model of cosmos, by which cosmos was exactly structured by gods. In lamaist mythology Mount Meru (Sumeru) has a pyramidal shape and is surrounded with seven mountain ranges with seas between them. Each side of the pyramid has colour characteristics: the southern side is blue, the western is red, the northern is yellow, and the eastern is white. Same 280 equivalents are known in India, Tibet, China, and even in traditions of some American Indian tribes. Thus, Navajo Indians believed that black (or northern) mountains covered the earth with darkness, blue (or southern) mountains brought the dawn, white (or eastern) mountains brought the day, whereas yellow (or western) mountains brought the shining sunlight. Images of Mount Meru and the universe, according to Buddhist cosmology. Trongsa Dzong, Trongsa, Bhutan 281 Mount Meru cosmology, according to Abhidharmakoša and Kalachakra systems 282 The World Mountain image was very popular in Iranian mythology which is congenerical to mythology of Ancient India. In Zoroastrian text Bundahishn we can read the following: “From Mount Harburz everything that takes place in the world is seen. Mount Thaera is in the centre of the world, the sun turns around it. Like waters washing the Var land of Mount Harburz, the sun revolves around Mount Thaera.” Furthermore: “Firstly Mount Harburz grew up in 15 years, after 800 years it grew completely; it took it 200 years to grow up to the circle of stars, 200 years to the circle of the moon, 200 years to the circle of the sun, and 200 years to the primordial light. Mount Harburz is attached to the heaven around this earth, and Ptirk Harburz is [the place where] stars, the moon and the sun set.” Mount Harburz The names of Babylonian temples and towers evidence identification of such structures with the World Mountain: “the Mountain of Home”, “the House of the Mountain of All Lands”, “the Mountain of Storms”, “the Junction of Heaven and Earth”, etc. Ziggurat – the cult tower in Babylon – was basically the World Mountain, a symbolic representation of Cosmos: its seven floors corresponded to the seven planetary heavens (as in Borsippa) or were painted in world colours (as in Ur). Borobudur Temple, the true imago mundi (image of the world), was built in a shape of a mountain. 283 Borobudur Temple Artificial mountains were found in India, Mongolia and South East Asia. Mount Tabor in Palestine may mean a “navel”, omphalos. Mount Gerizim in central Palestine was prestigious as the Centre, since it is called “the navel of the earth” (Tabbur Eresh, the Book of Israeli Judges, IX,37: “…The army is descending from the navel of the world”). According to the tradition established by Petrus Comestor, on the summer solstice the sun does not cast shadow on “the well of Jacob” (near Gerizim). As Comestor clarifies, “sunt qui dicunt locum illum esse umbilicum terrae nostrae habitabilis” (“there are those who say this place is the navel of our earth, convenient for living”). Palestine as the land located at the highest altitude (since it is close to the World Mountain top) was not submerged during the flood. There is a rabbinic text saying: “The land of Israel was not submerged by the flood.” Biblical texts give a ground to state that paradise is also located on a mountain. According to the Book of Genesis, the garden of Eden was “in the east”, but Ezekiel (Chapter 28, Verse 13) specified it was on a mountain. To all appearances, paradise is identified with the sacred “Lord’s mountain” mentioned in psalm (23, p. 3-5) with a note that only a righteous person with “innocent hands and pure heart” may ascend it. The biblical reference to the heavenly river washing the entire earth with its four streams is also quite interesting (Genesis, Chapter 2, Verse 10). 284 Having collected separate evidence from the Bible, we will get a complete set of features of the mythic World Mountain: it is situated in the centre of the universe, God descends onto it, the heavenly garden is located there with a marvellous tree in the middle, whereas the mountain itself is surrounded by rivers which symbolize the primordial ocean. A well-known biblical myth says that during the Flood only Mount Ararat to which Noah’s ark moored was not submerged. At that, in other biblical legends Mount Zion is mentioned, which once again emphasizes its particular cosmic role as of the centre of the world, “the navel of the earth”, the highest point of the universe. Even a more graphic demonstration of this is the Muslim world outlook. According to Islamic mythology, the earth was initially very unstable, permanently shuddered and addressed complaints to Allah. Taking pity on it, Allah created the enormous Mount Qaf that encircled the populated world and firmly supported the universe. Behind this stone ring, the Creator created another earth, seven times larger in size. That earth is populated by angels so densely that even a needle cannot fall down between them. Angels incessantly glorify Allah and pray over human sins. If we omit details and single out the gist, it will turn out that the world populated by people is situated inside the cosmic mountain, i.e. the mountain itself is exactly the universe. REFERENCE IN THE ALLATRA BOOK (pages 179-180 on allatra.us): According to the Indian mythology, the Universe is a giant global snake biting its tail and wrapping the universe in a ring. Inside the ring it was carrying a giant turtle, on whose back there were four elephants supporting the world. In the centre of the world was the inhabited land Jambudvipa, the shape of which reminded of a blossoming lotus flower with Mount Meru in the middle. Traditional interpretation of the image in encyclopaedias, according to myths: 1) the legendary serpent Ananta (in Sanskrit meaning “boundless”, “infinite”) floating in the waters of the cosmic ocean; its other name is Shesha; legends mention that god Vishnu rests on its rings; 2) the triangle above the truncated pyramid represents the power of the higher over the lower; 3) a conventional representation of an image of Mount Meru, in this case in the form of a truncated pyramid; 4) a symbol of the visible physical world in the form of a hemisphere; 5) four elephants (which symbolize the elements) supporting the terrestrial world (the elephant embodying the air element is not visible); 6) the turtle resting on the serpent Ananta is an embodiment of the ancient Indian guardian god Vishnu (the universal reviving principle). In Altai mythology influenced by Buddhism, the World Mountain name was somewhat altered and sounds as Sumeru. By this very name the mountain is known to other peoples of Central Asia, too. In Altai legends, Buddhist ideas have fancifully mixed with ancient local beliefs. It is exactly the World Mountain which a future shaman ascends during initiation and visits later on in his astral journeys. Ascent of a mountain always signifies a journey to the World Centre. As we have seen, such “centre” is one way or another present even in the structure of a human dwelling, but only shamans and heroes can ascend the World Mountain. Moreover, only a shaman, climbing up a ritual tree, actually climbs up the World Tree, thus reaching the peak of the universe, the highest Heaven. 285 Besides Meru (Sumeru) and Altyn-Tu, the Altaians placed a mythic mountain Ak-Toshon Altai-syny in the centre of the universe. On its top there is a milky lake in which shaman souls bathe on their way to the heavenly world. The same milky lake in the heaven is described by the Hungarian narrator of fairy tales Lajos Ami (with angels, not shamans, bathing in it). This is no mere coincidence. Once, before migrating to Europe, forefathers of Hungarians inhabited the territory of the contemporary Trans-Urals and maintained close contacts with South Siberian tribes. Yet, let us go back to Altai legends. A wonderful poplar rises from the milky lake, and shamans use it to get into the kingdom of heavenly spirits, while the mountain itself represents the first station on the way to heaven. Here a strong shaman takes a respite, whereas a weak one does not even dare to move further and returns. On the flat top of the sacred mountain the main spirit of the earth resides, as well as many other spirits being in charge of the souls of livestock and wild animals. The spirits are light-minded and enjoy gambling. It often happens so that one of them loses all animal souls that belong to him to another spirit at cards or dice. In such case the livestock on earth dies, and wild animals move to another locality. Concerned people send a shaman who ascends the cosmic mountain and ascertains which spirit is currently the winner, in order to gain his favour with sacrifices. The ancient Chinese also worshipped mountains, real and mythical. They regarded any elevation as a holy site, because they believed the light power Yang was concentrated there, whereas bottom lands and depressions were the region of the dark principle Yin. In ancient times in China there was a cult of the five sacred mountains located in the south, west, north, east, and in the centre. Mount Tai Shan (literally “the Great Mountain”), which really existed and was located in the east of the country, was particularly revered. It was believed to patronize the imperial dynasty, and the Sons of Heaven offered sacrifices to it. Just like in the case of Mount Meru of India, the numerical symbolism of Chinese World Mountains has its deep meaning: the five points of space by which they were placed were the most sacred and determined the structure of mythological cosmos. At that, the Chinese revered Mount Kunlun – the centre of the earth – the most. They believed one could get into the higher realms of the world by ascending it. One of ancient texts say: “The one who would go up from Kunlun twice as high will reach the Mountain of Cool Wind and gain immortality; the one who would go up twice as high will reach the Hanging Ground and gain miraculous abilities, 286 having learnt to manage the wind and the rain; the one who would go up twice as high will reach the heaven, the abode of Tai Di – the supreme lords, and will become a spirit.” This is a true description of a shaman journey to the other world! By the way, shamanism existed in Ancient China, too. It is evidenced by frequent mentions of sacred mountains and trees via which priests and gods of Ancient China ascended to the heaven and descended to the earth. Mount Kunlun itself was regarded as something like an earthly paradise: rivers of five different colours flew down from it (including the largest Chinese river Huang He), and diverse cereals drew there in abundance. The Chinese mountain worship tradition and an attempt to unite mountains into a classification system are reflected in the Classic of Mountains and Seas (Shan Hai Ching). The appearance and location of mountains was associated with activities of a mythical subjugator of the flood and manager of the earth – the great Yul who was not only cleaving and moving mountains to eliminate consequences of the flood, but also gave names to three hundred mountains. In ancient Greek myths gods lived on Mount Olympus where Zeus the thunderer resided, Mount Etna (Zeus put this mountain on Typhon; Hephaestus’s smithy was on it, and Demeter was looking for Persephone with the fire obtained on Etna), Mount Ida where Zeus was hiding from Cronus, and the Caucasus where Prometheus was chained. Mount Meru and the Arctic theory One of the founders of the “Arctic theory of the origin of Aryans” was the famous Indian politician Bal Gangadhar Tilak (1856-1920). He is the author of a hypothesis that the ancestral home of IndoEuropeans (or Aryans) was northern regions of Eurasia (Kola Peninsula, Karelia, the White Sea coast, and Taimyr). The meaning of the word Arctic: Greek ἄρκτος – “female bear”, ἀρκτικός – “being under the constellation of the Great Bear”, “northern”. The Arctic Home in the Vedas (1903) by B.G. Tilak has been frequently quoted until nowadays. According to his theory, in the preglacial period climate in Arctic regions was warm and favourable for human living. When climate changed unfavourably there, Aryans migrated to the south, to India. In his book B.G. Tilak tries to prove that the Vedas and Upanishads point at the Arctic ancestral home of Aryans. He writes: 287 “In Rigveda (X.89.2-4) god Indra “supports the heaven and earth, like a cart wheel is supported by an axle” and rotates the “remote sphere, like cart wheels”. If we combine the two statements that the heaven is supported by an axle and moves like a wheel, we will clearly see that the described movement correlates solely with the heavenly hemisphere observable at the North Pole only. In Rigveda (I.24.10) the Great Bear constellation is described as high-standing, which points at a position visible only from the circumpolar region.” The statement that the day and the night last for 6 months is widespread in Hindu literature. “On Meru gods see the sun after its one-time ascent on its way equalling to a half of its rotation around the earth.” In Tayttiria Brahman (III, 9, 22.1) and Avesta (Vendidad, Fargard II) a year is compared to one day, whereas the sun sets and rises only once a year. Numerous hymns of Rigveda are dedicated to the goddess of the morning sun Ushas. Moreover, it is mentioned that dawn lasts very long and there are very many stars moving along the horizon, which may be indicative of circumpolar regions. A weakness of such hypothesis is the impossibility to link it with any archaeological culture. In the Divine Avesta there is a description of not a separate peak, but a whole mountain range Hara Berezaiti (perhaps, these are the Urals), although Avesta provides us with another supporting element mentioned neither in the Vedas nor in the Puranas: this mountain range is stretched in latitudinal direction “from the sunset to the sunrise”, i.e. from the west to the east. The highest peak of Hara Berezaiti range is Mount Hukarya (the Avestan name for Vedic Mandara): 288 We worship Mitra... To whom radiant Imperious Haoma prayed, Salubrious, gold-domed, On the highest peak Of Harati high mountains, Called Hukarya, Not contaminated, pure, With perfect barsman And pure libation, With faultless words. (Avesta, Hymn to Mitra, XXIII) In the same way as the greatest rivers flow from Meru, on Hara Berezaiti there are springs of sacred Avestan rivers (Ranhi), Rusiyi, Ardvi Sura: 3. Pray to the great, glorious, Equal in size To all waters together, Which flow on the earth. Pray to the impetuously flowing From Hukarya height To Vourukasha sea. 4. From edge to edge Vourukasha sea is rough, And waves rise in the middle When Ardvi pours Its waters into it, Flowing into the sea With all thousand streams And thousand lakes, Each of which May be bypassed in forty days Only by a rider On a decent horse. 5. One Ardvi branch Runs to seven karshvars, Evenly flowing In summer and in winter, And consecrates male semen And female bosom, And gives milk. (Avesta, Hymn to Ardvi Sura) Slavs regard a mountain (а hill, a mound, etc.) as a vertical line binding the top and the bottom, which determines the duality of ideas of the mountain, on the one hand, as of a pure locus and, on the other hand, as of a demonic locus. The link between the mountain and the heaven is reflected in Slavic vocabulary (in Slavic gora mans “a top”, and gorniy means “heavenly”) and in the ritual practice. Russian chronicles tell that Slavs worshipped heathen deities on mountains. Spring rituals were performed on mountains (the Russan gorka – “gathering of youth in spring and in summer for 289 the round dance”). In Russian charms a mountain, on the one hand, is a place where God, Christ and Our Lady reside, and on the other hand it is a place associated with evil spirits. A mountain is associated with the other world. In Russian “to leave for a mountain” means “to die”; the kingdom of the dead is a land with golden moutains; paradise is located on an iron mountain or behind mountains. Collections of Russian bylinas (heroic epics) usually start with Sviatogor, which is a solely archaic character. The image is based on Slavic heathen beliefs, therefore it is very difficult to interpret it for traditional researchers who thoughtlessly date the time described in bylinas to the 10 th century only because Prince Vladimir is mentioned there. Sviatogor is particularly notable, since in none of extant bylinas he fights with any other epical hero – he simply has no adequate rivals among mortals. For instance, Sviatogor can easily put Ilya of Murom together with his horse into his pocket, and he measures his strength with Mother Earth itself or starts building a stone pole up to the heaven. In Greek mythology there is Sviatogor’s analogue – giant Atlant. He also performs a function of maintaining the world order – holds the firmament on his shoulders. The earth cannot endure its mass, so he stands on the Atlas Mountains. Those mountains are located at the end of the earth, on the coast of the outer ocean. In front of the mountains, boundless sunburnt deserts stretch for many days of journey (just like those in front of Meru and the Riphean Mountains!). The only treasure of the heaven-holder is a marvellous garden where a tree with golden apples grows – Heracles had to commit his eleventh feat in order to get the apples. Furthermore, both giants ended their lives in the same way – they petrified. The Pigeon Book refers to the Alatyr Stone, “the father of all stones”. It is a sacred rock crowning the top of the Alatyr Mountain and covering the entrance to the underworld, while Sviatogor guards this entrance. On the Alatyr Stone the laws of Svarog are carved, and the stone itself has magic properties owing to which it is often mentioned in charms: “In the sea, in the ocean, on the Buyan island, there is a whitehot Alatyr Stone, under which a great endless power is hidden.” Ilya of Murom often ascended the Alatyr Mountain as well. The heroic epic Ilya of Murom and the Hawker says: 290 Across the blue sea, Across the cold sea, To the Alatyr Stone, To Maya of the Golden Mountain, The fine young man came, Named Ilya of Murom. Ilya was approaching it for twelve years... According to Slavic genealogy, Maya of the Golden Mountain was the daughter of Sviatogor and the first wife of Dajdbog whose son she gave birth to – the god of the calendar cycle Kolyada (the word calendar in Slavic means “the gift of Kolyada”, while kolyadki means “festive carols” that nowadays are usually performed on the Christmas Eve). Maya of the Golden Mountain herself was the goddess of summer and was depicted with golden braids that symbolized ripe ears. Many books can be written about the World Mountain, and the fact that it is known in all cultures and on all the continents represents another evidence that the spiritual knowledge is, first and foremost, single, and secondly it has been given to humanity from the earliest times. However, today for someone it’s a nice fairy tale, while for knowledgeable people it is a hint! It is quite interesting to me the description given from the Divine Avesta… it sounds to me as though they were describing the long mountain range found at the center of Pangea, which would be at the center of the Earth. Also, just a side comment that the Gulf of Mexico would be ablout the size of Mount Meru, if in fact the Sacred Mountain was taken from off the Earth. Prepared by Arbat27.11.2016 ABOUT THE 291 AUTHOR DR UDAY DOKRAS About the Author The author has worked for 30 years in the human resources arena in India and abroad. He was Group Vice -President of MZI Group in New Delhi and has anchored Human Relations in Go Air and Hotel Holiday Inn;was General Manager-Health Human Resources at the Lata Mangeshkar Hospital amd Medical college. Is currently Consultant to Gorewada International Zoo,Nagpur and visiting Faculty at the Central Institute of Business Management and Research, Nagpur. In Sweden he anchored HR in Stadbolaget RENIA, SSSB and advisor to a multi millionaire. He has studied in Nagpur, India where he obtained degrees of Bachelor of Science, Bachelor of Arts(Managerial Economics) and Bachelor of Laws. He has done his Graduate Studies in labour laws from Canada at the Queen's University, Kingston; a MBA from USA, and Doctorate from Stockholm University, Sweden. Apart from that he has done a Management Training Program in Singapore. A scholar of the Swedish Institute, he has been an Edvard Cassel Fund and Wineroth Fund Awardee.A scholar for the Swedish Institute for 5 years. In 1984 he was involved with the Comparative Labour Law Project of the University of California, Los Angeles, U.S.A. He was also visiting lecturer there. In 1985 he was invited by the President of Seychelles to do a study of the efficacy of the labour laws of Seychelles. 292 Author of a book on a Swedish human resource law, his brief life sketch is part of the English study text book of 7 th Class Students in Sweden -“Studying English. SPOTLIGHT 7”- and 8th Class students in Iceland - “SPOTLIGHT 8- Lausnir.” BOOKS written by Dr Uday 1. Act on Co-determination at work-an efficacy study - 1990 Doctoral thesis published by Almqvist & Wiksell International, Stockholm,Sweden This is a first of a kind empirical study of both employees and business owners reactions of how efficiently a labour law was functioning in a country(Sweden).Adorns Stanford and Harvard University Libraries and granted Copyright by the Library of Congress,USA in 1990. 2. Health Human Resource Management- 2006 A to Z of the Management of health workers starting from recruitment to training, development and enhancing their efficacy. Good book for all health care institutions as well as medical and nursing staff and students. 3. Theme Park Human Resource Engineering- 2007 How the workers in theme parks deal with a complex environment and need to be managed in order to being out superior delivery of customer focused services helping in more footfalls at the same time not compromising on safety. 4. Project Human Resource Management- 2008 Projects are cumbersome and their success rests not on the material but on the men who move it. Book deals with management ideas to spur project workers and staff to greater delivery parameters. 5. Creativity and Architecture -2009 Co-authored with Srishti Dokras, examines the parameters of creativity and how it will raise design quotients. 6. Diffusion – Management and Design- 2009 Co-authored with Karan Dokras deals with a new and little known subject of Diffusion or how predator ideas enhance own value in a market where dominant players call the shots. 7. Hindu Temples of Bharat,Cambodia and Bali- 2020 Enigmatic designs, huge structures, massive projects all done before the invention of cranes or bulldozers- the how and why of temples in Bharat,Nagpur,and the Far East. Biggest and most comprehensive book on the subject -452 pages. 8. Win Diet 2020 Diets and fads come and go but not this one-A diet and exercise plan that will help you to win over obesity,unhealthy lifestyles and make a dynamic YOU .Written by a 68 year old who has been diagnosed with a 26 year old’s heart. 9. Celestial Mysteries of the Borobudur Temple of Java- 2020 This amazing biggest in the world Buddhist temple was built with technology and ideas from India 1500 years ago using fractal geometry, Algorithms, Hindu temple technology and archeoastronomy. Read HOW it was done. 10. LOTUS the Celestial Flower 11.Light house at Alexandria 12. Lighthouses in words and Pictures 13.Vayu- Man’s taming of the Winds 293 14. My Best Foot Forward- story of the Footware Industry in India 15.16,17… DEVARAJA- TRILOGY. The Celestial King and the Mysteries of South Asian Hindu Temples -3 Volumes 1200 pages 18. VARDHAMAN- Jainism- for not the layman 19. ATIVIR- The saga of Vardhaman the Prince and Mahavir the Saint. 20. Hindu Temple Architecture-Panorama being the consolidated papers written by the author and published on line in academia.edu & researchgete.net. 21.Tamil Mercantile Traders of ancient times 22.Randevous with Ram 23. T2- Temple Tech 24. Vedic Gods of Scandinavia 25. Design your Destiny 26. Chidambaram Temple RESEARCH PAPERS-220 + in Researchgate and academia.edu & scribd Followers(readers) 65,000 consolidated as on 26 th September,2020. Authors-DR Uday DOKRAS Dr. Uday Dokras B.Sc., B.A. (Managerial Economics), LL.B., Nagpur University, India Certificat'e en Droit, Queen’s University. Ontario, Canada, MBA, CALSTATE,Los-Angeles, USA, Ph.D. Stockholm University, Sweden, Management and Efficacy Consultant, India 294 Reviews of the Book PROJECT HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT The authors highlight the benefits of paying attention to human resources and offer success and failure factors guideline for a variety of potential practitioners and students in global project marketplace. Ms.Ylva Arnold, Head HR- Norstedts Publishers, Stockholm SWEDEN 295 From the Newspaper Times of India March 24, 2018 296 Iceland Sweden both countries use the English Text SPOTLIGHT-one of the lessons in which is about Dr Uday Dokras 297 Prof. S.Deshpande,President of the Indian Instituye of Architects, New Delhi INDIA releasing the book of Dr Dokras HINDU TEMPLES on the web in CARONA gimes( May 2010) 298 299 300 Dr. Uday Dokras B.Sc., B.A. (managerial economics) LL.B. Nagpur University, INDIA Graduate Studies, Queen’s University, Kingston, CANADA MBA CALSATATE USA Graduate Diploma in Law, Stockholm University, SWEDEN Ph.D. Stockholm University, SWEDEN Indo Swedish Author’s Collective, Stockholm SWEDEN and Nagpur INDIA 301 ADVANCED MANDALAS Maze of the Mandala -PART II Dr Uday Dokras - Ph D SWEDEN 302