Brill’s Encyclopedia of Buddhism
Volume II:
Lives
Editor-in-chief
Jonathan A. Silk
Editors
Richard Bowring
Vincent Eltschinger
Michael Radich
Editorial Advisory Board
Lucia Dolce
Berthe Jansen
John Jorgensen
Christian Lammerts
Francesco Sferra
LEIDEN | BOSTON
For use by the Author only | © 2019 Koninklijke Brill NV
Contents
Prelims
Contributors .............................................................................................................................................................
xi
Editors and Editorial Board .................................................................................................................................. xxxiii
Primary Sources Abbreviations........................................................................................................................... xxxv
Books Series and Journals Abbreviations ......................................................................................................... xxxvii
General Abbreviations ..........................................................................................................................................
xlii
Introduction .............................................................................................................................................................
xliv
Section One:
Śākyamuni: South Asia ..........................................................................................................................................
Barlaam and Josaphat ............................................................................................................................................
3
39
Section Two:
South & Southeast Asia:
Ajātaśatru ..................................................................................................................................................................
Āryadeva....................................................................................................................................................................
Āryaśūra.....................................................................................................................................................................
Asaṅga/Maitreya(nātha).......................................................................................................................................
Bhāviveka ..................................................................................................................................................................
Brahmā, Śakra, and Māra ......................................................................................................................................
Buddhaghoṣa............................................................................................................................................................
Buddhas of the Past: South Asia .........................................................................................................................
Buddhas of the Past and of the Future: Southeast Asia ...............................................................................
Candragomin ...........................................................................................................................................................
Candrakīrti................................................................................................................................................................
Ḍākinī .........................................................................................................................................................................
Devadatta ..................................................................................................................................................................
Dharmakīrti ..............................................................................................................................................................
Dharmapāla ..............................................................................................................................................................
Dharmottara.............................................................................................................................................................
Dignāga ......................................................................................................................................................................
Early Sarvāstivāda Masters ...................................................................................................................................
Gavampati in Southeast Asia ...............................................................................................................................
Gopadatta .................................................................................................................................................................
Guṇaprabha..............................................................................................................................................................
Haribhadra................................................................................................................................................................
Haribhaṭṭa .................................................................................................................................................................
Harivarman...............................................................................................................................................................
Harṣa ..........................................................................................................................................................................
Hayagrīva...................................................................................................................................................................
Indian Tantric Authors: Overview ......................................................................................................................
Jñānagarbha .............................................................................................................................................................
Jñānapāda .................................................................................................................................................................
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173
179
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204
209
211
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Contents
Jñānaśrīmitra ...........................................................................................................................................................
Kamalaśīla ................................................................................................................................................................
Karuṇāmaya .............................................................................................................................................................
Kṣemendra ................................................................................................................................................................
Kumāralāta ...............................................................................................................................................................
Mahādeva..................................................................................................................................................................
Maitreya.....................................................................................................................................................................
Mārīcī .........................................................................................................................................................................
Mātṛceṭa ....................................................................................................................................................................
Nāgārjuna ..................................................................................................................................................................
Paccekabuddhas/Pratyekabuddhas in Indic Sources ...................................................................................
Phra Malai in Thailand and Southeast Asia.....................................................................................................
Prajñākaragupta ......................................................................................................................................................
Ratnākaraśānti.........................................................................................................................................................
Ratnakīrti ..................................................................................................................................................................
Saṅghabhadra ..........................................................................................................................................................
Śaṅkaranandana .....................................................................................................................................................
Śaṅkarasvāmin ........................................................................................................................................................
Śāntarakṣita ..............................................................................................................................................................
Śāntideva ...................................................................................................................................................................
Sarasvatī/Benzaiten................................................................................................................................................
Śāriputra ....................................................................................................................................................................
Scholars of Premodern Pali Buddhism .............................................................................................................
Seers (ṛṣi/isi) and Brāhmaṇas in Southeast Asia ............................................................................................
Siddhas.......................................................................................................................................................................
Śrīlāta .........................................................................................................................................................................
Sthiramati .................................................................................................................................................................
Śubhagupta...............................................................................................................................................................
Tantric Buddhist Deities in Southeast Asia .....................................................................................................
Thera/Therī in Pali and Southeast Asian Buddhism .....................................................................................
Udbhaṭasiddhasvāmin ..........................................................................................................................................
Upagupta ...................................................................................................................................................................
Vāgīśvarakīrti ...........................................................................................................................................................
Vasubandhu ..............................................................................................................................................................
Vināyaka ....................................................................................................................................................................
Yama and Hell Beings in Indian Buddhism .....................................................................................................
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279
286
293
298
302
325
332
335
348
357
363
366
371
374
378
382
383
391
398
409
420
437
443
452
456
458
463
474
479
481
490
492
507
513
East Asia:
Ākāśagarbha in East Asia ......................................................................................................................................
Arhats in East Asian Buddhism ..........................................................................................................................
Aśvaghoṣa (East Asian Aspects) .........................................................................................................................
Avalokiteśvara in East Asia...................................................................................................................................
Dizang/Jizō ...............................................................................................................................................................
Jianzhen (Ganjin) ...................................................................................................................................................
Mahākāla in East Asia............................................................................................................................................
Mahākāśyapa in Chan-inspired Traditions......................................................................................................
Mañjuśrī in East Asia .............................................................................................................................................
Maudgalyāyana (Mulian)......................................................................................................................................
Musang (Wuxiang) .................................................................................................................................................
Tejaprabhā ................................................................................................................................................................
Yinyuan Longqi (Ingen) ........................................................................................................................................
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540
546
562
571
576
586
591
600
608
612
616
Contents
vii
China:
Amoghavajra ............................................................................................................................................................
An Shigao ..................................................................................................................................................................
Chengguan ................................................................................................................................................................
Daoxuan ....................................................................................................................................................................
Falin ............................................................................................................................................................................
Faxian .........................................................................................................................................................................
Fazun ..........................................................................................................................................................................
Hanshan Deqing .....................................................................................................................................................
Hongzhi Zhengjue ..................................................................................................................................................
Huihong (see Juefan Huihong)
Huineng (see Shenxiu)
Huiyuan (see Lushan Huiyuan)
Jigong..........................................................................................................................................................................
Juefan Huihong .......................................................................................................................................................
Liang Wudi................................................................................................................................................................
Lokakṣema ................................................................................................................................................................
Luo Qing ....................................................................................................................................................................
Lushan Huiyuan ......................................................................................................................................................
Mazu Daoyi...............................................................................................................................................................
Mingben (see Zhongfeng Mingben)
Nāgārjuna in China ................................................................................................................................................
Nenghai......................................................................................................................................................................
Ouyang Jingwu ........................................................................................................................................................
Ouyi Zhixu ................................................................................................................................................................
Paramārtha ...............................................................................................................................................................
Qian Qianyi...............................................................................................................................................................
Qisong ........................................................................................................................................................................
Shenhui (see Shenxiu)
Shenxiu, Huineng, and Shenhui .........................................................................................................................
Śubhākarasiṃha......................................................................................................................................................
Wumen ......................................................................................................................................................................
Wuxiang (see East Asia: Musang)
Wuzhu ........................................................................................................................................................................
Xiao Ziliang...............................................................................................................................................................
Yinshun......................................................................................................................................................................
Yixing .........................................................................................................................................................................
Yuan Hongdao .........................................................................................................................................................
Yuanwu Keqin ..........................................................................................................................................................
Zhanran .....................................................................................................................................................................
Zhi Qian .....................................................................................................................................................................
Zhili.............................................................................................................................................................................
Zhixu (see Ouyang Zhixu)
Zhiyi............................................................................................................................................................................
Zhongfeng Mingben...............................................................................................................................................
Zhuhong ....................................................................................................................................................................
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787
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800
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810
814
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Korea:
Chinul.........................................................................................................................................................................
Hyujŏng .....................................................................................................................................................................
Ich’adon .....................................................................................................................................................................
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viii
Contents
Kihwa .........................................................................................................................................................................
Kim Sisŭp ..................................................................................................................................................................
Kyŏnghŏ.....................................................................................................................................................................
Kyunyŏ .......................................................................................................................................................................
Muhak Chach’o ........................................................................................................................................................
Musang (see East Asia)
Pou ..............................................................................................................................................................................
Tosŏn ..........................................................................................................................................................................
Ŭich’ŏn .......................................................................................................................................................................
Ŭisang ........................................................................................................................................................................
Wŏnch’ŭk ..................................................................................................................................................................
Wŏnhyo......................................................................................................................................................................
Yi Nŭnghwa ..............................................................................................................................................................
869
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877
882
887
891
895
900
903
908
913
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Japan:
Amaterasu Ōmikami ..............................................................................................................................................
Annen.........................................................................................................................................................................
Benzaiten (see South and Southeast Asia: Sarasvatī)
Dōgen .........................................................................................................................................................................
Dōhan.........................................................................................................................................................................
Eisai (see Yōsai)
Eison ...........................................................................................................................................................................
En no Gyōja ..............................................................................................................................................................
Enchin ........................................................................................................................................................................
Ennin ..........................................................................................................................................................................
Ganjin (see East Asia: Jianzhen)
Genshin .....................................................................................................................................................................
Hachiman .................................................................................................................................................................
Hakuin .......................................................................................................................................................................
Hōnen ........................................................................................................................................................................
Ikkyū Sōjun ...............................................................................................................................................................
Ingen (see East Asia: Yinyuan Longqi)
Ippen Chishin ..........................................................................................................................................................
Jakushō ......................................................................................................................................................................
Jiun Sonja ..................................................................................................................................................................
Jizō (see East Asia: Dizang)
Jōjin.............................................................................................................................................................................
Jōkei ............................................................................................................................................................................
Kakuban ....................................................................................................................................................................
Keizan Jōkin .............................................................................................................................................................
Kōmyō ........................................................................................................................................................................
Kūkai ..........................................................................................................................................................................
Kūya ............................................................................................................................................................................
Menzan Zuihō .........................................................................................................................................................
Monkan .....................................................................................................................................................................
Mugai Nyodai ...........................................................................................................................................................
Mujaku Dōchū .........................................................................................................................................................
Musō Soseki ..............................................................................................................................................................
Myōe ...........................................................................................................................................................................
Nichiren .....................................................................................................................................................................
Nōnin..........................................................................................................................................................................
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1002
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Contents
Raiyu...........................................................................................................................................................................
Ryōgen........................................................................................................................................................................
Saichō .........................................................................................................................................................................
Saigyō .........................................................................................................................................................................
Shinran.......................................................................................................................................................................
Shōtoku Taishi .........................................................................................................................................................
Tenjin .........................................................................................................................................................................
Tenkai .........................................................................................................................................................................
Yōsai/Eisai .................................................................................................................................................................
Zaō ..............................................................................................................................................................................
ix
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1097
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1107
1111
1117
1122
1128
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Tibetan Cultural Sphere
Atiśa and the Bka’ gdams pa Masters ................................................................................................................
Ge sar of Gling .........................................................................................................................................................
Gter ston: Tibetan Buddhist Treasure Revealers .............................................................................................
Gtsang smyon Heruka ...........................................................................................................................................
Lcang skya Rol pa’i Rdo rje ...................................................................................................................................
Mi la ras pa................................................................................................................................................................
The Mongolian Jebdzundamba Khutugtu Lineage .......................................................................................
Padmasambhava in Tibetan Buddhism ............................................................................................................
The Sa skya School’s Five Forefathers................................................................................................................
Spirits of the Soil, Land, and Locality in Tibet ................................................................................................
Ston pa Gshen rab: The Bön Buddha .................................................................................................................
Tibet's Crazy Yogins ................................................................................................................................................
Tsong kha pa and his Immediate Successors ..................................................................................................
Worldly Protector Deities in Tibet .....................................................................................................................
1145
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1165
1171
1175
1181
1191
1197
1213
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1239
1246
1254
Appendix To Volume I:
Buddhist Narrative Literature in Japan .............................................................................................................
Poetry: Japan ............................................................................................................................................................
Korean Sŏn Literature............................................................................................................................................
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Padmasambhava in Tibetan Buddhism
The myths concerning the powerful Indian guru
Padmasambhava (8th–9th cents.) suffuse almost
all aspects of public and private life in the Tibetan
cultural sphere. These myths are instantiated in
literature, art, dance, church–state relations, and
domestic and calendrical ritual. Many Tibetan Buddhists worship him as the “precious guru” (Gu ru
rin po che), the “lotus (padma) from Uḍḍiyāna” in
modern day northern Pakistan (U/O rgyan padma),
or the “second Buddha” (Sangs rgyas gnyis pa). This
master of magic and mantra is one of the foremost
culture heroes of the Tibetan language zone. He
is remembered to have become the teacher of the
Tibetan emperor, Khri Srong lde brtsan (742–c.
800), and to have spread esoteric Buddhism at the
apex of the imperial period (7th–9th cents.), an
era eulogized as a “golden age” of Dharma practice.
The tradition of Padmasambhava’s religious biography has its roots in southern Tibet and matured
within the Rnying ma school, which claims to possess an unbroken lineage dating back to the imperial period. However, this biographical tradition has
exerted a huge influence on later historiography
across the schools, including the ecumenical and
foreign policy of the Dalai Lamas.
Over time, Padmasambhava came to be known
by many names and in the guise of numerous
manifestations, and the representations of him in
literature and art that have survived reflect only a
fraction of the multiple traditions and practices
existing at one time or another (see most recently
the essays in Pakhoutova, ed., 2018). Yet mythological themes common from the earliest to the latest
sources on Padmasambhava are his role in pacifying and converting local worldly deities, especially
in the Himalayas, southern, and central Tibet, his
preference for Mahāyoga and Atiyoga (Rdzogs
chen) forms of esoteric Buddhism, and his status as
a culture hero of tantric ritual. Such characteristics
of Padmasambhava are still remembered in Tibetan
Buddhist communities today (Diemberger, 2007).
The biographical and iconographical traditions on
Padmasambhava create not just another saint, but
a religious founder and embodiment of Tibetan
esoteric Buddhism akin to the Buddha and saviors
of other World Religions.
Early Mythographic Depictions
Padmasambhava’s existence, questioned in the
early Tibetological literature (Bischoff, 1978), is
today cautiously accepted (→BEB I: Gter ma, 400),
while his historicity is less intensively studied in the
field than his changing representation throughout
Tibetan history (Dalton, 2004, 769–770). Tibetan
Buddhists ascribe a vast number of Indo-Tibetan
Buddhist works to his authorship or inspiration,
perhaps most convincingly the Man ngag lta ba’i
phreng ba commentary on chapter 13 of the Gsang
ba’i snying po (*Guhyagarbha; Karmay, 1988, 137–174)
and the Thabs zhags padma ’phreng (Eastman, 1983)
exposition of Mahāyoga together with its commentary – although the Man ngag lta ba’i phreng ba and
Thabs zhags padma ’phreng share little uniquely in
common (Cantwell & Mayer, 2012, 87–91). An early
Tibetan exegete of esoteric Buddhism, Gnubs chen
Sangs rgyas ye shes (9th–10th cents.), makes reference to Padmasambhava’s authorship of the former
work (unless this is an interpolation into his text),
and praises him for his deep learning and attainments (Cantwell & Mayer, 2013). However, we only
possess much later exemplars of Man ngag lta ba’i
phreng ba and the works of Sangs rgyas ye shes.
The Thabs zhags padma ’phreng offers us perhaps the earliest extant description of Padmasambhava, provided in a 10th-century manuscript from
Cave 17 of the Mogao cave complex near Dunhuang
(Dalton & van Schaik, 2006, xi–xvi, 51–52). Immediately preceding the final colophon, a praise of homage is included to “he who has attained the supreme
siddhi of great wonder, the Lotus King (padma
rgyal po) [who] is not worldly; [he who] unravels
from the expanse the Tathāgata’s great secret pith
instructions (man ngag gsang chen)” (IOL Tib J 321.
84a5–6; Cantwell & Mayer, 2012, 92–93). In this portrayal, Padmasambhava is already mythologized as
an enlightened and supramundane master.
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BEB, vol. II
1198
Padmasambhava in Tibetan Buddhism
His earliest narrative depiction is contained in
the 10th-century Dunhuang manuscript, P. tib. 307
(Dalton, 2004). After a description of seven Tibetan
demonesses in a maṇḍala, it states that “the Indian
master Padmasambhava” (rgya gar gyi mkhan po
pad ma sam ba ba) and Rlang Dpal gyi Seng ge
subjugated and suppressed them under the class of
Buddha Vajradhara. The description of the demonesses suggests that they and Padmasambhava are
here implicitly linked to earlier Indic traditions of
Rudra subjugation (as found in the Guhyagarbha)
and the cult of the “Seven Mothers” (ma bdun;
saptamātṛkā). Yet these demonesses are explicitly
described as ladies of Tibet (bod khams gyi bdag
mo) rather than India. Binding them to be guardians of Tibet, Padmasambhava is here mentioned
in a Tibetan context (Dalton, 2011, 66–73). Thus,
the Indian Padmasambhava controls the Tibetan
landscape in subjugating them and has Tibet as his
sphere of ritual practice even in this earliest narrative representation.
The slightly later narrative in P. tib. 44 similarly
displays his mastery over a tetrad of bse goddesses,
troublesome local deities of the earth (→Spirits of
the Soil, Land and Locality in Tibet), in currentday Nepal. This late 10th-century Dunhuang document contains a ritual preceded by a short narrative, which depicts Padmasambhava as an expert in
kīlaya (phur pa; “dagger” or “spike”) rituals (Bischoff
& Hartmann, 1971; Kapstein, 2000, 158; Cantwell &
Mayer, 2008a, 41–67). At Yang la (=le) shod in Nepal,
on his way to procure a collection of such ritual texts
titled the Phur bu’i ’bum sde (Dagger-Collection
Scripture) from Nālandā, “Pad ma sam ba ba” transforms and tames these four bse goddesses (who are
trying to kill him) by means of his magic hat. Then,
practicing kīlaya rituals alongside practices ranging
from Kriyāyoga up to Atiyoga, “Ācarya Sam ba ba”
achieves accomplishments and is granted a vision
of Vajrakumāra (Rdo rje gzhon nu, i.e. Vajrakīla; Rdo
rje phur pa), a deified form of the kīlaya. He subsequently transmits these teachings to disciples in
Tibet, who practice at Brag dmar and As (=Has) po
ri in the heart of the Tibetan empire – southeast of
Lhasa – and in Lho brag and ’Bum thang – in southern Tibet and what is now Bhutan, respectively.
This work provides no evidence that Padmasambhava ever met Emperor Khri Srong lde brtsan. Yet,
it depicts him as a South Asian master performing
esoteric Buddhist rituals in the Himalayan region
and the instigator of an important tantric practice in
Tibet during the reign of that 8th-century emperor.
Maturation and the First Full-Length
Biography
The above representations circulated and were
expanded during the early part of the 2nd millennium CE, when clan and religious groups vied for
power in central and southern Tibet. The memory
of these events within the context of later ritual
explications, especially in what became the Rnying
ma school, is a testament to their continuing power
in traditional religious contexts (Cantwell & Mayer,
2008a, 45–49). Elements of the Dunhuang representations of Padmasambhava recur in extended
or adapted form in the 12th-century Zangs gling
ma chapters 4, 5, and 9 (Doney, 2014, 3–4), a work
explained below. This evidence shows the continuous growth and spread of the cult of Padmasambhava, who is mythologized from the start, rather
than a break between a “historical” Padmasambhava and a deified Padmasambhava newly reinvented from the 11th century onwards.
Outside of the Dunhuang cache of manuscripts,
the earliest narrative depiction of Padmasmabhava
is found in the 11th- or 12th-century D/R/Sba(’)
bzhed (Testimony of Ba) tradition. This history
purports to narrate the introduction of Buddhism
into Tibet from the perspective of members of the
Ba family (whose clan name is variously spelled
as Dba’, Rba, Sba, etc.), especially Ba Gsas/l snang
who acts as minister and then spiritual preceptor
to Emperor Khri Srong lde btsan in the narrative.
Fragments of the Testimony of Ba narrative were
recently found among the Dunhuang documents
(Or. 8210/SN9498(A) and Or. 8210/SN13683(C); van
Schaik & Iwao, 2008) – although none of these concern Padmasambahava. The Dba’ bzhed (Wangdu
& Diemberger, 2000) appears to be the oldest complete exemplar of the Testimony of Ba available at
present, retaining many archaic features, and in
it Padmasambhava plays an important though
limited role. Later versions of the Testimony of Ba
display amplification, elision, and alteration of the
main narrative given in the Dba’ bzhed (see Doney,
2013) and devote a little more of their texts to his
time in Tibet and relationship with Khri Srong lde
brtsan/btsan.
Padmasambhava’s sojourn in Tibet takes up
7 folio sides out of 60 in the Dba’ bzhed. As in the
above works, Padmasambhava subjugates many
local deities on the border of Tibet. Yet he also
travels around the Yar lung valley in central Tibet
and performs numerous miracles and acts of water
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Padmasambhava in Tibetan Buddhism
magic (Wangdu & Diemberger, 2000, 13–14). He
carries out these acts for the sake of the emperor’s
longevity, the stability of Bsam yas monastery’s construction, and ensuring a long future for Buddhism
in Tibet (Wangdu & Diemberger, 2000, 11a–13a). The
Indian abbot, →Śāntarakṣita, recommends Padmasambhava to the Tibetan emperor as India’s greatest master of mantra (Wangdu & Diemberger, 2000,
11b2–7), his power worthy of comparison with that
of the Buddha to tame the deities and nāgas of the
Jambudvīpa continent (’dzam bu gling gi lha klu
→Worldly Protector Deities in Tibetan Buddhism).
Padmasambhava extends the life of the emperor
by means of a ritual using a vase of longevity (tshe
bum), but Khri Srong lde btsan eventually grows
suspicious of his power and asks him to return to
his homeland (Wangdu & Diemberger, 2000, 13a6–
b6). As Padmasambhava departs, he criticizes the
ruler and prophesies the decline of the Dharma
and disagreement among Buddhists because his
threefold binding of the deities and nāgas remains
unfinished (Wangdu & Diemberger, 2000, 14a2–5).
He then plays no further part in the narrative.
He is from the start spiritually superior to the
mundane ruler, Khri Srong lde btsan, who feels
great sorrow at his departure and who eventually
brings about a decline in Buddhism marked by the
famous “Bsam yas debate” (Wangdu & Diemberger,
2000, 14a6 and 18b5ff.; Seyfort Ruegg, 1989, 56–92).
In contrast to earlier imperial representations of
the emperor as the deified center of Tibetan society, the Testimony of Ba account glorifies religious
figures and highlights their role in the establishment of Buddhism in Tibet. This trait is indicative
of the gradual replacement of a cult of the divine
emperor with cults of religious deities and masters
such as Padmasambhava in Tibet during this period
(Doney, 2017). Yet, in the main narrative taken as
a whole, Padmasambhava’s time in Tibet is rather
short, while other Buddhist masters take center
stage.
The growth of the cult of Padmasambhava
inspired his inclusion in other early histories of the
Dharma in Tibet, written from outside the Rnying
ma school. For example, the second patriarch of
the Sa skya school, Slob dpon Bsod nams rtse mo
(1142–1182), included Padmasambhava in his history
of Indo-Tibetan Buddhism, the Chos la ’jug pa’i sgo
(Introduction to the Dharma; dating according to
Martin [1997, 34, no. 24] from c. 1167). During a very
short description of Buddhism during the reign of
Khri Srong lde btsan, he mentions Padmasambhava
1199
(as “the master of Uḍḍiyāna, Padma sam bha wa”)
alongside Śāntarakṣita as subduing the deities and
spirits (lha srin) of Tibet (Sa skya pa’i bka’ ’bum, kha,
343b4–5). This gives a strong sense of the importance of Padmasambhava at this time, although his
role is still limited compared with later accounts.
Other early works of historiography depict Padmasambhava as a divine emanation (sprul pa)
rather than a human adept. Davidson (2003, 78n61)
notes that this is the case with the perhaps 11th- or
12th-century Bka’ chems ka khol ma (Pillar Testament), the main narrative of which describes the
bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara incarnating as Emperor
Srong btsan sgam po (d. 649), in order to build
temples and spread Buddhism in the 7th century.
Its closing summation states that some say Padmasambhava was an emanation of Śākyamuni,
just as they say the emperors were emanations of
bodhisattvas (Bka’ chems ka khol ma, 318:12–16). It
goes on to claim that, since such emanations were
either born in or invited to Tibet, all of its shrines
and monasteries – such as Ra sa ’phrul snang and Ra
mo che – have been greatly blessed (319:1–3). This
statement may represent an interpolation into the
text. However, here Padmasambhava joins the ranks
of deified Tibetan emperors and mythic Buddhist
princes. The identification of Padmasambhava as
an emanation of Amitābha in later literature and
iconography (see below) apparently replaced his
earlier identification with the historical Buddha
(see below).
The earliest example of a full-length biography
of Padmasambhava is now known as the Zangs
gling ma (see Doney, 2014; trans. Kunsang 1999). It
is represented as a “treasure” (gter) discovered by
the famous “treasure revealer” (→Gter ston), Nyang
ral Nyi ma ’od zer (1136–1204 or 1124–1192; Hirshberg,
2016). The Rnying ma especially claim that treasure
texts were buried by Padmasambhava himself in
the 8th century, for reincarnations of his disciples to
discover either in physical caches or in their minds
in the future (→BEB I: Gter ma, 400–402). Nyang ral
is supposed to be the reincarnation of Khri Srong
lde btsan, for example, discovering texts that Padmasambhava transmitted to him during the 8th century (Doney, 2014, 15–19). This role in treasure text
burial was relatively new for Padmasambhava in the
12th century, yet the technology evidently offered a
way for the Rnying ma school to provide up-to-date
tantric rituals for their members but represent them
as ancient and authoritative through their connection to Padmasambhava. In that way, indigenous
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textual production could compete with the Indic
esoteric Buddhist works containing cutting-edge
rituals that were flooding into Tibet at the time
(Phillips, 2004, 386). Nyang ral’s Zangs gling ma has
been fundamental to much of the later tradition of
Padmasambhava biography as well as deeply influencing historiography in general.
The Zangs gling ma describes Padmasambhava
very differently from the Dba’ bzhed. The latter only
introduces him within the context of his arrival
in Tibet, and takes the perspective of his superior
in Tibetan society, Emperor Khri Srong lde btsan.
The Zangs gling ma instead begins with a South
Asian king’s quest: King Indrabhūti/Indrabodhi of
Uḍḍiyāna is searching for a wish-fulfilling jewel and
finds the eight-year-old Padmasambhava, who has
miraculously appeared on a lotus in the middle of
the ocean (Padma bka’ chems brgyas pa, 1b2–7a5).
He adopts this child-incarnation of Amitābha to
be his royal son, but Padmasambhava arranges his
self-exile by killing a minister’s son with his iconic
khaṭvāṅga staff (present in all figs. 1–4). He is banished from the kingdom, allowing him to practice
higher tantric rites in charnel grounds all over
India (Padma bka’ chems brgyas pa, 7a5–10b1). He
is thus simultaneously a buddha’s incarnation and
a king’s son, but he lives a →siddha’s life (like Nyang
ral himself) in the wilds outside society. Returning
home with his tantric consort, Princess Mandāravā,
Padmasambhava survives immolation by his adoptive father, and converts the realm to esoteric Buddhism (Padma bka’ chems brgyas pa, 13a2–17a5).
This topos is akin to the reclamation of the kingdom
by the exiled prince in many other state founding
and royal hero myths (Miller, 2000) and to Samudra’s conversion of King Aśoka in the Aśokāvadāna
(Strong, 1983, 74).
Later, Padmasambhava is invited to Tibet in order
to aid Khri Srong lde btsan (here called a “king,”
rgyal po) in building Bsam yas monastery and binding the autochthonous deities to protect Buddhism.
Padmasambhava’s status as a siddha proves him
superior to this king too (Padma bka’ chems brgyas
pa, 30b1–5). It becomes clear that the two shared
a previous life building a stūpa (mchod rten) in
Magadha/Ma ku ta (with Śāntarakṣita; Padma bka’
chems brgyas pa, 36a3–37a5) and making aspirational prayers to spread Buddhism in Tibet. Here,
Padmasambhava replaces the minister, Dba’ gSas/l
snang, from the Testimony of Ba triad who made
similar prayers at the time of Buddha Kāśyapa
(Wangdu & Diemberger, 2000, 8a4–5; Doney, 2017,
316–317). Padmasambhava then converts the deity
Pe har into a Dharma protector (→Worldly Protector Deities in Tibetan Buddhism) and places him
in charge of Bsam yas monastery, increases the life
span of his new royal disciple, Khri Srong lde btsan,
and initiates him into various tantric practices
(Padma bka’ chems brgyas pa, 68b1–79a3). He also
buries treasure texts around Tibet, and prophesies
that the king will retrieve them after 17 lifetimes.
Details of this 17th life make it clear that this future
treasure revealer will be Nyang ral, the compiler of
the Zangs gling ma itself (Padma bka’ chems brgyas
pa, 79a3–85a5).
Finally, Khri Srong lde btsan dies and the master
leaves Tibet, traveling to Laṅka to convert its bloodthirsty rākṣasa (srin po) inhabitants to the Dharma
(although this taming is not recounted). His parting words of advice and advocacy of devotion to
Mahākaruṇā Avalokiteśvara take up more than a
quarter of the text (Padma bka’ chems brgyas pa,
89b1–122b3), in a manner that corresponds with
Śākyamuni entering parinirvāṇa with parting words
for his disciples. Furthermore, the homage paid to
him at the beginning of the work suggests that he
is still approachable, and so never died. This is also
analogous to the depiction of Śākyamuni in later
devotional works, but is a new move in the depiction of Padmasambhava.
Here, and increasingly in later ritual narratives
especially of the Rnying ma school, the life stories
of the tantric consorts and 25 disciples of Padmasambhava, as well as the spirits he tames and converts to Buddhism, become narrativized in relation
to Padmasambhava. As Kapstein (2000, 162) asserts,
it is in such works of Nyang ral “that we find the
clearest blueprint for the later Tibetan religiopolitical construction” of society, increasingly central to
which is Padmasambhava.
Ritual and Bon po Variants of the
Narrative
From the beginning, Padmasambhava’s mythos
seems tied up with ritual efficacy (Mayer, 2007;
Cantwell & Mayer 2008b). Among the multitudinous ritual works attributed to him are many on the
figure of Kīla (Phur pa) or Vajrakīla (Rdo rje phur
pa), who is the deified ritual kīlaya dagger envisioned as a meditational deity. As reflected even in
Dunhuang documents, the kīlaya itself is used not
only to purify ritual spaces and convert dangerous
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Padmasambhava in Tibetan Buddhism
local spirits into Dharma protectors, but also to
reach enlightenment oneself through meditational
identification with the deity Kīla (Cantwell &
Mayer, 2008a, 32–35). Padmasambhava is intimately
connected with Kīla rituals to this day, especially as
he takes the form of the horse-headed →Hayagrīva
(Rta mgrin) or wrathful Rdo rje gro lod (see below),
and practitioners often visualize themselves as him
in these forms during such rituals (Huntington,
1975, 7–10; 66–68).
If earlier rituals form the template for tales told
about Padmasambhava, then reciprocally some
later ritual texts expand early Padmasambhava
narratives, including that given in P. tib. 44 (see
above), to recount his birth and elaborate upon
his religious practices. Blondeau, in her groundbreaking account of Padmasambhava biography,
distinguishes between narratives that describe Padmasambhava being born from a lotus, the so-called
“miraculous birth” (rdzus skyes) version, and those
that recount a “womb birth” (mngal skyes) narrative
instead (Blondeau, 1980, 46). She further shows that
the former version is found more often in treasure
texts while the latter is more prevalent in conventionally transmitted works (bka’ ma).
The accounts given in the ritual text, the Phur
’grel ’bum nag (Black Kīla-Commentary Collection;
trans. Boord, 2002), as the name suggests, are collected and placed side by side rather than unified
by authorial intervention (apparently quite early,
but exactly when and by whom is still uncertain).
The first tradition tells of Padmasambhava’s birth
from the womb of Queen Jalendra, wife of King
Śakra of Uḍḍiyāna, to the west of India. He is no
less miraculous for being born “naturally,” since he
displays on his body auspicious marks of a wrathful subjugator of demons, and so is named Rdo rje
bdud ’dul (“Vajra Demon-Subjugator;” Boord, 2002,
113–114). The second tradition’s narrative, also set
in Uḍḍiyāna, recounts how an unnamed pious king
adopts a child found emanated within a large lotus,
and names him “Lotus-Born” (Padma ’byung gnas;
Boord, 2002, 115–116). There is no sense of tension
on display in the results of this compilation process. Instead, the opening praise to Padmasambhava addresses him as one possessing two different
equally amazing traditions concerning his life story
(Boord, 2002, 109). This work later describes these
traditions from the perspective of ritual practice, as
the partial perspectives of Buddhist practitioners
rather than two conflicting accounts of “reality”
(Boord, 2002, 113). Such works conform to a general
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continuity between Dunhuang kīlaya documents
and later texts, yet within Blondeau’s analysis, they
represent a younger intersection of two traditions
of Padmasambhava narrative apparently popular at
the time.
Just as Padmasambhava is granted a vision of
Vajrakumāra (Vajrakīla) as a result and sign of his
tantric accomplishments in P. tib. 44, Tibetan masters from at least the 12th century are recorded to
have had visions of a fully deified Padmasambhava.
Nyang ral’s purported first encounter occurred
during a dream at ten years old (1134), when from
among a great multitude of men, women, and
riders Padmasambhava appeared “bearing a jeweled vase filled with amṛta nectar” (trans. Hirshberg, 2016, 49). Such visions are often feasts for the
senses, other-worldly displays of the majesty of the
guru and proof that he is not only present but also
capable of passing on empowerments (symbolized
in Nyang ral’s vision by the presence of a nectarfilled vase). This vision awakens Nyang ral’s faith
and, as the continuing account details, galvanizes
him to deeper practice and thereby greater heights
of awakening himself. It also foreshadows his career
as a treasure revealer through his early connection
with the spiritual source of this treasure (Hirshberg,
2016, 50) – this claimed dream vision in part justifies
his revision of Padmasambhava mythos itself.
Gu ru Chos kyi dbang phyug (or Gu ru Chos dbang;
1212–1270) was a slightly later treasure revealer who
practiced Nyang ral’s teachings, was born in the
same region of southern Tibet and claimed to be
his reincarnation (Phillips, 2004, 158–179). Some of
his visions (Phillips, 2004, 172) merge with another
genre: “replies to questions” (zhus lan), which in
this case Padmasambhava gives to his 8th-century
disciples and his consort, Ye shes mtsho rgyal (Kunsang, 1990). Such visions bolster the biographical
representations and validity of the tradition of
treasure revelation, add extra detail not provided in
those texts, and (like the aforementioned treasure
texts) collapse the boundaries between the imperial period and the present in which these visions
occur.
Bon po histories contain many similar and yet
mirror image depictions of Padmasambhava to
those above, reflecting the unique perspective of
the “other” religion of Tibet. However, the earliest of
these portrayals have yet to be securely dated. Martin (1997, 28–29) dates the Grags pa rin chen gling
grag (full title: Bon chos dar nub gi lo rgyus grags pa
rin chen gling grag ces bya ba rmongs pa blo’i gsal
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Padmasambhava in Tibetan Buddhism
byed) to the “mid-1100’s?”; Blezer (2010, 11) puts the
Bsgrags byang tradition, to which the aforementioned text belongs, somewhere between the late
10th century and the 12th century. One exemplar
that appears to contain an early version of this
tradition (Kvaerne, 1993, 18–23) portrays Padmasambhava’s introduction of Buddhism into Tibet as
having negative consequences for the Bon religion
(Grags pa rin chen gling grag, 46b2–80a6).
The text first tells us that Khri Srong lde btsan’s
invitation of the great Indian masters, Padmasambhava and Śāntarakṣita, is due to the power of their
previous aspirational prayers together as three beggars building Ri bo Bya ri Kha shor in “India” (Grags
pa rin chen gling grag, 46b2–48b1). Yet it differs
from the Testimony of Ba and Zangs gling ma narrative of building the similarly named Bya rung kha
shor Stūpa – today identified with the Boudhanath
Stūpa in the Kathmandu valley – in giving the three
Indian beggars an ulterior motive: fulfilling promises to the kings of India and China to conquer the
king of Tibet by spreading Buddhism there in a
future life. Eventually, Khri Srong lde btsan is born
and brought up knowing only Bon and a prosperous
and happy kingdom based on its practice. The hero
of this half of the narrative, the great Bon master
named Dran pa nam mkha’, then dreams that Padmasambhava and Śāntarakṣita will come to Tibet
and destroy the dominion of Bon (Grags pa rin chen
gling grag, 52a4–b3). Padmasambhava’s depiction in
the dream is as a monk like Śāntarakṣita, dressed in
saffron robes, though also antinomian in character
with a vajra scepter, a ḍamaru drum, and a kapāla
skull cup from which he pours human and horse’s
blood. They then actually arrive and persuade Khri
Srong lde btsan to abandon Bon and practice Buddhism, causing the diminution of Tibet’s empire
on the field of battle (Grags pa rin chen gling grag,
52b4–54b4). The king begins to have doubts, which
are confirmed by divination, and he expels Padmasambhava and Śāntarakṣita with the full support of
the people and to the immediate benefit of Bon and
Tibet (Grags pa rin chen gling grag, 54b4–55a6).
The two masters return and are banished repeatedly, remaining largely indistinguishable in that
they are generally referred to as a pair, whose combined efforts ensure that Buddhism eventually
gains a foothold in Tibet (Grags pa rin chen gling
grag, 80a3–6). When Padmasambhava acts alone,
he only succeeds in losing two magical contests
against a Bon minister (Grags pa rin chen gling grag,
60b2–62b3). He then fails to reverse the actions
of Bon protector deities such as Yar lha sham po,
Thang lha, and Pom ra (Grags pa rin chen gling grag,
78b6–79a1), the text here seemingly intentionally
denying his powers as the quintessential tamer of
these forces. Padmasambhava could evidently not
be ignored by historians of Bon, yet he is depicted
in the Grags pa rin chen gling grag as a less powerful and unworthy opponent of the idealized Bon
heroes and gods of the narrative. Yet this negative
representation is mitigated when it states that Padmasambhava hid many Bon treasure texts in addition to Buddhist treasure (Grags pa rin chen gling
grag, 76a2–3), although this may be a mere interpolation into an older narrative.
Given the problems surrounding dating the earliest works of the Bsgrags byang tradition, its relation
with the Buddhist works discussed above remains
to be assessed. It is interesting to note, however,
that the Zangs gling ma contains no description of
debate or tension between Buddhism and Bon qua
Bon, whether intentionally due to a fondness for
Bon or out of ignorance of the existence of such a
narrative on the part of the compiler. Later Rnyingma treasure revealers also held a more charitable
view of Bon. Buddhists such as Rdo rje gling pa
(1346–1405?) and ’Jam dbyangs Mkhyen rtse’i dbang
po (1820–1892), for example, took on Bon po names
and under these aliases wrote historiography that
represents both the Bon religion and Padmasambhava positively. Further, some later Bon po biographies of Padmasambhava more closely approach
this positive appraisal of Padmasambhava (despite
the controversy that these works caused in the 19th
and 20th cents.; Blondeau, 1985, 1988; Ngawang
Zangpo, 2002, 183–205).
Fourteenth-Century Codification and
Expansion
The Zangs gling ma was redacted and expanded
into new biographies by successive generations of
Tibetan masters and scholars, to suit not only the
changing requirements of readership but also Padmasambhava’s new place in Buddhist practices
such as art, relic worship, pilgrimage, and other
constituents of material culture. The views ascribed
to him also began to express the more mature, cutting-edge Madhyamaka and Atiyoga formulations
being debated in Tibet at the time. His growing
popularity in the 13th century had some negative
consequences. These include the rise of polemics,
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Padmasambhava in Tibetan Buddhism
less against Padmasambhava himself than against
the treasure discovered and described by Gu ru
Chos dbang, and allegations of fraud against people claiming to actually be “Padma” (Martin, 2001,
113–114). In the 14th century, after the fall of Mongol
imperial and Sa skya monastic hegemony in Tibet,
several much longer biographies of Padmasambhava reenvisioned Tibetan history in an enduring
way, following the lead of the treasure revealer, O
rgyan gling pa (b. 1323).
O rgyan gling pa, another great Rnying ma figure
born in southern Tibet and active in central Tibet,
possessed a unique literary style and vision of Padmasambhava. He expressed these in, inter alia, his
bka’ thang (“testament”) treasure texts. His Lha ’dre
bka’ thang (Deities and Spirits’ Testament) contains
a unique description of Padmasambhava taming
autochthonous deities on his way to central Tibet
(Bka’ thang sde lnga, 1997, 3–84; Blondeau, 1971). The
opening folios of his Blon po bka’ thang (Minister’s
Testament), which describes imperial administration and court culture from a Buddhist perspective,
list the 11 most famous deeds of Padmasambhava
(Bka’ thang sde lnga, 1997, 505.21–506.3). A number of these deeds are not included in any earlier
biographies, and the list instead seems to represent
a new restructuring of Padmasambhava’s life story
according to the model of Buddha Śākyamuni. The
latter’s life is often arranged into 12 deeds in Tibetan
literature, most notably in the famous Chos ’byung
(religious history) of O rgyan gling pa’s older contemporary, Bu ston (1290–1364; trans. Obermiller,
1931; ed. Szerb, 1990; the 12 deeds are discussed in
Luczanits, 1993). The 11 deeds of Padmasambhava
in the Blon po bka’ thang are:
1. Intending to tame beings (’gro ’dul dgongs
mdzad),
2. Entering the lotus “womb” (padma lhums
zhugs mdzad),
3. Taking birth miraculously (rang byung bltams
mdzad),
4. Enjoying the recreational life of a prince
(rgyal sras rol rtsed mdzad),
5. Receiving ordination (rab tu byung mdzad),
6. Demonstrating various austerities (dka’ thub
sna tshogs mdzad),
7. Defeating the forces of Māra (bdud dpung
’joms mdzad),
8. Attaining Enlightenment as a buddha (sangs
rgyas byang chub mdzad),
9. Turning the Wheel of the Dharma (chos ’khor
bskor mdzad),
1203
10. Practicing yogic discipline (brtul zhugs spyod
pa mdzad), and
11. Concealing treasure [ensuring] a great increase rather than decline of the teachings
(bstan pa mthar rgyas mi nub gter sbed mdzad).
The focus of this list lies on Padmasambhava’s time
in India prior to being invited to Tibet, even though
his time in Tibet usually forms the bulk of most of
his biographies. The Blon po bka’ thang goes on to
claim that these 11 deeds are written down so that
anyone copying or teaching them will be reborn
in the paradise of Sukhāvatī (Bde ba can) and, on
the basis of faith in and emulation of this path,
one is assured unsurpassable enlightened buddhahood (Bka’ thang sde lnga, 1997, 506.3–6). Unlike
Śākyamuni, however, any mention of Padmasambhava’s own parinirvāṇa is noticeably absent
from this list, perhaps because he remains in the
world like a bodhisattva (though the Lalitavistara
also does not extend its narrative to Buddha Śākyamuni’s parinirvāṇa; Luczanits, 1993, 94 n9).
O rgyan gling pa narrates all these 11 deeds in order
in his Padma bka’ thang (Lotus Testament), also
known as the Bka’ thang shel brag ma (1352). This
is a treasure text devoted to the life story of Padmasambhava, written in verse (Martin, 1997, 56, no. 87).
There exist many editions of the same basic recension, which was translated into French (Toussaint,
1933) and from this into English (Douglas & Bays,
1978). However, a newly photographed manuscript
from Tawang, Arunachal Pradesh, differs from those
editions in a way that suggests another recension of
the Padma bka’ thang (Doney, 2016). All versions
agree on the basic narrative, which is structured not
into 11 deeds but as a much expanded version of the
earliest attested Zangs gling ma (Blondeau, 1980, 49;
Doney, 2014, 33–38).
The Padma bka’ thang is especially extensive in
its description of the timeless, cosmic antecedents
to Padmasambhava’s emanation onto a lotus on
Dhanakośa lake in Uḍḍiyāna. In this biography, Padmasambhava receives ordination under Ānanda, a
disciple of the Buddha, and then travels to a wide
array of locations surrounding Tibet where he
tames local demons and teaches esoteric Buddhism
to the inhabitants. The work includes numerous references to Padmasambhava as the “second Buddha”
(sangs rgyas gnyis pa), both as part of the third-person narrative and in the mouths of his converted
devotees. Finally, Padmasambhava prophesies in
detail the depredations and indignities caused
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Padmasambhava in Tibetan Buddhism
by Mongol rule over Tibet, and the postimperial
hope for the degenerated Dharma of this period by
means of treasure and treasure revealers such as O
rgyan gling pa. He promises to also be present himself, returning on the tenth day of every month. This
has become enshrined in the Rnying ma and later
pan-Tibetan devotional calendar as the celebration
of a different event from Padmasambhava’s life, as
recorded in the Padma bka’ thang, on the tenth day
of each lunar month (Schwieger, 1997).
These details stand in contrast to the earlier
Zangs gling ma, which lacks the cosmological
framework, wide geographical knowledge, and specific historical prophecies of the Padma bka’ thang.
This suggests that a mature historiographical awareness among 14th-century Tibetans is reflected in the
latter biography of Padmasambhava, which now
emulates the scope of the religious history (chos
’byung) genre or the Bka’ chems ka khol ma biography of the emanated bodhisattva, Emperor Srong
btsan sgam po. In contrast, many histories covering
the imperial period take the Testimony of Ba as their
primary source on the reign of Khri Srong lde brtsan
(e.g. the aforementioned Chos ’byung of Bu ston). In
these works, Padmasambhava plays a less prominent
role in establishing Tibetan Buddhism. The Jo nang
scholar, Tāranātha (1575–1634?), also provided a socalled “Indian tradition” (rgya gar lugs) of the life
story of Padmasambhava (Rin chen gter mdzod, ka,
245–289; Ngawang Zangpo, 2002, 151–181; De Falco,
2011). Apart from minor details of unknown provenance, this blends a standard bka’ thang narrative of
abandoning the realm of Uḍḍiyāna for yogic travel
around India with the Testimony of Ba version of
his time in Tibet – although it also provides a short
account of his final taming of the rākṣasa island.
Later Tibetan scholars explain the apparent discrepancies between the different biographies by
pointing out Padmasambhava’s status as a “dharmakāya” (chos sku), whose emanation could have been
perceived in many different ways (e.g. Rtse le Na
tshogs rang grol Rin po che [b. 1608]; trans. Kunsang, 1999, 7–25). Some also identify Nyang ral, Gu
ru Chos dbang, O rgyan gling pa, and others as emanations of Padmasambhava’s body, speech, mind,
and so on (Ehrhard, 2009, 499). This completes
Padmasambhava’s transformation from an 8thcentury emanation of Amitābha into a “primordial
buddha” (ādibuddha), capable of being emanated
from himself. However, perhaps this representation
had an antecedent in those figures who considered
themselves reincarnations (sprul sku), and not emanations, of a more human Padmasambhava.
Prayers
The life story of Padmasambhava has at various
points in history formed the basis of devotional
works praising him, which could shed light on the
expansion of these narratives and their structuring according to various rubrics in the future. Three
important examples of prayers to Padmasambhava
are found in the Rin chen gter mdzod, a monumental compendium of treasure texts and related works
collected and compiled by ’Jam mgon kong sprul
Blo gros mtha’ yas (1813–1899). The first prayer is
attributed to Nyang ral in some sources (Rin chen
gter mdzod, ka, 204:1–211:3; trans. Chhimed Rigdzin
Rinpoche & Low, 2008, 299–320), although some
events are omitted in the Zangs gling ma and seem
to reflect a later stage of Padma-vita tradition. The
repeated last line of each verse states that the petitioner thinks of Lord Padmasambhava of Uḍḍiyāna
and requests him to empower and bless him or her
and all beings. Although the details of the prayer
are biographical, this refrain brings the reciter back
to the present and Padmasambhava’s continued
presence, empowerments, and blessings – like the
visions, above.
The second prayer is attributed at the end to the
treasure revealer, Ratna gling pa (1403–1476; Rin
chen gter mdzod, ka, 211:3–219:1). The name of the
prayer suggests that it should follow the 11 deeds of
Padmasambhava, but only a few of its 22 stanzas
conform to the classic formulation of the 11 deeds.
Nonetheless, the presence of some form of the 11
deeds in the prayer shows this way of structuring of
the narrative influenced the genres of both biography and also devotional literature.
The third prayer (Rin chen gter mdzod, ka, 221–243)
is written by ’Jam mgon kong sprul Blo gros mtha’ yas
himself, based on an earlier work compiled by Smin
gling lo chen Dharma shrī (1654–1717/18). This long
prayer almost resembles a short versified biography
of Padmasambhava, containing the expanded vision
of his life following the bka’ thang genre. It suggests
that the devotional genre eventually exerted influence on the structure of the Padma-vita.
Further examples of this tendency include the
very popular Le’u bdun ma prayer in seven chapters
(see Schwieger, 1988, 35; trans. Ngawang Zangpo,
2002, 217–245; ed. and trans. Chhimed Rigdzin
Rinpoche & Low, 2008, 28–213). This work, whose
colophon states that Sprul sku Bzang po grags pa
revealed it in 1362 and bestowed it upon Rig ’dzin
Rgod kyi ldem ’phru can (1337–1408), soon became
one of the most recited prayers throughout the
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Padmasambhava in Tibetan Buddhism
1205
Fig. 1: Main image of Padmasambhava, flanked by his tantric consorts Mandāravā (l.) and Ye shes mtsho rgyal (r.), perhaps
in emulation of Avalokiteśvara with two Tāras. Below him are a teaching layman (l.) and Khrodhakāli Vajrayoginī maṇḍala (r.)
(1200–1299, Rnying ma; Donald & Shelly Rubin; HAR item no. 160).
Tibetan-speaking world. Its descriptions of Padmasambhava accord with the Padma bka’ thang, and
also include a potted biography (chapter 5) from
the mouth of the master himself. The extensive
corpus of devotional literature surrounding Padmasambhava blends biography and praise in different
ways, but equally portrays him as remaining in the
world for the benefit of all beings.
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Later Literary Trends
The myths surrounding Padmasambhava steadily
grew in length, variety, and influence from the politically charged 14th century to the more philologically critical milieu of the Fifth Dalai Lama, Ngag
dbang Blo bzang rgya mtsho (1617–1682; Ahmad,
1995). This Dalai Lama was born in ’Phyongs rgyas,
the burial place of the Tibetan emperors, which is
surrounded by many of the pilgrimage sites associated with Padmasambhava’s meditation, taming,
and treasure burial activities (Dowman, 1996, 171–
204). He calls Padmasambhava the “second Buddha” while discussing the Zangs gling ma in the List
of Teachings Received by him (Thob yig gangā’i chu
rgyun, kha, 521:5) and emphasizes his eight names
elsewhere in the same work (Thob yig gangā’i chu
rgyun, ga, 113:5–115:4 and 119:5–122:2; Ehrhard, 2009,
501, 501n13). As a result of his positive attitude to
Padmasambhava, the weakened Rnying ma school
not only survived the, in part, bloody rise to power
of the Dalai Lama’s regime (the Dga’ ldan pho
brang), but also exerted cultural influence throughout Tibet and in other Buddhist schools. In fact, one
of the images reproduced here is from the personal
collection of His Holiness the 14th Dalai Lama (fig.
4 discussed below).
In the far north, a 16th- or 17th-century Mongolian Buddhist biography of Altan Khan and his
descendants, titled Erdeni tunumal neretü sudur
(Jewel Translucent Sūtra; trans. Elverskog, 2003),
shows the part that a Buddha-esque Padmasambhava played in justifying the religio-political situation there (Kapstein, 2015, 172–174). It describes the
authority of the Third Dalai Lama with regard to the
Khan as warranted by the vows they took together
in a previous existence, in the presence of Padmasambhava (Elverskog, 2003, 143–145, 258–260, verses
670–697). The meeting at which they forge this karmic bond takes place at Padmasambhava’s celestial paradise, named Zangs mdog dpal ri (Glorious
Copper-Colored Mountain; Essen & Tsering Tashi
Thingo, 1991, 125–135; Lamsam & Kesang Choden
Tashi Wangchuck, 2012; Bogin, 2014). Here, Padmasambhava takes over the role of Buddha Kāśyapa
from the Testimony of Ba, and Zangs mdog dpal ri
replaces the stūpa in Maghada/Ma ku ta from the
Zangs gling ma.
The importance of Padmasambhava in Bhutan
is undeniable (Lamsam & Kesang Choden Tashi
Wangchuck, 2012), based in part on the account
of his patronage by Sindhu Rāja in Bumthang
(Aris, 1979, 46–59). He is still lavishly praised in
his eight forms during the Bhutanese “tenth day”
celebrations, (Huntington, 1986; Essen & Tsering
Tashi Thingo, 1991, 136–140). Padmasambhava has
even returned symbolically to northwestern India,
through the many pilgrimage sites associated with
his travels there (Huber, 2008, 232–247). The countless local narratives surrounding Padmasambhava’s
purported presence at one time almost everywhere
within the Tibetan cultural world reminds us of all
the unattributable depictions lying below the surface of the literary accounts discussed above.
Artistic Depiction
Another important sphere of generally anonymous
representation of Padmasambhava is found within
material culture, including some objects said to
have been created and buried by the master himself. His portrayals in unsigned paintings (thang
kha) date from at least the 13th century, where he
is recognizable by a combination of a distinctively
brimmed hat, multicolored robes, his khaṭvāṅga
staff, vajra, and skull cup (thod phor), which also feature in the narratives discussed above (Watt, 2013a).
During this period, Padmasambhava is depicted not
only as the main image (fig. 1) but also as a minor
figure in paintings devoted to deities whom he propitiates (fig. 2), or in one of his many incarnations
(figs. 3–4).
One of the main shifts from the early to later
period of representing Padmasambhava is from
a triad comprising Padmasambhava, Śākyamuni
Buddha, and Avalokiteśvara in his four-armed
(caturbhuja) aspect to one where the ādibuddha,
Amitābha, takes the place of the historical Buddha (Watt, 2013a). Perhaps this shifting allegiance
is connected to the move from early identifications
of Padmasambhava as an emanation of Śākyamuni
(e.g. in the Bka’ chems ka khol ma) to identifications of the “second Buddha” with Amitābha. Both
triads include the bodhisattva of compassion,
Avalokiteśvara, from whom Padmasambhava is
emanated both within historiographical narratives and the logic of his iconography (Blondeau,
1977–1978).
Narrative paintings seemingly appeared during
the 16th and 17th centuries, together with the serial
editions of the most popular recension of the
Padma bka’ thang (Kapstein, 2015). They reflect the
14th-century reenvisioning of Padmasambhava also
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Padmasambhava in Tibetan Buddhism
Fig. 2: Padmasambhava, detail of a Che mchog Heruka maṇḍala
containing the eight Bka’ brgyad deities worshipped by Nyang ral
and Guru Chos dbang, in which he is placed at the top left as
source of the tradition (1200–1299, Rnying ma; private collection;
HAR item no. 89981).
expressed in the bka’ thangs, and depict most of
those events of his life generally in clockwise order
(fig. 3; Watt, 2006). At the center, sits the, by this
time, familiar central image of Padmasambhava as
Padma ’byung gnas, the “Lotus-Born,” during this
period increasingly holding a combined skull cup
and vase of longevity. His other manifestations are
represented playing out certain events from his vita
around him.
The “Eight Names”
The manifestations of Padmasambhava are held to
be codified under “eight names” (mtshan brgyad),
sometimes “eight forms,” “eight aspects,” or “eight
manifestations” (early, introductory studies are
found in Govinda, 1974; Essen & Tsering Tashi
Thingo, 1991). The oldest strata of Tibetan literature
contain no fixed list, but include a number of these
as proper names or epithets, for example Pad ma
sam ba ba (P. tib. 44) or Padma rgyal po (IOL Tib
J 321). Eleven names are bestowed on Padmasambhava in narrative contexts spread throughout the
first quarter of the earliest recension of the Zangs
gling ma (Doney, 2014, 95, col. i). Different lists of
1207
eight names and literary descriptions of their portrayal have appeared since (Klaus, 1982, for examples
from the Rin chen gter mdzod). Perhaps this specific
number offered a correlative to Nyang ral and Gu
ru Chos dbang’s Bka’ brgyad (Eight Pronouncement
Deities), or to the eight archetypal aspects or events
(Skt. aṣṭalakṣaṇa) of the Buddha’s life.
Stable sets of the eight manifestations are portrayed in masked dances (’chams) performed to this
day – said to have been scripted by Gu ru Chos dbang
and O rgyan gling pa, among others (Cantwell, 1995,
on the dances performed in Rewalsar, Himachal
Pradesh; Ricard, 2003, for Kathmandu). Production of sets of these eight aspects (Klohe & Russell-Smith, 2013) increased dramatically with the
establishment of the six large Rnying ma “mother
monasteries” from the 17th century onwards (Watt,
2013b), as well as single images depicting them all.
In such a painting from the late 20th century (fig.
4; Mullin & Weber, 1996, 76–77), the eight names
of the manifestations surrounding a central Padma
’byung gnas are written below each figure as follows
(counting clockwise from the top, which may not
reflect the intended order):
1. Gu ru Padma sambha wa (“Venerable LotusBorn”), the Rnying ma pa;
2. Gu ru Shākya sengge (“Venerable Lion of the
Śākya [Clan]”), the Buddha;
3. Padma rgyal po (“Lotus King”), the royal
ritualist;
4. Gu ru Sengge sgra sgrog (“Venerable Lion’s
Roar”), wrathful black form;
5. Mtsho skyes rdo rje (“Lotus [lit. “lake-born”]
Vajra”), with tantric consort;
6. Gu ru Rdo rje gro lod (“Venerable Liberated/
Wrathful [?] Vajra”), fierce red form;
7. Blo ldan mchog sred (“Craving Wisdom”), the
prince;
8. Gu ru Nyi ma ’od zer (“Venerable Sun-Ray”),
the Indian mahāsiddha.
Apparently, an earlier depiction of Padmasambhava
wearing more conventional headwear (e.g. fig. 2) is
incorporated into the eight forms as Gu ru Padma
sambha wa (fig. 4, center top). Through these manifestations, Padmasambhava comes to embody
almost all of the major ideals of Tibetan Buddhism,
encompassing its 8th-century form (the Rnying ma
pa), final enlightenment (the Buddha), mundane
and esoteric power (the royal ritualist), and so forth.
Works of art and literature cannot reflect all the
cultural valences of a figure as rich in symbolism as
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Padmasambhava in Tibetan Buddhism
Fig. 3: Padmasambhava narrative painting incorporating his many manifestations, beginning with birth at the top right and
proceeding roughly clockwise around a central image of Padma ’byung gnas (1600–1699, Rnying ma; private collection; HAR item
no. 90161).
For use by the Author only | © 2019 Koninklijke Brill NV
Padmasambhava in Tibetan Buddhism
1209
Fig. 4: Padmasambhava surrounded by his eight manifestations. Late 1900s, northern Indian; Private Collection of His Holiness
the 14th Dalai Lama (published in Mullin & Weber, 1996, 77); HAR item no. 59002.
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Padmasambhava in Tibetan Buddhism
Padmasambhava. Scholars are furthermore aware
that they lack even a representative collection of
all the written and artistic works created by Tibetans over the centuries. Some extant works speak of
earlier Rnying ma sources on the imperial period
that were not recopied into the present or have not
yet come to light. These include the Chos ’byung
of Rong zom pa Chos kyi bzang po (11th cent.), the
original recension of the Lo rgyus chen mo (Great
History) by Zhang ston Bkra shis rdo rje (1097–1167;
Martin, 1997, 25 and 28, respectively), and Gu ru
Chos dbang’s Padmasambhava biography structured around his 11 deeds (Blondeau, 1980, 48, 52
n24). Many old texts and fine works of art held in
Rnying ma monasteries were also destroyed during
the Cultural Revolution. Nonetheless, the central
position of Padmasambhava in the changing historiography and mythology of Tibet and its Buddhism
is clear. Nyang ral’s works gained extraordinary
popularity, and their shared narratives provided the
archetypes for later Tibetan historians writing on
Tibet’s place in the world and its predestined relationship to Buddhism. Tibetan historians drew on
these narratives in the 14th century, following the
fall of the Yuan dynasty in China. Later on, the Dalai
Lamas deployed the same fundamental myths,
during the time of Tibetan state making in the 17th
century. In this sense, Nyang ral may be seen as forging the earlier elements of a local southern Tibetan
myth of Padmasambhava into an enduring and
influential narrative, one that was redacted by successive generations of Tibetan scholars to suit the
changing requirements of its readership. The earlier
strata revealed in the Dunhuang material and the
Testimony of Ba were partially retained in the later
ritual tradition and histories’ quotations, respectively. However, they form a quieter counterpoint to
the main melody praising the fully enlightened and
eternal second Buddha.
Tibetan-Language Works
Bka’ chems ka khol ma: Smon lam rgya mtsho, ed., 1989.
Bka’ chems ka khol ma, Lanzhou: Kan su’i mi rigs dpe
skrun khang.
Bka’ thang sde lnga, Rdo rje rgyal po, ed., 1997. Bka’ thang
sde lnga, Beijing: Mi rigs dpe skrun khang.
Bon chos dar nub gi lo rgyus grags pa rin chen gling grag
ces bya ba rmongs pa blo’i gsal byed, Oslo University Library object ID 71493694670002201 (1919); 95 folios; dbu
med manuscript held at the Oslo University Library,
Norway.
Padma bka’ chems brgyas pa, Nepal-German Manuscript
Cataloguing Project no. 61057; reel E 2703/10 (1992);
123 folios; dbu med manuscript exemplar of the Zangs
gling ma, reproduced in Doney, 2014, 101–223.
Rin chen gter mdzod,’Jam mgon kong sprul Blo gros mtha’
yas, rin chen gter mdzod chen mo, Paro: Ngodrup and
Sherab Drimay, 1976–1980.
Sa skya pa’i bka’ ’bum: Sde dge print (15 vols.), compiled
by Bsod nams rgya mtsho, Tokyo: The Tōyō Bunko,
1968–1969.
Thob yig gangā’i chu rgyun, Ngag-dbang Blo-bzang
rgya-mtsho, (4 vols.), Delhi: Nechung and Lhakhar,
1970–1971.
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Lewis Doney