TANTRIC BUDDHISM AN OVER-EMPHASIS OF ANTINOMIAN ACTS? BY S. M. MUKARRAM JAHAN M.A.C.R. SEM II, ID: 201905072 SUBMITTED TO CENTRE FOR THE STUDY OF COMPARATIVE RELIGIONS AND CIVILIZATIONS JAMIA MILLIA ISLAMIA, OKHLA, NEW DELHI-110025 Dated: April 25, 2020 Professor: Mr. Ahmed Sohaib Page 1 of 6 TANTRIC BUDDHISM—AN OVEREMPHASIS OF ANTINOMIAN ACTS? Prolegomena S.M. Mukarram Jahan1 Tantric Buddhism has for many years remained a neglected area for scholarly study. As Paul Williams demonstrates, there are many impediments that hinder the study of the tradition. Firstly, the scholarly approach towards the discipline has been marred by presuppositions and prejudice with some even calling it ‘Hinduism in the garb of Buddhism.’ Tantric Buddhism was considered to be degenerate, with “disgusting practices and a welter of gods—and far removed from the conception of (early and ‘true’) Buddhism as a rational, humanistic, and morally uplifting philosophy, free from the taints of magic and idolatry otherwise found in Indian religion.” Another impediment is the lack of availability of the materials like the primary texts which include the tantric scriptures, commentaries, and related works, available in Sanskrit, Chinese and Tibetan translation, as only a very few have been redacted or translated into European modern languages. The tradition also itself is complex and multiform and one may reckon it to be a complex structure characterized by an array of deities, practices, and symbols which are somewhat different from our understanding of mainstream Buddhism. Another issue is the esoteric nature of the texts and the tradition itself. Access to the practice is not open to all, but restricted to the ritually initiated novices. The texts are characterized by allegory, metaphors and symbolism and only the teachers of the tradition know the real interpretation of the texts. It is only in the recent years that the attitude towards the tradition has changed and it has come under interest. By studying the tradition through its texts and historicity, we find that the tradition started to appear from the third century CE and gains prominence from the beginning of the eighth century when its techniques and approaches increasingly dominate the Buddhist practice in India and it develops a soteriological function. The tradition also originates in China and spreading to Japan and becomes prominent in Tibet. Introducing Tantric Buddhism The word “tantra” means an everlasting continuum. Tantric Buddhism in general focuses on particular types of meditation and rituals that are regarded as powerful and effective. While Theravada Buddhism was analytic in its attempt to free reality from the imposition of subjectivity, Mahayana extended the analytic process to objective reality. In its rejection of subjectivism and objectivism, it emphasized the nature of reality-as-such, which was experienced in enlightenment. While the various philosophical trends associated with Mahayana dealt with the intellectual problem of reality, the tantras dealt with the existential problem of what it is like or how it feels to attain the highest goal. The goals of the tantric practices may be both worldly; as in mitigation of illness, protection from danger, improvement in (and by extension, control over) weather; and also soteriological. Tantric practices focus on invocation and worship of deities who are imagined as the awakened and enlightened. As with Brahminism, the tradition lays stress on the use of mantras that are regarded to have special power, and methods of visualization. As stated earlier, not all are capable of accessing and understanding the texts, but available data suggests that the tradition grew from Mahayanist soteriological and ontological thinking. 1 ID 201905072; M.A.C.R., Jamia Millia Islamia, Okhla, New Delhi-110025 (Dated: April 25, 2020). Page 2 of 6 Tantric Buddhism gains currency in the seventh century CE with the emergence of Vajrayana Buddhism but it is worth noting that the latter does not completely hold true for the former. Vajrayana Buddhism on the one hand focuses on the speedy attainment of Buddhahood while Tantric Buddhism did not have the exact same goal from its inception in the third century CE. Distinctive Features An attempt to define Tantric Buddhism as having a particular distinctive characteristic is misplaced because one runs into many difficulties to formulate the definition and characteristics of the tradition. It is also difficult to determine which set of features can be designated as unique to Tantric Buddhism. As such, we can identify the tantric tradition as possessing a set of features (polythetic) and not just one (monothetic). As has been mentioned elsewhere, the main focus, which may as well be its distinctive character, of Tantric Buddhism is the technique, evocation and worship of deities, the use of mantras and visualization, and the necessity for initiation before undertaking the tantric practice. Other features include the following: 1. Esotericism: As is the case with other Indian tantric traditions, the Buddhist Tantric system is esoteric, as its knowledge is only imparted to those who are initiated. Texts even warn of serious misfortunes that may befall one should they divulge the information to ‘outsiders.’ To ensure secrecy, the language of the text is indirect, metaphorical, allusive, subtle, and symbolic and necessitates the presence of a teacher of the tradition to interpret the texts correctly. 2. Role of Guru: As stated earlier, the importance of the vajrācarya in Tantric tradition is especially fundamental as it is the teacher through whom one gains access to the practice and who transmits the teachings of the scriptures. The Tantras signify the teacher as the bodhicitta (‘awakened mind’). Therefore, the teacher has a very high regard in the tradition and one is strictly discouraged from speaking ill of their master. The teacher becomes the gateway to the attaining of the goal. In meditation, the teacher is identified with the deity at the centre of the mandala. 3. Mandalas: The use of mandalas ranging from two to three dimensional representation of a sacred space that are construed as the domain of a particular deity are an extremely popular characteristic of Tantric Buddhism, and the same are invoked in initiation rituals as well as in post-initiation practice. 4. Antinomian Acts: These acts and rituals are often portrayed as the “transgressive” dimension of Tantric Buddhism. Due to its ‘heretic’ and out of the box thinking, most scholars did not regard Tantric Buddhism as genuinely Buddhist. Contentious elements included the use of taboo and impure substances as offerings, the advocacy of unethical behaviour, the observance of ritual sexual intimacy, and the worship of vengeful, blood-drinking deities. These elements may be the most disagreeing aspects compared to mainstream Buddhism. Additionally, the tradition also formulated and modified the worldview of Buddhism. Some ‘revised’ perceptions are: i. Body: The general idea of the body in both Theravada and Mahayana Buddhism is centred on its impurity and repulsiveness. This may be seen to facilitate the adherent’s abhorrence for the body, and lessening the chances of getting attached to it and the desires that emanate from it. In Tantric Buddhism, however, the body is viewed in a highly positive light. The tradition posits that the achievement of bliss without bodily form is not impossible just as “the perfume of a flower depends on the flower, and without the flower becomes impossible.” Tantric Buddhism shares this notion with other tantric traditions of India which see the body as the basis for generating blissful experience. They view it as having a subtle anatomy based on energy channels (nadi) and centres (cakra) through which vital energy (prāna) flows. Under Page 3 of 6 certain circumstances, it can be yogically manipulated to generate a transformation in the awareness of the practitioner. ii. Women: In Tantric Buddhism, though not initially, the female deity gains prominence being either at the centre of the mandala as the sole principal deity or as the attendant of the central figure/s. They are also given a high status in the scriptures wherein they are regarded as the manifestation and source of wisdom. We find that women functioned both as practitioners and teachers in the tradition. iii. Analogical Thinking: Tantric Buddhism seems to employ sets of correspondences and correlations between key features of tantric practice and other elements or factors that they symbolize. This aspect is prominent when the group of five cosmic Buddhas are associated with a whole range of other sets of five like skandhas, jñāna, kileśa, etc. Some of these correlations link samsara or that which is unawakened (for example, the skandhas and negative mental states) to what is awakened, i.e. the five Buddhas. This goes on to demonstrate that there is a possibility to use negative mental states to help tread the path to Buddhahood. iv. Negative Mental States: As stated elsewhere, Tantric Buddhism views that one can use the negative mental states as a means of effectively walking the path to Buddhahood. The Tantras declare that ‘the world is bound by passion, also by passion it is released.’ This notion posits that in order to be released from the samsara, one has to understand the workings of it and to do that, one has to completely merge into the passion that drives the whole mechanism. After merging with it only can one find its nature and work out a way for salvation. Sexual pleasures are considered to be at the forefront as sexual bliss is likened with the great bliss of awakening. Conclusion—An over-emphasis of Antinomian Acts? While it is clear that the tradition does incorporate some ‘unconventional’ acts, rituals and practices which may often be seen as betraying the fundamental precepts of the mainstream Buddhism, we also come to have a change in perception about the tradition after analysing its genesis within the context of a pan-India religious predicament. The tantras are striking for their recommendation that the adherent should violate the fundamental Buddhist ethical precepts. One such ritual is having corpses or their shrouds as the seats in the post-initiation gatherings of the tradition—both of which are seen highly impure because of their association with death, in the mainstream Buddhism. The feast should be based on drinks of alcohol (which is otherwise forbidden for monks) and spiced food i.e. a mixture of cow, dog, elephant, horse, and human meat and ‘kingly rice’ which they call the flesh of particular sorts of humans. The texts also enjoin upon the practitioner to drink the mouth wash of his female partner, as well as the wash-water of her genitalia. The tantras themselves provide the justification for these apparently abhorrent practices—by doing so, the tradition inculcates a sense of non-duality inside the practitioner. Non-dualism (advaya) practice is the state of consciousness in which a practitioner views the entire world with absolute non-attachment. This state is the awakened cognition (jñāna) which is based on nondifferentiation between permitted and forbidden, pure and impure. The texts stress that a practitioner should reach such a level that they no longer think in terms of “edible” or “inedible,” “to be done” or “not to be done.” On the contrary, he ‘should remain with a composed mind, the embodiment of Innate Bliss alone’. The texts conclude that only the wise person who does not discriminate in the manner stated above, achieves Buddhahood. Page 4 of 6 Another factor that might be responsible for the use of impure substance in rituals may be the view that the tantric traditions in general are concerned with attaining powers (siddhi) in worldly or soteriological terms. And one domain where power is found is in those things or activities that are seen impure. According to Richard Gombrich, Indian ideas presume that there are dangers in this world that need to be contained and controlled and the general people must remain as far away from them as possible. One way of convincing the people to abstain from such things is by declaring them impure. From this perspective, contact with the impure is a means to harness its inherent power. This perspective gains prominence from the tantras which explain that ‘eating unclean things is like applying manure to a tree so that it will become fruitful.’ In addition to this, the Guhyasamaja Tantra states that ‘those who take life, who take pleasure in lying, who always covet the wealth of others, who enjoy making love, who purposely consume faeces and urine, these are the worthy ones for the practice.’ However, these words are not to be taken literally as they oppose the universal Buddhist precepts concerning killing, stealing, lying, and sexual activity. Also, non-literal interpretations are often found in adjacent passages of the same texts. The intention seems, in part at least, to be to shock. In the Guhyasamaja Tantra the assembled bodhisattvas all faint and fall to the ground on hearing these words. The non-literal interpretation will be, for example, to kill is to develop one-pointed cognition by destroying the life-breath of discursive thoughts. To lie is to vow to save all living beings. An alternative interpretive strategy is to see such passages in the light of the expanded and relativistic perspective of Mahayanist ethics. Under certain circumstances precepts may be broken if compassion is the motive. Both of these approaches are found in the commentarial literature. The commentators also use the Mahayana interpretive device of explicit and implicit meanings. By employing this method, the Vimalaprabha commentary to the Kalacakra Tantra gives two explanations for the apparent exhortation to each unethical activity. By studying in this way, killing symbolizes a Buddha’s ability to kill in some specific situations. The implicit interpretation of killing would be the yogic practice of retaining of semen. Concluding, by a careful analysis of the facts after dissecting them from the presuppositions and prejudicial attitudes that were prevalent among the early popular and scholarly opinion, we come to realize that if the Tantric Buddhist tradition is seen from the periscope of the mainstream Theravada Tradition, it does indeed seem unethical, transgressive and antinomian. However, one also needs to remind oneself that this tradition, as Paul Williams states, did not evolve in isolation from the broader religious culture of its time. It emerged in a time when the Bhakti traditions and other tantric traditions within Hinduism and Jainism had also taken off. At one level, it may also be noted that the tradition was a response to these phenomena and by incorporating such ideals within the broader context of Buddhism, the mahasiddhas unbeknownst to them saved Buddhism many followers from reneging. In response to the competing attractions and soteriologies of these non-Buddhist traditions, tantric Buddhism adopted a number of strategies. Essentially all of these can be seen as forms of inclusion, whereby non-Buddhist deities and rituals are incorporated as forms of Buddhism. Keeping these points in mind along with the fact that the apparently unethical recommendations to contravene Buddhist ethical norms must not be taken entirely literally, we can conclude that due to the connotations the word “tantra” or “tantric” carries with it, the tradition was itself mired by these prejudices and there was an over-emphasis of the sexual and other “unethical” rituals that indeed form a very small aspect of what is otherwise a rich tradition. P.T.O. Page 5 of 6 BIBLIOGRAPHY BOOK AIDS: 1. Dasgupta, Shashi Bhushan; An Introduction to Tantric Buddhism; Calcutta University Press; India; 1950. 2. Ray, Reginald A.; Secret of the Vajra World—The Tantric Buddhism of Tibet; Shambhala Publications, Inc.; Boston; ISBN 157062917X; 2001. 3. Williams, Paul; Buddhist Thought; Routledge Publishers; USA & Canada; ISBN: 0415207002; 2000. 4. Williams, Paul (Editor); Buddhism—Critical Concepts in Religious Studies (Vol. VI); Routledge Publishers; USA & Canada; ISBN 041533232X; 2005. Papers: 1. Wayman, Alex; Buddhist Genesis and the Tantric Tradition; Oriens Extremus (Vol. 09, No. 01); 1962; pp. 127-31. Encyclopaedias: 1. Gray, David B.; Tantra and the Tantric Traditions of Hinduism and Buddhism; Oxford Research Encyclopedia (Religion); Oxford University Press; USA; 2017; pp. 36. ‫خیشدمحمرکمماہجں‬ ‫ء؁ربوزخرچینس‬۲۲۲۲ِ‫؍ارپلی‬۲۲‫ھاطمبقب‬۱۴۴۱ِ‫؍راضمناابملرک‬۲ِ‫یخ‬ ِ ‫اتبر‬ ‫اقمب خموعسدہیربزہلرسرگنیریمشکدوراناعیملوابرکوانوارئس‬ ‫؍ےجب‬۱۱ِ‫وبتقخرات‬ Page 6 of 6