Searching for the Lotus pond of Dhanakosha of Guru Rincpoche
(Padmasambhava) An alternative approach from the Archaeology of
Buddhism in Orissa
Umakant Mishra
The identification of place names associated with important personages has been a subject of
great controversy in India. Identification of place-name on the basis of textual and epigraphic
records has always evinced great deal of interest among historians for its relevance in the study
of historical formations of various regions as well as the discursive value it possesses in the
present.1 The identification of Gautama Buddha s birthplace, Lumbini has generated great deal
of controversy.2 Similarly, there are controversies regarding the place names associated with
Padmasambhava, who took Buddhism to Tibet in 8th century AD.
Guru Padmasambhava, according to the Tibetan, Bhutanese and Nepalese traditions,
had introduced Buddhism in these regions in 8th century AD. He, according to his biography3,
known as Sanglima in the hidden (terma) literature of Tibet, belonged to Uddiyana or
BD Chattopadhyaya has looked at the issue of placenames and the controvery that the placename
identifications have generated (Chattopadhyaya 1987).
2
At present, controversy continues to surround the location of Kapilavastu, the Buddha s native town, with both
India and Nepal promoting bids for this historically significant site. The Indian claim is based on the finds made at
Piprahwa, in Basti District, Uttar Pradesh; the Nepalese, by that of Tilaurakot and its surrounding sites, in the
Western Tarai of Nepal. Similarly, There are controversies surrounding the location of Lumbini garden where
Buddha was born. Terence A Phelps essay on Lumbini argues that Rumendei Pillar inscription of Asoka was
forged by German archaeologist Dr Alois Anton Fuhrer, who discovered Rumedei pillar inscription in 1896-8..
Phelps essay can be accessed in http://www.lumkap.org.uk/Lumbini%20On%20Trial.htm#p5. However, Phelps
hypothesis has largely been on the basis of distance given in Xuangzang s account, which was not always accurate.
This essay has been used by few scholars in Orissa to argue that Kapileswar village was the real birthplace of
Buddha. For discussion on the identification of Lumbini with the present Kapileswar village, now within the limit of
the Bhubaneswar Municipal Corporation, see Tripathy, OHRJ vol XLVII: 1-15; For Lumbini s archaeological findings,
see Lumbini, The Archaeological Survey Report (1992-1995), Japan Buddhist Federation, 2005 .
1
Biography of Padmasambhava (Pema Jungney), known as Sanglima in Tibet, is regarded as part of the terma
(secret) or kathanag (biographical) literature of Tibet. His biography was first written by his second and more
th
famous Tibetan Dakini Tsogyal in 8 century AD. The Dakini concealed the life history in the Samye temple (which
Padamasambhava was supposedly established in Tibet) near the image of Hayagriva with the title Padma bka'i
thang. It was revealed by Nyang Ral Nyima Oser in 1124-92. Tsele Natsok Rangdrol (1608 ad) who is considered
to be an earlier incarnation of Jamgon Kongtrul the first. Jamgon Kongtrul, the First (1813-99) is the first to make
Sanglima as the first collection of terma(hidden sacred text) treasure.
3
Oddiyana. The place is also associated with many other Gurus of Tibet such Garab Dorje4, Luipa
and Tilopa. The identification of Oddiy na is a subject of intense debates among historians.
Following Tucci5 in 1940,
D. C Sircar, Sylvain Levi, Bagchi and recently on the basis of
translation of medieval inscription by Kuwayama Shoshin, Ronald Davidson have identified it in
the west of India in the Swat Valley in present day Pakistan.( Tucci, 1940; Sircar, 1948/71:12;
Levi: ; Shosin 199: 267-87; Davidson 2002: 160 ) On the other, Harprasad Shastri, N. K Sahu,
Karunakar Kar have argued for location of Uddiyana in Orissa on linguistic and geographical
basis (Shastri; Sahu 1958: . However, differences still persists with noted Indo-Tibetan Buddhist
scholar identifying Oddiy na in south India.6 Benoytosh Bhattacharya on the other hand locates
it in Assam.
The present paper argues that historical enquiry to identify Oddiy na of
Padmasambhava needs to take into account not merely the geographical description of
Oḍ iy na in various texts, but also what Guru Rinpoche learnt here in India from various centres
of Buddhism and what he introduced in Tibet. The essence of Tibetan Buddhism of his times
needs to be juxtaposed with the archaeological finds of Buddhism in various parts of 8 th century
Tib., dGa' rab rDo rje SKT: Prahevajra, Gorab Dorje was an early yogin and tantric adept who apparently lived in
the century when BCE turned into CE; with dates ranging from 184 BCE (birth) to 57 CE (death). His life story,
according to the tradition, is full of miraculous events and powers, yet Tibetans regard him nevertheless as a
historical figure as well. Born in Uddiyana from the womb of a royal nun, this early yogin and tantric adept is
generally regarded as the actual originator of Dzogchen (secret tantra) . Regarded as a nirmanakaya-emanation
created body) of the Buddha Vajrasattva, Garab Dorje received all the six million four hundred thousand tantras
(rgyud 'bum phrag drug cu) and oral instructions of Dzogchen directly from the heavenly realm and thus became
the first human vidyadhara (Skt., Knowledge Holder) in the Dzogchen lineage. Having reached the state of
complete enlightenment, he then transmitted these teachings to his retinue of exceptional beings, among
who Manjushrimitra is regarded as his chief student who in turn passed them on to Sri Singha. Centuries later, also
Vairocana and Padmasambhava are known to have received the transmission of the Dzogchen tantras from Garab
Dorje's wisdom form; i.e. through a direct vision on Lake Dhanakosa in Uddiyana (Reynolds 1996).
4
5
Tucci, Travels of Tibetan Pilgrims in the Swat Valley, Greater India Society (Calcutta 1940). But the original
publication is quite rare.
6
Lokesh Chandra locates Oddiyana in Kanci. Lokesh Chandra, Oḍ ḍ iy na: A New Interpretation in: Michael Aris & Aung San Suu Kyi,
eds., Tibetan Studies in Honour of Hugh Richardson, Vikas Publishing (New Delhi 1980), pp. 73-78. Other important readings on the subject are
as follows: Per Kvaerne, Khyung-sprul Jigs-med nam-mkha i rdo-rje (1897-1955): An Early Twentieth-Century Pilgrim in India , contained in:
Alex McKay, ed., Pilgrimage in Tibet, Curzon (Richmond 1998), pp. 71-84. Also see Chemre (1968) Staircase for Traveling the Path to Liberation:
Itinerary to the Isle of Dakinis, Orgyan.
India. The paper therefore shifts the focus of enquiry to the biography of Padsambhava and the
archaeological correlates of Tibetan Buddhism in 8th century India. The literary references from
the Buddhist sources of Tibet, hint its location in the north-western part of India, on the other
hand, the Hevajra tantra, a Buddhist literature of Anuttora yoga category, pitha nirnaya and
Hindu text Kalika Purana indicate its possible location is in Orissa. The present paper reviews
critically both these literary references and the secondary works based on it and then shifts the
focus on archaeological correlates of Buddhism of Vajrayana variety, which Padmasambhava
took to Tibet. On the basis of archaeological correlates of Tibetan Buddhism, the paper argues
that Orissa rather than Swat valley, seems to be a plausible location of Uddiyana. The earliest
archaeological representations of Buddhism which Padmasambhava took from India to Tibet,
such as various wrathful and peaceful deities, Mandala representation, protective spells,
tantra, etc are to found from hundreds of sites of eastern India, especially from numerous
Buddhist sites of Orissa.
The present paper is divided into three parts. The first part deals with the major sources
on the basis of which the present historiography identifies it either with Swat valley or with
Orissa. The second part of the essay deals with the biography of Padmasambhava in India and
essence of Tibetan Buddhism. The third part explores the earliest archaeological correlates of
the Tibetan Buddhism in the Swat valley, eastern India and especially in Orissa.
Oddiyana in Swat7 valley: Tucci, Sircar, Bagchi, Davidson & others
Whereas many Tibetan texts simply locates Uddiyana by saying that it lies to the West of
India, It was the Italian scholar Giuseppe Tucci, who strongly proposed the idea in 1940 that
the land known as Oddiyana was to be identified as the Swat valley (Tucci 1940/1971). 8 He
7
Swat is a valley and an administrative district in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province of Pakistan located 160 kilometres (99 mi)
from Islamabad, the capital of Pakistan. It is the upper valley of the Swat River, which rises in the Hindu Kush range. The capital
of Swat is Saidu Sharif, but the main town in the Swat valley is Mingora. It was a princely state in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa until it
was dissolved in 1969.
Tucci, G (1971) Travels of Tibetan Pilgrims in the Swat Valley (Opera Minara, II, Roma, Bardi, 1971, pp. 369-418),
p. 1; While the Swat contains many Buddhist relics of Early historical period upto 6th century AD, there is hardly
many Buddhist remains beyond that. However, it has revealed few Vajrayana manuscripts, such as Paul Harrison's
8
based himself on two medieval Tibetan travellers who had visited Swat. Tucci had translated
these medieval texts and published them as Travels of Tibetan Pilgrims in the Swat Valley and from then many others uncritically accepted Uddiyana with Swat. Only a few noticed that
the same Giuseppe Tucci - 30 years later - also had to report that ceramics found in the royal
tombs of Leh (Ladakh) stand in clear relation with others that were found in Swat (Tucci 1971:
244), indicating that the sacred geography of Uddiyana was larger than the Swat valley in
Pakistan-Afghanistan, extending up to Tibet!
Recently, American scholar Ronald Davidson, whose book on , has been an important
contribution to understand the social context of Vajrayana Buddhism, claims in an article that
Kuwayama s 1991 rereading of previously incorrectly deciphered epigraphs has finally secured
the place of the Swat Valley as Oḍ iy na, after many claims by Indian nationalists that it was to
be located in Orissa, Bengal, or South India (Davidson 2002:160). The aura Uddiyana obtained,
as the esoteric canon itself, really passed through three stages: the early collection of spells
evident from the sixth century forward, the development of the Indrabhuti myth in the eighth
century, and the extensive mythologization of Odiy na in the yoginitantras beginning in the
ninth century (Ibid: 161).
While Oddiyana s association with Buddhism can be quite early, the reading of the inscription,
on the basis of which Davidson believes that identification is final, needs to be closely looked at.
The said inscription is dated to 693 AD and now reread by the Japanese scholar Shoshin
Kuwayama (Kuwayama 1991: 267-87). The archaeologists, during an excavation in the Swat
valley found a Ganesha statue in Gardez, in the Swat basin, south to Kabul. On the foundation
stone of the statue a few lines were engraved in North-Indian Sanskrit. Kuwayama reads the
inscription as follows: Mah raj dir ja S hi Khingala of Uddiyanu (Swat).9 He also cites Tang
annals to show that Indrabhuti ruled over the Odiy na in 642 AD. However, D. C Sircar, who had
long article entitled Vajracchedik Prajñ p ramit : A New English Translation of the Sanskrit Text based on Two
Manuscripts from Greater Gandh ra, contained in: Jens Braarvig, ( ed) , Manuscripts in the Schøyen Collection:
Buddhist Manuscripts Volume III, Hermes Publishing, Oslo 2006), pp. 133-159.
9
Kuwayama Shoshin, L inscription du Ganesa de Gardez et la chronologie des Turki-S hi, Journal Asiatique, vol
279 (1991)no-3-4: pp. 267 287.
also earlier read the Ganesha pedestal inscription of Gardez, does not refer to Uddiyana in the
inscription.10 However, the Rajatarangini of Kalhana refers to a king Khinkhila.
According to
Kalhana, Pravarasena s grandson was Khinkhila, who dedicated a temple to Shiva in Kashmir
and ruled for 36 years ( Rajatarinigini of Kalhana).
While Ronald Davidson relies also on Yuan Chwang s account (to be discussed later) and the
Gardez inscription to locate Odiy na in the Swat valley, Tucci in 1940 identified Odiy na on the
basis of two medieval Tibetan accounts, one that of Orgyenpa Rinchen Pal. Orgyenpa Rinchen
Pal (1229-1309), the Tibetan Buddhist monk contemporaneous of Second Karmapa, referred to
his visit to Uddiy na on the instruction of his Guru. Orgyenpa travelled to Uddiyana via Kailash
and Ladakh, suffering several nasty encounters with marauding Mongolian horsemen and
experiencing visions of Vajravarahi. Arriving Kashmir he escaped an attempt by the king to
murder him. Returning to Tibet he found his teacher had passed away, he quickly put together
a group of pilgrims to Bodh Gaya (Tucci; 1971: 369-418).11 It is very clear that some of the
places mentioned by Orgyanpa in the 13th century are close matches to place names still in use
in Swat. According to the Blue Annals in India he attained miraculous healing powers (Roerich
1953).
While speaking of the four pithas named in the Hevajra Tantra and Kalika Purana, Prof.
Sircar writes without hesitation that the name Odiy na Pitha refers to "Uddiyana in the Swat
Valley (Sircar 1948/1971: 12).12 Discussing the birth and childhood of Padmasambhava,
. C Sircar had long ago examined the inscription and argues that Udiyana is missing ; see Sircar, D.C Epigraphia
Indica, 1963: 44. For archaeological findings in Swat valley see, Preliminary Report on an Archaeological Survey in
Swat , East and West, IX.4, 1958: pp. 279-328
11
One can find the text of Orgyenpa from the Tibetan Buddhist Resource Centre.
http://tbrc.org/link/?RID=P1448#library_work_Object-W19835).
10
The concept of Catuspithas occurs in various brahmanical and Buddhist texts. However, starting from four
th
pithas as in the 8 century Hevajra tantra, the list of pithas increases to 51 in subsequesnt period. Abul Fazl in his
Ain-i Akbari also refers to these four important pithas. It is to be noted that he brings in Kahsmir in the place of
Oddiyana. This mase Dinesh Sircar to conclude thus, The greatest centre of Tantricism seems to have originaly
been in northwestern India. Before the medieval period, the Tantric school of northeastern India rose to eminence
and became a great rival of the northwestern school. With the gradual decline of Tantric culture in the northwest
as a result of foreign occupation, Bengal seems to come to the forefront as the abode of great leaders of Tantric
12
Snellgrove and Richardson state that he was "nurtured by the king and queen of ancient Swat
(known as O-rgyan in Tibetan from the old Indian name O屢iy na) (Snellgrove 1968: 96). In one
of his footnotes, Keith Dowman explains that O-rgyan or O屢iy na is the ancient kingdom of the
Swat Valley in Northern Pakistan which was a centre of Tantric practice, at least up to the
Muslim invasion (Dowman 1984: 189). Discussing the writings of the Mahasiddha Anangavajra,
David Snellgrove speculates that he may have been a contemporary and direct student
of Padmasambhava, especially since both are said to have come from the Swat Valley
Snellgrove 1987:182).
Indrabhuti s association with Oddiynas is found in an extensive form, as early as Jnanamitra s
late eighth or early ninth century commentary on the 700-Verse Perfection of Insight scripture.
Eighteen classes of esoteric tantras of the eighth century the Sarvabuddhasamayoga, the
Guhyasamaja, etc. have miraculously appeared in Zahor, to its king, Indrabhuti. The good king,
though, is befuddled: he could not penetrate the understanding of the new scriptures.
However, because of his supernormal insight obtained through countless lives of virtuous
activity, he understood that an outcaste personality held the key. This individual was Kukuraja,
who lived with a thousand dogs in Malava, probably to be located in one of its great cities, such
as Ujjain or Mahismati. Indrabhuti sent a representative to invite this dog-guru to Zahor, but
Kukuraja had not seen the texts, which were then dispatched to him to peruse in advance.
Kukuraja, though, was equally clueless and eventually obtained the inspiration of Vajrasattva to
secure their comprehension. While we may not know the precise location of Zahor, Indrabhuti s
association with Odiy na is affirmed in virtually all other forms of the myth. 13 We even see a
variant in the narrative that Indrabhuti asked the Buddha to preach to him a doctrine that
thoughts. ( Sircar 1948/1971: 24). Sircar believes that the Kalika Purana s reference to Odra is a mistake as the
same text does not refer to Odra but refers to Oddiyana.
Oddiyana s association with Indrabhuti can be dated to 8 century AD. Indrabhti was considered by Blue Annals,
Taranath and other Buddhist texts as one of the 84 Siddhacaryas. He is credited with the composition of of 18
classes of Anuttora tantras like Guhyasamaja and Sahajasidhhi. However, Oddiyana was ascribed to be the birth
place of Gorub Dorje as well.
13
th
would allow those addicted to the senses a vehicle for liberation, and in response the Buddha
preached the tantras.
Moreover, Oddiyana is twice mentioned in the late eighth or early ninth century
autobiographical
narratives
on
seeking
the
esoteric
scriptures
whether
the
Sarvatathagatatattvasamgraha or the Guhyasamaja by Sakyamitra and Buddhajnanapada.
The retelling of the latter s trip to Oddiyana actually indicates that the land is called gunodaya,
the rising of good qualities. Vitapada indicates that Oddiyana is granted this designation
because it is the source of so many benefits. Buddhajnanapada reports that his early studies
were with Haribhadra in Magadha and with Vilasavajra in Oddiyana. Indeed, the importance of
Vilasavajra for the hermeneutics of the early esoteric system cannot be doubted. It is probably
Vilasavajra, residing in his Swat Valley monastery of Ratnadvipa-vihara, who provided the
fundamental interpretation to the forty opening syllables of the Guhyasamaja tantra, an
interpretation that became embedded in virtually all commentaries following him. Vilasavajra s
surviving works also include the earliest citations of such seminal texts as the Laghusavaratantra, providing an effective chronology to the early yogini-tantras. Finally, a later Indrabhuti
reports in the opening section of his Sahajasiddhi and Jnanasiddhi that this yogini-tantra
inspired system derived from the area of Oddiyana. According to the short lineage list and the
lengthy commentarial hagiography, this Indrabhuti was the receptor of a teaching on sahaja, or
natural reality that began in Oddiyana with a princess Liladevi, who based the system on her
experience precipitated by an encounter with an unnamed black-headed Rsi at the forest
monastery of Ratnalamkara. Upon being blessed by him, she realized that she was an
emanation of the bodhisattva Vajrapani who is identified here as the patron divinity of
Oddiyana and she and her five hundred ladies in waiting all received awakening into the
nature of sahaja. The teaching on sahaja was then passed down in a lineage until the time of
Indrabhuti, who wrote it down (Davidson 2002: 162).
Greater Oddiyana: From Swat valley to some location in Himalayan Kingdom
At some point, however, due to unconvincing investigations in Swat, the scholarly community
gets more cautious and the concept of Uddiyana shifts away from the Swat Valley to a larger
region: in fact the whole area of mountain ranges (and mountain peoples) from North-eastern
Afghanistan to the Kailas range in the far West of Tibet.
Patrul Rinpoche (b. 1808) provides us with more detail when describing the birth place
of Garab Dorje not simply as 'Uddiyana' but as being close to Lake Kutra in the region of
Dhanakosha; thus indicating present day North-eastern Kashmir (now Pakistan) - a region
right in the middle between Chitral, Gilgit and Swat. (Rinpoche: 338-339]
Writing in 1994, Robert Thurman cautiously formulates in his glossary to the Bardo Thödol
that Uddyana (Tib., U rgyan) is a "Buddhist country in northwestern India (perhaps presentday Pakistan or Afghanistan)" (Thurman 1994: 273). The Tibetan Book of the Dead, page 273]
This new concept of a greater Uddiyana
is described most objectively by John
Myrdhin Reynolds. Having discussed
Tucci's apparent discovery and the
subsequent failure of archaeology and
art-history to back up this claim, he
concludes that perhaps Uddiyana is
actually the name of a much wider
geographical area than the Swat Valley
alone, one embracing parts of Pakistan, Afghanistan, and even Western Tibet (Zhang-zhung).
The best approach is to remain open-minded and not restrict the name only to the Swat
Valley." (Reynolds 1996, The Golden Letters. Snow Lion Publications)
The idea of Uddiyana being the name of a large region rather than of a small valley, actually
reiterates information published 100 years earlier by Laurence Austine Waddell in
his Buddhism of Tibet (Waddel 1895: 14). Although Waddell writes twice that Oddiyana equals
Swat, he also noted in a footnote 3 that from the extent assigned to it by Yuan Chwang, the
name probably covered a large part of the whole hill region south of the Hindu Kush, from
Chitral to the Indus, as indeed it is represented in the Map of Vivien de St. Martin (Pelerins
Bouddhistes, ii.).
Taking this view of Uddiyana and projecting it in the form of a map, one arrives at a
very interesting image. Uddiyana thus becomes the uniting name for the whole region along
the length of the Indus river for as long as it stays in the mountains. Starting with the river's
multiple sources near Mt. Kailas, passing through Zhang-Zhung, Lahul and Spiti, crossing
Kashmir with Zanskar on the left and Ladakh on the right before moving into Gilgit; the Indus
turns South just before reaching Chitral. From here onwards, the river becomes the natural
(Eastern) border of the Swat valley (the ancient capital was near present day Mingora) until its
waters leave the mountains. Such a geographical outline is represented in the map of French
explorer in the Map of Vivien de St. Martin in 1825 (Pelerins Bouddhistes, ii).
Yuan Chwang describes Uddiyana as a country bounded by snow capped peaks; a land of
rugged mountains and broad valleys, of wide marshes, green meadows and high plateau, where
grapes grow in abundance. He describes a land blessed by fine crops, by herds of well fattened
cattle, and teeming with orchards of fruit-bearing trees truly a nation of milk, bread, honey
and wine. Uddiyana is a land, said Huen Tsiang, that is rich in gold and iron and other profitable
minerals. Throughout the year the temperature is never too hot nor too cold. It is thus, he said,
a most agreeable land. The hillsides are covered in dense forests and the valleys are rich in
flowers.
Yuan Chwang s describes 1,400 old monasteries scattered up and down the Subhavastu (now
called the Swat) river. Formerly this represented a population of some 18,000 monks and/or
nuns, but since the depredations of the invader Mihirakula in circa 510 A.D. (Gupta Era 191),
more than a century before Hiuen Tsiang's time, almost every monastic establishment had
fallen into decrepitude from lack of state funds. Five Buddhist Orders were represented in the
kingdom: namely, the Sarvastivada, Dharmagupta, Mahisasaka, Kasyapiya, and Mahasanghika.
These are all ancient, well-recognized Indian institutions. Hiuen Tsiang says that the type of
Buddhism practiced by these Orders was the Mahayana, but the evidence of "charms" implies
that an early form of Tantricism was beginning to emerge. (Beal 1966: 119). However
Davidson himself writes in footnotes that Yuan Chawang s description might not be accurate.
Illusory identification: Udyana as Oddiyna
Beal translates U-chang-Na as Udy na, where as Tibetan sources refer to Oddiyana, Uddiyna.
Tibetan sources refer to Oddiyana as Urgyan, Orgyan, Orgyen and Orgyan, which when
translated to Sanskrit is Oddiyana and not Udy na. Moreover, Yuan Chwang refers to the
declining conditions of Buddhism at the time of his visit to U-chang-Na. He writes: On both the
side of the river Su-po-fa-su-tu ( Subhavastu/ present day river Swat), there are some 1400 old
Sangharamas. They are now generally waste and desolate; formerly there are some 18000
priests in them, but gradually they have become less, till now there are very few (Page 120).
From the biography of Padmasambhava
Sanglima (copper temple): the lotus born: the life story of padmasabhva by dakini yeshe
tsogyal in 8th century: earliest biography of padmasabhava is the first
biography of
Padmasambhava. The Dakini concealed the life history in the Samye temple near the image of
Hayagriva with the title Padma bka'i thang. It was revealed by Nyang Ral Nyima Oser in 1124-
92. Dakini Yeshe Tsogyal, was the wife of Trisong Detson (740-798), who introduced
Padmasambhav to Tibet. He invited Padmasambhva to subdue the evil spirits of Bon Buddhism.
Santarakshita earlier failed to tame these spirits. Dakini Yeshe Tsogyal is the second wife of
Padmasabhav. King indrabhuti of Uddiyana got him married to Mandarava.
Jamgon Kongtrul, the First (1813-99) is the first to make Sanglima as the first collection of
terma(hidden sacred text) treasure. TSELE Natsok Rangdrol (1608 ad) who is considered to be
an earlier incarnation of JamGON Kongtrul also knew about it, if we are to believe the account
of Jamgon Kongtrul.
Born in from Lotus, in the country of Udiyana, north-west of Bodh Gaya, his name was Shakya
Singha. When he presided as the head of 500 pundits, he was known as Padmasambhva. In the
chapter one of the biography it is written that Uddiyana is in Western India.14
Oddiyana s in Orissa
While Dinesh Chandra Sircar forcefully argues that Oddiyana is in Swat valley on the basis of ten
different manuscripts, Nik Douglas (1971) and NK Sahu argue that Oddiyana is none other than
Odissa. They adduce the reference of texts such as Pitha nirnaya, Hevajatantra, Sadhanamala
and Jnanasiddhi of Indrabhuti. In the Sadhanamala, Uddiyana is mentioned as Odrayana
(Sadhanamala II, Introduction xxxviii). Similarly, the Kalika Purana represents the first pitha as
Odrapitha, where Jagannatha and Katyani are worshipped (kalika Purana: 410.). NK Sahu
quotes Prachi Mahatmya and inscription of Bhaumakara queen Tribhuvana Mahadevi,
comparing herself to goddess Katyayani. Kubjika Tantra (which lists 42 pithas) mentions Viraja
as the goddess of Uddiyana ( Folio viii, MS no 3174, Asiatic Society of Bengal). Similarly, Brhan-
nila Tantra also decares that Bharavi is the goddess of Uddiyana. The Chaturasiti Siddha Pravritii
mentions Indrabhuti as the king of Odivisa (Sahu: 144)
Before we deal with the pithas and location of Uddiyana as in Hevajra Tantra and Kalika Purana
and other sources, it is worthwhile to discuss the ground on which PC Bagchi discounts the
possibility of Oddiyana as Orissa. He says that the Tibetan sources refer to Odisha as Odivisa,
where as Oddiyna is referred to as Urgyan, Orgyan, Orgyen and Orgyan. It is argued that Odivisa
is never associated with Indrabhuti myth. NK Sahu convincingly argues that the Tibetan sources
used two names- odivisa and Oddiyana to refer to same geographical locale, i.e Orissa, which
was an important centre of Buddhism when Padmasambhava took Buddhism to Tibet.
In the western direction of India in the country of glorious Uddiyana in the city called glorious jewels, there was
a palace of lapis lazuli, decorated with many kinds of precious substances. Within this palace lived the Dharma king
Indrabodhi. (The Lotus Born (The life story of Padmasambhava Recorded by Yeshe Tsogyal), edited by Erik Hein
Schmidt (1993), Sambhala Edition.
14
Whereas the Tibetan sources from the very beginning like to locate it in the western part of
India in the Himalayan kingdom, it is to be noted that the north western part, especially in
Swat, they contain hardly any archaeological evidence of Vajrayana Buddhism. Ronald Davidson
argues that Vajrayana Buddhism borrowed from Saiva Sidhhantas of Kashmir.
The Blue Annals composed between 1476 and 1478 stated in connection with the search of
Kalachakra Tantra by Acharya Tsi-lu-pa (cheluka) that Acharya had read it in the vihara of
Ratnagiri (Rinchen ri-bo) which had been undamaged by the turuskas. The Tibetan works differ
in respect of the name of Acharya who first brought the Kalacakra tantra from the mystical land
of Sambhala where existed the tantra with its commentary (Roerich 1953: 755).
In a Tibetan work (written towards the end of 14th century) by mKhas-Grub Thams-chad
mKKhyen-Pa dGe-Legs-dPal-bzang-Po, it is stated that the great preceptor Chilu Pandita
Cheluka, born in Or-bi-sar(Orissa), studied Tripitaka in Ratnagiri, Vikramashila and Nalanda (
Mitra 1981, I: Chapter I)
According to the Pag Sam Jom Zang (1447) it was Acharya Bitoba who obtained the Kalachakratantra from Sambhala. He brought it from Sambhala and explained the doctrine to Bhikshu
Abhadhutipa, Budhisri and Naropa (Das 1908: 115). In the Tanjur catalogue it is stated that he
belongs to Uddiyna while according Taranath he was born in Odivisa (Sahu 1958: 162).
Four Pithas, Four Cardinal direction: where does one locate Oddiyana
When arranging all pithas ( See Appendix 1) according to the frequency with which they occur
when comparing eight different texts and/or traditions, the four highest scores represent those
four mentioned in both the Hevajra Tantra (Buddhist) and the Kalika Purana 15 (Hindu) which
are Kamakhya. Jalandhara, Uddiyana, and Purnagiri. However, it is to be noted that in the
tantric literature, deities were invoked in Mandala form and is given a direction. If Purnagiri is
15
Kooij, K. R. van. Worship of the Goddess according to the Kalikapurana. Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 1972.; Snellgrove, D.
L. Hevajra Tantra: A Critical Study. 2 Vols. London: Oxford University Press, 1959. Reprint. 1980.
in south in Maharashtra, Kamkhya is in Assam in the east, Jalandhara is in the north in Punjab
then where does one locate Oddiyana? Can Purnagiri be located in Western India and Orissa in
Dakhinapatha?
Orissa as cradle of Tantric Buddhism
While the texts such as Mahavairocana Sambodhi, Jnanasiddhi, Blue Annals, Pag Sam Jom Zang
refer to Orissa as one of the earliest centres of Vajrayana Buddhism, archaeological, epigraphic
and literary sources from China and Japan indicate that Orissa was one of the earliest centres of
Vajrayana Buddhism. references further reinforce it as one of the early regions of Vajrayana
Buddhism. Japanese Buddhism, especially the Shingon sect, is also a tantric Buddhism, which
went to Japan from India via China. Three important Buddhists with whom the transfers of twin
Mandalas are associated were Subhakarasimha, Vajrabodhi and Amoghavajra.
Subhakarasimha was a central Indian prince who studied at Nalanda and Ratnagiri. He
visited to many countries including Sri Lanka in a merchant ship. In time, he proceeded to
Gandhara from where he travelled to China (Yi-liang 1945). Included among the texts which he
brought to China were the Mahavairocanabhisambodhi, which he translated into Chinese in
725 AD, and an iconographic copybook in his own hand of the Mandala (Mandala is a
concentric circle in which deities are assigned particular position and direction.) deities of the
Sarvatathagata-tattvasamgraha, the latter surviving in early Japanese copies and known as the
Gobushinkan (Yamamoto 1990 ).
The Lalitgiri Abhisambodhi Vairocana image contains in its back slab the bija mantra of
Mahavairocana as in the Mahavairocanobhisambodhi, which is namah samantabuddhanam A
vira Hum Kham (Wayman & Tajima 1992: 13). Similarly, Tathagatadhisthita dhatugarbha stupa
(a stupa with a relic inside and dwelt in by the Tathagata or Buddha was set up on that very
spot (sahu, page 148). The Khadipada Avalokitesvara image inscription of the time of Subhakara
deva refers to MahaMandalacari Rahulacari, who is adept in Mandalas (Ghosh, EI, 1941: vol 36,
247-48).
These epigraphic and literary references of early representation of Vajrayana Buddhism is
onely one strand, the vast archaeological evidence from hundreds of Buddhist sites from Orissa
strongly suggests Orissa s association with variety of Buddhism which Padmasambhava took to
Tibet.
Essence of Tibetan Buddhism, especially that of Nyingmapa tradition and Arcaheology of
Buddhism in Orissa
While the Tibetan Buddhism, as being practised today, combines both the Bon element and
Buddhism, the essence of Tibetan Buddhism, as in the biography of Padmasambhava, includes
tantra, Mandalas, wrathful and peaceful deities, dharanis among others. The earliest forms of
these aspects are found from Orissa. For example, in numerous places of his biography, he is
associated with the mandala form of worshio, such as his learning from Lady Kumango mandala
of 100 deities.
Mandalas
A Mandala is an arrangement of deities conceived of in sets laid out
along the axes of cardinal points around a centre (Gellner 1996:190).
A Mandala is divided into five sections, while on the four sides of a
central image or symbols are disposed, at each of the cardinal points,
four
other
images
or
symbols
are
placed
(Tucci
1970).
Padmasambhava learnt the Mandalas from lady Kungamo with other
maiden engaged in a Mandala ritual. He turned Shaakya Singe into a
syllable Hung, and swallowing him she conferred the
empowerment within the Mandala of her body (ref?). In
the formation of Mandala in the Guhyasamaj Tantra (6th
century AD), each Tathagata was given a direction, a
mantra, a colour, a prajna and a guardian of the gate
Fig 3.12 Vairocana Mandala, surrounded by eight bodhisattvas (six on the
back slab and two on pedestal). The bodhisattvas on the right of Vairocana
are Samantabhadra, Maitreya and Lokesvara; Akasagarbha, Vajrapani
and Manjusri(L); on the pedestal is Ksitigarbha holding the jewel-onlotus(r) and Sarvanivaranaviskhambin (8th century)
(Bhattacharyya 1968: 45). Vairocana plunged into the concentration called the Diamond of the Great
Passion of the Tathagatas: All the Tathagatas enter the three diamonds of body, word and spirit (Tucci
1970: 99). Vairocana is placed in the centre. Shifting from the role of to Aksobhya, he blessed the fourcornered dustless Mandalas of Great Pledge in the bhagas of the diamond ladies and then seated, in the
centre, he began the emanation of the Mandala. (Wayman 1980: 125).
Numerous sculptural and stupa Mandalas are found from various Buddhist sites of Orissa. Included
among the Orissan examples displaying this alignment are several monolithic stupas at Ratnagiri (stupa
no. 30 from the group in front of the Monastery II and stupa no. 227 from the group near stupa no. 1. In
some, Vairocana replaces one of the Tathagatas, as on the exterior of the Udayagiri stupa where he
replaces Amoghasiddhi. Elsewhere, as on a bronze stupa of Achutarajpur he replaces Ratnasambhava.
Slightly more complex is the Mandala on stupa 37 at Ratnagiri from the monolithic stupa near
Monastery 2 where the Prajnas of each Tathagata is inserted into the caitya medallion above (Mitra
1981 I: pl. CCLI). Rather than facing intermediate direction as enjoined in the Nispannayogavali
(Nispannayogavali: 34-35, 37, 58, 61), the Prajnas face the same direction as the Tathagatas for whom
they serve as consorts). This positioning of Prajnas has possibly more to do with spatial constraints of
the monolithic stupa than a deviation from the text.
From the Buddhist sites of Orissa five types of Mandalas are found
1.the stupa Mandala with
four Dhyani Buddhas flanked by two Bodhisattva each; 2. Sculptural Mandalas of eight Bodhisattvas
around a Buddha on a single stone slab; 3. Four × four Bodhisattvas surrounding four Dhyani Buddhas
with the fifth one at the centre; 4. free-standing Bodhisattvas forming a Mandala and the last type being
the Mandala diagram on the back of image. The last category Mandala diagram is incised on the back
of Jambhala image at Ratnagiri which consists of two concentric circles along with the Buddhist creed, a
mantra and letters and numerous inscriptions representing Jambhala, Vasudhara, dance deities, deified
paraphernalia and musical instruments (Mitra 1981 I: 230 232).
Diversities in Buddhist pantheon.
Orissa presents rich diversity in Buddhist pantheon. Many of the peaceful and wrathful deities of
Tibetan Buddhism as manifested to Padmasambhava by his lady guru was found in Orissa. The large
number of deities reflects the attempt to extend the religion further by encouraging greater
involvement of people in the form of worship of these instrumental deities, performing rituals,
observing bratas and celebrating calendrical festivals of Buddhist divinities. The following table
categorise these divinities according to their different forma and the places of their provenance, which
indicate the spread of different cults.
Table 1 Tara and her Different forms in Orissa
Different forms of Tara
Place
1.Tara in lalitasana, varada
Lalitgiri, Ratnagiri, Achutarajpur, Solampur, and other places
mudra
2 Standing Tara
Lalitgiri, Ratnagiri, Solampur, etc.
3 Astamahabhaya Tara
Sheragarh , Ratnagiri
4. Simhanada Tara
Ratnagiri , Sheragarh (1), Bhubaneswar
5.Khadiravani Tara
Jaraka, Tikiria Temple in Banpur Achutarajpur, Ratnagiri,
6. Mahattari Tara
Ratnagiri, Achutarajpur, Tiadisahi, Baudh
7. Mahasri Tara
Bhubaneswar-
8. Dhanada Tara
Kapilesvara Temple in Bhubaneswar, Varaha temple Jajpur,
Baneswarnasi, Choudwar, Sundargram
brought from Solampur, Baseli Thakurani at Bania Sahi in
Cuttack, Kapila Prasad
9. Four-armed Sita Tara
Solampur
10. Four-armed
Lalitgiri, Ratnagiri (2)
Tara
Durgottarani
11. Vajra Tara
Ajodhya, Ratnagiri
12. Cintamani Tara
Nagaspur, Adaspur
Total -12
178
Avalokitesvara
Avalokitesvara was the most popular bodhisattva in the Buddhist pantheon and his position in Buddhist
countries is next to Buddhas. One of the reasons for his popularity is his infinite karuna and one passage
of the Karandavyuhya characterises him as taking the shape of all gods of all religions
(Bhattacharya
1968: 124). He is the ruling divinity during the present kalpa (bhadra kalpa), which started with the
Mahaparinivanna of Gautama and will continue till the advent of Maitreya. Right from the fifteen forms
in the Sadhanamala, Avalokitesvara s forms multiplied through centuries. In 18th century paintings in
Machandar Vahal in Nepal, his 108 forms are illustrated (Lokesh Chandra 1981). In Ratnagiri monolithic
stupa he is the second most popular divinity after Tara represented in the niches of 42 monolithic
stupas. The scriptural justification for his numerous forms was one strategy to absorb elements of other
cults. In Nepal Karunamaya Matsyendranath is identified with Krsna. Avalokitesvara is also identified
with Siva. Avalokita shares with Siva the epithets isvara, mahesvara and Lokesvara. Siva was worshipped
as a bodhisattva and as a form of Avalokitesvara (Thomas 1933:193).16
Various forms of Avalokitesvara can be conceptualised as a strategy of adaptation of elements
of other cults. While Amoghapasa, Sugatisandarsana, Nilakantha are modelled on Siva, Halahala
Lokesvara closely resembles Uma-mahesvara. On the other hand, Visnu Lokesvara is a conflation of
Visnu and Lokesvara; Sankhanatha Avalokita has striking similarity with another form of Visnu.
Table 2: Forms of Avalokitesvara
1.Cintamanicakra Avalokitesvara
2. Cintamani Lokesvara
17
Ajodhya, Ratnagiri, Siddhesvara Temple 3
Khutia temple, Ajodhya
Ratnagiri, 3
18
1 , Bhubaneswar (OSM),
Avalokitesvara is also conceived as having thousand forms, which is influenced by the viswarupa of Visnu.
(Lokesh Chandra1988).
17
Cintamanicakra Avalokitesvara as dispenser of prosperity is very rare in India. Out of the three examples in
Orissa, the Siddhesvara image is affixed to the interior wall of the Jagamohana of the temple and he could be
either Visnu Lokesvara or Cintamanicakra Avalokitesvara ( Donaldson 2001: 185). In the Cintamani Lokesvara
image of Ajodhya, Cintamanicakra Avalokitesvara is seated in front of the ghata out of which emerges the
kalpavriksa. In the niches of stupa 97 in the area east of Temple No 6 at Ratnagiri is an image of Cintamanicakra
Avalokitesvara. His right hand is in the meditation mudra while the left holds the vessel from which the kalpavriksa
is sprouted.( Mitra 1981 II Pl CCLXVII: 333).
18
In the Khutia temple (Maricai temple) there is an image of Cintamani Lokesvara who flanks the main Marici
image. Lokesvara stands in a flexed pose with his right hand lowered in varada and the left hand, holds a lotus.. he
is flanked in his lower left by Cintamani cakra Avalokita, who seat in front of a ghata. Issuing from the ghata a
kalpavriksa whose foliage arches to the other side of the image. Dispersed along the meandering creeper are
saptaratnas. Beneath the right hand are five pretas with their raised hands clasped to receive the jewel. He wears
16
3. Khasarpana Lokesvara
4. Lokanatha
5. Harihara (?) Lokesvara/ Avalokita in
Dharmacakra-mudra
19
6.Vajradharma/ Rakta Lokesvara
Temple
Achutarajpur, Aragarh
in
Jajpur,
Ratnagiri,
Ratnagiri
8. Jatamukuta
In different places
9. Sankhanatha
Baudh, Udayagiri now in San Francisco Museum,
Mudgala
4
Solampur,1 Udayagiri,
Ratnagiri
Udayagiri (Patna Museum), Cuttack, Dharmasala
10. Amoghapasa Lokesvara
11. Sugatisandarsana Lokesvara
and
Lokesvara in conventional mode
14. Visnu-Lokesvara
15. Simhanatha Avalokitesvara
Total 14
Kolanagiri, Balasore, Choudwar
Siddhesvara
7. Sadaksari
12. Halahala Lokesvara
13. Standing Lokesvara
In different places 17 Achutarajpur, Balasore,
Udayagiri
Jajpur, Kapila, Ranibandha,
Solampur, Mudupur,
Bhainchua,(3),Baneswarnasi,
Bhubaneswar,
Ramesvara in Baudh, Lalitgiri 9
etc.
Seating
3
Achutarajpur,
Meghesvara
In different places
Bhubaneswar 2
Temple
20
in
Siddhesvara temple at Jajpur
Baneswarnasi
130
a richly ornamented Jatamukuta. In the Badagada headless chlorite image, which is now in the OSM Bhubaneswar,
the pretas, including Sucimukhi are standing with their hands clasped to receive the jewels. The kalpavriksa s trunk
is overarched.
.
19
Six-armed Rakta Lokesvara with two principal hands opening the lotus petal has been discovered from Aragarh.
On the other hand the Sadhanamala describes only four and two armed varieties of Rakta Lokesvara.. Clark refers
to a six-armed form of Rakta Lokesvara. He holds the arrow, Pasa, ankusa, and bow while embracing the Prajna in
his two principal hands. On the other hand, the Aragarh image causes a lotus to bloom in his two principal hands.
His uplifted back right hands hold a rosary and a vajra, while one of the corresponding left hands holds a
kamandalu. An effigy of Amitabha appears on his head indicating his affiliation with the Amitabha family.
Mallman has brought to light this sculpture in her article how the Buddhist deity is worshipped as Brahma and
th
Sarasvati (Mallman 1961: 203-20). Worshipped as Uma-Mahesvara in the Jagamohana of the 12 century
Meghesvara temple of Bhubaneswar, Halahala Lokesvara is six-armed and has three heads. The trident, entwined
by a serpent stands on the right back corner of the seat while the kapala is at the back left corner. Lokesvara is
seated in lalitasana. He has principal right hand in varada, as prescribed in the Sadhanamala (Sadhanamala: 6566) where as Siva is usually depicted in abhaya mudra when he is with Parvati and holds a chin of Uma and/ or a
nilotpala. On the other hand the raises middle hand holds a rosary while the arrow in the uplifted back hand is
partially obliterated. With one of his left hands, she embraces the Prajna (Donaldson 2001:209).
20
3.II.2.3 Forms of Manjusri
Manjusri is the Buddhist god of wisdom and knowledge, and hence is represented in sculpture holding a
sword and Prajnaparamita book. The sword, called prajnakhadga in some sadhanas, invariably in his
right hand, is intended to cut asunder all ignorance, while the book, in his left hand, is the means of
attaining transcendental wisdom. As bodhisattva of wisdom he is some times identified with ultimate
substance dharmadhatu. In fact it is to one of the forms of Manjusri, Dharmadhatu Vagisvara that the
most common sacred object after caitya i.e dharmadhatu is dedicated in Nepal. Sylvain Levi in the
context of Nepal records that dharmadhatu is dedicated to Dharmadhatuvagisvara Manjusri and if a
vajra is kept on the top, it is called Vajradhatu, which is dedicated to Vairocana. (Levi 195 II: 19). Thus
Manjusri, particularly dharma variety is always identified with ultimate essence. The Nispannayogavali
refers to Dharmadhatuvagisvara mandala. Dharmasankahsamadhi Manjusri of Ratnagiri corresponds
iconographically to Vajraraga Manjusri or Vairocana, according to the traditions of Amoghavajra (who
took Vajradhatu mandala to China) and the Tibetan version of Mahavarocanasambodhi (Wayman and
Tjjima 1992: 37). Mallman and following her Van kooij observe that some sort of unification took place
between Manjusri and Vairocana and other Buddhas (Mallman 1975).The Sadhanamala describes 13
forms of Manjusri.
Table 3: Forms of Manjusri
1 Siddhaikavira
Ratnagiri (bronze) 1
2. Dharmasankha Samadhi
Ratnagiri 3
3. Dharmadhatuvagisvara
Aragarh 1
4. Arapacana Manjusri
Ratnagiri 2, Achutarajpur 1, Kusinga 1, Khiching (Baripada
5. Manjuvajra
Amarprasadgarh21 1
Museum) 1 5
Guhya Manjuvajra of Amarprasadgarh is wrongly identified as Trailokyavijaya by Sahu (Sahu 1958: 217). The
Manjuvajra mandala of the Nispannayogavali (mandala No 20) (Nispannayogavali: 48) describes six-armed
Manjuvajra variety to which the Amarprasadgarh image closely resembles. The six-armed deity sits in
vajraparyakasana. His two principal hands holds a vajra and ghanta in vajrahunkara mudra.. By the second right
hand he brandishes a sword over the heads and holds an arrow in the third right while in the second and third left
hands he holds a bow and a lotus. The right face exhibits loud laughter and appears ferocious while the left one
shows complete absorption in meditation.
21
6. Manjuvara
Ratnagiri (5), Khiching (3), Nagaspur (1), Vajragiri (1), Kalyanpur
(1) 11
7. Manjughosa
Ratnagiri monolithic stupa 1
8. Maharajalila Manjusri
Ratnagiri (3), OSM (1), Paschimesvara Siva temple in Talcher (1)
9. Vajraraga
On the back slab of Aksobhya and Amitabha image at SDO-
10. Two-armed with book on
Ratnagiri monolithic stupa
5
compound Museum 2
29, other images at Ratnagiri 12,
utpala and varada mudra (non-
Lalitgiri 1, Brahmavana 1, Vajragiri (OSM) 1, Udayagiri
seating
in the rock-cut Manjusri mandalas 8, Solampur 2, Dihakula
textual)
both standing and
Total 10
as
attendant deity in various mandalas as well as the central image
1, Achutarajpur 3 58
88
Table 4: Cult of Eight Bodhisattvas∗ and other Bodhisattvas
1. Samantabhadra
Lalitgiri (I) 3, Udayagiri , Solampur( s), Ratnagiri(s) 3 13
2 Maitreya
Ratnagiri(s &i) 4, Udayagiri 7 (s), Lalitgiri 4 (i), Achutarajpur
3. Lokesvara
In many places
4 Ksitigarbha
Lalitgiri (i& S) 2, Ratnagiri (s) 3, Udayagiri(s) 7, Achutarajpur
5 Vajrapani
Ratnagiri (s&i) 4, Vajragiri (i) 1, Lalitgiri (i) 1, Achutarajpur (i) 1,
(i)2, Solampur(s) 1 Khiching (s)1, Baud
20
(I) 1, Solampur (s) 1 Khiching (s) 1 15
Solampur(s) 1, Udayagiri (s) 5, Khiching (s)
6.Akasagarbha
Lalitgiri (i) 2, and at other places under Vajrapani section
7. Manjusri
In many places
The Bodhisattvas either surround a Tathagata image on the backslab or exist independently and
mentioned as s or i respectively.
8. Sarvanivaranaviskakambhin
Lalitgiri (i &s) 2, Ratnagiri 3 Udayagiri (s)8
Other Bodhisattvas
1.Candraprabha
Lalitgiri 1
It is to be noted that independent, freestanding Bodhisattvas as part of a mandala is found exclusively
at Lalitgiri. Given the size of these bodhisattvasas one can surmise the extensiveness of Tathagata
mandala in Lalitgiri, of which Donaldson has identified five.
Panca Buddha and their emanations in Orissa
Aksobhya
In the absence of elephant or vajra symbols by which Aksobhya is identified, the recognition is mainly
made on the basis of the absence or presence of attendant Bodhisattvas and specific mudra, in
Aksobhya s case it is the earth-touching (bhumisparsamudra). His image is found in many places but the
largest is found in Udayagiri where there are at least four Aksobhya mandalas. The following table
represents his emanation.
Table 5: Emanations Of Aksobhya
GODS
PLACES
Candrosana
Ratnagiri
Heruka
Ratnagiri,
Choudwar
Achutarajpur,
GODDESSES
PLACES
Mahacina Tara
---------
Kuruma
Hayagriva
As attendant of Lokanatha
Janguli
Haripur, Kuruma
Krsnayamari
Ersama, Ratnagiri (as an
Parnasabari
Ratnagiri
Jambhala
In Numerous places
Vasudhara
Udayagiri,
he is found all over Orissa
attendant of Avalokita
Ratnagiri,
Dharmasala,
Lalitgiri
Trailokyavijaya
Achutarajpur, Ratnagiri
Sambara
Ratnagiri
Nairatma
Trivienisvara
temple, Tiruna
Amoghasiddhi
The following table represents gods and goddesses of Amoghasiddhi family.
Table 6: Emanation Of Amoghasiddhi
GODDESSES
PLACES
Khadiravani Tara
See different forms of Tara
Sita Tara
Dhanada Tara
Parnasabari
Ratnagiri, Dharmasala and Udayagiri
Mahamayuri
Kosangarh, Badasahi, Ratnagiri
Vajramrta is the sole god in Amoghasiddhi family, and is not found in Orissa.
Amitabha Family
Similarly the following gods and goddesses of Amitabha family are found in Orissa. The Sadhanamala
refers to Mahabala and Saptasatika. I have not come across any image of Saptasatika Hayagriva, who is
described as holding vajra and danda in his two hands and has a horse face. At Lalitgiri I found an image
of Hayagriva having horse face but his two other cognisance are absent. On the other hand, Hayagriva in
vandanavinayi-mudra is found in Khasarpana and Jatamukuta Lokesvara images of Orissa. Mahabala
also figures as an attendant deity on Jatamukuta Lokesvara image. Among the goddesses, different
varieties of Kurukulla and Bhrkuti are found in Orissa. On the other hand, I have not come across any
Mahasitavati image.
Kurukulla: There are three different forms of Kurukulla, namely Sukla-, Uddiyana and Tarodbhava
Kurukulla. The second one suggests the popularity of the god in Uddiyana. Tarodbhava Kurukulla variety
is found at Ratnagiri II monastery area, Udayagiri rock-cut image, Candana Mandapa in Kakatpur, now
worshipped as goddess Narayani. Uddiyana Kurukulla is found from Achutarajpur bronze hoard. On the
other hand Bhrkuti is found as attendant deity in Jatamukuta and Khasarpana Lokesvara images of
Orissa and also occur independently.
Emanation Of Vairocana
While Vairocana image is found in many places including at Lalitgiri, Ratnagiri and Udayagiri, his prajna
Locana is discovered from Ratnagiri, Gardeipancana and possibly a three-headed Devi image near the
Raghunatha temple at Solampur. The three-headed Devi holds a lotus on her left and a sword on her
right. Vairocana s male emanations, Namasangiti is not found in Orissa. Out of eight goddesses of
Vairocana family, six are found from Orissa. They are Marici, Usnisavijaya, Sitapatra Aparajita,
Vajravarahi and Cunda.
The Buddhist counterpart of Surya is found all over Orissa attesting the popularity of the
goddess in Orissa. Asokakanta Marici is found from the bronze hoard of Achutarajpur, Ratnagiri and
many other places. Eight-handed standing Marici, called Maricivupa, who is without any companion, is
found from numerous places. Also found are eight-armed standing Marici with companion called
Samksipta Marici and Uddiyana Marici from Maricipur and Odosingoda in Jajpur district.
Table 7 :Emanation of Vairocana
Goddess
Place
Marici
In many places
Usnisavijaya
Ratnagiri
Vajravarahi
Choudwar, Baseli Thakurani, Badagaon
Cunda
Ratnagiri, OSM, Udayagiri, now in Patna Museum, Achutarajpur and
Aparajita
Lalitgiri, Udayagiri and Ratnagiri
other places
Conclusion
The paper made an attempt to bring in archaeological correlates of forms of Buddhism
which Padmasambhava took to Tibet in 8 th century. Juxtaposed with the archaeological
evidence of Buddhism in 8th century Orissa, are the many references in Tibetan texts of
medieval period, in the account of Subhakarasimha, Amoghavajra and in brahmanical texts
which clearly attest that Orissa was a cradle of Vajrayana Buddhism. It is high time that the
Tibetan scholars move beyond the conventional descriptions in medieval Tibetan texts
about the location of Oddiyana in northwestern Himalayan mountainous region and reexamine various brahamncial and Buddhsit texts in the light of rich archaeological traces of
Padmasambhava s Buddhism in the monasteries, temples and texts of Orissa.
Appendix 1: Description of various Pithas in various texts
name(s) of pitha body
Kamakhya
Kamagiri
Kamarupa
Kubjika
part associated
represented
goddess
mahamudra
Kamesvari
yoni
Kamakhya
associated
location
number
Kamesvara
East
4/4-HT
god
Gauhati,
(Kamarupa)
/source
Assam (Hevajra
Tantra
4/4-KP (Kalika
Purana
3/7-KP (Kalika
Purana
3/4-SM
(Sadhanamala)
1/5-NS (Natha
Siddhas)
1/8 (jnanarva
tantra)
1/10
37/42
17/51
Uddiyana
Oddiyana
Katyayani
thighs
Jagannatha
West (?)
Uddiyana 2/4-HT
Swat Valley, Pakistan *2 1/4-KP
2/7-KP
1/4-SM
7/8
4/10
1/18
27/42
Jalandhara
stana
Tripuramalini Bhisana
Jalasaila
right breast
Candi
Jullendhar
breasts
Tripuranasini Bhisan
Isana
Mahadeva
North
1/4-HT
31N 75E
5/7-KP
near Nagarkot, Punjab 2/4-KP
6/8
2/10
5/18
6/42
6/51
Purnagiri
Purnasaila
Purna
neck
shoulders
&
Purnesvari
Mahanatha
South
vicinity
of
Maharashtra
(?) 3/4-HT
Bombay 3/4-KP
6/7-KP
2/4-SM
3/10
Hingula
Hingulata
brahmarandra Kottari
crown-
Kotarisa
Bhimalocana
Hinglaj,
Bibi Nani (GG Nana) 25N 65E
Pakistan 3/5-NS
3/18
Hingulaya
aperture
Kottavi
Sirihatta
griva
Mahalaksmi Samvarananda
Srisaila
?
Srihatta
Devikuta
fontanelle
nape of neck Mahamaya
Devikotta
both feet
Manikarnika
kundala
Devidaikotha
Varanasi
Javalamukhi
Jvalanti
Prayaga
earrings (!)
jihva
tongue
hast-anguli
ten fingers ?
5/42
1/51
Sarvananda
Ambika
Jvalamukhi
Alopi
Kala
Unmatta
Varanasi
Darang,
Gopipur
Bhava
/42 pithas listed in the Kubjika Tantra
(Benares) 5/10
Tahsil
near Allahabad
/7-KP seven pithas listed in the Kalika Purana (chapter 18); including the earlier four but in a different succession
/10 pithas listed in the Rudrayamala; ca. 9th cent.
2/18
31N 76E
/4-KP four pithas named in the Kalika Purana (chapter 64); ca. 9th cent.
/8 eight pithas listed in the Jnanarnava Tantra as the most important
8/8
Kangra,
/4-HT four pithas named in the Hevajra Tantra; 7th or 8th cent.
/5-NS five pithas revered by the Nath Siddhas
Dinajpur, 1/7-KP
Uttar Pradesh
Key
/4-SM four pithas named in the Sadhanamala
27/51
Bengal
Siddhida
Lalita
2/5-NS
Assam
Banghar,
Mahabhaga
Visalaksmi
Sylhet, near Srihatta, 4/4-SM
6/18
23/51
Dera 6/10
7/42
Punjab 5/51
8/18
19/42
20/51
/51 the list of 51 pithas occuring in the Pithanirnaya (as (re-)constructed by Dines Chandra Sircar from ten different manuscripts)
http://yoniversum.nl/dakini/pithsource.html dated
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