Shakti Rupa A comparative study of female deities in Hindu, Buddhist and Bon Tantra URMI CHANDA-VAZ Dissertation for PG Diploma in Comparative Mythology, 2013-14 Department of Sanskrit, University of Mumbai INTRODUCTION One of the most misunderstood and even feared cults among Hindus are perhaps the Tantrics. On one hand, the word 'Tantric' evokes images of scary-looking Aghoris, smeared in ash and indulging in 'unspeakable' rituals in cremation grounds. On the other, one is reminded of the somewhat laughable Bollywood prototype of exorcists, who mumble funny incantations like 'Jai Kali Kulkuttay-wali...', while beating up unsuspecting characters with jhadoos, trying to exorcise their 'bhoots'. An ash-smeared Aghori with a kapala (human skull) The common man prefers to stay at an arm's length from the practitioners of Tantra, considering them religious delinquents. I grew up with these prejudices too, listening to masked warnings about 'those people who tread the dark side'. My interest in Tantra was piqued by Robert E Svoboda's acclaimed book 'Aghora: At the Left Hand of God', which led me to other books on the subject. The more I read, the more I was amazed at the depth of Tantric philosophy. In Tantra, philosophy, ritual, symbolism and iconography are very closely connected. Tantric art is a means to spiritual development and realisation. Tantric art comprises tranquil renderings of abstract forms like the universe, Yantras, etc. on one hand, and violent, emotional iconographic images portraying the terrifying aspects of Prakriti on the other. Art is nothing but metaphysics visualised in Tantra. Whatever the path, iconography helps transport a Tantric closer to his God. The Sri Yantra In this paper, I start with an exploration of what Tantra is, when and how it originated, its dissemination in and around Asia, the different schools of thought and their basic philosophies, finally coming to the Goddesses they worship. In common perception, Shiva and Shakti are two indispensable principles of Tantra. But in some Tantric schools, the male principle is not Shiva, but Vishnu or even Buddha. However, Shakti is common to all schools and I have therefore, chosen to study most of the female principles or manifestations of Shakti. The idea is to compare and contrast the goddesses as worshiped by the different schools of Tantrism– Hindu, Buddhist and Bon - across India, China, Japan, Tibet, Sri Lanka and some other Asian nations. While I've tried to cover most female deities, there may be many I am not aware of. Shakti Rupa is a study of Tantra's most recognised female forms. So, what is Tantra? Tantra has been variously called a philosophy, a cult, a style of meditation and a sub sect of Hinduism. The earliest reference is found in the Rig Veda, where the word Tantra finds mention. Tantra is a Sanskrit word derived from the root tan-, which means 'to elaborate'. Writers Ajit Mookerjee and Madhu Khanna of 'The Tantric Way' eloquently define Tantra as under: (From the etymological point of view) Tantra means knowledge of a systematic and scientific experimental method which offers the possibility of expanding man's consciousness and faculties, a process through which an individual's inherent spiritual powers can be realised. In the looser sense, the term Tantra is used as a label for any form of 'expanded' literature... almost like as a suffix (like the Sanskrit term, Shastra) to indicate systematic treatise. In this context, they cite the importance of differentiating between authoritative doctrine and pseudo-tantra texts with names like Rakshasi Tantra. Such flexible connotations, they say, are responsible for the misrepresentation of Tantra. A more metaphysical definition comes from the 10th-century Tantric scholar Rāmakaṇṭha, who belonged to the dualist school Śaiva Siddhānta: A tantra is a divinely revealed body of teachings, explaining what is necessary and what is a hindrance in the practice of the worship of God; and also describing the specialized initiation and purification ceremonies that are the necessary prerequisites of Tantric practice. While American scholar David Gordon White offers a more scholastic view: Tantra is that Asian body of beliefs and practices which, working from the principle that the universe we experience is nothing other than the concrete manifestation of , the divine energy of the godhead that creates and maintains that universe, seeks to ritually appropriate and channel that energy, within the human microcosm, in creative and emancipatory ways. In short, Tantrism is a (mostly) dualist, Agamic (non-Vedic) tradition within the Hindu fold, which recognizes the male and female aspects of divinity, has a number of ritual practices associated with it and has existed from the pre Vedic era. Origin and Dissemination of Tantra Most modern research suggests that Tantra developed parallelly with the Vedas around 6000 years ago in the Indus Valley Civilization. Archeological evidence in the form of seals depicting Shiva as a yogi surrounded by animals as Pashupati (see image below), and statues of mother goddesses point to cults that followed imagery similar to Tantric philosophies. In a free and refined Dravidian society, before the supposed Aryan Invasion, Tantra evolved as a system for self-realization as a precursor to Hinduism and Buddhism. A seal of Pashupati Shiva found at the Indus Valley The Vedas and Tantras, though fundamentally varying schools, influenced and borrowed from each other, although Tantra was sidelined by what came to be known as the Vedic culture. Tantric knowledge and practices, also called Agamic, were said to have been handed down in the oral tradition, because the first recorded Tantric scripture came about only 500 too 700 years ago. This ancient text is called Vigyan Bhairav Tantra, originally a conversation between Shiva, sometimes also referred to as Sadashiva, a Tantric master and his consort Devi (or Parvati). The text is a chapter from the Rudrayamala Tantra, a Bhairava Agama. Shiva’s teachings, composed in a concise, poetic manner, are called Sutras. They comprise 112 methods of meditation (dharanas). Each Sutra elaborates upon a certain facet of our being. This approach embraces sensual love between men and women as an integral part of spiritual evolution. An important aspect of Shiva’s teaching is an equal balance between male and female principles. The re-discovery of Vigyan Bhairav Tantra happened through an Indian mystic named Gorakh, who lived in the 12th century and was of enormous influence for the Tantric renaissance. Following this re-discovery, Tantrism developed into a fully-articulated tradition by the end of the Gupta period, especially during the reign of King Abhinava Gupta. The Gupta Age was also known as the “Golden Age of Hinduism.” However, after the end of the Gupta Empire, followed by the collapse of the Harsha Empire, there was a decentralization of power, giving rise to religious regionalism and consequently rural devotional movements and local cults. Shaivism, Vaishnavism, Shaktism, and Bhakti were some such movements, and each carried forth some elements of Tantra, thereby splitting into different Tantric schools of thought in different parts of India. Around the same time, Buddhism lost its sway in India and traveled to other Asia nations, carrying strong Tantric influences with it. A Gupta sculpture from 5 CE, depicting Maithuna About Tantrism's influence on other religions, Wikipedia states: The Tantric method affected every major Indian religion during the early medieval period (c. 500–1200 CE); the Hindu sects of Shaivism, Shaktism, Vaishnavism and also Buddhism and Jainism developed a well-documented body of Tantric practices and doctrines, and Islam in India was also influenced by Tantra. Tantric ideas and practices spread from India to Tibet, Nepal, China, Japan, Cambodia, Vietnam and Indonesia. Tibetan Buddhism and some forms of Hinduism show the strongest Tantric influence, as do the postural Yoga movement and most forms of American New Age spirituality. A Buddhist Tantric sculpture As ideas of Tantrism traveled, they were adopted by different cultures, but not before amalgamating them with local beliefs. Today, there are numerous schools of Tantra, each with its ideological and iconographic set. What follows is a classification of the different schools of Tantric practices in Asian nations and their basic tenets. MAJOR HINDU TANTRAS Saura Sri Vidya Shaiva Shaiva Siddhanta Trika or Kashmir Kapalikas Ganapatya Kula or Kaula Purva Kaula Vaishnav Sahajiya Uttara Kaula Hindu Tantras The Hindu Tantric tradition, as mentioned above, dates back to the pre-Aryan age. Some of the major religious sects in Hinduism include Shaiva, Shakta or Kula/Kaula, Trika or Kashmir (Shaivism), Sri Vidya, Ganapatya, Saura, and Vaishnav. Each of these schools can be subdivided into the Right Hand, Left Hand and even Middle Paths, called Dakshinachara, Vama Marga and Madhya Marga respectively. It is the Vamamarga, which is usually identified with Tantra, although some Tantric schools follow the Right Hand path. While each sect may have many other sub sects, I will touch upon only the basic tenets and deities of worship of each school in the section below: Tantric Shaivism: Of the different kinds of Shaivism, Shaiva Siddhanta is normative of the Tantric tradition and from them came the rites, cosmological and theological constructs. Likewise, the Kapalikas, or skull-bearing ascetics are also an important Tantric branch of Shaivism. Shaiva Siddhanta is a Mantra Marga [Mantra marga is a path that teaches that the stepwise progression to liberation through mastery of mantrasiddhis], and its adherents worship Shiva as their primary deity and follow the scriptural canon of Tamil Shaiva Siddhanta. The concept of Shakti is implied, but there is not much importance is accorded to the female divine. However, the Kapalikas are known to worship goddesses like Chamunda and Ankala Parameshwari. The latter is also known as Ankalamma or Angalamma, who is sometimes counted among the Sapta Matrikas. The fierce-looking deity, Ankala Parameshwari, is especially revered among the Kapaliks in South India. She is considered a form of Kali. Trika or Kashmir Shaivism: Kashmir Shaivism is one of the few exceptions among the Tantric schools of thought, as it is non-dualist in its philosophy. The schools believe in one Universal Consciousness (Shiva), but consider the phenomenal world (Shakti) as real, where many individual souls (Anu) reside. Kashmir Shaivism comprises a number of triad concepts like Shiva-Shakti-Anu, three fundamental states of consciousness jagrat-swapna-susupti, and the Shaktis Parā, Parā-aparā & Aparā among others. Hence, it is also known as Trika (three-fold) darsana. The trident (triśūlābija maṇḍalam), symbol and yantra of Parama Shiva, representing the triadic energies of parā, parā-aparā and aparā śakti The goal of Kashmir Shaivism is to merge in Shiva or Universal Consciousness, or realise one's already existing identity with Shiva, by means of wisdom, Yoga and grace. Kula/Kaula Tantra: Loosely translated, Kula can mean clan, and the followers of the Kula or Kaula school thus belong to a tightly-knit and often secretive clan. Gavin Flood opines that Kaula is derived from the Kapalika tradition, and is also closely related to the Siddha and Natha traditions. The Kaula school can be divided into Purva Kaula and Uttar Kaula, whereby the Purva Kaulas may refer to the right hand path and also those who worship the Devi as a wife or mother, while the Uttara Kaulas may refer to the left hand path or those who worship the Devi as virgin. Wikipedia notes that 'Kaula sects are noted for their extreme exponents who recommend the flouting of taboos and social mores as a means of liberation.' The observance of the Panchamakara tradition (the 5 Ms of madya-wine, māṃsa – meat, matsya -fish, mudrā parched grain, and maithuna - spiritual sexual intercourse) is an example. In 'Hindu Goddesses: Beliefs and Practices' authors Lynn Foulston, Stuart Abbott describe the Kaula tradition as 'a Shiva-Shakti form of Tantra in which manifestation is understood and worshipped as a form of the Great Goddess.' Some forms of this 'Great Goddess' worshipped by the Kaulas include Kali, the uncommon Kubjika, Yoginis and the Yoni tantra. The hunchbacked goddess, Kubjika The goddess Kubjika is variously addressed as: Kubjinī – the Hunchback Girl, Kubjī, Kujā, Kujī, Khañjinī – the Lame One, Vakrikā or Vakrā – the Crooked One, Ciñcinī – the Goddess of the Tamarind, Kulālikā – the Potteress, Ambā or the vernacular form Avvā, and Anāmā, Laghvikā and, most common of all, Śrī – the Royal One who has as her scripture, teaching, school and tradition (anvaya, āmnāya) the Śrīmata. Sri Vidya Tantra: Sri Vidya tantra is one of Shaktism's principal branches, especially prevalent in South India. Its adherents worship Tripurasundari (Beautiful Goddess of the three cities or worlds), also known as Bhuvaneshwari, Lalita, Maha Tripurasundari, Rajarajeshwari, or Sodasi. A statue of Lalita at a British museum The extensive Sri Vidya Tantra literature underlines that this beautiful goddess is supreme, transcending the cosmos that is her manifestation. She is worshiped in the form of Sri Yantra or Sri Chakra, a mystical diagram, a central focus and ritual object composed of nine intersecting triangles. Its 3D form is called the Meru Chakra. Vaishnav Sahajiya: Vaishnav Sahajiya is a Tantric sect of the Vaishnavs or followers of Vishnu. Among texts, they follow the Pancharatra Agama. An intersting scripture among these agamas is the Laksmi Tantra. The word 'Sahajiya' comes from 'Sahaj', which means easy or natural, implying an 'easy path (to god)'. The Sahaja as a system of worship was prevalent in the Tantric traditions common to both Hinduism and Buddhism in Bengal as early as the 8th–9th centuries. It is generally considered Vamachara (left hand path), as they seek religious experiences through the Panchamakara. Among Vaishnav Sahajiyas, the romance between Krishna and Radha as a metaphor for union with God, and sought to experience that union through its physical reenactment. Also, the Ashta Sakhis (Lalita, Vishakha, Chitra devi, Sri Champakalata,Tungavidya, Indulekha, Rangadevi and Sudevi) are sometimes considered as embodiments of the Ashta Siddhis (Aṇimā, Mahima, Garima, Laghima, Prāpti, Prākāmya, Iṣiṭva, and Vaśitva). The Ashta Sakhis (eight female friends) with Radha-Krishna Shunned for their sexual tantric practices, the Vaishnav Sahajiyas operate in secrecy, often employing Sandhya Bhasa – a coded language, which only initiates can understand. The Bauls of Bengal, who are singing itinerants, are related to this sect. Ganapatya Tantra: Today, the Ganapatya is not as popular as the other Tantric sects, but it had definitely seems to have seen followers in great numbers towards the end of the Gupta period. Ganapatya is a breakaway cult from Shaivism, whereby its followers proclaimed Ganapati to the Supreme God or Brahman as also the creator, preserver and destroyer. When the influence of Shaktism started growing, consort figures to Ganesha, who was originally a bachelor God, were introduced in this fold,.This widened the iconographic scope of Ganapatya tantra. The five principal deities (and related sub sects) among Ganapatyas are Ucchishta Ganapati, Maha Ganapati, Urdhva Ganapati, Pingala Ganapati and Lakshmi Ganapati. A sculpture of Mayureshwar Ganapati with his consorts Buddhi and Siddhi. There are many other forms of Ganesha, and many of them are represented with Shakti as a consort. Some examples are Ucchishta Ganpati, Shakti Ganapati, Uddanda Ganpati, Vara Ganapati, Maha Ganapati, and Vighna Ganapati among others. Lakshmi Ganapati is shown with two consorts – Lakshmi and Saraswati, as is Mayureshvara with the consorts – Buddhi/Riddhi and Siddhi. Ganesha is also known to have an association with the Ashta Siddhis, as represented in Raja Ravi Varma's painting. Raja Ravi Varma's painting of Ganesha with the Ashta Siddhis Rather than Shakti as Parvati [who is Ganesha's mother], these female entities are impersonal figures. Paul B. Courtright, in his book, 'Ganesa: Lord of Obstacles, Lord of Beginnings' observes that “these women are more like feminine emanations of his androgynous nature - Shaktis rather than spouses...”. About the Ashta Siddhis, some scholars like Lawrence Cohen in his book 'Wives of Ganesha' also suggest that “They are depersonalized figures, interchangeable, and given their frequent depiction fanning Gaṇeśa are often referred to as dasīs — servants... He was their mālik, their owner; they were more often dasīs than patnīs.” Saura Tantra: This minor sect, also a breakaway from the Shaiva school, worships the sun (surya), which gives it its name – Saura (of the sun). Though they may appear to worship the physical sun, the real object of worship is that of which the sun is but a symbol: the absolute (Brahman). The followers of sun worship in India are found mainly in Assam, Orissa and Bengal, although the cult is dwindling. BUDDHISM Hinayana/ Theravada Nepalese Newar Buddhism Burmese Ari Buddhism Nyingma Mahayana Vajrayana Chinese Esoteric Buddhism Japanese Shingon Buddhism Kagyu Sakya Tibetan Buddhism (Anuttarayoga) Gelug Tantric Buddhism Tantric Buddhism is an extremely complex system of thought with multiple sects and sub sects, each with a different ideology. The three major schools under Buddhism are Hinayana (sometimes also identified with Theravad), Mahayana and Vajrayana. The theological constructs differ from country to country; for example, Tantric Buddhism in India varies a lot from Tantric Buddhism in say, Tibet, or Japan or China. To complicate matters further, each school divides practice into a number of Yanas. In Mahayana, for example, a single Yana called Ekayana is mentioned, while the Nyingma school of Tibetan Buddhism offers upto nine yanas of classification. The above diagrammatic representation is very generic and does not take into account every known Buddhist Tantric sect in existence. It gives a very broad classification of the most recognised Buddhist Tantric sects in Asia. I shall also avoid going into descriptions of each of these schools of Buddhist thought, for the theological constructs are of no import to this paper. The female deities, which often overlap in these schools, shall be dealt with in detail subsequently. What follows is a short description of Vajrayana, which is the umbrella term for everything in Buddhist Tantrism. A Garbhadhatu Mandala, featuring representing Vairocana Buddha surrounded by eight Buddhas and bodhisattvas (clockwise from top: Ratnaketu, Samantabhadra, Samkusumitaraja, Manjusri, Amitabha, Avalokitesvara, Dundubhinirghosa, Maitreya). This mandala is a good example of the rich iconography of the Vajrayana school of Buddhism. Vajrayana Associated with Tantric practices, Vajrayana is one of the three main schools of Buddhism, the other two being Hinayana/ Theravad and Mahayana. Vajrayana is also known as Tantric Buddhism, Tantrayāna, Mantrayāna, Secret Mantra, Esoteric Buddhism and the Diamond Way or Thunderbolt Way. Vajrayāna is a complex and multifaceted system of Buddhist thought and practice which evolved over several centuries, with the first texts being found in India in the 3rd century. Vajrayana preachers travelled forth and spread it to countries like Tibet, Japan, China, Indonesia, Mongolia, etc., where multiple sub sects developed over time. Philosophically speaking, the goal of Vajrayana (as in Mahayana) is to become a Boddhisattva with the help of ritual practices. Rituals and deity worship are two prime characteristics of Vajrayana. Presently, there are very few practitioners of Vajrayana Buddhism in India. All female deities discussed further in this paper in the context of Vajrayana will be non-Indian with a reference to the school to which they belong. TANTRA IN BON Lower Tantras Kriya Tantra Charya Tantra Higher Tantras Chöd Father Tantra Mother Tantra Bon Tantrism: Bon arose around the 14th century, and spread in Tibet and surrounding areas. It is often considered an ancillary version of Buddhism for scholarly reasons, but its adherents do not agree. Bon has a mix of Tantric and local tribal practices, and a host of protecting deities attached to it. Of the different methods used for enlightenment and liberation, are the 'Nine Vehicles', as also Sutra, Dzogchen and Tantra. Tantra in Bon is divided into Lower and Higher Tantras. These are further divided into Kriya and Charya Tantra in Lower Tantras and Chod, Father and Mother Tantras in Higher Tantras. The Bon pantheon of gods and goddesses Lower Tantras: In the practice of Lower Tantra, practitioners visualize themselves as deities and completely transform themselves into that deity. They embody all of that deity’s emotions, strengths, wisdom and healing potential. Higher Tantras: In the higher tantric practice, the essence of the practice is the unification of bliss and emptiness. The sensation of bliss is often depicted in the tantric practice with the Yab-Yum deities (the pair of male and female deities) through the sensation of sexual bliss. Whereas in the dramatic practice of Chöd (from the root word 'Cho', which means 'to cut'), a yogin visualizes giving his or her own sacrificed body to the gods and demons as a way to cut the attachment to self and ordinary reality. Female deities in Tantric practices A summary of the major Tantric traditions among the Hindu, Buddhist and Bon religions shows how female deities are common to all. A comparative study of these goddesses will be attempted herewith, classifying them as consort goddesses, mother/benevolent goddesses, warrior/destructive goddesses as also clusters of female deities/goddesses. I hope to draw out the similarities and differences in the iconography of these traditions and make a note of the most striking features of these deities. The following table offers an overview of the female deities considered in this study. Category Warrior/ Destructive Goddesses Consort Goddesses Creator Mother/ Benevolent Goddesses Uma/ Parvati Parvati Dasa Mahavidyas [In Kaula, the supreme goddesses have Bhairavas as their consorts] Adi Parashakti, Lajja Gauri, Bhadrakali, Mahadevi Sapta / Ashta or Shodash Matrikas, Yoginis, Navadurga Vaishnava (Pancharatra and Lakshmi Tantra) Radha, Lakshmi, Bhoodevi & Sridevi Maha Lakshmi, Lakshmi Ekanamsha Ashta Sakhis, (identified with Ashta Siddhis) Sri Vidya - Lalita Tripura Sundari - Yoginis Trika/ Kashmir - Kali Uma Guhyakali Para-ParaparaApara, Ganapatya Shakti - - Tantric School Deity clusters HINDU Shaivism (Shaiva Siddhanta) Chamunda, Bhairavi Kaula/ Shakta Kali Sapta Matrikas, Ashta Siddhis Category Tantric School Consort Goddesses Creator/ Mother/ Benevolent Goddesses Warrior/ Destructive Goddesses Deity clusters BUDDHIST Vajravarahi, Sparshavajra, Yeshe Tsogyal, Vishwamata, Vajravetali, Svabha Prajnya Samanta-bhadri, Palden Lhamo, Dakinis/ Nairatmya, Ekajati/ Blue Tara, Khandromas, White Tara, Green Vajrayogini/ Krodha 28 Ishwaris, Tara, Kali/ Troma 4 Gatekeepers, 8 Prajnapara-mita, Nagmo, Red Tara/ Gaurima or Yumka Dechen Kurukulla, Black wrathful deities, 5 Gyalmo Tara, Sitatpatra/ Tseringmas, 12 Dukkar, Guhya Tenma goddesses Jnana Dakini BON Kyema Marmo, Khala Dugmo, Kun Grags Ma Satrig Ersang/ Sherab Chamma, Dedol Jamma Sipe Gyalmo, Yeshe Walmo Lajja Gauri, though not a deity, is a popular icon in the Hindu Tantric culture, symbolising fertility. Great Mother Goddesses, Dakinis, 12 ruling goddesses of Tibet Consort Goddesses While as consorts, goddesses have a secondary or passive role, they are instrumental in Tantric imagery. The Purusha cannot do without Prakriti to create and run the cosmos. Some popular Male-Female deity in Hindu tantra fold include Shiva-Shakti (Shaivism), Vishnu-Lakshmi or Radha-Krishna (Vaishnavism), Ganesha-Shakti (Ganapatya) and Akshobhya-Locana, Chakrasamvara-Vajravarahi and Samantabhadra-Samantabhadri in Vajrayana Buddhism. Where the consort is meant to be given equal status, the male and female icons are joined together as in Ardhanarishwara (Shiva-Parvati combined), or Vaikuntha-Kamalaja/ Ardhapurusha (Lakshmi-Narayana combined). Bronze sculptures of Ardhanarishwar (left) and Vaikuntha-Kamalaja, which is seen more commonly in Nepal (right) Where the Shakta schools of Tantra come into question, the divine male counterpart assumes the passive role of a consort, while the divine feminine is the supreme. For example, in Kaula Tantra, the goddesses have Bhairavas as consorts. However, consort goddesses are also worshipped solo, and in such cases, they are depicted in complete iconographic splendour. From left to right: Semi erotic paintings of Shakti-Ganapati, Radha-Krishna and Shiva-Parvati Popular Hindu religious art often depicts the gods and their consort goddesses in semierotic poses. There seems to be no pattern except suggestions of intimacy in such paintings of Ganesha & Shakti, Krishna & Radha and Shiva & Parvati. However, bronze and stone sculptures of Shiva and Parvati in divine union, from medieval India, often follow a template, with Parvati sitting on Shiva's lap or locked in an erotic embrace. Bronze and stone sculptures of Shiva and Parvati Other tantric imagery in the form of temple sculptures are explicit – take for example the sculptures at Khajuraho and Konark. However, when it comes to Gods and Goddesses, medieval Indian artists seem to have played safe. Hindu consort goddesses seem to be staid wives than passionate lovers. Compared to Buddhist and Bon god-consort pairs, these seem rather sedate. The exceptions can be seen in Nepalese Hindu religious art, which closely resembles Tibetan Buddhist art. Take for example, the following 18th century Nepalese painting of Bhairava and Kali. Here, of course, Bhairava is the consort to Kali, who is in no way passive. Kali is considered more of a warrior/destructive goddess and will be considered later in that category. 18th century Nepalese painting of Kali and Bhairava resembling Tibetan art representing Buddhist divine couples Among the Buddhist and Bon tantric iconography, both classes of deities - peaceful and wrathful - are depicted with consorts in poses of sambhoga, with the consort kissing the male deity and with one or both of her legs wrapped around his body. These typical divine couples are represented in what is called a Yab-Yum pose. However, within both the Hindu, Buddhist and Bon folds, when the consort goddesses are considered independently, they have rich iconography and mythology associated with them. Divine couples (clockwise from top left): Magyu Sangchug Tartug & Kyema [Bon], and Buddhist deities, Akshobhyavajra & Sparshavajra, Samantabhadri & Samantabhadra and Manjushri & Saraswati POPULAR CONSORT GODDESSES IN THE HINDU TANTRIC TRADITION Parvati: As Shiva's consort, Parvati appears as a twohanded beautiful goddess, generally seated by his side or on his lap. She is also known as Uma, the beautiful mountain goddess and daughter of Himavan, and an incarnation of Sati. This fair goddess is sometimes shown holding a lotus in one hand, while her other hand is in the Abhaya Mudra. Radha: Although a later Puranic mythological character, Radha is a very popular consort figure among the Vaishnavas. The Brihad Gautamiya Tantra describes her as “The transcendental goddess Srimati Radharani is the direct counterpart of Lord Sri Krishna. She is the central figure for all the goddesses of fortune. She possesses all the attractiveness to attract the all-attractive Personality of Godhead. She is the primeval internal potency of the Lord.” She is usually depicted as a fair, blue-garbed beautiful milkmaid, engaging in (divine) dalliances with Krishna. Lakshmi: Unlike the docile Puranic deity, the Lakshmi of the Pancharatra texts, especially the Lakshmi Tantra, is a supreme power who creates, maintains and destroys the Universe with Vishu's wishes. Vishnu becomes the dominant figure, while the powerful Lakshmi assumes a central role. Tantric Lakshmi is sometimes depicted sitting on a corpse, holding in her four hands Vishnu's icons – a lotus, a mace, a conch and a disc. Ganapati's Shakti: Though commonly thought of as a bachelor deity, Ganesha is represented with one or more consorts in Ganapatya Tantra. The Sritattvanidhi, a 19th century Kannadiga iconographic treatise mentions 32 forms of Ganesha, many of whom are accompanied by a consort goddess. There is, however, little or nothing to be found about these shaktis – not even names Ganesha is also associated with 'Buddhi', 'Riddhi' and 'Siddhi', or the Ashtasiddhis, who are often personified as consorts. A sculpture of Vinayaki, one of the 64 Yoginis Speaking of the Shakti aspect of Ganesha, one of the 64 Yoginis (Chausath Yogini) is Vinayaki – an elephant headed deity. She is sometimes considered a female form of Ganesha and known with names like Stri Ganesha, Gajananā, Vighneshvari and Ganeshani; while some scholars consider her as a separate deity. POPULAR CONSORT GODDESSES IN VAJRAYANA (BUDDHIST TANTRA) Vajravarahi: Consort to Chakrasamvara, Vajravarahi is among the most popular goddesses in the Vajrayana pantheon. She is also known as Dorje Pakmo and Vajrayogini. She is shown as a young 3-eyed, 2-armed, onefaced red goddess in a dancing pose. She stands atop a human figure, symbolising the crushing of the ego, and in her hands she holds a skull cup (kapala) and a curved knife much like the Hindu Kali. In fact, most female wrathful deities are modeled after Kali, as will be seen here. Vajravarahi is sometimes shown with the head of a sow placed next to her head or atop it, and hence the 'Varahi' part of her name. In this respect, she is comparable to the Hindu matrika, Varahi, who just has a sow's head and not a woman's. Vishwamata: Vishwamata (The Variegated Mother) is consort to Kalachakra and is normally represented in a Yab-Yum pose with him. She is also called Kalichakra. Vishvamata, is golden yellow in colour, and embraces Kalachakra from the front. She has four heads and eight arms in which she holds a lotus, a damru, a noose, rosary, a flaying knife, a skull cup, a Buddhist wheel and a conch. Vajravetali: Vajravetali, also called Rolangma, is the wrathful form of Saraswati and she plays consort to the terrifying buffalo-headed deity, Yamantaka. Robust like her male counterpart, Vajravetali is a one-headed, two-handed, and three-eyed goddess. Her eyes are round with a wrathful expression, and in her hands she carries a skull cup and a cleaver. She has five dried skulls adorning her head, and around her neck is a 50skull necklace. Sparshavajra: Akshobhyavajra or Guhyasamaja's consort Sparshavajra is also known as Adhiprajna. She is depicted with Guhyasamaja in a Yab-Yum pose, whereby she encircles him, and possesses the same attributes. Adhiprajna has three faces: red, light blue, and white. Her original hands embrace the yab at the back, the upper hands hold the flaming jewel (mani) and wheel (chakra), while the lower ones carry the sword of wisdom (Prajna – Khadga) and lotus. Yeshe Tsogyal: Yeshe Tsogyal is a historical figure (757-815 CE), revered as a goddess in contemporary Vajrayana practices. She was consort to the great Indian Tantric teacher, Padmasambhava and is often considered a manifestation of Tara or Saraswati. Recognised as a female Buddha, Yeshe Tsogyal is depicted as a fair maiden with a peaceful countenance, either seated or standing up. POPULAR CONSORT GODDESSES IN BON TANTRIC TRADITION Kyema Marmo: The consort goddess to Magyu Sangchog Gyud, Kyema Marmo is a red-coloured deity, very similar to the Buddhist Vajravarahi, except for her YabYum pose. She has one face and two arms and her right leg is wrapped around her male consort. She is naked, except for adornments of jewelery, and her tongue is outstretched, much like the Hindu goddess Kali. Khala Dugmo: Consort to one of the most important meditational deities (yidams), Trowo Tsochog Khagying, Khala Dugmo means 'furious lady of the sky'. Much like Kyema Marmo, she is red in colour, has two hands, one face and wraps her right leg around her divine partner. Barring Yeshe Tsogyel (Buddhist), who was a historical figure, all Buddhist and Bon consort deities seem to have a striking resemblance with the popular Hindu goddess, Kali, whether represented in Yab-Yum or in isolation. Interestingly enough, Kali is hardly ever represented as a consort; she is clearly a destructive goddess – a category that will be discussed later in the paper. These consort goddesses are almost always naked, voluptuous and fierce-looking, conforming to a very central Tantric idea of a fertile and powerful goddess, even when she is plays the second fiddle. Mother/ Benevolent/ Creator Goddesses The female principle is central to all Tantric religions. She is revered as a consort and more importantly as a creator or a mother figure. As a mother, the goddess is the supreme power, responsible for creating the universe and protecting it. The iconography of most goddesses in this category – whether in Hindu, Buddhist or Bon Tantra – are depicted as benevolent and beautiful. This is in accordance with the universal idea of a mother figure being most approachable and loving. Let's take a look at some of the most popular Tantric goddesses as mothers and creators. MOTHER/CREATOR/BENEVOLENT GODDESSES IN THE HINDU TANTRA Parvati: When Parvati is not playing the perfect wife to Shiva, she is a doting mother. The mythical tale of Parvati creating Ganesha is very well known and popular iconography will almost always depict Parvati with Ganesha (or Skanda, her other son) on her lap. Parvati's position is especially important in Shaiva Siddhanta, as the entire text is the result of her inquiries to Shiva. There are several incarnations of Parvati, including Lalita, Meenakshi and Kamakshi, which are revered in different cults. Adi Parashakti: The feminine principle is supreme as Adi Parashakti. She is the basic creative force, from whom all forms of Devi emerge, including the 10 Mahavidyas. She is responsible for the creation as Para Brahman of the Universe and is revered by the Kaula and other Tantric schools. She is often depicted as seated on a jeweled seat in a chariot of seven lions, accompanied with Lakshmi and Saraswati and with a Sri Yantra at her feet. Bhadra Kali: 'Bhadra' means 'good' or 'civil' and therefore, this form of Kali is the benevolent one. With a benign stance, she holds in her four or six hands some weapons, a lotus and sometimes even a cup. She stands on a corpse, symbolizing the crushed ego. Gods or other divine attendants are often seen surrounding her in a reverential way, suggesting that she is a superior goddess. This form of Kali is popular with both, the Shivas and Shaktas. Mahadevi: Mahadevi is a generic name for a supreme goddess, and could be identified with Mahakali, Mahalakshmi or Mahasaraswati. Popular in Kaula schools, Mahadevi is described in superlatives in various Tantric scriptures like Mahanirvana Tantra, Lalitha Sahasranama, etc. She is the 'most beautiful', 'most benevolent', 'most powerful'. Iconographically, she resembles Durga with multiple hands holding weapons and sometimes riding a tiger or sitting atop a lotus. Mahalakshmi: In the Vaishnava Tantric schools, Mahalakshmi is considered the primary goddess, as the consort of Mahavishnu. Apart from the nomenclature, her attributes are much like the 'regular' Lakshmi, with lotus and elephant motifs symbolising fertility and royalty. The four-armed goddess is responsible for creation according to Pancharatra texts. Lalita Tripura Sundari: In Sri Vidya Tantra, the goddess Lalita Tripura Sundari is the most important deity. Any other deities, whether male or female, assume a secondary role. Tripura Sundari (most beautiful of the three worlds), the 16-year-old goddess, is sometimes accompanied with Lakshmi and Saraswati and has a Sri Yantra near her feet, much like the icon of Adi Parashakti. Sometimes, she is depicted sitting on a platform held aloft by Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva and Indra/Ishana. Among the things she holds in her four hands are arrows of flowers, a noose, a goad and a sugarcane as a bow. The flower and sugarcane bow represent her as Kamakshi, the goddess of love/desire and those icons are similar to Kama, the god of love. She has several meditational forms, and depending on her state, can be of red, golden or a dusky complexion. This aspect of varying complexions is comparable to the female deities in Vajrayana. Lalita Tripura Sundari is also a part of the Dasha (10) Mahavidyas, and she shall be discussed in that capacity later in the paper. MOTHER/CREATOR/BENEVOLENT GODDESSES IN THE VAJRAYANA Samantabhadri: Almost always depicted as a consort in Yab-Yum with Samantabhadra (bottom right in consort collage), Samantabhadri is a very important dakini and female Buddha in Vajrayana. Samantabhadri, the 'Primordial Mother Buddha' is depicted as white complexioned – the primary symbol of the wisdom aspect of mind, and she sits in a lotus position. Prajnaparamita: Prajnaaramita, the 'Great Mother' or Yum Chenmo is another female Bodhisattva, who has attained perfect wisdom. In Mahayana, the Prajnaparamita Sutra is a philosophical/meditation treatise, but in the context of Vajrayana, she is personified as a serene, golden-complexioned fourarmed goddess, sitting in a meditative pose. She holds the Sutra and a Vajra in two of her hands, while the other two are placed on her lap in a mudra. Nairatmya: Nairatmya or the 'Lady of Emptiness' is yet another female Buddha. She is dark blue in colour with one face and two hands holding a curved knife and skullcup at the heart with a katvanga staff resting against the left shoulder. Adorned with a tiara of skulls, bone ornaments and a skirt of tiger skin, she is in a semi-wrathful appearance, seated on a sun disc, multi-coloured lotus and throne. White/ Sita Tara: Tara, the female counterpart of Avalokiteshwara, is a very popular goddess in the Vajrayana pantheon. The name Tara is common to both Hindu tantra (Tara is one of the 10 Mahavidyas) and Vajrayana. In Vajrayana, Tara has many forms differentiated by colour and one of them is the benevolent White or Sita Tara. In iconography, White Tara often has seven eyes – in addition to the usual two, she has a third eye on her forehead and one on each of her hands and feet. White Tara is seated in the diamond lotus position, with the soles of her feet pointed upward. Her posture is one of grace and calm. Her right hand makes the boon-granting gesture and her left hand is in the protective mudra. In her left hand, White Tara holds an elaborate lotus flower that contains three blooms. Green/ Samaya Tara: Green or Samaya Tara is the more popular version of Tara and is the goddess of enlightened activity. This two-armed green goddess is depicted in a posture of ease and readiness for action. While her left leg is folded in the contemplative position, her right leg is outstretched, ready to spring into action. Green Tara's left hand is in the refuge-granting mudra (gesture); her right hand makes the boon-granting gesture. In her hands she also holds closed blue lotuses (utpalas), which symbolize purity and power. She is adorned with the rich jewels of a bodhisattva. Yumka Dechen Gyalmo: Yumka Dechen Gyalmo is a wisdom dakini and considered an aspect of Yeshe Tsogyal. She is described as naked, red-skinned, has one face and two arms; three eyes; feet are evenly on the ground, one foot facing forward, ready to act for others; her face bears an expression of great passion; she is desirous and cheerful. In her right hand she upholds a damru. In her left, she holds the handle of a curved ritual chopping knife, which rests at her left side. MOTHER/CREATOR/BENEVOLENT GODDESSES IN BON TANTRA Satrig Ersang: Satrig Ersang is among and the most important of the five principal deities of Bon. She is often depicted with the four Transcended Lords or surrounded by 250 female Sanggye or enlightened beings. Satrig Ersang has a calm countenance, sitting in a meditative pose. She has one face and two hands (sometimes four), which she holds up near her chest. She is comparable to the Buddhist deity, Sita Tara. Sherab Chamma: Sherab Chamma is also called 'Thugche Chamma' which means The Loving Mother of Compassion. Satrig Ersang is considered a manifestation of Sherab Chamma – the latter being an 'active' deity. The Buddhist deity Prajnaparamita is thought to be the same as her, as she embodies perfect wisdom. She is either depicted as white, yellow or orange, has one face, three eyes, and two hands, in which she holds a vase and a blue flower. She wears rich robes and sits either cross-legged or with one leg outward, ready for action, much like the Buddhist Green Tara. Another popular form of hers is Dedol Jamma, who is a white coloured skillful deity. The mother goddesses in Hindu, Buddhist and Bon Tantra borrow from each other, with marked similarities in certain classes of deities. The female Bodhisattvas of Vajrayana and meditative deities in Bon are clearly inspired by each other. White Tara and Green Tara resemble Satrig Ersang and Sherab Chamma respectively in their wise and active natures. Satrig Ersang is considered the same as the Buddhist Prajnaparamita, as mentioned above. Some statues of Prajnaparamita have been found in Buddhist India as well. The unadorned image of the Buddhist Samantabhadri stands out as an exception, as no Hindu or Bon mother deities look like that. Similarly, Parvati is the exception of the literal imagery of a mother deity, as she carries her son. The Buddhist deities Nairatmya and Yumka Dechen Gyalmo are inspired by the Kali imagery. Interestingly, many benevolent and wrathful deities in Buddhism and Bon resemble the Hindu Kali in terms of stance and icons. Whatever their inspirations, mother goddesses are very important in all Tantric schools, whether Hindu, Buddhist or Bon. However, it is the next class of deities – the warrior/ destructive goddess – that best define the Tantra archetype. Warrior/ Destructive Goddesses Of the entire pantheon of Tantric goddesses, the warrior/ destructive goddesses are perhaps the best recognised and identified with. The word Tantra evokes images of bloodthirsty goddesses, which is not entirely baseless. Kamakhya, one of the most important Tantric centres of India, has a history of blood sacrifice. In fact, even today, animal sacrifice is common to not just Kamakhya, but many other Shakti Peethas in India. Terrifying images of Hindu Tantric of Chamunda or the rather suicidal Chinnamasta have only confirmed the layperson's association of Tantra with warrior/ destructive goddesses. The imagery is carried forward in Vajrayana Buddhism and Bon tantric schools, but the implication of their warrior/destructive goddesses is more metaphorical than literal. Their terminology for such deities is also different, and they can be classified into wrathful goddesses, yidams, khandromas and, dakinis. A typical deity of this category is depicted standing on a corpse, with multiple arms, a lolling tongue, and with motifs like skulls and khatvangas. She has a wrathful expression, is mostly naked and very much like the Hindu goddess, Kali. Discussed below are some of the most popular warrior/destructive goddesses/ deities in Hindu, Buddhist and Bon Tantra. WARRIOR/ DESTRUCTIVE/ WRATHFUL GODDESSES IN HINDU TANTRA Chamunda: The goddess Chamunda is thought to be of tribal origin, who was later inducted into the Hindu and even Jain folds. She is one of the Sapta Matrikas and gets her name from the myth of the demons Chanda and Munda, whom she slayed. As in the Nepalese painting alongside and medieval sculptures, she is depicted as a terrifying-looking emaciated goddess with either four, eight, ten or twelve arms. She is red or black in colour, wears a munda-mala (skull necklace) and has drooping breasts. She holds things like a noose, sword, khatvanga, and shield and wears several ornaments. Posture wise, she could either be sitting, standing or sqatting. As a matrika, she is associated with disease, pestilence and death and shown with a child on her lap (refer to the Sapta Matrikas in the Deity Clusters section later in the paper). The goddess Chamunda also appears in a twin format as Chamunda-Chotila. This unique form is worshipped in Gujarat at the Chotila temple and there are several mythological stories attempting to explain this twin form. The goddesses ride a lion, wear a red and green sari respectively and carry a trident. They are associated with power and fertility. Kali: The goddess Kali is undoubtedly the primary Tantric deity, with several tantras like Niruttara-tantra, Picchila-tantra, Yogini-tantra, and Kamakhya-tantra proclaiming her to be the greatest of all. However, Kali is a popular deity among non-Tantric Hindu folds too. Her name is derived from the word 'Kaal' meaning time, implying that she is the goddess of time and change. In popular Kali iconography, she is black or blue in colour, has four arms in which she holds a khadga (scimitar), a severed head of a demon and a bowl that holds the blood dripping from the head. She is naked, barring a girdle made of human hands and a necklace of 50 human heads. Her expression is fierce, her hair disheveled, her tongue lolls and she stands on Shiva's chest. This fierce image of Kali is surely of the most enduring among Tantric sects, having given rise to many inspired icons. Ekanamsha: The uncommon Ekanamsha finds place in the Vaishnava Tantra pantheon and is mentioned in some Pancharatra texts. She is considered an emanation or Shakti of Vishnu, who was 'born' to King Nanda to protect the baby Krishna from Kamsa. In some temple sculptures of the Mathura region, she is depicted alongside Vishnu and Balarama/Indra as their sister. She helped Vishnu defeat the demon Kalanemi. Iconographically, she is said to be surrounded by black clouds, symbols of her powers of Maya. Guhyakali: There are 12 kinds of Kali mentioned in Kashmir Shaivism and Guhyakali is one among them. This 'guhya' or secret form of Kali perhaps has the most complex imagery, and she is described in great detail in the Guhyakali khanda of the Mahakalasamhita. Guhyakali is a 10-faced goddess with one central human head and nine other animal/bird heads that include a leopard/panther, a lion, a jackal, a monkey, a bear, a crocodile, an elephant, a horse, and a kite/Garuda. She has 27 eyes in those 10 faces, and eight arms (sometimes, even 54!) in which she holds things like a noose, a jewelled rosary, a skull, a shield, a shakti missile, a skull-staff, a bow, a discus, a bell, a man's skeleton, a serpent, etc. She stands atop Bhairava and a dog, with a fierce expression, wearing the essential skull necklace. WARRIOR/ DESTRUCTIVE/ WRATHFUL GODDESSES IN VAJRAYANA Palden Lhamo:One of the most important deities of Tibet, Palden Lhamo embodies all qualities of the fierce warrior goddess archetype. This wrathful deity is considered the chief Protectress (of Tibet) or Dharmapala in the Gelug tradition. She is Mahakala's consort, and is iconographically depicted with deep blue skin, three eyes, her face set in a fearsome expression as she rides a mule. Palden Lhamo is quite the antithesis of the mother goddess as one of the primary mythological stories attached to her is one where she kills her own son to protect dharma.. She not only kills him, but skins and eats him up too. Ekajati: This fierce-looking goddess is also known as Mahacina Tara and is one of the 21 manifestations of Tara. She is popular as a meditational deity, retinue figure and a protector deity. She is known as 'the mother of the mother of all Buddhas' and her role is to protect secret mantras. She is distinct in iconographic representation because of one chignon/braid/ bun, one breast, one eye and one fang. This blue goddess has two arms, wears a skull crown and bone ornaments, and has a tiger skin wrapped around her waist. Enveloped in clouds, she holds a heart in her right hand and emanates wolves from her left. Other wrathful forms of Tara include Black Tara, Jigjema, Shen.gyi.mi.tub.ma, and Shen.le Nam.par Gyel.ma. All these emanations are iconographically similar to Ekajati. Vajrayogini/ Troma Nagmo: Vajrayogini is the highest Yoga Tantra Yidam or meditational deity. She is a female Buddha and a dakini and is known by several names. She is prayed to for protection against death, bardo (intermediate state between death and rebirth) and rebirth. This generic deity is pictured as a three-eyed red complexioned naked young woman of 16. This reference to age is reminiscent of the Hindu Goddess, Lalita Tripura Sundari, who is eternally a 16-year-old. However, unlike Tripura Sundari, Vajrayogini is semi-wrathful, carrying a khatvanga (staff), a skull cup full of blood, and a cleaver. She bears the common motifs of a crown of 5 skulls – common to most wrathful female deities in Vajrayana – and a munda-mala. Her right and left feet trample upon Kalaratri and Bhairava respectively, as she stands in a ring of fire. Her iconography is rich and laden with meaning in this form and others. Her other common forms include Troma Nagmo, also known as Krodheshwari, Krodha Kali, Krishna Krodhini and Kalika. This is the wrathful aspect of Vajrayogini. Linguistically and iconographically, Krodha Kali is perhaps the closest to the Hindu deity, Kali. Troma Nagmo is also blue-black in colour, terrifying in appearance, carries similar accoutrements like a khadga, khatvanga and kapala, has three eyes and flaming hair. She wears a crown of skulls, like Vajrayogini, and dances atop a corpse. Her pose of 'destructive dance' again reminds of Nataraja – a form of Shiva, who is Kali's consort. There is another interesting parallel between this Buddhist deity and a Hindu one. The Chinnamunda or Headless Vajrayogini is a clear replication of the Hindu deity, Chinnamasta. Pretty much every element of the Chinnamasta iconography can be seen in the Chinnamunda Vajrayogini deity. To begin with, the names are very similar; whereby 'chinna' means severed and 'masta' or 'munda' mean head. Like Chinnamasta, Chinnamunda appears standing on a copulating couple (Kama and Rati in the case of Chinnamasta), having severed her own head from which spurt jets of blood. She holds her head in one of her hands, and with the other hand, a khatri (scimitar). Three streams of blood spurt from the neck, with one stream being swallowed by her own her, and two by her divine attendants, Vajravarnani and Vajravairochani [Dakini and Varnini in the Hindu context]. The red-hued 16-year old goddess is one of the most fierce in both Vajrayana and Hindu tantric traditions. Red Tara/ Kurukulla: Red Tara or Kurukulla (also spelt Kurukulle) is a fierce emanation of the goddess Tara. She is invoked for the fulfillment of desires – especially sexual. Ironically, this 'goddess of love' is semi-wrathful in appearance and is seen trampling upon Kama – the god of Love. Much like Kama, she holds a flower bow and arrow to subjugate, magnetize and attract. The red-hued, four armed goddess stands in a dancing stance on one leg sporting a crown and a necklace of skulls. Sitatpatra/ Dukkar: This is one wrathful deity that looks deceptively calm. Sitatapatra (Goddess of the White Parasol) is also known as Dukkar and is venerated by all sects of Buddhism. She is said to have emanated from Shakyamuni Buddha and helped Indra defeat all demons with just one wave of her parasol. She is represented with one face, three eyes, and two hands in which she holds a parasol and a wheel. But there are other depictions of her where she has multiple hands, heads and eyes (upto a thousand). The beautiful form belies the fierce, protective nature of this fair-skinned goddess. WARRIOR/ DESTRUCTIVE/ WRATHFUL GODDESSES IN BON TANTRA Sipe Gyalmo: Sipe Gyalmo (also spelt Sipai Gyalmo) can be loosely translated to 'Queen of the Universe' and is the chief protector deity of Bon. Her frightful appearance is meant to ward of evil and protect sentient beings. Of her three faces, the white one of the left represents the father, and the red one on the right represents the mother. Her central face is indigo like the rest of her body. She rides a horse much like the Buddhist deity Palden Lhamo. She has 6 arms in which she holds a victory banner, a thunderbolt, a phurba (dagger), a mirror, a hook and a skull cup. Her body is draped in skulls and she is surrounded by flames. Yeshe Walmo: Yeshe Walmo is the wisdom aspect of Sipe Gyalmo, and she is the protectress of all sacred Bon scriptures. The same colour as Sipe Gyalmo, Yeshe Walmo has only one face and two arms. She’s stands on one foot dressed in peacock feathers, which symbolize the transmutation of poison (ignorance). In her right hand, she holds a flaming thunderbolt sword and in her left, a vase filled with the waters of long life. She wears a tiger skin, and stands upon a lotus flower representing the purity of her wisdom and is surrounded by flames burning all ignorance. Deity clusters Most mythologies refer to clusters of gods, goddesses, divine or malevolent beings. Tantric iconography and scriptures too make such references. Clusters or groups of mythical characters enrich the tapestry of religious literature, with many stories attached to them. These clusters are often a manifestation of one supreme deity or energy source and have allied functions. The number of deities in a certain cluster often have a numero-religious significance. These numbers are often inspired by elements of nature and assume a certain sacredness within that cultural context. The 10 Mahavidyas, the 7 Matrikas, the 8 Siddhas, and the 64 Yoginis are among the many examples of deity clusters in the Tantric tradition. A closer look at some of these clusters has been taken in the following section. DEITY CLUSTERS IN HINDU TANTRA Dasha Mahavidyas: The Dasha (dasa or 10) Mahavidyas is a very important deity cluster for Hindu Tantrics, especially the Shaktas. These 10 deities are a mix of beautiful and terrible forms – Kali, Tara, Tripura Sundari, Bhuvaneshwari, Chinnamasta, Dhumavati, Bagalamukhi, Matangi and Kamala. The Mahavidyas emerged from an angry Sati, when Shiva refused to let her attend a sacrifice organised by her father, Daksha. One of their first references was found in the Guhyatiguhya Tantra. Interestingly, this text equates these 10 Mahavidyas to the 10 avataars of Vishnu. The goddesses are depicted in the very prototypical Tantric manner, each with a special message or significance. They are 10 kinds of knowledge (Vidya) personified, who help overcome different kinds of obstacles. While they are all considered emanations or manifestations of the Divine mother, Sati, each Mahavidya is an important deity in herself and is worshipped individually. Each has a separate Yantra, Mantra and function. Strangely enough, when they appear in this Mahavidya cluster, they do not seem to be as revered. A brief description of each Mahavidya is given below. Kali: Kali, the first terrible emanation of Sati is not only a part of the Mahavidyas, but was an older goddess brought into this fold. She stands for the eternity of time (the name Kali being derived from Kala,which means time). Her iconography has been discussed above in the section of Hindu Tantric warrior goddesses. Tara: Tara is also known as Ugratara or Neel Saraswati and looks very similar to Kali, except her accoutrements and a pregnant belly. The Vajrayana goddess, Blue Tara, is somewhat comparable to this Mahavidya, in terms of name and wrathful nature. Tara's serpent hair and bowl of fire/blood also stand her out. Tripura Sundari: This beautiful, 16-year-old Mahavidya, who embodies 16 kinds of desires, is also called Sri Vidya in the Tantric tradition. One of the myths surrounding her origin involve Shiva mocking Kali over her appearance and the Devi performing tapasya to get this alluring form. She has physical, subtle and supreme forms and is represented in dusky, red or golden complexions, depending on her form. Her iconography has been discussed in the section of benevolent goddesses. Bhuvaneshwari: Bhuvaneshwari is 'The Queen of the Universe' or one who embodies the cosmos. Also called Rajrajeshwari, this bright-complexioned, six (sometimes four) armed goddess is depicted as a queen. Seated on a lotus, wearing resplendent jewels, the goddess wields among other things a noose and a goad. As a nourishing goddess, she is sometimes shown holding a piece of fruit and with full breasts that ooze milk. She represents space like Kali represents time. Bagalamukhi/ Bagala: 'Bagala' literally translates to a crane but here it is implied as captivating. Thus, Bagalamukhi is one whose face can capture. She is also known as Pitambara due to her golden-yellow complexion, or even Brahmastra Roopini. She is represented as a beautiful woman in an aggressive stance. With a cudgel in one hands she smashes a demon's head (ignorance), while pulling out his tongue with her other hand. She may be shown having four hands or two, and could be sitting on a lotus or standing. She has a crescent moon adorning her brow and is attributed hypnotic powers. Chinnamasta: The iconography of Chinnamasta is the most violent not just among the 10 Mahavidyas, but in the entire Hindu pantheon. The red-skinned, two-armed goddess wields a scimitar in one hand and holds her severed head in another, while standing atop a copulating couple, usually identified with Kama and Rati. This shocking imagery is symbolic of the goddess' life giving and life taking powers at once, and explains the deep-rooted ritual of sacrifice associated with her. Other iconographic details about this Mahavidya have been discussed in the section of Destructive goddesses above. Dhumavati: This Tantric deity is also very unique in her iconography, with no other Hindu, Bon or Buddhist deity resembling her. Dhumavati is an old hag of a deity, who rides a horseless chariot and has the crow – an inauspicious symbol – associated with her. She is pictured as an ugly widow and is associated with all things adverse and anti-social, much like the goddesses Nirriti and Alakshmi. She represents the void after the dissolution of the Universe. Matangi: Matangi is considered the Tantric form of the goddess Saraswati and is hence seen with similar accoutrements, while being seated on a lotus. In her form as Raja Matangi, she is depicted with a veena, a book, a parrot and a club; as Uchchista Matangi, she has a noose, a goad, a sword and a kapala. She is called the Outcaste Goddess and is offered leftovers. She is a pictured as a green or dark colured 16-year old goddess who aids the pursuit of vidya. Kamala: Iconographically close the goddess Lakshmi, Kamala is the goddess of wealth and prosperity in the Tantric tradition. Much like the Gaja Lakshmi, she sits on a lotus, holds lotuses and bestows boons with her hands, and has elephants showering water/nectar on her from bejewelled pots. She is golden-complexioned and beautiful and is the least important deity in the Mahavidya tradition, because unlike Kali who liberates, Kamala binds one to material pleasures. Bhairavi: Even though a Mahavidya, Bhairavi is worshipped independently, and is a rather complex goddesses with up to 12 forms. In the benign form, when she is Tripura Bhairavi (left), she is a beautiful nurturing figure wearing a cresent moon on her crown, resplendent jewels, a munda-mala, and with four hands that carry may carry a pot of milk, a book, and a rosary. Bhairavi as the consort to Bhairava resembles Kali, is terrifying in appearance, is covered in snakes and skulls and carries a sword. In her most fearsome aspect (right), she is depicted with wild hair, riding a donkey, her mouth full of the blood of demons. She wears a tiger skin and may hold weapons like a scimitar, a trident, an axe and a thunderbolt. Sapta/ Ashta Matrikas: The Matrikas are an important deity cluster in the Tantric tradition. They are venerated in a group of seven in southern India, while Nepal worships a group of Eight. Sometimes, references to a group of 16 are also found. Those comprise Gauri, Padma, Shachi, Medha, Sabitri, Bijaya, Jaya, Devsena, Swadha, Swaha, Mata, Lokmata, Shanti, Pushti, Dhriti and Swosti. However, it is the cluster of seven or eight, which is popular. These strangely contradictory deities represent the fecund and destructive aspects of nature. They are associated with children's diseases. This group of eight goddesses find clear mention in various Puranas and the Mahabharata, according to Kinsley, while other scholars like Jagdish Narain Tiwari and Dilip Chakravati argue that these goddesses existed as early as the Vedic times, based on archaeological evidence. However, it is strongly suggested that this cluster belonged to the Dravidian Shakta tradition and was eventually incorporated into the major Hindu fold via the Tantric sect. Some even believe that the Matrika concept comes from the Shaiva school. While some others believe that local deities and Yakshinis were subsumed by the mainstream Hindus. Interestingly though, Vajrayana and Bon tantra seem to have totally omitted this deity cluster and created their own. Whatever their origin, the Matrikas find an important place in Hindu Tantric tradition despite their negative associations. However, on a metaphysical note, the matrikas can be symbolic of (negative) mental qualities, as the Varaha Purana states: • Yogesvari represents Kama or desire; • Maheswari, Krodha or anger • Vaishnavi lobha or covetousness • Brahmani, mada or pride, • Kaumari moha or illusion • Indrani, matsanya or faultfinding • Chamunda pasunya or tale bearing These seven are described briefly below. Brahmani: Also known as Brahmi, this matrika is Brahma's creative power or Shakti. Like Brahman, she has four faces and four (sometimes six) hands. She is yellow-hued and carries a rosary, a kamandalu, a book and a noose in her hands and one hand is in the varada mudra. Sometimes, she is depicted with a baby/child sitting on her lap – an element very common in matrika iconography, validating their 'motherly' natures. Vaishnavi: Vaishnavi is the female creative energy of Vishnu and is very similar to that principal Hindu deity. Like him, she is dark and beautiful and has four hands in which she bears the shankha (conch), chakra (disc), gada (mace) and padma (lotus). She is depicted sitting on Garuda, and wearing a vanamala, both of which are shared by Vishnu. Maheshwari: This matrika is the creative power of lord Shiva, and is also known by the names Raudri, Rudrani and Maheshi. She is white complexioned, and has three eyes. She has four (or six) arms, two of which are in the varada and the abhaya poses, while the two other hands she carry a trisula (trident), damru (drum) and an akashamala (rosary).She rides Nandi and sports a jatamukuta (a crown of matted locks). Indrani: As Indra's feminine principle, this Matrika is also known by names as Aindri, Mahendri, Shakri, Shachi and Vajri. A deep (red) hued goddess, Indrani rides a charging elephant and holds a vajra, a goad, a noose and a lotus stalk in her four hands. She is three eyed, but may sometimes have a thousand like Indra. She wears a Kirita Mukuta and sits under the Kalpaka tree. Kaumari: Kaumari is associated with Skanda or Kartikeya/Kumara and hence has names like Kumari and Karttikeyani. She has four or twelve arms in which she carries multiple weapons like the Danda (stick), Dhanus (bow), Bana (arrow), Dhwaja (flag), Ghanta (bell), Padma (lotus), Patra (bowl), and Parasu (axe) among other things. She rides a peacock much like Skanda and like him, is sometimes depicted with six heads. Her abode is under a fig tree. Chamunda: Unlike all other Matrikas, who represent the female energy of a male deity, Chamunda is the power of Devi Chandi. She is also called Chamundi or Charchika and resembles Chandi (or Kali) in her fearsome appearance. She is black-skinned and wears a garland of human skulls and carried a sword, a kapala, a severed head and a trishula. She rides a jackal, and sits on a corpse. She has drooping breasts, a sunken belly and blood drips out of her mouth. There is a cresent moon and a jata mukuta. Varahi: This dark complexioned goddess is the female energy of Varaha – the boar-man incarnation of Vishnu. Like Varaha, Varahi too has the head of a boar and the body of a human. Pot- bellied, she wears a Karanda Mukuta and has six arms. She holds a Danda (rod of punishment) or plough, goad, a Vajra or a sword, and a Panapatra in those hands. Sometimes, she carries a bell, chakra, chamara (a yak's tail) and a bow. She is also among the 64 Yoginis (discussed later). The Vajrayana goddesses Vajravarahi and Marichi are clear derivations of this deity, with unmistakable boar motifs. Varahi is the suffix in Vajravarahi's name, and though she is not represented often with a primary boar head, one of her three heads is a boar's. She even rides a a boar or a chariot pulled by boars. The goddess Marichi shares similar iconography. Narsimhi: Narsimhi is a 'disputed' eight matrika, with some sects recognising her and some not. As her name suggests, she is the female principle of Vishu's anthropomorphic avataar, Narsimha. With the head of a lion and the body of a woman, Narsimhi 'throws the stars into disarray by shaking her lion mane.' She holds the same accoutrements as Vishnu – a sankha (conch), a chakra (disc), a gada (mace) and a padma (a lotus) in her four hands. Narsimhi too has a Buddhist counterpart in the lion headed dakini, Singdongma (also spelled Sengdongma). She is a female Dharma Protector regarded as a wrathful emanation of Guru Rinpoche / Padmasambhava. She is dark blue in colour, has one face and two arms in which she holds a chopper and a bowlful of blood. In the crook of her arm rests a khatvanga, and she is adorned with skulls and bones. While the iconographic details may vary from Narsimhi, the concept is clearly inspired by the eighth matrika. There are many references to be found of other matrikas from the shodash (16) set, like Yami (Yama's power), Yogeshwari (Kama's power), Gananayika (Ganesha'a power), Mahalakshmi, Savitri and Vijaya, but the the ones described above are the most commonly accepted. The shodash matrikas are popular among the Ganapatya sect. Iconographically, the Matrikas are significant because only here are references to anthropomorphic Hindu female deities found. Chausathi (64) Yoginis: Not much is spoken or written about Yoginis in contemporary society, but the cult of yoginis was a strong and popular one during the peak of Tantrism (around 8 AD), especially with the Kaula and Kapalika sects. While the word Yogini is feminine for Yogi and simply means a female practitioner of Yoga, Yoginis are much more than just spiritual seekers. They are higher spirits, sorceresses, or even divine beings. The Chaushathi Yogini temple at Hirapur in Odisha The lead Yoginis are identified with the Matrikas (see Varahi in Matrikas section), and their mythological back story is how they are emanations of Devi and helped her defeat the demons Shumbha and Nishumbha. Each Matrika has 8 or 9 attendant yoginis. Depending on the number of matrikas [the number varying from 6 to 16], the Yogini cluster changes in size. But sets of 64 and 81 Yoginis are most popular. The Chaushathi Yogini cult is especially strong in Odisha with a temples in Hirapur and Ranipur-Jharial. The other such temples are in Madhya Pradesh in Khajuraho and Bhedaghat. There is no uniformity in the iconography of Yoginis in these temples, where some are depicted on Vahanas, some sitting, some standing and some in dancing poses. However, they are seen as enchantresses with naked voluptuous bodies, adorned with jewels. About their functions, Dr. Janmejaya Choudhury says, “The yoginis have been classified in different texts according to their functions, names and rituals attached to them. The Yoginis are sixty-four in number and are classified as Sahaja, Kulaja and Antyeja. Another text divides yoginis into Ksetraja, Pithaja, Yogaja and Mantraja based on different principles. The first two groups of the second classification have association with the sacred pithas; the yogojas are propitiated with yogic practices and the mantrajas with Mantras.” The names and primary descriptions of the 64 Yoginis in Hirapur is as under: 1. Kali Nitya Siddhamata – Mother of the Siddhas 2. Kapalini Nagalakshmi – Lakshmi of Naga 3. Kula Devi Svarnadeha – Of the golden body 4. Kurukulla Rasanatha – Ruler of physical pleasure 5. Virodhini Vilasini – Residing within Self 6. Vipracitta Rakta Priya – Who loves passion 7. Ugra Rakta Bhoga Rupa – We enjoys passion in the form 8. Ugraprabha Sukranatha – Ruler of the seminal essence 9. Dipa Muktih Rakta Deha – Liberation through the body of passion 10. Nila Bhukti Rakta Sparsha – Who receives pleasure from the touch of passion 11. Ghana MahaJagadamba – Great Mother of the world 12. Balaka Kama Sevita – Attended by the God of Love 13. Matra Devi Atma Vidya – The Goddess with knowledge of Self 14. Mudra Poorna Rajatkripa – Who completely radiates compassion 15. Mita Tantra Kaula Diksha – Initiator of the Tantric Kaula Path 16. Maha Kali Siddhesvari – Queen of the Siddhas 17. Kameshvari Sarvashakti – Shakti of All 18. Bhagamalini Tarini – Who delivers from calamity 19. Nityaklinna Tantraprita – Fond of Tantra 20. Bherunda Tatva Uttama – Essence of Sexual Fluid 21. Vahnivasini Sasini – Radiance of the moon 22. Mahavajreshvari Rakta Devi – Sensuous Goddess 23. Shivaduti Adi Shakti – Original Feminine Energy 24. Tvarita Urdvaretada – Giver of the Upward Ecstasy 25. Kulasundari Kamini – Desire Itself 26. Nitya Jnana Svarupini - The Great form of Wisdom 27. Nilapataka Siddhida – Giver of perfection 28. Vijaya Devi Vasuda – Goddess who is Giver of wealth 29. Sarvamangala Tantrada – Who Bestows Tantra 30. Jvalamalini Nagini – Snake Goddess 31. Chitra Devi Rakta Puja – Goddess who is worshipped with passion 32. Lalita Kanya Sukrada – Pure Maiden 33. Dakini Madasalini – Shining with rapture 34. Rakini Papa Rasini – Destroyer of sin 35. Lakini Sarvatantresi – Ruler of all tantras 36. Kakini Naganartaki – Who dances with Nagaraj 37. Sakini Mitrarupini – Friend 38. Hakini Manoharini – Mind Stealer 39. Tara Yoga Rakta Poorna – Who in union bestows complete passion 40. Shodashi Latika Devi – Creeper Goddess 41. Bhuvaneshwari Mantrini – Energy of all mantras 42. Chinamasta Yoni Vega – With dripping yoni 43. Bhairavi Satya Sukrini – Supreme Purity 44. Dhumavati Kundalini – Primordial energy of self 45. Bagla Muki Guru Moorthi – Form of the guru 46. Matangi Kanta Yuvati – Youthful beauty enhanced by Love 47. Kamala Sukla Samsthita – Residing in the Semen 48. Prakriti Brahmandri Devi – Goddess residing in the crown 49. Gayatri Nitya Chitrini – Eternal core of the energy of Self 50. Mohini Matta Yogini – Intoxicated 51. Saraswathi Svarga Devi – Goddess of Heaven 52. Annapoorni Shiva Samgi – With Shiva 53. Narasimhi Vamadevi – Beloved Goddess 54. Ganga Yoni Svarupini – Energy of the Yoni 55. Aprajita Samaptida – Who Bestows Orgasm 56. Camunda Parianganatha – Ruler of sacred erection 57. Varahi Satya Ekakini – Oneness of Truth 58. Kaumari Kriya Shaktini – Energy of dedicated action 59. Indrani Mukti Niyantri – Guide to bliss 60. Brahmani Ananda Moorthi – Image of bliss 61. Vaishnavi Satya Rupini – Form of truth 62. Mahesvari Para Shakti – Transcendental energy 63. Lakshmi Monoramayoni – With beautiful yoni 64. Durga Satchitananda – Truth consciousness and bliss Dakinis: In the Hindu context, Dakinis are equivalent to malevolent spirits and are regarded with fear. They are sometimes called shakinis or kakinis, and are said to carry the souls of the dead. They often appear in a cluster of 108 – a number highly significant, even sacred, among the Hindus. The Lord Hanuman is evoked for protection against them. In Tantra, different dakinis are said to have power over the different energy centres or chakras in the body. In Buddhist tantra and Bon, however, Dakinis are revered beings, as will be discussed in the next section. Ashta (8) Siddhis: As discussed in an earlier section, in Tantra, Siddhas are supernatural achievements, acquired through rigorous spiritual practices. These Siddhis are named Anima, Mahima, Garima, Laghima, Prapti, Prakamya, Isitva, and Vashitva. But the Siddhas or powers are sometimes personified, especially in Ganapatya Tantra. These Siddhis – 8 in number – are often said to be Ganesha's wives or consorts. The Ashta Sakhis of Krishna are a similar concept, whereby the eight divine companions appear together. They are Lalita, Visakha, Citra, Campakamallika,Tungavidya, Indulekha, Rangadevi and Sudevi. Nava (9) Durga: The nine forms of Durga are especially venerated in the Kaula Marga of Tantra and Shaktism in general. The nine manifestations of Durga are Śhailaputrī, Brahmachāriṇī, Chandraghaṇṭā, Kuṣhmāṇḍā, Skandamātā, Kārtyāyanī, Kālarātrī, Mahāgaurī and Siddhidātrī, who are worshipped during the nine days of Navratri. Among these, the goddesses Siddhidatri and Kaalaratri are especially important for Tantrics. Kalaratri is a form of Bhairavi – a Mahavidya – and has been discussed above. The goddess Siddhidatri is worshipped for the attainment of Siddhas or powers. Para – Apara – Parapara: The Kashmir Shaivism school follows the Trika marg or a three fold system, comprising the realities of Shiva, Shakti and Nara. These realities are manifested through energies that are transcendent, imminent and transcendent-imminent. These three energies are called Para, Apara and Parapara respectively. Personified, these goddesses are associated with Kali. Para is depicted in a benevolent form, while Parapara and Apara are shown as wild and terrifying, wearing a garland of skulls, and brandishing the khatvanga. DEITY CLUSTERS IN VAJRAYANA/ BUDDHIST TANTRA Dakinis/ Khandromas: In Tibetan Buddhism, Dakinis are called Khandromas and they assume a very important place in the Vajrayana pantheon. The word Dakini translates to 'one who traverses the skies', and she could be a good or malevolent spirit. The male equivalent of a Dakini is a Daka. However, it is Dakinis of several classes who are repeatedly referred to Vajrayana Tantra. Judith Simmer-Brown classifies dakinis into four categories, based on teachings of Tibetan lamas: 1. Prajnaparamita or the secret class of dakinis, which represent voidness (Tibetan yub chen mo)Yidams or the inner class of dakinis, who are meditational deities 2. Outer Dakinis, who represent the subtle body 3. Outer-outer Dakinis, who represent the human body Dakinis can also be classified on the basis of Trikaya (3 bodies of Buddha): 1. Dharmakaya Dakinis, who is Samantabhadri and in whom all things occur 2. Sambhogakaya Dakinis, who represent Yidams 3. Nirmanakaya Dakinis who are the highest female spiritual practitioners Broadly speaking, the two main kinds are Wisdom Dakinis and Worldly Dakinis. The wisdom dakinis are often emanations of primary deities and are considered Bodhisattvas. Tara, Vajrayogini and Ekajati are also referred to as Dakinis. These major goddesses have secret dakini aspects, like Kechari is of Vajrayogini's. With an explicit sexual pose, she is reminiscent of the Hindu icon of Lajjagauri, who too is seen with her legs spread in sexual invitation/ preparation for childbirth. Further, in Guhyagyana Tantra, there is a mention of 8 Boddhisattva Dakinis, who appear during Bardo – a period death and rebirth. They are: Lasya, Pushpa, Mala, Dhupa, Gita, Aloka, Gandha, and Naivedya/ Nartya. These dakinis have wrathful zoomorphic forms too, and they are called the 8 Tramen. They are: Simhamukha, Vyaghrimukha, Srigalamukha, Shvanamukha, Gridhamukh, Kangkamukha, Kakamukha and Ulumukha. Simhamukha or lion-faced tramen (left) and Ulumukha/ Ulukamukha or the owl-faced tramen (right) The worldly dakinis may refer to evil spirits, sometimes, even cannibalistic, who roam the worlds troubling people, akin to the Hindu concept. However, the greater and more positive association of worldly dakinis is with great female spiritual practitioners on earth. The myths, however, surround the Wisdom or Dharma Dakinis. Wisdom Dakinis may be benevolent or wrathful in appearance. They are often linked to the five Buddhas and can be identified according to their colour, appearance and function. Some of them are: Buddha-Dakini Akashadhatvishvari: She is white in colour, ether is her element and she represents the Wisdom of Universal Law. Vajra-Dakini: She is blue, water is her element and she represents Mirror Wisdom Ratna-Dakini: She is yellow, her element, earth and her Wisdom, that of Equality. Padma-Dakini Pandaravasini: She is red-skinned, her element is fire and she represents the Wisdom of Distinction & Discernment. Karma-Dakini Samayatara: This Green dakini's element is air and she represents the Wisdom of Action & Accomplishment. 28 Ishwaris (Yoginis): As in Hinduism, Yoginis hold an important position in Vajrayana Buddhism. They are especially important in the Heruka Mandala, where they appear as 4 Great Yoginis and 24 Heroines of the Commitment Wheel, performing certain functions. The 4 Great Yoginis are Vajradakini, Vajralama, Khandarohi and Vajrarupini. The other Yoginis are divided into four groups of six each, depending on their functions. They are: Pacifying Yoginis: Rakshasi (white), Brahmi, Mahadevi, Lobha, Kumari, Indrani Yoginis 'increasing activity': Vajra, Shanti, Amrita, Chandra, Danda, Rakshasi (dark yellow) Yoginis of Magnetising: Bhakshini, Rati, Mahabala, Rakshasi (pale red), Kama, Vasuraksha Yoginis of subjugating: Vayudevi, Nari, Varahi, Nanda, Mahahastini, Varunadevi It is interesting to note that many yoginis from this Buddhist deity share the Matrika nomenclature, but then yoginis and matrikas have always been fluid territory. 4 Gatekeepers: In Guhyagarbhatantra of Vajrayana, there is a description of 100 peaceful and wrathful deities that manifest themselves to a soul during bardo – the period between to lives. There is a class of 42 peaceful deities of which there are eight gatekeepers and their shaktis. These Shaktis are: 1. Ankusha: Also called 'Horse Face' or 'Iron Hook', guarding the east gate and in union with Vijaya/Achala 2. Pasha: Also called 'Sow Face' or 'the Noose', guarding the south gate and in union with Yamantaka 3. Shrinkhala: Also called 'Lion Face' or 'Iron Chain', guarding the west gate and in union with Hayagriva 4. Ghanta: Also called 'Wolf Face' or 'the Bell', guarding the north gate and in union with Amritakundali. There is also a group of four female outer gatekeepers in the pantheon of 42 peaceful deities and are anthropomorphic too, with bird heads and female bodies. They are called Vajratejasi, Vajramogha, Vajraloka and Vajravetall. 8 Gaurimas/ Kerimas: This cluster of eight female wrathful deities who surround the Heruka couples comprises Gauri, Pukkasi, Chaurimatrika, Ghasmari, Pramoha, Chandali, Vetali, and Shmashani. The 5 sisters of long life: The central deity is called Tashi Tseringma, who, along with her sisters has the special blessing power: long-life, wealth, magical ability, nutrition, and fortuity. Tashi Tseringma is a a white-complexioned deity, who rides a snow lioness. She has one face and two arms in which she holds a vajra and a 'vase of long life'. The other sisters are: Tingi Shalzangma – She is blue in colour, rides a mare, and in her two hands holds a mirror and a banner of the gods. Miyo Lozangma – She is yellow in colour, rides a tigress, and in her two hands holds a bowl of delicious foods and a mongoose. Chöpen Drinzangma – She is red in colour, rides a hind, and in her two arms holds a wish-fulfilling jewel and a jewel-encrusted casket. Täkar Drozangma – She is green on colour, rides a female turquoise dragon, and in her two arms holds a bushel of durva grass and a snake noose. This cluster of female Vajrayana deities resemble Hindu Tantric goddesses in the matter of mounts. Mounts or vahanas are very common in Hindu religious iconography, but not much is observed in the Buddhist pantheon. This cluster stands out with each deity riding a mount – the tiger and the lion being most recognisable in the Hindu context. 12 Tenma Sisters (Tenma Chunyi): The twelve Tenma sisters are the traditional guardian deities of Tibet and are considered subordinates to the Five Sisters of Long Life, and like them ride mounts. They were defeated by Guru Rinpoche and then bound by his oath to protect Tibet and brought under the Tibetan Buddhist fold. These mountain goddesses are divided into three groups of four – 4 female demons (dumo), 4 medicine deities (menmos) and 4 yakshinis (nojins). The names of the12 goddesses differ from school to school, but given below is a listing by Tukdrub Yangdü, a Buddhist Tantric scripture authored by Ratna Lingpa. Four dümo: Dorje Kundrakma, Dorje Yama Kyong, Dorje Kuntu Zang, Dorje Gek kyi Tso Four nöjin: Dorje Yudrönma, Dorje Palgyi Yum, Dorje Lumo, Dorje Drakmo Gyal Four menmo: Dorje Bö Kham Kyong, Dorje Menchikma, Dorje Zulema, Dorje Yarmo Sil DEITY CLUSTERS IN BON TANTRA Since the 12 Tenmas are ancient deities of Tibet, they are recognised by the practitioners of Bon Tantra as well. Bon Tantra also has similar deity clusters, like accompanying goddesses and khandros/dakinis. We take a look at them below. 4 Great Mothers with Sherab Chamma: The principal Bon deity, the mother goddess Sherab Chamma is often depicted with four other female deities, who are companions in her mandala. These are the Four Great Mothers and they all have one face and two arms in which they hold khatvanga and other accoutrements. They are called Great Mother Tabchen Derdrolma, Great Mother Namkha Dzödzinma, Great Mother Tugje Chamma and Great Mother Natsog Kundragma. Dakinis: Dakinis are important to the Bon tradition as it is believed that root text of Mother Tantra, which was shared by an 'Eternal Divine Language' was transmitted into Sanskrit by a retinue of skygoers or dakinis. There are various classes of Dakinis including Wisom Dakinis, Action Dakinis and Meat-Eating Dakinis. The prominent dakinis are Kalpa Zangmo, Zangza Ringtsun and Thugje Khundul. CONCLUSION The Tantric tradition is as rich as it is complex, whether in Hinduism, Buddhism or Bon/ Benism. The body of Tantric scriptures is vast and when accompanied by incredible iconography, makes its philosophy extremely layered. The female principle is central to Tantric practice and impossible without it. In fact, Tantra places the divine feminine on a seemingly higher place than the male aspect, with a vast body of Tantric texts dedicated to female deities. In this regard, Tantra is the most gender-equal religion, as opposed to the misogynistic Vedic-Brahmanic religions. Tantra does not discriminate between its male and female adherents. In this paper, I have taken a brief look at major female Tantric deities as Consorts, Mother/Creator Goddesses, Destructive/Warrior Goddesses and Clusters of Goddesses. A casual look at the iconography may offer a lot of violent imagery, but these fierce Tantric goddesses are symbols of true liberation. They are unashamed in their nakedness, and unafraid in their violence. Shakti is the cosmic life force, which manifests in numerous forms alongside Purusha. Shakti is found in many rupas (forms) – from benevolent, to protective to malevolent – in the Tantric sects of all religions. These goddesses are independent, beautiful, and fierce all at once, reflecting the power and potential of a woman. That the Shakti iconography originated in India with Hindu Tantra, and travelled to Tibet and beyond where it was adopted and adapted by Vajrayana and Bon is a widely accepted idea, there is some debate about its origins. But it is clear to see the mutual influence with several common names and similar icons, especially in Hindu Tantra and Vajrayana Buddhism. Bon Tantra, on the other hand, while being influenced by Vajrayana, seems far removed from Hindu Tantric ideas. But the bottom line is that Tantra is extremely empowering for women through its ideas, practices and especially its icons. References 1. Hindu Goddesses: Vision of the Divine Feminine in the Hindu Religious Tradition by David Kinsley 2. The Power of Tantra: Religion, Sexuality and the Politics of South Asian Studies by Hugh B. Urban 3. The Tantric Way: Art, Science, Ritual by Ajit Mookerjee and Madhu Khanna 4. Tantra in Practice by David Gordon White 5. Buddhist Goddesses in India by Miranda Shaw 6. www.himalayanart.org 7. www.exoticindiaart.com 8. Series of articles from the Odisha Review, an e-magazine published by the Government of Odisha with papers about its art, literature and culture, among other things.