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(Full Paper) THE ICONOGRAPHY OF TSONG KHA PA IN THE BLA MA MCHOD PA TSHOGS ZHING, THE SPIRITUAL FIELD FOR THE ACCUMULATION OF MERITS BY OFFERING AND DEVOTION TO THE GURU Filippo Lunardo (published in Rossi, D. (ed.) (2018), Dialetics Of Buddhist Metaphisics in East Asia. Tibet and Japan: an inedited comparison. Procedings of an interdisciplinary workshop held at Sapienza University of Rome, Supplemento n.1 alla Rivista degli Studi Orientali (RSO), Nuova Serie, Volume XCI. Fabrizio Serra Editore, Pisa – Roma, pp. 53-70) In the dGe lugs Tibetan Buddhist tradition, the Bla ma mchod pa – an ensemble of tantric literatures, liturgies, and meditative practices – is a particularly revered form of guruyoga related to the highest tantric systems of the yoganiruttara classes. One of the main instructions related to the Bla ma mchod pa is the visualization of the merit field, the tshogs zhing. This concerns the visualization of a spiritual field of masters and deities gathered together to bestow blessings and knowledge to the adept. The instructions related to the visualization of the tshogs zhing gave birth to complex artistic representations based on iconographies which are still relatively little studied. The reference figure of the assembly of the tshogs zhing is Tsong kha pa Blo bzang Grags pa (1357-1419), the founder of the dGe lugs tradition, known in this context as Bla ma Blo bzang Thub dbang rDo rje ’chang. The figure of the founder is characterized by special symbols, uncommon to other dGe lugs tantric or non-tantric meditation systems. The present paper intends to provide an iconological study of the artistic representation of Tsong kha pa as depicted in the Bla ma mchod pa tshogs zhings with special attention to the literary sources and oral instructions connected to that iconography. Keywords: Tibetan Buddhist, Tsong kha pa, iconography of the Refuge Tree. Introduction The present contribution intends to provide an iconological study of a particular representation of Tsong kha pa Blo bzang Grags pa (1357-1419), the founder of the dGe lugs Tibetan Buddhist tradition. In the dGe lugs tradition, a particular representation of Tsong kha pa shows him as both an incarnation and manifestation of the experiences of dharmakāya and rūpakāya, the latter directly shown through the careful depiction of the ideal perfect shape of the guru’s figure. 1 This particular iconography where the founder of the dGe lugs pas is known as Bla ma Blo bzang Thub dbang rDo rje ’chang is connected to the specific tantric literature of the Bla ma mchod pa (skt. gurupūjā),2 a tantric system and a liturgy classifed as a yoganiruttara’s method. 3 This 1 This means that the guru is considered as a holy being incarnating all truths and virtues. The depiction of his figure represents both the depiction of the manifestation of the rūpakāya, the conventional truth of the body of form usually divided in nirmāṇakāya and saṃbhogakāya, and the presentation of all his compassionate activities. This is possible because each manifestation, each form (rūpa) comes from the infinite potential of the dharmakāya, which is actualized for the beneft of sentient beings. 2 As stated by Erberto Lo Bue, we have to consider that the principal source in the creation of any religious image is always a religious text. See Lo Bue 1991: 24. 3 The Sanskrit term anuttarayogatantra is apparently a reconstruction based on a Tibetan misunderstanding of the sanskrit terms yogānuttara/yoganiruttara, tib. rnal ’byor bla na med kyi ’rgyud, The Tantra of the Ultimate [Division] of the Yoga [class], as translated by Alexis Sanderson. The term yoganiruttarayogatantra is not found in surviving Indian Buddhist tantric texts and in no Sanskrit enumerations of the different tantric classes. Yogānuttaratantra, too, seems not to be an attested term in Sanskrit sources, as suggested by Elizabeth English quoting Harunaga Isaacson. For what concerns the Sanskrit terms yogottara and yoginītantra see English, 2002: 3-6; Isaacson, 1998: 28, n.11; Orofino, 2001: 545; Samuel, 2008: 259, n. 40; Sanderson, 1994: 98, n.1. system considers the representation of the guru as the main figure in a more complex image known as tshogs zhing, a spiritual field for the accumulation of merits and virtues. 4 Bla ma mchod pa literature is related to rites and meditative practices falling under the rubric of guruyoga. The Bla ma mchod pa literature exalts the devotional aspect of the relationship with the guru, who should be considered not only as the historical figure of the philosopher or the tantric adept, nor as a ‘simple’ embodiment of all the great guru qualities of the philosophical and tantric Indian and Tibetan lineages, but mainly as the embodiment, and revelation, of the coincidence of dharmakāya and rūpakāya. Fig. 1. Detail from a wall-painting in the new ’Du khang of dPe thub (Spituk) Monastery, Ladakh. The guru is visualized as the main deity of the spiritual field for the accumulation of merits, the tshogs zhing, to which different kinds of offerings (skt. pūjā, tib. mchod pa) are addressed5 in order to receive spiritual blessings (sbyin rlabs), destroy obstacles on the spiritual path, and achieve spiritual goals. The Bla ma mchod pa praxis leads the adept to the mystical union with the guru through meditative practices related to mahāyāna sūtras and tantras of the yoganiruttara class. In particular, the Bla ma mchod pa instructions, in order to lead to an undifferentiated condition in the nature of the mind joining together the mental continuums of the adept, the guru, and the main yi dam of the adept, guide the practitioner along a path that unifies the main aspects, meditative and technical, of three cycles of the yoganiruttara class, namely the Vajrabhairavatantra, the Cakrasaṃvaratantra, and the Guhyasamājatantra. For the dGe lugs pas, the latter one has to be considered as the principal one among the three. For this reason the Bla ma mchod pa is regarded by dge lugs pa adepts as a tantric praxis of the highest level, a pith instruction, a man ngag; in order to approach it, a practitioner must undergo all the empowerments prescribed by the yoganiruttara class of tantras. In the dGe lugs tradition, the Bla ma mchod pa man ngag was orally transmitted by a specifc lineage named dGa’ ldan sNyan rgyud, 6 the oral transmission lineage of dGa’ldan, a lineage of adept monks initiated by Tsong kha pa himself. This same lineage is said to have orally preserved the man ngags of gCod and Mahāmudrā. The first Paṇ chen Bla ma Blo bzang Chos kyi rGyal mtshan (1567-1662), beloved master of the great fifth Dalai Lama Ngag dbang Blo bzang rGya mtsho (1617-1682), was the first to put in writing the man ngag of the Bla ma mchod pa. The ensuing dge lugs pa exegetical literature on the topic seems completely based on 4 Tshogs (assembly, group, mass, to collect, to gather, etc.) concerns the accumulation of spiritual merits achieved through vision and relation with an assembly of gurus and deities, gathered together as a complex spiritual field (zhing, intended as a real farming field). For the etymology of the two terms of the compound see Lunardo forthcoming 2018; 2012: 63; 2014: 314; Yablonsky 2000: 49-50 and 63-64. Concerning the role of the guru as trait d’union among the adept and the paramparās of masters and classes of deities see Jackson, 1992. 5 See Makransky 1996. 6 Willis 1995. the work of this master. The first Paṇ chen Bla ma also put in writing the dge lugs pa Mahāmudrā instructions related to sūtra traditions.7 The particular elements used to create the specific depiction of Tsong kha pa in the context of the Bla ma mchod pa are not just meant to provide the adept with a sense of devotion and faith, intended as the engine of the path to enlightenment. These elements are meant to provide a true pure symbol8 which by itself has the power to evoke, in the continuum of the adept and beyond any word, the complex and complete experience of awareness melted into a single taste with his object, namely, emptiness; that is to say, using a tantric language, the resulting wisdom of great bliss and emptiness. Since this Tsong kha pa-Bla ma Blo bzang Thub dbang rDo rje ’chang depiction is a vehicle to express an idea, an experience, and not a mere representation of a person, even if standardized and idealized, it can properly be defined as a symbol, or, more appropriately, as a combination of a personifcation and a symbol. 9 Since in the tantric context manipulations of physical experiences, both coarse and subtle, can be a fundamental vehicle for the expression of the subtlest aspect of the mind, 10 this would explain the ease of using a physical shape to evoke an idea which transcends all forms and concepts; and since the guru is the one to embody the direct manifestation of that inconceivable experience, in the tantric Buddhist world the idea of the guru himself is universally meant as an experience beyond the ordinary world of the conventional truth, an experience that is considered to be essential for the awakening and recognizable at different levels by yogis of various spiritual achievements. In the context of the Bla ma mchod pa, the image of Tsong kha pa mainly symbolizes a state of being inconceivable to a mind that is still attempting to deconstruct an identity by using a mere conceptual method. The Bla ma mchod pa visualization of Tsong kha pa should mainly be understood as the spiritual goal that the adept will reach at the end of his training. The meaning of the figure of the root guru of the tradition has to be perceived as the refection of the adept’s own pure being, already present in a potential form but still lost in an illusory game of real and unreal, truth and non-truth, awakening and ignorance. This is the meaning of the tantric experience of the union of the mind continuum of the guru and the disciple, a sort of ‘contact’ through which the adept experiences the purest spiritual experience of his guru. This ‘contact’ allows the adept to directly, or at least quickly, realize the true nature of the mind and phenomena; such an experience is the innermost sense of the guruyoga practices. All tibetan Buddhist traditions define uniting the mind of the adept with the mind of the guru the ‘root’ of the Vajrayāna and the essence of all paths. As a matter of fact, the visualization of the guru implies direct contact with the object of meditation. This contact is not just meant as a passive visualization of something, but acts as a gate that leads to a special way of knowing. The adept meets the guru and at the same time the guru sees the adept. This encounter, through the transference of special characters and powers of transformation from the guru to the adept, allows the practitioner to recognize in himself the nature of the guru’s mental continuum. This is an experience of unity that leads to the practitioner’s deepest understanding of his own nature. In addition, this experience also leads to the contact with the practitioner’s innermost transformative spiritual potential, to be actualized through the yoganiruttara special instructions.11 That does not mean that in the Bla ma mchod pa experience there is not a path based on introductory rites (sngon ’gro), meditational and liturgical praxis, prayers, and acts of devotion. 12 The image of Tsong kha pa 7 Dalai Lama and Berzin 1997. The symbol, as an external expression of a higher truth, is what directly evokes a reality which would be obscured by language limitations. The special sphere of the existence of the symbol seems to be a religious world for which an experience transcends a mere visible perception of a phenomenon. The symbol represents a proper way for religious understanding and a proper form through which a religion expresses itself. See Bellinger 1991: 800; Cooper 1987: 7-9. 9 Erwin Panofsky defines the discovering and interpretation of symbolic values in works of art as the object of what can be defined iconology as opposed to iconography. He underlines this fact by analyzing the intrinsic meaning or content of a work of art, cognizable through underlying principles which reveal “the basic attitude of a nation, a period, a class, a religious or philosophical persuasion qualifed by one personality and condensed into one work.” See Panofsky 1955: 3031. 10 This in particular concerns the two aspects of bskyed rim and rdzogs rim of the yoganiruttara tantric cycles. 11 See, e.g. the essay of Lawrence Babb (1981) on the nature and power of visual interaction in Hinduism. 12 This sense of the path is understood as a facet of a dimension that is considered ‘conventional’ and related to the time and to the sense of graduality. In the tantric context, this is not to be considered as opposite to a ‘real’ dimension linked 8 itself, in this context, is also meant to provide the adepts with a sort of ‘hidden road map’ to follow the deepest instructions based on sūtra and yoganiruttara tantric methods and techniques. The same image, paradoxically presented as a sngon ’gro, will be understood in diferent ways by adepts of diferent levels in the acknowledgment of the experiences, as expected within the context of the Bla ma mchod pa system. Concerning meditation on the guru and the spiritual relationship with him through the tool of visualization, it has never been pointed out so far that the tantric Buddhist methods could be related to the ancient Indian Buddhist idea of the buddhānusmṛti.13 Buddhānusmṛti, in fact, indicates an experience of a continuous, repeated focusing on a Buddha image, originally a Śākyamuni image. It concerns full mindfulness (skt. smṛti, tib. dran pa) of the figure of the Buddha, originally intended as a way to recollect all his virtues in the mindstream of the practitioner. In Pāli literature, this recollection of the virtues of the Buddha was intended as a gateway for transformative meditational absorption, a preparation for more advanced states of dhyāna. Buddhānusmṛti was thus known in the Buddhist tradition as the recollection of the Buddha; the remembrance of the Buddha; the commemoration of the Buddha; the calling to mind of the Buddha; the meditation on the Buddha. The mahāyāna development of this experience – with the visualization of a Buddha’s body and the concern of the empty nature of such an experience – laid the foundation for subsequent tantric experiences. In the case in question, it consists of an experience based on an inner transformative process and the gathering of spiritual merits due to the presence of the guru in the meditational experience of a practitioner.14 The Bla ma mchod pa and the tshogs zhing In the Indo-Tibetan tantric traditions, the guru embodies the first and most important expression of the ultimate nature of phenomena and of the mind. His body and actions express the compassionate aspect of an enlightened being, definable as ‘conventional’ and illusory from the point of view of the so-called ultimate truth.15 Through to an absolute truth that is empty of characterization or conceptual formulation but as a pure manifestation of the purest exalted mind of bliss and emptiness, the goal of each tantra of the yoganiruttara class. Moreover, in the dge lugs pa tantric and non-tantric systems, a structured and gradual path is viewed as an indispensable tool for spiritual practitioners living in the ordinary world and for yogis still in training. 13 In his essay on the buddhānusmṛti, Paul Harrison, quoting the Vajrayāna experience, does not mention the visualization of the guru; he speaks about the devayoga and the spiritual relationship with the deities as a special tantric development of the mahāyāna experiences concerning the figures of the bodhisattvas. See Harrison 1992: 225-227. 14 In Pāli literature, buddhānusmṛti is known as buddānussati, where anussati means ‘recollection’. The recollection of the Buddha recurred in lists of three, six, or ten anussati. Buddhaghoṣa (fifth century CE), in his Visuddhimagga, explains that the tenfold set is a component of 38 or 40 meditation subjects. Originally, the anussati consisted in the recitation during meditation of a formula known as ‘the ten epithets’, which was intended to recall the virtues of the Buddha. Buddhaghoṣa explains that recalling the Buddha to mind through his virtues produces a state of absence of mental and physical discomfort, a state of stability and bliss. Although the buddhānussati produces full achievement of faith, mindfulness, wisdom, and merits, it should be considered as a foundation for more advanced states of meditational absorption. In the Mahāyāna tradition, meditations on Buddha through ritual formulas and visualizations of the Buddha’s forms are known since the second century CE. Paul Harrison quotes the Pratyutpannabuddhasammukhavāsthitasamādhisūtra, also known as the Buddhānusmṛtisamādhisūtra, translated into the Chinese language by the Indo-Scythian Lokakṣema in 179 CE. The sūtra describes special techniques to directly encounter Buddhas of the present, among which Amitābha is considered the most prominent one. The need experienced by mahāyāna practitioners to directly meet Buddhas such as Amitābha was connected with the prospect of receiving teachings in a special pure dimension. Nevertheless, the Pratyutpannabuddhasammukhavāsthitasamādhisūtra advises practitioners to never objectify this kind of vision but to realize the empty nature of the experience in relation to the Prajñāpāramitāsūtras instructions. Besides the core of the original Pāli instructions related to the formula of the ten epithets, the buddhānusmṛti experience was related to the visualization of a Buddha’s body and to the instruction for experiencing emptiness. Therefore, from a ‘simple’ gateway for an advanced state of meditation, it successively became a tool for perceiving the true nature of phenomena; this later development became the root for understanding the buddhānusmṛti in the tantric experience of the relationship between a guru and his disciples or following adepts. See Harrison op. cit.: 215-222. 15 Cf. note 12. this aspect he expresses the power of an enlightened mind for the sake of sentient beings, no matter what their diferent levels of spiritual status may be. The yi dams (skt. iṣṭadevatā), chief meditational deities of tantric practitioners, also appear and act in the mental continuum of the adepts due to the power and the blessings, sbyin rlabs, of the guru. Consequently, the artistic representation of a religious master, and especially that of a founder or holder of a spiritual lineage, is one of the most employed themes for representing both a path leading to enlightenment and the experience of enlightenment itself. As shown by David Jackson, traditional artworks in Tibet undergo a subdivision based on the dimensions of body, speech, and mind of an enlightened being. The representations of masters and yi dams, for example, are recognized as ‘the support of the body’, sku rten, and as far as painting is concerned, they can be classifed as the first of the five classes of themes based on major specifc functions. 16 Fig.2 The tshogs zhing. Courtesy of ISMEO of Rome. 16 David Jackson specifies that this is not a Tibetan traditional classification. However, based on function, other classes should be narrative paintings placing figures in different historical or legendary contexts; didactic paintings representing religious truths, such as the Srid pa’i ’Khor lo, the wheel of existence; representations of astrological diagrams and oferings, in particular those dedicated to protective deities. See Jackson 2005: 6. Even if it is considered a preliminary practice, sngon ’gro, the visualization of the tshogs zhing represents, symbolizes, and summarizes the entire instruction of the Bla ma mchod pa. The root guru, Tsong kha pa,17 is the main figure of the assembly of the merit field. The texts confirm that his nature coincides with the nature of the mind of all Buddhas. He shows the full expression of the teachings of all the Buddhas and embodies all the refuges. Since he embodies the manifestation of such experiences, all the figure s of masters and deities of the tshogs zhing emanate from his body (namely, his mind). Gurus and masters emanated as such are to be viewed as Bla ma mchod pa transmission lineage holders, holders of lineages related to sūtras and tantras, Indian masters connected to the Madhyamaka and Yogācāra traditions. Deities are to be perceived as principal yi dams or minor deities related to rituals or praxes for the destruction of worldly and non-worldly obstacles and dangers, for the protection and improvement of the practitioner’s spiritual path, and for the protection of the Buddhist path in general. All these figures are to be visualized on an ideal tree, a real axis mundi, a symbol of the Bodhi tree and the Wish-Granting-Tree, the dpag bsam ljon shing. Holders of the lineage, namely, dge lugs pa masters following Tsong kha pa, have to be visualized in the sky above the tree. Through the visualization, the adept interacts with masters and deities, all of them constantly perceived as manifestations of the dharmakāya. From them he receives streams of blessings, the sbyin rlabs, pure spiritual transformative energy. All this is considered essential for the direct entry into the main meditative phases and experiences prescribed by the lineage to which the adept belongs. Fig.3. Courtesy of ISMEO of Rome 17 A rule in the dGe lugs tradition is to visualize a root guru or master in the resemblance of Tsong kha pa. Bla ma blo bzang thub dbang rdo rje ’chang: Meaning and iconography The standard iconography of Tsong kha pa is traditionally related to five visions that one of his two foremost disciples, mKhas grub dGe legs dPal bzang po, also known as mKhas grub rje (1385-1438),18 had of his guru after the latter’s death. The five visions occurred in dramatic moments of mKhas grub rje’s life. The tradition tells us that visions occurred, for example, when he was discouraged due to the feeling of not being able to give teachings on fundamental topics, such as emptiness; or after fearing the decline of the doctrine; or when he had the desire to leave this life to rejoin his beloved guru in Tuṣita.19 Traditionally, these five visions gave life to five particular iconographies. 20 Fig.4. Bla ma Blo bzang Thub dbang rDo rje ‘chang Tsong kha pa has thus been depicted as a monk riding an elephant, like the bodhisattva Samantabhadra; as the sixteen-year-old Mañjuśrī seated on a lion;21 as a monk seated on a throne supported by celestial beings; as a monk seated on a simple throne or on a lotus throne; and as an Indian mahāsiddha riding a tiger, brandishing a flaming sword in his right hand and holding a skull cup in the left (Fig. 5). The standard iconography used for canonical portraits of the guru, usually flanked by his two chief disciples, is the fourth one described above (Fig. 6). The role of mKhas grub dGe legs dPal bzang po as ‘heart son’ and chief interpreter of Tsong kha pa’s thought has recently become the object of analysis and inspection. Some modern scholars see him truly standing in for the role that was owned by ’Dul ’dzin Grags pa rGyal mtshan (1374-1434), a senior disciple of Tsong kha pa and teacher of mKhas grub dGe legs dPal bzang po himself. On this topic see Ary 2015. 19 Thurman 1993: 32-33. 20 Concerning the five iconographies see the Tsongkhapa main page in www.himalayanart.org. 21 This element in particular seems to underline the need to identify Tsong kha pa as the bodhisattva of wisdom emanation; see Ary op. cit.: 64-65. 18 The Tsong kha pa’s iconography shown in the Bla ma mchod pa tshogs zhing does not recall any of the five iconographies related to the five visions of mKhas grub rje. As the main figure of the tshogs zhing, Tsong kha pa bears the name of Blo bzang Thub dbang rDo rje ’chang. ‘Bla ma’ indicates that this figure has to be intended as the representation of the root guru of the practitioner. ‘Blo bzang’ indicates the name of Tsong kha pa, Blo bzang Grags pa. ‘Thub dbang’, lord of sages (skt. munīndra), indicates Śākyamuni Buddha. ‘rDo rje ’chang’ indicates Vajradhāra. All of these are diferent emanations of a unique essence. 22 The iconography of Tsong kha pa in the tshogs zhing images shows a monk wearing the triple, fully ordained monk’s robe and the hat of Indian paṇḍitas, yellow coloured as requested by the dGe lugs tradition (see Fig. 4). He is seated in the vajra posture, showing the vitarkamudrā, the exposition of the doctrine gesture with the raised right hand, and the dhyānamudrā with the left one, which rests on his lap, usually bearing a pātra.23 Fig. 5. The mahāsiddha Tsong kha pa. Photo Filippo Lunardo. The Bla ma mchod pa root text does not mention the two lotuses traditionally visualized and artistically represented close to the shoulders of Tsong kha pa holding the sword and the text,24 which are the symbols of 22 Dalai Lama 2009: 72-73, Pabongka 1997: 188-189. For this particular representation, Giuseppe Tucci indicates that it is the form through which Tsong kha pa, green in colour, will return to earth from Tuṣita as the Buddha Seng ge’i Nga ro, showing the gesture of the explanation of the doctrine and holding a bowl full of ambrosia. See Tucci 1949, 2: 409. 24 Traditionally considered to be the Aṣṭasāhasrikāprajñāpāramitā. 23 the bodhisattva Mañjuśrī.25 Moreover, in the tshogs zhing images, Tsong kha pa can be shown with or without the lotuses motif (see Figures 3 and 4). Although this particular representation does not recur in the standard set of the five visions of mKhas grub rje, it appears as the central icon in six of the fifteen paintings of a famous set depicting Tsong kha pa’s life, which was realized by the famous dge lugs pa master ’Jam dbyangs bZhed pa (1648-1721/1722).26 Fig. 6. Tsong kha pa in the Yab sras gsum iconography. Photo Filippo Lunardo However, those depictions are not related to the concept of Tsong kha pa-Bla ma Blo bzang Thub dbang rDo rje ’chang, a peculiarity of tshogs zhing representations. 25 See note 17. In the 18th century, Pho lha nas bSod nams sTobs rgyas (1689-1747) and his sons acted as sponsors in the realization of a set of fifteen block prints after the ’Jam dbyangs bZhed pa’s set. These block prints were then used by generations of artists as models for reproducing and spreading scenes of Tsong kha pa’s life. The main block print sets were from bKra shis lHun po and sNar thang. There are two kinds of standard sets, one showing Tsong kha pa as a big central icon surrounded by scenes of his life, and one showing Tsong kha pa represented in three-quarter profile on the left or right side of the composition, with the nimbus but without the halo surrounding the body, and without a hat, lotuses on the shoulders or implements like the sword or the book. See Allinger 2015: 234-236; Jackson 1996: 234-243; Lo Bue 1990: 185; Tucci op. cit.: 408-409; Watt 2002. 26 Tsong kha pa-Blo bzang Thub dbang rDo rje ’chang is seated on a lotus, a sun and a moon disk. In a mahāyāna non-tantric interpretation, these three symbols represent the experiences of renunciation, relative, and absolute bodhicitta. In the dGe lugs tradition, the three symbols can also represent the three main aspects of the path, as indicated by Tsong kha pa himself: renunciation, generation of bodhicitta, and the experience of emptiness. In a strictly tantric explanation, the dge lugs pa masters refer to the lotus, sun, and moon disks as symbols of the reabsorption of the winds (skt. prāṇa, tib. rlungs) of the subtle body physiology from the two main lateral channels (skt. nāḍī, tib. rtsa)27 into the central one.28 The three symbols can also indicate the reabsorption of white and red subtle drops (skt. bindu, tib. thig le) in the extremely subtle drop (representing the extremely subtle wind and mind) placed in the heart cakra; they can also symbolize the three last stages 29 of the eight progressive reabsorptions that lead to the clear light experience (skt. prabhāsvara, tib. ’od gsal), especially during the death process. Finally, the lotus, the moon, and the sun can also denote the small, medium, and great scope of the three kinds of persons on the spiritual path, as described by the Bodhipathapradīpa of Atīśa and the Lam rim Chen mo of Tsong kha pa.30 The historical Buddha is depicted on the chest of Tsong kha pa-Bla ma Blo bzang Thub dbang rDo rje ’chang, and on the chest of the Buddha there is a representation of Vajradhāra with his consort (Fig. 7). Fig. 7. Detail of the chest of Bla ma Blo bzang Thub dbang rDo rje ’chang. According to the later exegetical literature of the Bla ma mchod pa, a hūṃ syllable should be visualized in the heart of Vajradhāra and his consort. 31 It is noteworthy that the Paṇ chen Bla ma’s root text32 does not mention the presence of Buddha Śākyamuni in the heart of Tsong kha pa. In the inscriptions usually written Skt. lalanā and rasanā, tib. brkyang ma and ro ma. Skt. avadhūtī, tib. dbu ma. 29 Known as white appearance, red increase, and black near-attainment. 30 Pabongka op. cit.: 188. 31 The Buddha Śākyamuni and the Buddha Vajradhāra appear only in the chest of Tsong kha pa’s tshogs zhing representation. In fact, in similar images of Tsong kha pa as seen in sets of fifteen paintings and block prints portraying Tsong kha pa’s life scenes, the two Buddhas are absent. 32 First Panchen Lama 2003: 5. 27 28 at the bottom sides of tshogs zhing images dated to the eighteenth century, apparently the oldest types related to the Bla ma mchod pa tradition, we found the name of Blo bzang rDo rje ’chang with no mention of the term Thub dbang. Nevertheless, the depiction of Tsong kha pa in the same images shows the figure of Śākyamuni in the heart of the main guru, as if two parallel traditions – one based on written codifed sources and one based on orally transmitted instructions – were present at the same time. 33 In later commentaries and in all the iconographies of the tshogs zhing, the presence of the historical Buddha is always confirmed. 34 The terms Thub dbang, part of the name of this manifestation of Tsong kha pa, refer to an epithet which can be used to indicate Buddhas in general or a specifc Buddha, meaning ‘lord/king of the sages’ or ‘lord/king of subduers’. In the Nitartha and Tibetan and Himalayan Library web dictionaries we find the compound thub dbang rDo rje ’chang translated as the ‘lord of sages Vajradhāra’.35 Thus, we could think that in the original idea of the root text Tsong kha pa had to be identifed with Vajradhāra, the ideal embodiment by the root guru of all the wisdoms of sūtras and tantras, with no need to underline or characterize any distinction between the two aspects of esoteric and nonesoteric experiences, a distinction later symbolized by Vajradhāra and Śākyamuni. In the explanations of later dge lugs pa masters, the translation of the compound underwent changes, introducing Buddha Śākyamuni as the only referent to whom the epithet thub dbang could be attributed.36 All these figure s, depicted one inside the other, are to be viewed as diferent emanations of a single essence, the enlightened mind of a Buddha. Thus, Śākyamuni represents the nirmāṇakāya and the exposition of sūtras and Vinaya rules; Vajradhāra represents the saṃbhogakāya and the teachings of tantras; and Tsong kha pa represents the figure of the root teacher who summarizes in his experience all the sūtras and tantra doctrines and then shows them for the sake of all beings. In this Bla ma mchod pa man ngag, Bla ma Blo bzang Thub dbang rDo rje ’chang is understood as a visible manifestation of experiences related to sūtras and tantras. As a representation of all the root gurus, in essence, he too represents all the Buddhas, as he is an expression of the wisdom of the dharmakāya. The scheme presented here recalls the triple scheme of the three Buddha bodies, the three kāyas. In addition to this, the Buddha Śākyamuni in the heart of Tsong kha pa shows that even if, externally, the guru seems to be a simple monk, internally he is the Buddha; the presence of Vajradhāra in the heart of 33 For an analysis of the inscriptions see Lunardo forthcoming 2018. Dalai lama op. cit.: 72; Kachen Yeshe Gyaltsen, 2014: 76; Pabongka op. cit.: 187-189. Concerning the iconographies, see Eracle, 1994: 82, 83, and 91; Huntington and Bangdel, 2003: 168-169; Lunardo, 2012: 65-67; Lunardo forthcoming 2018; Rhie and Thurman, 1991: 373-374; Rhie and Thurman, 1999: 472-473. Tucci op. cit.: 408-409. See also the paintings concerning Tsong kha pa as central figure of the Refuge Field in Gelug Main Page, www.himalayanart.org. 35 Www.nitartha.org, www.thlib.org (accessed November 2017). To my knowledge, only Bla ma mchod pa exegetical literature offers such an explanation. The famous dge lugs pa master and author dKa’ chen Ye shes rGyal mtshan (17131793) uses thub dbang rDo rje ’chang to indicate the visualization of Vajradhāra in a preliminary phase of Bla ma mchod pa praxes. After the sngon ’gro of the refuge and the generation of bodhicitta, all dissolves into Vajradhāra, here defined as thub dbang. Then, Vajradhāra dissolves into light. This process is necessary for the adept to be able to emerge in the form of his main yi dam from the state of pure emptiness. See Kachen Yeshe Gyaltsen 2014: 61. 36 Concerning the visualization of Bla ma Blo bzang Thub dbang rDo rje ’chang, in his Bla ma lha’i rnal ’byor gyi khrid dmigs kyi bsdus don snyan rgyud gter mdzod ’byed pa’i lde mig ces bya ba bzhugs so, a summary of the Bla ma mchod pa man ngag based on the frst Paṇ chen Bla ma’s root text translated by this writer for a forthcoming publication, dKa’ chen Ye shes rGyal mtshan does not mention the Buddha Śākyamuni but provides a clear description of Vajradhāra: //thugs kar khyab bdag rdo rje ’chang dbang zhal gcig phyag gnyis sku mdog sngo // rdor dril bzung nas dbyings phyug mar ’khyud lhan skyes bde stong rol pas dgyes rnam mang rin chen rgyan gyis spras shing lha rdzas dar gyi na bzas klubs // “In the heart [of Bla ma Blo bzang Thub dbang rDo rje ’chang] is the all-pervading lord Vajradhāra, powerful, with one face, two hands, and a blue coloured body. Holding the vajra and the ghaṇṭa, he embraces Dhātu Iśvarī. They are delighted [by] the play of simultaneous bliss and emptiness. They wear celestial silk garments and are adorned with many other precious ornaments.” See Ye shes rGyal mtshan 1977: fol. 6a4. Moreover, in one of the main commentaries on Bla ma mchod pa, Ye shes rGyal mtshan quotes the root text instruction for the visualization which does not mention the presence of Śākyamuni in the heart of Tsong kha pa; see Kachen Yeshe Gyaltsen op. cit.: 74. However, in the commentary of the same text, he expressly indicates the visualization of such a Buddha. It is worthy of note that Ye shes rGyal mtshan does not mention the presence of Vajradhāra consort Dhātu Iśvarī. In Dalai Lama op. cit.: 72, the author follows the example of Ye shes rGyal mtshan and defines the Buddha Śākyamuni as ‘the master of the doctrine’. In Pabongka op. cit.: 187, the author also quotes the root text instruction, directly confirming the mention of Śākyamuni therein contained. 34 Śākyamuni means that the guru is secretly Vajradhāra himself. This shows the external, internal, and secret nature of a guru, to be understood by the adept as his proper root guru, even if visualized in the form of the root guru Tsong kha pa.37 Another interpretation of the concept incarnated by Bla ma Blo bzang Thub dbang rDo rje ’chang is that of the three beings, the three sattvas.38 Tsong kha pa and Śākyamuni represent the commitment beings, the samayasattva; Vajradhāra symbolizes the wisdom being, the jñānasattva.39 It is therefore necessary to add the syllable hūṃ, blue in colour, in the heart of Vajradhāra, as the concentration being, the samādhisattva. The syllable hūṃ in the visualization of Bla ma Blo bzang Thub dbang rDo rje ’chang40 essentially represents the extremely subtle wind and mind, visualized in the heart cakra in the central channel of the subtle body. These elements are said to be the sources of all phenomena, saṃsāra and nirvāṇa included. The hūṃ thus represents the Buddha Akṣobhya. It is possible to represent a nirmāṇakāya and a saṃbhogakāya through anthropomorphic figure s, to which beings of diferent spiritual levels can relate, because these kāyas are considered expressions of the conventional truth, the context of the form, the rūpakāya. Therefore, the guru represents the embodiment of experiences displayed through accessible forms that are always impermanent and variable. The Buddha Vajradhāra of the so-called gsar ma traditions41 and the Buddha Samantabhadra of the rNying ma pas are styled Ādi-Buddhas because they represent the experience of the dharmakāya. In the Bla ma mchod pa visualization of the tshogs zhing, it is the syllable hūṃ which expresses such an experience. The dGe lugs pas divide the dharmakāya in svābhāvikakāya, the nature body, and jñānakāya, the wisdom body.42 The svābhāvikakāya is referred to as emptiness or absence of intrinsic existence in all phenomena intended as mere nominal imputation on the base of their constituent parts. For the dGe lugs pas such conditions correspond to the ultimate nature of phenomena and of the mind. The jñānakāya represents the omniscient and not obstructed mental continuum of a Buddha, a flawless manifestation of the direct experience of emptiness. 43 Following the Madhyamaka Prasaṅgika philosophical context, the dGe lugs pas view the svābhāvikakāya as emptiness in such a negative-non-affrmative reality, since its nature, the mind itself, is empty. Although this reality is not directly representable, it is nonetheless evocable through the symbol/experience of the hūṃ. This syllable thus embodies the complete dharmakāya in its two aspects of essence and gnosis – through the principles of the extremely subtle wind and mind joined together in the heart cakra – and as the union of the illusory body and clear light. It is important to point out that the syllable hūṃ placed in the heart of the Vajradhāra is never depicted in the representations of Bla ma Blo bzang Thub dbang rDo rje ’chang. This detail never occurs in tshogs zhing images. The reason could perhaps be related to the difficulty in realizing such a tiny image. Another missing detail in the iconography of Bla ma Blo bzang Thub dbang rDo rje ’chang is the depiction of the body maṇḍala, always prescribed for the visualization by the root text and by all the exegetical literature.44 37 Pabongka op. cit.: 191. Dalai Lama op. cit.: 72-73; Pabongka op. cit.: 191-192. In the Italian version of Pabongka’s text dated 1998, the caption ‘the master in the shape of the three beings’, which is absent in the English version, appears at this point. In Kachen Yeshe Gyaltsen 2014: 77-78 this instruction is said to be a unique feature, revealing essential instructions related to an oral tradition, literally, the Je Lama’s Hearing Lineage (rJe Bla ma’i sNyan rgyud). 39 In the visualized bestowal of the empowerments, the adept sees Vajradhāra and his consort joined in mystical union. The result of this union, namely, the melting of bodhicittas, bestows the secret empowerment. Dalai Lama, op. cit.: 136. 40 Dalai Lama, op. cit.: 72. 41 bKa’ gdams, Sa skya, bKa’ brgyud, Jo nang and dGe lugs. 42 Paul Williams specifes that the division of the bodies in the dGe lugs tradition is related to the YogācāraSvātantrikaMadhyamaka tradition, with particular reference to the commentaries on the Abhisamayālaṃkāra of Haribhadra. He uses the adjective ‘intrinsic’ to indicate the svābhāvikakāya qualifcation of the dharmakāya. See Williams 2009: 182. 43 Concerning the three Buddha Bodies, in Cozort 1986: 24-25; Hopkins 1996: 118-120; and Tsong-ka-pa 1987: 2627, in place of ‘dharmakāya’ we found ‘Truth Body’, whose division is related to the svābhāvikakāya and the jñānakāya. 44 The experience of the body maṇḍala as prescribed by the Bla ma mchod pa praxis is related to the tantric instructions of the Guhyasamājatantra, which is considered the leading path combining instructions related to the illusory body and the clear light experience; the instructions to achieve the non-dual state of illusory body and clear light (sgyu lus’od gsal zung ’jug) are also connected to the Guhyasamājatantra. See Kachen Yeshe Gyaltsen op. cit.: 3, 392. 38 Conclusion The depiction of Tsong kha pa in the Bla ma mchod pa’s tshogs zhing mainly represents, symbolizes, and evokes an experience that the adept has to awaken within himself. It represents the need to rely on a real guru, intended as a pure embodiment of experiences resulting from the achievement of the goals of sūtra and tantric instructions. The artistic device becomes a necessary tool for the practitioner. To rely on such a depiction represents a first step, a gateway to developing an ‘inner’ image, meaning the deepest feeling of the real presence of the guru, the experience of his mental continuum in the mindstream of the adept. The depictions of Tsong kha pa as related to the literature of the Bla ma mchod pa describe the historical and religious developments of the literature itself. They are also proof of the existence of parallel oral transmissions of the Bla ma mchod pa man ngag, oral instructions written down only in later commentaries but originally testified by the oldest images of the tshogs zhing which can be dated to the end of the eighteenth or beginning of the nineteenth century. The images conceived provide the practitioner with a symbol which is an instruction in its own right. This instruction can be considered as an ideal ‘text’ using a special language that directly calls to mind techniques, truths, and experiences not definable by conventional words. For this reason, to properly understand images such as the ones described here, it is necessary to relate to the texts or literature to which these images belong. In the case of Tibetan art, as E. Lo Bue indicated,45 the relation between literature and images is unavoidable; that is especially true for the subject-matter presented here. Fig.8. Bla ma Blo bzang Thub dbang rDo rje ‘chang. Courtesy of Mr. Thinlay Chokla 45 See note 2. 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