Tantric Buddhist architecture developed of Indonesia and Malaysia - a symbol of Mount Meru

Dr Uday Dokras Most of the studies on the Buddhist tantra have identified tantric mandalas, either as representations of Indian feudal polity, or the sacred transcendental illustrations. The aim of this chapter is to exemplify the manner in which the Buddhist tantra appropriate the non-intrinsic nature of space of mandalas and use them as a tangible and schematic plan for constructing a localised imaginary space and shape their spatial configurations. This notion of non-intrinsic nature of space of mandala is derived from the doctrine of Emptiness, the central doctrine of Mahayana Buddhism, which allows for conceiving this localised space as a microcosmic reality that interplays with the macrocosmic world. Within the framework of the Buddhist highest yoga-tantra, a mandala is conceptualised as a tool that governs the duel-layered cosmic interplay of the subjective and objective worlds, and provides a cogent means for analogical correspondence between the planes of epistemological and ontological reality. This chapter delineates the course of actualisation of such correspondence wherein the tantric deities are placed or visualised as spatial signifiers. On epistemological level, the schematic representations of tantric mandalas are meant for contemplative internalised practice aiming for soteriological goals. On an ontological level, such schema of mandalas has been used as the architectural basis for construction of the temples, stupas, monastic establishments and rock-cut caves across the Indian subcontinent, Central Asia, Tibet, China, Mongolia, Japan, and South-East Asia, around the 7th through 13th centuries, when the tantric Buddhism was in its ascendancy.1 The Sailendras built many Buddhist structures in Java, including the massive stupa of Borobodur, as well as Candi Sukuh, Candi Mendut, Candi Kalasan and Candi Sewu. The Srivijayans also built Buddhist temple complexes in Sumatra, such as Muara Takus and Bahal temple and also in the Malay Peninsula, such as in their regional capital at Chaiya.[18] Majapahit also built Candis, such as Jabung, and Penataran. Other architecture types include punden, small terraced sanctuaries built on mountains and pertapaan, hermitages built on mountain slopes. Various unique forms of Buddhist architecture developed in Indonesia and Malaysia the most common of which is the stone Candi which shows Indic influences as has been interpreted as a symbol of Mount Meru. -------------------------------- ⦁ Spatial and Architectural Constructs of Tantric Buddhist Mandalas: A cognitive approach⦁ Samdarshi, Pranshu. "⦁ Spatial and Architectural Constructs of Tantric Buddhist Mandalas: A cognitive approach." In Eloquent Spaces: Meaning and Community in Early Indian Architecture, edited by ⦁ Shonaleeka Kaul. Routledge India, 2019. ⦁  ⦁ Eloquent Spaces: Meaning and Community in Early Indian Architecture, Edited by ⦁ Shonaleeka Kaul. Routledge India, 2019.

Java under the Sailendras became a major center of Buddhism in the region, with monumental architecture such as Borobudur and Candi Sukuh. The capital of the Buddhist empire of Srivijaya in Palembang, Sumatra was another major center. The decline of Buddhist states and the rise of Islamic states in the region during the 13th-16th centuries saw the steep decline of this tradition. In Java, the 8th century Shailendra dynasty promoted large scale Buddhist building projects such as Borobudur. Later central Javanese bronze and silver Buddhist images show Tantric themes such as mandalas and the Five Tathagatas. In the 13th century Buddhism thrived in Eastern Java, the Singhasari kingdom of King Kertanegara of Singhasari patronized Vajrayana. Buddhism continued to thrive under the Hindu-Buddhist Majapahit Empire (1293–1527). Their capital Trowulan had many annual festivities for Buddhism, Shaivism, and Vaishnavism.

Some of their kings were Vajrayana practitioners, such as King Adityawarman (1347–79) whose inscriptions state he was "always concentrated on Hevajra". A feature of Javanese Buddhism was the deification and worship of kings as Buddhas or Bodhisattvas. Important Buddhist deities included Prajnaparamita, Tara, Bhairava and Lokesvara.

The fall of Majapahit and the rise of Muslim states such as the Sultanate of Malacca saw the decline of Buddhism in the region. Many fled to the island of Bali after the end of Majapahit rule, where Buddhism was merged into Balinese Hinduism. This process of merging Buddhism and Hinduism predated the fall of the Majapahit however, and many textual sources from the later Hindu-Buddhist kingdom state that Hinduism and Buddhism are both two paths to the same reality and also equate the five Buddhas with five forms of Shiva. Likewise, some Majapahit temples depict both Buddhist and Shaiva elements.

The oldest extant esoteric Buddhist Mantranaya literature in Old Javanese, a language significantly influenced by Sanskrit, is enshrined in the San Hyan Kamahayanikan (possibly 8th century). The San Hyan Kamahayanikan claims that its teachings come from Dignaga.

The Tibetan Buddhist canon includes translations of texts written by Javanese masters, such as the Durbodhaloka (a commentary on the Abhisamayalamkara) of Suvarnadvipa Dharmakīrti. Another work by an Indonesian Tantric Buddhist is Bianhong's Ritual Manual for Initiation into the Great Mandala of the Usnisa-Cakravartin which survives in the Chinese Taisho Tripitaka (T. 959). The Japanese master Kukai wrote a biography of Bianhong.

Bahal temple I, in Padang Lawas, North Sumatra. One of the remnants of Pannai Kingdom/ Borobudur Stupas./ The statue of Dhyani Buddha Vairocana, Avalokitesvara, and Vajrapani inside the Mendut temple

Unique Architecture: Various unique forms of Buddhist architecture developed in Indonesia and Malaysia the most common of which is the stone Candi which shows Indic influences as has been interpreted as a symbol of Mount Meru. The Sailendras built many Buddhist structures in Java, including the massive stupa of Borobodur, as well as Candi Sukuh, Candi Mendut, Candi Kalasan and Candi Sewu. The Srivijayans also built Buddhist temple complexes in Sumatra, such as Muara Takus and Bahal temple and also in the Malay Peninsula, such as in their regional capital at Chaiya. Majapahit also built Candis, such as Jabung, and Penataran. Other architecture types include punden, small terraced sanctuaries built on mountains and pertapaan, hermitages built on mountain slopes.

Borobodur The largest Buddhist stupa in the world is the 9th-century complex at Borobudur in central Java, built as a Mandala, a giant three-dimensional representation of Esoteric Buddhist cosmology. The temple shows Indian and local influences and is decorated with 2,672 relief panels and 504 Buddha statues. The reliefs depict stories from the Lalitavistara Sutra, Jataka tales and the Gandavyuha sutra. Borobudur was abandoned sometime in the classic period, whether caused by human activity; of war or political turmoil, or natural disasters, as it lies on a volcanic plain of Merapi and other active volcanoes in central Java. There is no mention of Borobudur in any of Majapahit sources, implies that this structure already forgotten in the last classic-period. A major restoration project was undertaken between 1975 and 1982 by the Indonesian government and UNESCO and the monument is now a World Heritage Site. It is the most visited tourist attraction in Indonesia and it is still used by Buddhists for pilgrimage. The Sailendra Dynasty's Borobudur The Javanese God-kings - Southeast Asia’s first Devarajas Borobudur - architectural Buddhism The Sacred Mountain Borobudur simulates Buddhist Pilgrimage Tantra-inspired Mudras The Content of the Friezes from Chinese Mahayana A Stepped Pyramid: Ancestor worship combined with Buddhism Modern History The alternation of the monsoons blew alternating cultures into Southeast Asia. When the winds blew one way, it would bring the Indian traders and their culture from the West and send the Chinese back home to the East. When it blew the other way it would bring the Chinese and their culture back and send the Indian traders home. This cycle exposed Southeast Asians to both Chinese and Indian culture. As mentioned, one of these cultural meeting points was at Palembang. It was at this port town that Chinese, Hindu, and local scholars congregated to study Hindu and Buddhist thought. Another place that became a significant spiritual center for both Buddhism and Hinduism was Central Java. The golden age of this region was relatively brief – just the last few centuries of the 1st millennium. But what an impact! The Kedu Plain, a rolling valley between the Progo and Opak Rivers, is located in Central Java. Because of the volcanic ash that falls regularly from Mount Merabi and other volcanic mountains in the vicinity, the Kedu Plain is one of the most bountiful on earth. As an indication of the abundant fertility of the region, its nickname is ‘the Garden of Java’. The population of Central Java was centered in the ancient city of Yogyakarta. Due to the agricultural bounty, Yogyakarta became a birthplace of human culture. The kingdoms of Java began and spread from this agricultural center. The guaranteed agricultural surplus from the region provided sustenance to a growing population that eventually became an empire.

The Javanese God-kings - Southeast Asia’s first Devarajas The fertile Kedu Plain was also the birthplace of devarajas, the god-kings of Southeast Asia. A Sanskrit inscription from 684 CE commemorates the building of a park. These stone-etched words are the first clear-cut example of a ruler presenting himself as a divine religious leader. In this King’s prayer, he assures the reader that building this park will bring merit to all involved. He goes on to state that while disloyalty to the king brings death that obedience brings eternal bliss. In such a way, these rulers aligned themselves with the gods. If the ruler manifested divine qualities, then those around him were attracted to his court and kingdom. This idea was a foundation of the aforementioned mandala kingdom. The Javanese were worshippers of Shiva, called Shaivites. It is tempting to suggest that they worshipped the destroyer god presumably because of the many active volcanoes on Java and on the surrounding islands. However Shiva worship was probably more associated with Tantra, which spread from southern India. Shiva, one of the three main gods of Hinduism, was noted for being an ascetic, as well as the god of destruction. To emulate his behavior, the Javanese kings were also ascetics like Shiva. The Javanese, being of a flexible and supple mind, were also Buddhists. Under the influence of Mahayana Buddhism, this god-king became a Bodhisattva, a divine being who was meant to assist people on their path to enlightenment. Whether on the mainland or the islands, Southeast Asian kings have regularly played the role of the compassionate one, the Bodhisattva. Their intent is to provide the means of personal salvation to others. Ideally, these devarajas attempted to maintain their country as a holy land, by providing an environment where religion could flourish. This was a huge responsibility. It meant keeping the peace, protecting religious sites, encouraging spiritual practices such as purification and scriptural study, and teaching the people about the religious significance of life on the earth. Along these lines, the Bodhisattva Kings were meant to help their subjects along the spiritual path by providing them with opportunities for spiritual advancement and growth. It is certain that human cravings frequently corrupt this ideal. Nevertheless, what a refreshing sentiment! One such ‘opportunity’ for spiritual growth was to support the king in the construction of temples. In this way the citizenry could earn religious merit. There are even inscriptions which reveal that local Javanese princes ‘cheerfully’ participated in these projects, rather than being required to by law.

Borobudur - architectural Buddhism The rulers of Central Java's Sailendra dynasty manifested the concept of the god-king, devaraja, on a grand scale. During their rule, they constructed many religious monuments designed to instruct their people, as well as following generations, to enter the path to enlightenment. The most famous of these monuments is Borobudur, a Buddhist masterpiece of superior grandeur and beauty. Consisting of 1.3 million stone blocks, it was carved and constructed by 50,000 Javanese over 50 years. At 115 feet tall and sitting atop a 403-foot square, it is still the largest Buddhist stupa in the world. To augment the grandeur, the monument is set upon a small plateau that rises 40 feet above the Kedu Plain. The first written records concerning Java are from 732 CE. In that year, a Hindu noble, Sanjaya, established a kingdom called Mataram (or Medang) on the Kedu Plain. In 775 CE his kingdom began construction on a monument to commemorate the introduction of Hinduism to Java. A plateau created by the confluence of the Progo River and its tributaries provided the temple’s site. Ten years later this Hindu kingdom was replaced by the Buddhist Sailendra dynasty, vassals to the Srivijaya Empire. Accordingly, they shifted the religious focus of the temple from Hinduism to Buddhism. It took 50 more years to complete this architectural monument – called Borobudur. Borobudur is built in the style of the Indian tjandis with a pyramidal structure. However, the Javanese introduced their own innovations. The Indian tjandis were meant to house the gods - provide them a home - a resting spot - a sophisticated spirit house. However Borobudur was not just meant as a memorial or shrine of the gods, a place of worship. Instead it was meant to be an architectural representation of Buddhist philosophy. It was designed to represent complex metaphysical theories. At this level, it was completely original. In this manner, Borobudur provided the pattern for Angkor. The temple mountain at Borobudur, like the Indian tjandi, was constructed from a solid mass of stone, 2 million cubic feet around small hill, with little or no interior space - certainly no internal shrines. (In contrast the Khmer temples of Angkor are noted for their vast amount of empty space created by structural pillars.) Based upon the supreme mystical power of the mandala, Borobudur has 10 stories corresponding with the 10 stages that lead to Buddhist Enlightenment. The first level is the entry level. The next five are associated with the 5 Buddhas. They represent the entire external Universe - the vajra-dhatu - the realm of total reality. This group of 5 Buddhas is familiar in the diverse areas of Tibet, Japan, and northeast India. The bottom levels are all squarish, having a zigzag external design on their corners. The next three levels are all circular terraces with stupas on top. They represent the 3 Buddhas of the esoteric tradition associated with Tantric Buddhism - the garbha-dhatu - the womb of innermost secrets. The 10th level is empty, representing the final goal of Enlightenment, the abandonment of attachment to Form. This is the Void of the Vairocana Buddha. On the walls of each level there are sculptured relief panels, 1500 over all, which represent the trials and traps on the journey to enlightenment. The zigzag corridors and prescribed direction concealed the Buddhist statuary so that the adherent wouldn’t be distracted by what lay ahead and could focus upon the lesson at hand. Thus on one level the entire monument is a Buddhist teaching device. The Sacred Mountain On another level, the viewer is meant to perceive this enormous pyramid as a sacred mountain. The sacred mountain has many parallels in religion. The most immediate is Mount Meru of Hindu mythology. Frequently, these tjandis, upon which Borobudur was based, were meant to be temporal representations of Mount Meru, a mythical mountain in the center of the Universe, which connects god and man. This merged neatly with native beliefs. As with many early cultures, the Javanese had always worshipped sacred places. Their central plain has 6 active volcanic mountains, ranging in height from 6000 to over 10,000 feet. As such, the Javanese had great respect for mountains. Mount Merabi, an active volcano in the vicinity of Borobudur, had already been dedicated to Shiva - the entire mountain, not just a temple. In constructing this mountain temple, the king was fulfilling his role as Bodhisattva, one who has devoted his life to assist others attain merit as a means to enlightenment. This public project enabled the king to accomplish his dharma duty on many planes simultaneously. As a Bodhisattva, the king was constructing a teaching device to aid his people’s quest for enlightenment. The king was also building this sacred mountain to establish his correspondence with the gods. Finally he was providing an external circumstance where a maximum of his subjects could earn merit towards enlightenment by service to their king. Borobudur simulates Buddhist Pilgrimage As a teaching device, Borobudur also simulates the pilgrim’s journey to enlightenment. Although many wish to race to the top to see the magnificent vistas, the proper pilgrim style is from the bottom up. Following is our direct experience of a Borobudur pilgrimage. Soul-mate Laurie and I begin our pilgrimage by examining Borobudur's exposed 'foot' at the base. As mentioned, the bottom levels are square. The standard square base enables the structure to kiss the sky. However, because the planner’s vision exceeded the physical possibilities, they had to expand the base at one point. This expansion hid the bas-reliefs at the base – the foot of the temple. Initially, scholars and philosophers assigned mysterious religious significance to the concealed friezes. Most now believe that the decision to enclose the bottom was ultimately based upon practical considerations.

However, the friezes on what is called Borobudur's 'foot' are of a deliberately different nature than the friezes on the higher levels. The subject matter is supposed to represent the consequences to those who are trapped in the world of illusion. Note the sorrowful looks, the shame, and the sense of fear exhibited by the sculpted figures. The bas-reliefs of the 'foot' represents those who are still victims of their fears and desires. The friezes of the next 4 layers are meant to represent the world of form. While the pilgrim has escaped the world of desire, he is still trapped in the world of form – the everyday world of thoughts, ideas, and personal life. Another distinctive feature of Borobudur is the yantra shape of the bottom floors. The yantra is a mystical Hindu mandala that supposedly inspires enlightenment if meditated upon for sufficient duration. In this case, the yantra determines the architectural form of the walls. The aerial view of Borobudur reveals the yantra form of the bottom layers complete with interior circles at the top.

The sharp right angles of the rectangular design prevent one from seeing ahead. Turning a corner, we are greeted with surprise after surprise by the sculpted panels. The many angles also provide an abundance of surface area for the artist to ply their sculptural talents. Just as every square inch of land is covered in agriculture, every square inch of wall is covered in bas-reliefs. The diversity is astounding. There are mythological creatures and voluptuous women.

Buddhas and ancient boats.

Besides the friezes, we also are greeted by Kala's gaping mouth at each doorway and Makaras at the cornices of some of the balustrades.        As we head from the bottom level upward, the forms and topics of the friezes become simplified - less village life, more abstract Buddhas. On the bottom levels, tall corridors blocked the vista of the surrounding countryside. Viewing the temple from the outside, these intricate balustrades provide visual interest. On the inside, the walls enclose the pilgrim within the world of form.

Indeed, we are so wrapped up in the gorgeous world of illusion – Maya – that we barely see the omnipresent Buddhas gazing down upon us from the upper ledges.

We finally reach the 7th platform - the first one that is round. We are barely able to see over the wall to gaze out in wonder at the magnificent views. As we mover higher, presumably into the deeper stages of enlightenment, we are able to escape the narrow confines of our petty world to experience the grand picture. Not trapped in the immediacy of the moment, we experience the eternal now that is everywhere at all times.

The omnipresent serene Buddhas are also on the top levels. But now they are enclosed, even hidden, within mini-stupas – individual bell-shaped structures. They watch us and perform their magic from within their little cell.

Having reached enlightenment, we bow down and pray before the magnificence of existence.

As an indication of the importance of this particular location to the Javanese, they also consider it to be the center of the earth. Besides the volcanoes and magnificent vistas, the visitor can also see Magelang, i.e. the Tidal Hill, from Borobudur’s top floor. This large mound of earth rises abruptly from the relatively flat valley floor. According to tradition, all islands and landmasses were wandering at the beginning of time. At one point, the gods nailed Java to the Earth to fix its location. From that point forward, everything else revolved around this fixed spot. The Javanese consider this sharp uplift to be the ‘Nail of Java’. Tantra-inspired Mudras Let’s look at Borobudur in a little more detail. On each level of the structure, there are meditating Buddhas. These Dhyani Buddhas are distinctly different from the historical Buddha. A transcendent eternal savior, the Dhyani Buddha has a dot on his forehead, a symbol of the 3rd all-seeing eye. There are 504 meditating Buddhas at Borobudur. Each are unique, but all are serene. The bottom level, i.e. the hidden foot, doesn’t have any of these peaceful figures, as it represents the corrupted realm of fears and desires,.The next 5 square levels symbolize the world of form. These terraces contain 432 Buddhas, with the number decreasing as the visitor moves to the higher floors (104, 104, 88, 72, 64). Each of these meditating figures has its own cubicle located just above the friezes. The next 3 round floors, representative of the stages of enlightenment, have another 72 Buddhas (32, 24, 16). Each of these is enclosed in its own mini stupa. Although hidden from casual view, they can be viewed through the grates of the bell-shaped stupa. Each of the Dhayni Buddhas has a specific symbolic hand position – a mudra. These mudras are part of the Vajrayana sect of Mahayana Buddhism – the Tantric branch. The Buddhas have 6 different mudras. On each terrace, the Buddhas have a different hand position. In each case, the left palm of the meditating Buddha faces upward. It is the right hand that indicates the symbolism. The 4 lower terraces exhibit the same identical 4 mudras. The mudras on these bottom levels are directional. In contrast, the upper terraces exhibit hand positions that are unique to them and are omni-directional. Let’s see what this means. On the first four square levels, all the Buddhas that face east have the same mudra. The Buddha’s right palm is outward and points to the earth. This mudra indicates ‘right conduct’. This position derives from one of his prior incarnations, when Buddha appealed to the earth goddess to testify to his right conduct to refute Mara’s impeachment of his motives. For the Buddhas that face north, the right palm faces forward, which is the mudra to ‘dispel fear’ or instill ‘courage’. For the westward facing Buddhas, both palms face up and the thumbs touch indicating the importance of ‘meditation’. The hand position of the southward facing Buddhas symbolizes the need for ‘charity’. The right palm faces upward and out, while the fingers face down in a posture that indicates giving. Each of these mudras is of equal importance as visitors can access the monument from each of the 4 sides. All the Buddhas on the 5th and final square terrace have the same mudra. It symbolizes ‘deliberation’. The right palm is outward and the forefinger touches the thumb.

The mudra of the 72 Buddhas on the next three round terraces is identical. The complicated interlocking hand position suggests revolution and symbolizes the ‘Turning of Dharma Wheel’. As mentioned, the Buddhas on the square terraces are easily visible in their little cubicles. In contrast, the Buddhas on the round terraces are hidden in little stupas and can only be seen through perforations in the bell-shaped enclosure. Evidently the mudras of the bottom terraces are quite common, while the complicated ‘Turning of Dharma Wheel’ mudra is not so widespread. Visiting Borobudur in 2013, the more complicated mudras haven’t survived the ravages of time and need restoration. For instance, there were only a handful of Buddhas on the circular terraces whose hand position was still intact. The three dimensionality of the hand positions that project into space seem to be particularly vulnerable to destruction. In contrast, the mudras of nearly all the Buddhas whose hands were in their laps were intact. Right conduct, dispel fear, meditation, charity, deliberation, the turning of the Dharma Wheel are the symbolic meanings of the 6 mudras. The hand positions of the meditating Buddhas remind pilgrims of these important virtues as they ascend the monument walking from terrace to terrace. The Content of the Friezes from Chinese Mahayana While the employment of mudras suggest the tantric influence, the  content of the friezes definitely derives from Mahayana Buddhism. The 6 square bottom terraces are filled with 3 kilometers (approximately 2 miles) of museum quality stone friezes. Of the 2672 friezes, 1460 are narrative and 1212 are decorative. The narrative friezes are devoted to Buddha’s biography, primarily his past lives. Recall that the goal of Mahayana Buddhists is to become a Bodhisattva through multiple incarnations. In this regard, Mahayana de-emphasizes the importance of the historical Buddha and instead focuses upon the events of his past lives that led to Buddhahood. Because Mahayana denies the existence of everything, these past lives are akin to vibrations or emanations of the Buddha essence rather than being connected to an individual. In similar fashion, the meditating Buddhas with their 6 mudras are perfect abstractions rather than humans with personality accompanied by character flaws. The hidden ‘foot’ contains 160 relief panels that indicate the law of karma. Each frieze is a story of cause and effect. In other words, blameworthy deeds lead to retribution. For instance, one panel shows individuals slaughtering and cooking meat and then going to Buddhist hell where they are slaughtered and eaten by demons. Each panel is self contained with no connection to the rest. Although there are pictures of the friezes, the visitor can only see a small fraction of them, as the rest of the foot has been enclosed. The remainder of the friezes on the next five terraces, i.e. the ‘body’ of the monument, are primarily representations of stories from Buddha’s past and present lives. Most of these derive from 3 Buddhist works – Jataka, Awadana, and Gandavhaya. The first visible terrace and half of the second are primarily devoted to the legendary life of the historical Buddha, i.e. Gautama Siddhartha, and the Jataka Tales. The friezes on the first level illustrate the entire story of Buddha’s life, beginning with his descent from heaven until he achieves enlightenment. As a white elephant with 6 tusks, Buddha enters the womb of Queen Maya. After birth, his life is then experienced as a dream. Prince Siddhartha’s father builds 3 palaces to distract him from the spiritual life. However he has 4 encounters, i.e. with the old, the sick, the dead and a monk. These chance encounters introduce him to suffering and the transitory nature of life. After much travail, he attains enlightenment. His life exhibits the possibility of salvation from suffering. Rather than leaving this world, Buddha begins giving sermons regarding the law of Dharma to help individuals on the path to enlightenment. All of these events are illustrated in sequential order on the carved panels. The Jataka Tales are past life stories, where Buddha is frequently an animal. These animal tales contain a Buddhist message. In this sense they are somewhat akin to Aesop’s fables. Borobdur contains depictions of all 34 Jatakas from the Jataka Mala, the primary and traditional collection of these tales. 460 friezes on the 3rd, 4th and half of the 2nd terrace are devoted to the Gandavhaya text. This Mahayana text tells the story of the tireless wandering of Sudhana, one of Buddha’s past lives. Sudhana’s many experiences are depicted on the walls of Borobudur. He has no less than 30 teachers before he attains Bodhisattvahood. The panels on top level depict Sudhana teaching the Mahayana doctrine post-enlightenment. The Gandavhaya text is the last chapter and culmination of the Avatamsaka sutra. Popularly known as the Flower Garland Sutra, this sutra is exceptionally important in Eastern Asian Buddhism. This East Asian influence indicates the importance of the Chinese in the transmission of Buddhism to Southeast Asia’s islands.  The 40 chapter long sutra is a compilation of many works, some of which are sutras in their own right. Central Asian monks joined the diverse literary pieces into a single sutra in the late 3rd and early 4th centuries of the Common Era. The entire work was first translated into Chinese during the 5th century. It was one of the many sutras that the Kushan monks employed to successfully convert the Chinese populace to Mahayana Buddhism. The Flower Garland’s 40 chapters are on disparate topics. However there are 2 overarching themes: the interdependency of all phenomena (dharmas) and the Buddhist progression to enlightenment. One of the chapters is devoted to the 10 stages it takes to become a Bodhisattva. East Asians frequently cite this chapter as a sutra in its own right. As an indication of its importance, this, the 10 Stages Sutra, was translated into Chinese in the 3rd century, a few centuries before the larger Flower Garland Sutra. Sudhana’s biography, the last chapter of the sutra, encapsulates these 10 stages in story form. Recall that Borobudur’s 10 levels symbolize these same developmental steps. Some scholars even believe that Borobudur means ‘Mountain of virtues of 10 stages of the Bodhisattva’. Although others believe the name the name of the monument derives from the location – ‘monastery of Budur’, an ancient city, it is apparent that Borobudur’s 10 levels are linked with the pilgrim’s journey to enlightenment. Besides architectural similarities and the obvious influence of East Asian Mahayana upon Borobudur, locals claim that the Chinese brought Buddhism to the islands. In these pregnant times, it could be roughly said that Hinduism came to Southeast Asia’s islands from India, while it seems that Buddhism was due at least in part to the Chinese influence. A Stepped Pyramid: Ancestor worship combined with Buddhism The Buddha’s past and present lives are depicted on the friezes. There are countless meditating Buddhas. There are also innumerable mini and medium sized stupas throughout the monument. Plus a tall stupa tops the entire structure. Most consider Borobudur to be the largest Buddhist stupa in the world. But is it really only a stupa? Although it is tempting to categorize this enormous monument as a stupa, this is stretch. For one, the top is not the dominant feature, as it is in most stupas. Instead the pilgrim/visitor initially experiences Borobudur as an enormous stepped stone pyramid. Only after viewing the enormity of the angular stone fortress does one notice the round stupa at the top. In terms of direct experience, it is probably more accurate to characterize the monument as a stepped pyramid topped by a stupa. In the Javanese tradition, the prasada is a stepped pyramid frequently located in the mountains. The prasada is considered to be the abode of the ancestors. Gunung Padang is a stepped pyramid from the Megalithic that is probably associated with ancestor worship. If so, it is the earliest known example of a prasada. Not only in Java, but throughout Southeast Asia, the stepped pyramid is associated with ancestor worship. As mentioned, Southeast Asians, especially the Javanese, never gave up ancestor worship. Instead they blended and continue to blend it with the newer religions, including Buddhism, Hinduism and even Islam. At the time that Borobudur was built, the Javanese were both ardent Buddhists and worshippers of their forefathers. In this regard, they respected their elders as Bodhisattvas. As such, it makes perfect sense that the Javanese would construct a monument that both honors their ancestors and simultaneously is a stupa, the Buddhist symbol par excellence – an ideal fit with their inclusive temperament. This interpretation of Borobudur was suggested by no less an authority than Professor Soekmone, the Javanese scholar who was instrumental in the restoration of Borobudur. Modern History Some accounts state that Borobudur was lost to history when it was buried by volcanic ash a few centuries after it was completed. However, historical records indicate that Hayam Huruk, the great ruler of the Majapahit Empire, visited Borobudur in the 1300s. Due to insurmountable problems, i.e. structural damage from water seepage, upkeep halted in the 1500s. With an enthusiasm for archaeology sweeping Europe, the Englishman Raffles rediscovered Borobudur buried under dirt and hidden by underbrush in 1814. This was during the brief period that England ruled Java after the Napoleonic Wars. The Dutch began a major, although unsuccessful, renovation in 1907. As soon as Indonesia attained independence in 1948, the government expressed the goal of restoring Borobudur. Why did predominantly Islamic Indonesia commit time, energy and precious resources to the restoration of a Buddhist temple? The Indonesian word ‘candi’ represents the remains of all structures from the Hindu period, which lasted from the 5th century CE to mid 16th century. This is not just the ruins of temples and shrines, but also includes gates and baths, virtually any structure done in classic Hindu style. A candi is also a pusaka, an expression of cultural heritage. According to Javanese tradition, a pusaka has mystical and magical powers. The pusaka’s supra-rational powers tie the past and present together in order to better face the future. In more psychological terms, the Javanese embrace the relics of the past as a form of national pride. Rather than rejecting the past because it was dominated by an alternate religion, they proudly include any part of their history as part of their national heritage. In 1968, Professor Soekmone of Indonesia began the ‘Save Borobudur’ campaign. Due in part to his efforts, the global community marshaled the necessary resources and manpower to restore the spectacular Buddhist monument beginning in the last quarter of the 20th century. Restoration usually implies rebuilding the original monument as it was as before the ravages of time took their toll. Borobudur was different in this regard. Borobudur’s original design had some fatal structural flaws that had to be addressed before it could be rebuilt. First, the weight of the 1.6 million blocks of andesite was simply too heavy for the porous soil of the river plain to support. The entire monument had problems with sagging before it was even finished. This was one reason the original builders expanded the base and covered the bottom floor. In the decades following completion, the Javanese did what they could to bolster their gorgeous but slumping Buddhist stupa. Yet all attempts were ultimately unsuccessful. The second problem concerned the abundant rainfall in the region. The individuals responsible for designing the stone pyramid had not taken drainage into account. Water seeped into the structure, adding to the weight and contributing to the structural damage. Weight and water flow were fatal design flaws that doomed the Buddhist monument to degeneration. The Javanese eventually abandoned the upkeep, not because they weren’t interested, but because they really didn’t know what to do to prevent the innate degradation. Borobudur was simply buckling under its own weight. Even in modern times, the reconstruction project was plagued with false beginnings. The Dutchman Van Erp came up with a plan for renovating Borobudur in 1907. Those in charge of renovation quickly discovered that the plan was inadequate to the task and abandoned the project. Once the international community was convinced to commit the funds necessary to both restore and rejuvenate Borobudur, architects and engineers collaborated to devise a permanent and viable plan. Due to the enormity of the task, global cooperation was and is required to marshal the necessary talent, the labor force and sufficient funding.  Restoration finally began in 1975. Although the structure is gorgeous, Borodudur is still many years, if not decades, away from completion 40 years later in 2014. It remains a heterogeneous work due to so many stages and structural difficulties. Before one block of the crumbling monument could be restored to its original position, proper drainage had to be installed in order to avoid the problems associated with water. Further the stone pyramid required additional structural support to bear the enormous weight. To accomplish these daunting tasks, the international work force labored on many fronts simultaneously. 1) Carefully dismantling the entire structure 2) Cleaning 170,000 stones 3) Constructing cement reinforcement and water channels 4) Freeing mantel stones of filth The fun stuff, i.e. replacing the stone blocks, began only after these foundational steps were completed. As a testament to the enduring nature of its original intent, Borobudur continues to entice millions of visitor/pilgrims every year to have its ‘enlightenment’ experience. Even the didactic function of the Javanese pyramid persists. The thousands of individuals involved in the reconstruction project required retraining to understand the meanings behind the friezes. In this fashion, Borobudur acts as both an instructional tool and a place of education. Paraphrasing Professor Soekmone’s poetic writing: the training is based upon a wish – a prayer for the salvation of the student/pilgrim. In this way, Borobudur is a ‘prayer in stone’.

Candi Sukuh Candi Sukuh is a fifteenth-century Javanese-Hindu-Buddhist temple (candi) that demonstrates strong tantric influence. Candi Sukuh is located on the western slope of Mount Lawu (elev. 910 m or 3,000 feet (910 m) above sea level) on the border between Central and East Java provinces. The monument was built around 1437, as written as a chronogram date on the western gate, meaning that the area was under the rule of the Majapahit Kingdom during its end (1293–1500). The distinctive Dancing Ganesha relief in Candi Sukuh has a similarity with the Tantric ritual found in the history of Buddhism in Tibet written by Taranatha.[20] The Tantric ritual is associated with several figures, one of whom is described as the "King of Dogs" (Sanskrit: Kukuraja), the mahasiddha who taught his disciples by day, and by night performed Ganacakra in a burial ground or charnel ground. Importantly, Ganesha also appears in Buddhism, not only in the form of the Buddhist god Vināyaka, but also portrayed as a Hindu demon form also called Vināyaka.[21] Ganesha's image may be found on Buddhist sculptures of the late Gupta period. As the Buddhist god Vināyaka, Ganesha is often shown dancing, a form called Nṛtta Ganapati that was popular in North India and adopted in Nepal and then into Tibet.

In Buddhism, Avalokiteśvara ( Sanskrit: अवलोकितेश्वर ) is a bodhisattva who embodies the compassion of all Buddhas. He has 108 avatars; one notable avatar being Padmapāṇi, the one who holds the lotus (padma). This bodhisattva is variably depicted, described and portrayed in different cultures as either male or female. In Tibet, he is known as Chenrezig. In China, Taiwan and other Chinese communities, Avalokiteśvara has evolved into the somewhat different female figure Guanyin or Guanshiyin, also known as Kannon or Kanzeon in Japan, Gwanseum in Korea and Quán Thế Âm in Vietnamese. In the Kathmandu valley, this figure is known as Jana Baha Dyah, Karunamaya or Seto Machindranath. He is known as Natha Deviyo in Sri Lanka and Lokanatha In Myanmar(Burma). In Thailand and Cambodia, he is called as Lokesvara.Veneration of Avalokiteśvara Bodhisattva has continued to the present day in Sri Lanka:

Country: India. Site Name: Nalanda. Monument: sculpture of Khasarpana Lokesvara. Iconography: Khasarpana. Gestures: padma (lotus), varada mudra (gift-bestowing gesture). Dynasty/Period: Pala. Date: ca. ninth century CE, 801 CE - 900 CE. Material: stone. Dimensions: H - ca. 42.00 in W - ca. 15.00 in. Current Location: National Museum, New Delhi, India.///Wood carving of Lokanat at Shwenandaw Monastery, Mandalay, Burma

In times past both Tantrayana and Mahayana have been found in some of the Theravada countries, but today the Buddhism of Ceylon, Burma, Thailand, Laos, and Cambodia is almost exclusively Theravada, based on the Pali Canon. The only Mahayana deity that has entered the worship of ordinary Buddhists in Theravada countries is Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara. In Ceylon he is known as Natha-deva and mistaken by the majority for the Buddha yet to come, Bodhisattva Maitreya. The figure of Avalokitesvara usually is found in the shrine room near the Buddha image. In more recent times, some western-educated Theravādins have attempted to identify Nātha with Maitreya Bodhisattva; however, traditions and basic iconography (including an image of Amitābha Buddha on the front of the crown) identify Nātha as Avalokiteśvara. Andrew Skilton writes: ... It is clear from sculptural evidence alone that the Mahāyāna was fairly widespread throughout [[[Sri Lanka]]], although the modern account of the history of Buddhism on the island presents an unbroken and pure lineage of Theravāda. (One can only assume that similar trends were transmitted to other parts of Southeast Asia with Sri Lankan ordination lineages.) Relics of an extensive cult of Avalokiteśvara can be seen in the present-day figure of Nātha. Avalokiteśvara is popularly worshiped in Myanmar, where he is called Lokanat or lokabyuharnat, and Thailand, where he is called Lokesvara. The bodhisattva goes by many other names. In Indochina and Thailand, he is Lokesvara, "The Lord of the World." In Tibet he is Chenrezig, also spelled Spyan-ras gzigs, "With a Pitying Look." In China, the bodhisattva takes a female form and is called Guanyin (also spelled Kwan Yin, Kuanyin or Kwun Yum), "Hearing the Sounds of the World." In Japan, Guanyin is Kannon or Kanzeon; in Korea, Gwan-eum; in Vietnam, Quan Am. http://donlehmanjr.com/SEA/SEA6%20Chap/SEA6%20Ch12.htm Architecture in Malaysia is a combination of many styles, from Islamic and Chinese styles to those brought by European colonists.[1] Malay architecture has changed due to these influences. Houses in the north are similar to those in Thailand, while those in the south are similar to those in Java. New materials, such as glasses and nails, were brought in by Europeans, changing the architecture.[2] Houses are built for tropical conditions, raised on stilts with high roofs and large windows, allowing air to flow through the house and cool it down.[3] Wood has been the main building material for much of Malaysia's history; it is used for everything from the simple kampung to royal palaces.[1] In Negeri Sembilan traditional houses are entirely free of nails.[3] Besides wood, other common materials such as bamboo and leaves were used.[2] The Istana Kenangan in Kuala Kangsar was built in 1926, and it the only Malay palace with bamboo walls. The Orang Asal of East Malaysia live in longhouses and water villages. Longhouses are elevated and on stilts, and can house 20 to 100 families. Water villages are also built on stilts, with houses connected with planks and most transport by boats.[ Various cultural influences, notably Chinese, Indian and Europeans, played a major role in forming Malaysian architecture. Until recent time, wood was the principal material used for all Malaysian traditional buildings. However, numerous stone structures were also discovered particularly the religious complexes from the time of ancient Malay kingdoms. Throughout many decades, the traditional Malaysian architecture has been influenced by Buginese and Javanese from the south, Islamic, Siamese, and Indian from the north, Portuguese, Dutch, British, Acehnese and Minangkabau from the west and southern Chinese from the east.[4] Ancient[edit]

The remains of an ancient temple in Bujang Valley, Kedah, believed to be the earliest civilisation in the region. The evidence of candi (pantheon) around south Kedah between the mount Jerai and the Muda valley, a sprawling historical complex known as Bujang Valley served as a reminder of Malaysian pre-Islamic art. Within an area of about 350 square kilometres, 87 early historic religious sites have been reported and there are 12 candis located on mountain tops, a feature which suggests may derive from pre-Islamic Malay beliefs regarding the sanctity of high places.[5] An early reference to Malaysian architecture can be found in several Chinese records. A 7th-century Chinese account tells of Buddhist pilgrims calling at Langkasuka and mentioned the city as being surrounded by a wall on which towers had been built and was approached through double gates.[6] Another 7th-century account of a special Chinese envoy to Red Earth kingdom in West Malaysia, recorded that the capital city had three gates more than a hundred paces apart, which were decorated with paintings of Buddhist themes and female spirits. Traditional Architecture in Malaysia Traditional Malay architecture employs sophisticated architectural processes ideally suited to tropical conditions such as structures built on stilts, which allow cross-ventilating breeze beneath the dwelling to cool the house whilst mitigating the effects of the occasional flood. High-pitched roofs and large windows not only allow cross-ventilation but are also carved with intricate organic designs. Traditional houses in Negeri Sembilan were built of hardwood and entirely free of nails. They are built using beams, which are held together by wedges. A beautiful example of this type of architecture can be seen in the Old Palace of Seri Menanti in Negeri Sembilan, which was built around 1905. [Source: Malaysia Government Tourism] Today, many Malay or Islamic buildings incorporate Moorish design elements as can be seen in the Islamic Arts Museum and a number of buildings in Putrajaya - the new administrative capital, and many mosques throughout the country. Moorish architecture hails from North Africa and Spain. Characteristic elements include muqarnas, horseshoe arches, voussoirs, domes, crenellated arches, lancet arches, ogee arches, courtyards, and decorative tile work. In Malaysia, Chinese architecture is of two broad types: traditional and Baba-Nyonya. Examples of traditional architecture include Chinese temples found throughout the country such as the Cheng Hoon Teng that dates back to 1646. Many old houses especially those in Melaka and Penang are of Baba-Nyonya heritage, built with indoor courtyards and beautiful, colourful tiles. With most of Malaysian Hindus originally from Southern India, local Hindu temples exhibit the colourful architecture of that region. Built in the late nineteenth century, the Sri Mahamariamman Temple in Kuala Lumpur is one of the most ornate and elaborate Hindu temples in the country. The detailed decorative scheme for the temple incorporates intricate carvings, gold embellishments, hand-painted motifs and exquisite tiles from Italy and Spain. The Sikhs, although a small minority, also have their temples of more staid design in many parts of the country. Two unique architectural highlights of the indigenous peoples of Sabah and Sarawak are longhouses and water villages. Homes to interior riverine tribes, longhouses are traditional community homes. These elongated and stilted structures, often built of axe-hewn timber, tied with creeper fibre and roofed with woven atap or thatched leaves, can house between 20 to 100 families. Rustic water villages built on stilts are also commonly found along riverbanks and seafronts. Houses are linked by plank walkways with boats anchored on the sides. Transport around the village is usually by sampan or canoe. See Separate Article HOMES AND TOWNS IN MALAYSIA Colonial Architecture in Malaysia The architectural styles of the different colonial powers are used in many buildings built between 1511 and 1957. The best examples of colonial architecture in Malaysia are found in Melaka (Malacca). Melaka and George Town have developed over 500 years of trading and cultural exchanges between East and West in the Straits of Malacca. The influences of Asia and Europe have endowed these towns with a specific multicultural heritage; of government buildings, churches, squares and fortifications. Melaka demonstrates the early stages of this history originating in the 15th-century Malay sultanate and the Portuguese and Dutch periods beginning in the early 16th century while the residential and commercial buildings of George Town represents the British era from the end of the 18th century to the middle of the 20th century. Together they constitute a unique architectural townscape without parallel anywhere in East and Southeast Asia and have been recognised as the World Heritage listed, ‘Historic Cities of the Straits of Malacca.’ The most notable example of Portuguese architecture in Malaysia is the A'Famosa fort in Melaka, which was built by Alfonso d'Albuquerque in 1511. Nearly annihilated by the Dutch, only a small part of the fortification is still on the hill overlooking the Melaka town, old port and the Straits of Melaka. There are several examples of Dutch architecture in Melaka. The Stadthuys with its heavy wooden doors, thick red walls and wrought-iron hinges is the most imposing relic of the Dutch period in Melaka. It is a fine example of Dutch masonry and woodworking skills. Built between 1641 and 1660 it is believed to be the oldest building in the East. Among the most significant landmarks built by the British is theSultan Abdul Samad Building, which grandly overlooks the Merdeka Square, Kuala Lumpur. This Moorish beauty, completed in 1897, served as the Colonial Secretariat offices during the British administration. Pre-Merdeka or pre-independence shophouses still emanate the characteristic charm of their earlier days. A display of English ingenuity is the 'five-foot-way' or covered sidewalk designed to shield pedestrians from the heat and rain. Malaysian Architecture and Climate In their paper “Malaysian Architectural Identity,” Wan Sharizatul Suraya and Wan Mohd Rashdi wrote: “In hot and wet climate country, spaciousness and wind orientation are essential design considerations as these allow ventilation in designing a building, referring to Malaysian traditional house, long overhangs, large and many windows, screens, and high pitched roofs are elements resulting comfort and ease of the residents. [Source: Wan Sharizatul Suraya bt Wan Mohd Rashdi, Malaysian Architectural Identity, April 11, 2013 ] “The basic concept demands that direct sunshine and heat be kept out, as much the rain. Roof are often steeply pitched to facilitate water drainage and to provide a large, ventilated roof space below which allows warm air to dissipate and the building to keep cool. Large overhangs prevent rain from entering, offer sun shading, and reduce unwanted glare. The Salinger House has wide overhanging roof eaves to protect windows from sun and rain. Multi paneled, fenestration carvings or louvres are designed to encourage air movements, and gaps under the roof also allowing air to enter the house. CULTURE IN MALAYSIA Julia Zappei of AFP wrote: “For much of Malaysia's recent history, an authoritarian government focused on economic development — making it one of Southeast Asia's most affluent nations, while religious and political constraints stunted the arts and culture scene. But since strongman ruler Mahathir Mohamad retired in 2003, society is gradually relaxing, with more people expressing themselves via art and some collectors looking for edgier works. The former British colony has no deep-rooted art tradition, having developed as an agrarian society that drew large numbers of Chinese and Indian immigrants more concerned with economic survival than art and leisure. Religious and social taboos in the country of 29 million people have also been blamed for stifling more challenging art. [Source: Julia Zappei, AFP, December 13, 2012 ^] On a visit to Japan, Mahathir sharply criticized young Japanese for looking different. "Japanese youths want to be blonds, work less and play more. The traditional Japanese and Eastern culture is being discarded and replaced with Western culture with disregard for filial piety and discipline." History of Culture and Arts in Malaysia Dr. Jukka O. Miettinen of the Finnish Theatre Academy wrote: “The Malay Peninsula is the cradle of the tradition of Malay culture, which extends to prehistoric stone monuments. The Malays have been active mariners for over two millennia, which explains the expansion of the Malay culture to various parts of Southeast Asia. Because of its geographical location, the Malay Peninsula has served as a kind of bridge between mainland and archipelagic Southeast Asia, which has shaped Malaysia’s multi-ethnic culture greatly. The Strait of Malacca was, for a long period, an important junction of sea routes connecting Southeast Asia to India, China, and later also to the Arab world. It was precisely the flourishing sea trade that made the region later attractive for the Western colonial powers, first the Portuguese, then the Dutch, and finally the British.” [Source: Dr. Jukka O. Miettinen,Asian Traditional Theater and Dance website, Theatre Academy Helsinki |~|] “Malaysia combines a variety of ethnic and cultural elements: indigenous Malay, Javanese, Sumatran, Thai, Arab, Indian, Chinese, etc. The Indianised court culture, so dominant in the early kingdoms of Southeast Asia, was probably adopted from Java and Sumatra. Before the Malays adopted Islam in the 13th and 14th centuries the Indian influence had been dominant since the early centuries AD. In a similar way as in the neighbouring areas, both on the Southeast Asian mainland as well as in the archipelago, there also existed an early Indian-influenced kingdom in the regions of present-day Malaysia. Although mentioned in both Chinese and Indian sources, the history of the kingdom of Langkasuka, situated in the northeast coast of the peninsula, is not known in detail. |~| “Many of the still extant indigenous theatre and dance traditions of Malaysia, in fact, originate from the regions of ancient Langkasuka, thus confirming the continuation of the region’s Hindu-Buddhist culture. This region, Pattani, has belonged from time to time to the Thai kingdoms, which explains the close relation of the performing traditions of northeastern Malaysia and southernmost Thailand. |~| “Malacca, a strategically well-located kingdom controlling the trade in the Strait of Malacca, was converted to Islam in 1402. Thus, through the sea routes new cultural ties were established, this time with Islamic West India and the Arab world. This resulted in a new kind of syncretism combining elements from Islam as well as from the earlier animistic and Hindu-Buddhist traditions. |~| “The ruling class of the sultanate had close ties with Islamic India, from where some of the sultans or their forefathers had arrived. Javanese influences continued to be felt, even during the period of Malaccan hegemony, as the sultan had huge retinues of Javanese workers and servants. The Sultanate of Malacca thus laid the basis not only for the Islamisation of the peninsula but also for its ethnic diversity, which was gradually also enriched by Chinese immigrants. The Portuguese conquered Malacca in 1511, heralding a long period of Western domination in the area of present-day Malaysia. The centre of Islamic culture moved to the sultanates of the east coast of the Malay Peninsula. Dominant factors in their culture were and still are the almost deified sultan, his palace (istana) and, of course, the mosque.” |~| Straits Chinese and Peranakan Chinese-Malay Dr. Jukka O. Miettinen of the Finnish Theatre Academy wrote: “From the 15th century Chinese traders began to settle in both Insular and Peninsular Southeast Asia. In the regions of the Malay Peninsula, Chinese communities started to emerge, especially along the west coast, in what was to become known during the British colonial period as the Straits Settlements: Penang, Malacca and Singapore. [Source: Dr. Jukka O. Miettinen,Asian Traditional Theater and Dance website, Theatre Academy Helsinki] These “Straits Chinese” adapted to local conditions and developed a unique eclectic culture of their own. It includes eclectic architecture, and Chinese-influenced crafts. To a lesser degree they also maintain their, originally Chinese, forms of puppetry and opera, thus adding one more aspect to Malaysia’s heterogeneous theatrical tradition. In this historical context it is only natural that the Malaysian theatrical tradition became diverse in nature. The various ethnic groups had their own drama traditions, none of which ever rose to the status of a national or classical form. In the late 20th century, when fundamentalist Islam gained power, the central government has, if not completely banned, at least restricted many of the traditional performing arts traditions. The Peranakan Chinese-Malay culture flourished in southwest Malaysia from the 17th century to its peak at the turn of the 20th. The Peranakan culture, also known as Baba-Nyonya — men were called babas, women were nyonyas — incorporated Dutch, English, Portuguese and Indian influences. The Peranakan were aficionados of Victorian fashion in the 19th century. Indigenous Traditions: Main Puteri and Mak Yong Dr. Jukka O. Miettinen of the Finnish Theatre Academy wrote: “Like most of the Southeast countries, Malaysia also has several theatre and dance traditions that still clearly have their roots in indigenous animism. Many of them have flourished in Sabah and Sarawak and at least two in the Malay Peninsula. These two are the healing ritual called main puteri and an indigenous form of sung dance-drama, called mak yong. [Source: Dr. Jukka O. Miettinen,Asian Traditional Theater and Dance website, Theatre Academy Helsinki |~|] “Main puteri is a healing ritual with some theatrical features. It has been practised in the state of Kelantan, on the east cost of the peninsula. Its primus motor is a shaman (bomoh), who also often plays a three-stringed rebab violin. With his or her assistant the shaman aims to heal a patient by personifying the illness as a malevolent spirit. Main puteri has features common to some other animistic ritual performances around Southeast Asia and even Sri Lanka. This seems to confirm the fact that it is indeed is a tradition originating from pre-Islamic times. It may also reflect the Tantric belief-system, common in regions before the arrival of Islam. |~| “The rituals usually take place at night. Hours of prayers are followed by invocations and offerings. The actual healing ritual is saved until just before the dawn, when the spirits are believed to be forced to withdraw from the human world. The main puteri ceremony is accompanied by a small orchestra. The ceremony usually takes one whole night to perform, sometimes even several nights. |~| “The theatrical features of a main puteri ritual include dances accompanied by singing and an orchestra. The spirit’s arrival is made known by the change of the dance style towards uncontrolled, jerky trance movements. Then follows the actual communication with the spirit including offerings and negotiations by the shaman. This dialogue-like communication with the spirit of the illness may last long and it often includes even obscene humour.” |~| Malaysia - Truly Asia or Truly Bizarre? In January 2007, Reuters reported: “Malaysia has launched its biggest tourism drive since independence under its famous slogan "Malaysia: Truly Asia", but it may as well read "truly bizarre". Recent visitors to the Southeast Asian nation have read serious newspaper articles about miracle healers and a mysterious giant ape in the country's southern jungles. Now, there is a woman who apparently secretes gem-stones out of her big toes. The wondrous toes of 23-year-old Siti Suhana Saadon, a rubber-tapper's daughter, have become a media sensation, drawing serious commentary from health officials and medical experts. Welfare authorities have even offered to pay for tests to be carried out on the poor villager and her collection of clear round stones, the New Straits Times said on Thursday. "I would like to see her. Her condition is very unusual," the mainstream daily quoted a senior academic as saying. [Source: Reuters, January 25, 2007 ^] “Malaysians are willing to suspend disbelief when dealing with the supernatural, if recent newspaper coverage is any guide. Last year, conservationist Vincent Chow captured headlines at home and abroad by saying he had found evidence of a "Bigfoot" wandering the jungles of Johor state, leaving footprints the size of dinner plates and impressive piles of scatological evidence. "Malaysians may be in for the biggest scientific discovery in human history if the theory of the biodiversity expert Vincent Chow on the origin of the creature called 'big-foot' is proven true," state news agency Bernama declared last June. ^ “For tourists who like the bizarre and unexplained, Malaysia also offers a crocodile-whisperer and until recently a special exhibit of ghoulish human-looking remains, known as 'jenglot', which are vampires according to Malay folklore. Standing up to a metre (3 ft) tall, 'jenglot' appear to have charred skin, long black hair and sharp fangs. They are used in villages as a spiritual guard dog to scare off trespassers. Last year's exhibit drew big crowds to a small museum outside Kuala Lumpur, including a local paranormal investigation group, Seekers, which reportedly put some of the figures in a room under 24-hour camera surveillance to catch any of them moving about. Seekers has yet to announce a breakthrough. ^ “It is also too late to see Malaysia's "Snake King", Ali Khan Samsuddin, who spent 25 years mesmerising scorpions and snakes during live performances. He died last month after being bitten by a king cobra that failed to fall under his spell. But famed crocodile whisperer Cheek Inu, aged in his 70s, is still communicating with the fearsome reptiles, in the frontier state of Sarawak, on Borneo island, though some refuse to listen. "His prowess is not a myth as he has proven his ability in various past incidents," the New Straits Times said in September after Cheek Inu was called in to help capture a crocodile that had eaten a 12-year-old boy swimming in the Sarawak River. Seven years ago, Cheek Inu was credited with coaxing a 5.5 metre (18 ft) crocodile to come out of hiding, crawl up a river bank, turn over and die. Unfortunately, the 12-year-old boy's killer proved to be far more stubborn and remained at large.” ^ Cultural War Between Malaysia and Indonesia John M. Glionna wrote in the Los Angeles Times, “ For decades, Uni Histayanti has performed the enigmatic movements of her country's traditional pendet dance. She learned the rhythms as an infant and years ago opened a dinner theater in Jakarta where, dressed in native costume, she performs nightly. As she flutters her arms bird-like, darts her eyes and tilts her head at exotic angles, she invokes the welcoming spirit of the Hindu-majority Bali island where it originated centuries ago. That's why it floored her to hear that neighboring Malaysia had reportedly tried to seize the pendet as its own. It's pure cultural piracy, Histayanti insists. And it makes her mad. "It's a symbol of our heritage, not theirs," she said as she applied makeup in a backstage dressing room of her theater. "If you have something and someone tries to steal it, you take it back." [Source: John M. Glionna, Los Angeles Times, October 21, 2009 ] “These two predominantly Muslim neighbors, which share ethnic and physical traits, are engaged in a tense struggle for superiority. Nowadays, the rift is widening. It's cultural. It's political. And recently, it has gotten personal. Many Malaysians dismiss the teeming Indonesian archipelago as a source for the low-class maids, parking-lot jockeys and waiters who work in Kuala Lumpur and other cities in Malaysia. For their part, Indonesians icily counter that Malaysia is so desperate for a culture that it will resort to anything — even outright theft — to acquire one. “The pendet dance tiff is only one example of battle over so-called proprietary traditions. “A fresh skirmish of the culture wars breaks out now and then when Indonesians claim Malaysians have yet again plagiarized their indigenous art and music. Malaysians have reportedly laid claim to the Indonesian reog performances — a mix of dance and magic, as well as the angklung, a bamboo musical instrument, activists say. In 2007, Indonesia threatened legal action against Malaysia for allegedly co-opting Indonesian songs and dances in its national tourism campaign. That resulted in a high-profile panel being convened to settle the dispute. “Many in Indonesia claim that even Malaysia's national anthem borrows from an Indonesian song. Experts solicited to settle the fight reported that both songs borrow from a 19th century French tune. At home, many Indonesians say, Malaysians are protective of their own culture. When a wave of Indonesian pop music began receiving play on radio stations there a year ago, officials sought to set a strict quota: 90 percent Malaysian songs and 10 percent Indonesian.” Cultural War Between Malaysia and Indonesia Get Ugly John M. Glionna wrote in the Los Angeles Times, ““The pendet dance tiff emerged in the summer of 2009 when rumors spread that Malaysia was responsible for television ads claiming the invention of the pendet dance. Within days, a private company producing a program for the Discovery Channel admitted they were behind the ads and that they had mistakenly picked the wrong dance to promote their upcoming program. The Malaysian government, they explained, had nothing to do with the foul-up.” [Source: John M. Glionna, Los Angeles Times, October 21, 2009 ] “But it was too late. Indonesia's feathers had been ruffled. Indonesia's tourism minister demanded a written apology, which he said was needed for the record. Meanwhile, outraged Indonesians waged a "Crush Malaysia" campaign reminiscent of a nationalistic tirade in the 1960s. This time, mobs burned the Malaysian flag, which features a crescent moon and sun, and threw rotten eggs at the embassy in Jakarta. “For days, protesters wielding sharpened bamboo sticks stopped traffic in search of Malaysian motorists and pedestrians. Six Indonesians were arrested. No one was injured, but the Malaysian Embassy complained about the safety of its citizens. Internet hackers attacked Malaysian government websites. One nationalist youth group began collecting signatures on the Internet for volunteers willing to go to war with Malaysia. Though the leaders of the youth group concede that such a face-off is extremely unlikely, they say they have stockpiled food, medicine and weapons such as samurai swords and ninja throwing-stars.” The Straits Times reported: “The curious tiff between Malaysia and Indonesia defies rationality. Vigilante gangs in Indonesia have sought to "sweep" Malaysians out at roadblocks. Protesters have pelted the Malaysian embassy with bad eggs. These came about after Indonesians accused Malaysians of hijacking a Balinese dance for a promotional campaign on Malaysia. The affair is doubly irrational when one considers the fact that the error was committed not by Malaysia but by the widely watched cable Discovery Channel. [Source: The Straits Times, September 14, 2009] Bitter Feelings Behind the Cultural War Between Malaysia and Indonesia John M. Glionna wrote in the Los Angeles Times, “Such high jinks baffle many Malaysians, not to mention Indonesians."These guys with pointed sticks, they're from the loony left," said Ong Hock Chuan, a Malaysian-born public relations consultant who lives in Jakarta. "If it wasn't Malaysia, they'd vent their anger at something else." But many others here say the resentment is widespread and runs deep. Newspapers run stories about mistreatment of some of the 2 million Indonesian workers by their bosses in Malaysia. Last year, Indonesia temporarily stopped sending maids to Malaysia until better security was provided for the workers. [Source: John M. Glionna, Los Angeles Times, October 21, 2009 ] "Many who want to invade Malaysia are former migrant workers or people who know one," said Aleksius Jemadu, a political scientist at Pelita Harapan University in Indonesia. "There is a sense that Malaysians look down on us. They insult us. And to tell you the truth, many Indonesians are secretly envious because they view most Malaysians as being better off than us." The two governments also remain at loggerheads. "Each wants to be seen as the regional leader in Southeast Asia," he said. "They both claim to be the leading Muslim nation." “The vitriol and bad feelings spill over into politics. Animosity rose this summer after two Jakarta hotels were bombed, an attack apparently planned by a Malaysian citizen linked to Al Qaeda, Noordin Mohammad Top, who was later killed. Ong, the Malaysian Indonesian consultant, writes on his blog that Indonesians should be angry at their own government "for doing so little to capitalize on their culture, which is varied and rich beyond description, and hence letting great opportunities slip away." But Ong says there is much blame to go around. The Malaysian government, he says, "needs to get off its high horse" and treat Indonesian officials as equals. For now, Histayanti says, she will continue to perform the pendet dance for all her customers — even Malaysians. "I feel sorry for them," she said. "They're just jealous of us." The Straits Times reported: “ Malaysia has progressed much faster than Indonesia and jobs are more plentiful than could be created in Indonesia for its much bigger population. The economic gap has resulted in a flood of surplus Indonesian workers into Malaysia to do '3D' (dirty, dangerous and demeaning) jobs in sectors such as construction, plantations and household help. Against this backdrop, ordinary Indonesians rile against being treated as second-class by their kinsmen. Some insensitive Malaysians exacerbate matters when they assert their position in the superior-subordinate relationship. The curious tiff between Malaysia and Indonesia defies rationality. Vigilante gangs in Indonesia have sought to "sweep" Malaysians out at roadblocks. [Source: The Straits Times, September 14, 2009] “Both countries would do well to stress their common and shared cultural heritage, rather than allow their citizens to score nationalist points by declaring exclusive ownership of cultural symbols. As one Malaysian minister has noted, India did not make any noise about Hindi songs being sung in Malaysia and Indonesia. (To buttress the point, India has also never protested against the use of its great Ramayana and Mahabharata epics in Indonesia's wayang kulit.) Art in Malaysia Malaysia is not really regarded as a major art center. One Malaysian art dealer told the International Herald Tribune that the art that sells best n Malaysia is “chocolate-box art—kittens and still lifes and swaying coconut trees.” https://factsanddetails.com/southeast-asia/Malaysia/sub5_4f/entry-3157.html

Buddhist texts make reference to two Buddhist monks coming to Malaysia shortly after the third Buddhist council, which took place in the 3rd century BCE. At the same time, however, the earliest archaeological evidence, found in the Bujang Valley (in the state of Kedah), suggests the presence of a Hindu—Buddhist kingdom as early as the 2nd century CE. From the 8th to the 13th century, the Malay Peninsula was under the influence of the Sri Vijaya empire, which was based on the island of Sumatra and which the Chinese monk I-Tsing described, in 671, as an important center for Buddhist learning with more than one thousand Buddhist monks. After the fall of the Sri Vijaya kingdom, the Thais—who controlled the northern Malay states—introduced Buddhist ideas and practices. Similar to the early period when multiple Buddhist traditions and schools of thought were represented, the formation and negotiation of Buddhist identity in contemporary Malaysia involve not only different Buddhist traditions (Theravada, Mahayana, and Vajrayāna) but also different ethnic groups (Thai, Sri Lankan, Burmese, and Chinese). With Buddhist institutions responding to a much greater range of social and religious needs, ideas about orthodoxy and orthopraxy have become much more diffuse, thus raising fundamental questions concerning who gets to decide the boundaries of a religious identity as well as how religious identities become shaped further by overlapping ethnic and national identities. Finally, with Malaysia being a Muslim country and with Malays (who are, by definition, Muslims) being the majority ethnic community, many of the publications in this article attest not only to the diversity of Buddhism in Malaysia but also to the role that the religion plays in drawing and holding together particular minority Malaysian communities. Historical Background Although there are several treatments of the ancient history of Buddhism in Malaysia (Paranavitana 1966, Sengupta 1994, Hor and Trembath 2001), a comprehensive study is still lacking. Wheatley 1961 remains the most informative study of the early period, although it is a historical geography of the Malay Peninsula rather than a history of Buddhism. Other available treatments of Buddhist history of the region are either general surveys or on immigrant Buddhisms starting from the 18th century (McDougall 1956, Samarawickrama 2003, Udita 2002, Hor and Trembath 2001). ⦁ Hor, Yeap Tor, and Kerry Trembath. “⦁ An Outline of the History and Contemporary Status of Buddhism in Malaysia.” 2001. NNNThis article briefly examines the history of Buddhism in Malaysia from the 3rd century CE to the present. The authors also discuss relationships between Malaysia and China, the state of the three Buddhist traditions in contemporary society, and several key Buddhist associations and societies. ⦁ McDougall, Colin. Buddhism in Malaya. Singapore: D. Moore, 1956. NNNThis book provides a brief overview of the history of Buddhism as well as a longer history of Buddhism in Malaysia and Singapore. The appendices provide lists of Buddhist associations and societies present at the time as well as a brief note on Buddhist relics in Malaysia.

A Global History of Architecture - Page 349 - Google Books result https://books.google.co.in › books

Francis D. K. Ching, ‎Mark M. Jarzombek, ‎Vikramaditya Prakash · 2017 · ‎Architecture The Cholas became the first and really the only Indian empire with a strong naval presence, sending ships to Malaysia and Indonesia to assert their regional 

CHAPTER V Borobudur as a Temple for the Sanghyang Adi Buddha PART II Part I article was THE SECRET OF BOROBUDUR & the Sang Hyang Kamahayanikan THE BELIEF SYSTEM OF ESOTERIC BUDDHISM IS OPEN ONLY TO THOSE WHO FEEL CALLED TO FOLLOW IT & ARE WILLING TO SUBMIT THEMSELVES TO INSTRUCTION BY A MASTER.

Very few people know that the Indonesian Government Regulation Number 21/1975 about the vow of the civil bureaucrat, arranges the vow for the Buddhist bureaucrat by mentions "Demi Sanghyang Adi Buddha" ("by Sanghyang Adi Buddha") in the beginning of the vow.Or that the Borobudur is built to salute the Sanghyang Adi Buddha  Sanghyang Adi Buddha is a concept of God in Indonesian Buddhism. Since the time of Sailendra and Medang Kingdom, Indonesian Buddhists have the same belief in the existence of the Adi-Buddha as the Buddhists in Tibet, Nepal, and the northern schools. Nepalese uses the term: ⦁ Adinata, which means "main protector" and ⦁  Swayambhulokanatta, which means "the unborn protector of the universe."other Tibetan terms such as ⦁  ⦁ Vajradhara (⦁ Tibet= Dorjechang; lit. "ruler of all the mysteries").

⦁ This term was used by ⦁ Ashin Jinarakkhita at the time of Buddhist revival in Indonesia in the mid-20th century to reconcile the first principle of the official philosophical foundation of Indonesia (⦁ Pancasila), i.e. Ketuhanan Yang Maha Esa (lit. "Recognition of the Divine Omnipotence") that requires the belief in a ⦁ supreme God, which Buddhism, strictly speaking, does not believe in. This concept is used by the Indonesian Buddhist Council, an organization that seeks to represent all Buddhist traditions in Indonesia such as ⦁ Theravada, ⦁ Mahayana, and ⦁ Vajrayana.The formulation of Pancasila took place in the mid-20th century immediately after the end of the ⦁ Second World War. Thus, the ideology reflects the socio-political conditions of the ⦁ late colonial period in Indonesia and the ⦁ ensuing war. Its concept derived and synthesized from the ideas and ideals of Indonesia's founding fathers, most prominently Sukarno's. The historical period that most influenced Indonesia's founding fathers was the socio-political conditions of the ⦁ Dutch East Indies in the early and mid 20th century.By the first half of the 20th century, some ideologies that had been established or made their way to the Dutch East Indies included ⦁ imperialism and its antithesis ⦁ anti-colonial nationalism, traditional Javanese statecraft, ⦁ Islamism, ⦁ democracy, ⦁ socialism, and ⦁ communism. Proponents of these ideologies had formed political organizations or parties to forward their respective causes. The Islamist party ⦁ Sarekat Islam was established in 1905 followed by ⦁ Masyumi in 1943. The ⦁ Communist Party was established in 1914, while Sukarno's nationalist ⦁ Indonesian National Party was established in 1927. Favoring one ideology over another would not satisfy the whole spectrum of Indonesian people, thus it was decided that the new republic need to synthesize a new ideology derived from indigenous Indonesian values as well as common shared values derived from various ideologies

Namasangiti Text of Candrakīrti (a monk who was staying in Indonesia), and the symbolism of Borobudur's mandala stupa, provided evidence that the Buddhism embraced by Indonesian people since the days of Srivijaya, Ancient Mataram, Sailendra, and Majapahit is the Buddhism which honors the Primordial Buddha. Indonesian sacred texts which contains the name of Sanghyang Adi Buddha are ⦁ Guna Karanda Vyuha text In the time of nothingness, Shambu was already exist, this is what is called Svayambhu (self-manifested), and preceded all things, this is why he is called the Adi Buddha. Sanghyang Kamahayanikan text All praises for Sanghyang Adi Buddha, this is the Sanghyang Kamahayanikan that I have been wanted to teach you, to the sons of Buddha (whom also) the family of Tathagata, the grandeur of 'Sanghyang Mahayana' practices is what i have to teach you. Herman S. Hendro (1968) in his paper mentioned- The closed uppermost large stupa [of Borobudur] is the epitome of a man who has reached the Absolute Freedom (Nirvana) and united with Adi Buddha. Inside that stupa once was an incomplete and rough Buddha statue which is depicting the Adi Buddha which is unimaginable by human. 1 Adi-Buddha is a term used in Tantric Buddhism to refer to the Primordial Buddha. The term Sanghyang Adi Buddha is agreed upon and used by the Indonesian Supreme Sangha and the Indonesian Buddhist Council as the designation for God Almighty. This term is not found in Pāli Canon, but used in some old Indonesian Vajrayana texts such as Sanghyang Kamahayanikan.

Sang Hyang Adi Buddha refers to "the seed of Buddhahood" inside every being. In Mahayana Buddhism, Adi Buddha refers to the primordial Buddha that outlines the same Universal Dhamma.[3] The Adi-buddha is not a monotheistic deity as in the Abrahamic traditions, but is rather the primordial nature of mind, the part of the mind that never enters samsara, and is thus the "primordial Buddha." As the Primordial Buddha never entertains conceptual ignorance or proliferation, all that arises is referred to as "self-liberated." Sogyal Rinpoche writes: "[[[Kuntuzangpo]]] represents the absolute, naked, sky-like primordial purity of the nature of our mind.” For the purposes of official recognition as a religion by the state, Mahabhiksu Ashin Jinarakkhita encouraged Indonesian Buddhists to present the Adi-Buddha as: a concept of “supreme divinity” in the Dharma that would be most readily recognizable and acceptable to predominantly Muslim authorities. Adi-Buddha is the Primordial Buddha, or Paramadi Buddha (The first and incomparable Buddha). He has some other names in other Buddhist traditions such as Adau‐Buddha (Primordial Buddha), Anadi‐Buddha (Uncreated Buddha), Uru‐Buddha (Buddha of the Buddhas). He also called Adinatha (The first Protector), Svayambhulokanatha (self-originating World Protector), Vajradhara (Vajra Holder), Vajrasattva (Vajra Being), Svayambhu (the Self-Originating One), or Sanghyang Adwaya (Unequalled). In Chinese language, Adi‐Buddha is Pen‐chu‐fu, while aramadi‐Buddha is translated as Sheng‐chu‐fu. In Tibet Dan‐pohi‐sans‐rgyas, Mchog‐gi‐dan‐pohi‐sans‐rgyas, or Thogmahi‐sans‐rgyas are all refers to "Buddha of the Buddhas", that existed since the beginning, as the first: Paramadi‐buddhoddhrta‐sri‐kalacakra‐nama‐tantraraja and Jnanasattva‐manjusryadi‐buddha‐nama‐sadhana Mahayana Buddhism believes that Buddha has three bodies (Trikaya), i.e.: "The Created Body" (Nirmanakaya) to teach common human being; "Body of Mutual Enjoyment" (Sambhogakāya) or the body of bliss or clear light; and "Truth Body" (Dharmakāya) which is eternal, omnipresent, non-individual, almighty, non-dual, and self-originating (svabhava‐kaya). There may be many Buddhas, but only one Dharmakaya. This Dharmakaya is identical with Adi‐Buddha. The sources of this Trikaya doctrine are Avatamsaka Sutra and Mahayana‐sraddhotpada‐shastra. The last one was the work of Asvagosha, a monk who lived around the first century AD. Vetulyaka Lokottaravada School says that Sakyamuni originally was the manifestation of Adi‐Buddha in this world. Herman S. Hendro (1968) wrote: "Dalam Kitab Sutji Sang Hyang Kamahayanikan, pupuh ke-19 didjelaskan bahwa Sang Buddha Gautama telah menunggal dengan Sang Hyang Adhi Buddha atau dengan kata lain bahwa Sang Buddha Gautama adalah pengedjawantahan dari Sang Adhi Buddha. Karena itu bila kita menjebut Sang Adhi Buddha maka itu adalah Sang Buddha jang tidak berkarya (saguna)." "In the Sacred Book of Sanghyang Kamahayanikan, 19th stanza, is explained that the Buddha Gautama was merged with Sang Hyang Adhi Buddha, or in other words the Buddha Gautama was the manifestation of the Adhi Buddha. Therefore if we refers the Adhi Buddha then He is the Buddha who is inactive (saguna)." With his power, he emanates into five Dhyani Buddhas. The Pure Land of the Adi Buddha is called Ogamin in Tibetan or Akanistha in Sanskrit (lit. "not down" or "without (back) to the bottom"). Buddhist concept In Udana Nikaya (viii: 3), Sakyamuni gave his teaching: There is, O monks, an Unborn, Unoriginated, Uncreated, Unformed. Were there not, O monks, this Unborn, Unoriginated, Uncreated, Unformed, there would be no escape from the world of the born, originated, created, formed. Since, O monks, there is an Unborn, Unoriginated, Uncreated, Unformed, therefore is there an escape from the born, originated, created, formed. What is dependent, that also moves; what is independent does not move. Where there is no movement, there is rest; where rest is, there is no desire; where there is no desire, there is neither coming nor going, no ceasing-to-be, no further coming to be. Where there is no ceasing-to-be, no further coming-to-be, there is neither this shore [this world] nor the other shore [[[Nirvana]]], nor anything between them. From the Pali language: Athi Ajatam Adbhutam Akatam Samkhatamor "the Unborn, Unoriginated, Uncreated, and Absolute One". The Primordial Buddha is something without ego (anatta), unpersonified, and indescribable in any form. But for there is the Absolute, the unconditioned (Asamkhatam), one can attain the freedom from the wheel of life (samsara) by meditating. Sanghyang Adi Buddha is the origin of everything in the universe, but he himself is without beginning or end, self-originating, infinite, omnipotent, unconditioned, absolute, omnipresent, almighty, incomparable, and immortal. However, those words are unable to describe the true self of Sanghyang Adi Buddha. The existence of Adi Buddha demonstrates that this life is not the product of chaos, but the product of spiritual hierarchy. By the presence of Adi Buddha, this life becomes useful and be possible to attain enlightenment and Buddhahood. The Indonesian Supreme Sangha describes God in Buddhism and (for the purposes of state recognition as a religion) defines God as "the source of everything that exists": Almighty, eternal, everything in the universe are His exposition, intangible and doesn't manifest Himself. Indonesian National Encyclopedia Indonesian National Encyclopedia (1988) describes Adi Buddha and the traditions that are used this term thus: Adi-Buddha is a term for the Almighty God in Buddhism. This title came from the Aisvarika tradition of Mahayana in Nepal, which is spread through Bengal, and became also known in Java. Aisvarika is the term for the disciples of theist view in Buddhism. This word came from 'Isvara' which means 'God' or 'Great Buddha' or 'the Almighty', and 'ika' which means 'follower' or 'disciple'. This term is used by the Svabhavavak Buddhism in Nepal. This school is one of the branch of Tantrayana school of Mahayana. The term for God Almighty in this school is Adi-Buddha. Later, this view also spread to Java in the time of Srivijaya and Majapahit. The present scholars knows this term from the paper of B.H. Hodgson, a researcher who studied the religious in Nepal. According to this view, one can coalesce (moksha) with Adi-Buddha or Isvara through his efforts with the ascetic path (tapa) and meditating (Dhyana).

The Seeker's Glossary of Buddhism The Seeker's Glossary of Buddhism gives the following definition for Adi Buddha: Term used in Mahayana Buddhism, especially in Nepal and Tibet, for the 'primordial Buddha', the Buddha without beginning." (Ling: 8) The primordial Buddha. Although the concept itself can be traced to early Buddhism, it is widely acknowledge that the notion of the Adi-Buddha was fully developed in esoteric Buddhism. In [[[traditional]] Mahayana] Buddhism, the Adi-Buddha is represented by Mahavairocana Buddha". (Preb: 38) Since the time of Sailendra and Medang Kingdom, Indonesian Buddhists have the same belief in the existence of the Adi-Buddha as the Buddhists in Tibet, Nepal, and the northern schools. Pancasila as the basic foundation of the state and nationhood

The unfinished buddha statue of the main stupa of Borobudur Temple at Karmawibhangga Museum.

Since Indonesian independence in 1945, the founders of this new state had agreed on a proposed ideology as a national foundation for uniting all ethnicities, religions, and races, i.e. Pancasila as the basic foundation of the state and nationhood. The first precept of Pancasila is "Belief in the Almighty Godliness" ("Recognition of the Divine Omnipotence"). The majority of Indonesian people mistranslated the sanskrit "Esa" -Almighty (absolute in virtues)- as "Eka" -One. This misconceptions makes some factions questioning the doctrine of Buddhism whether it acknowledges the Belief in God Almighty or not. 

Following the attempted coup of Communist Party of Indonesia's (PKI) in 1965, Indonesian Government rejects and prohibits the development of all views that correspond to communism or atheism. 

Consequently, there was some doubt within the Indonesian Government at the time whether Buddhism can be accepted as an official religion.  The Buddhist Prist Ashin Jinarakkhita proposed the name of Sanghyang Adi Buddha as the God of Buddhist teachings. He sought confirmation for this uniquely Indonesian version of Buddhism in ancient Javanese texts, and even the shape of the Buddhist temple complex at Borobudur in Jawa Tengah Province. It was submitted to the Minister of Religious Affairs, and the government eventually accepted Buddhism as a state religion in 1978, as stated in GBHN (Outlines of Indonesian State Policy) of 1978, Presidential Decree No. 30 of 1978, and the Form Letter of Indonesian Department of the Interior No.477/74054/1978 (November 18, 1978).

COMPROMISE resulting in the Almighty God (First precept of Pancasila)

The use of Sanghyang Adi Buddha as a name for a supreme God is controversial among Indonesian Buddhists to the present day. The reason is that the concept of Sanghyang Adi Buddha, which only exists in Tantrayana/ Vajrayana traditions, is not a god in the sense of a personal god of the monotheistic religions. The use of the name of Sanghyang Adi Buddha as a personal god, is the product of a compromise with political reality, and is contrary to the teachings of Buddhism. Because of this political compromise, Indonesian Buddhism differs from mainstream Buddhism. This controversy also extends to Very Venerable Ashin Jinarakkhita as the originator of the term Sanghyang Adi Buddha as a god in Buddhism.

While the State seemed to be easily satisfied with Ashin Jinarakkhita's assurance, questions came from their fellow Buddhists and, later, also his primary disciples who were on the same boat with him in the beginning. Since then, debates, disintegration, and splits could not be avoided within Buddhist organizations. The strongest opposition was coming from the Theravādin members, and it seemed to happen partly because of the influence of the Thai Buddhist’s purification movement started in the nineteenth century by King Mongkut as later on many Thai Bhikkhus coming to Indonesia. Though there were also Buddhist monks coming from Sri Lanka and Myanmar, such as Narada Mahathera, Mahasi Sayadaw and other Sangha members, they only came a few times during these early years.

In the same year when the controversy was erupting (1974), the Indonesian Directorate General Guidance of Hindu-Buddhism (Gde Puja, MA.) issued a resolution on all schools/ traditions of Buddhism that they should believe in the presence of an Almighty God (First precept of Pancasila), and while each of this sects may give different names to Him, He is essentially the same entity. This resolution became indirectly a government imposition of the doctrine of Oneness of God on all schools/ traditions of Buddhism. Any schools/ traditions that do not believe in the existence of One God would be dissolved. This happened to the Mahayana school/ tradition of the monk Sun Karma Chandra which was dissolved on July 21, 1978. Nowadays, the term of Sanghyang Adi Buddha only used mostly by Indonesian Buddhayana Council and Indonesian Supreme Sangha. Some schools treat the concept indifferently, while the others simply refuse and consider the idea as heresy (especially the Indonesian Theravada Sangha), and only a fraction supports it fully or partially. Religious usage-Salutation Sanghyang Adi Buddha is used in greeting especially by Indonesian Buddhayana Council, i.e. Namo Sanghyang Adi Buddhaya. This salutation was popularized by the late Venerable Mahawiku Dharma-aji Uggadhammo, one of the five first disciples of Ashin Jinarakkhita, whose ordained as the first Indonesian Buddhist monks after the independence of Indonesia. The complete salutation which is commonly used as a greeting in the books' preface, letters, or meeting is: Namo Sanghyang Adi Buddhaya. Namo Buddhaya, Bodhisatvaya Mahasatvaya. Vandana The tribute to Sanghyang Adi Buddha is often included in the vandana (devotion) section of ritual books.

1.VANDANA Terpujilah Sanghyang Adi Buddha Tuhan Yang Maha Esa ("Homage to Sanghyang Adi Buddha the Almighty God") Terpujilah Bhagavā, Yang Maha Suci, Yang telah mencapai Penerangan Sempurna ("Homage to the Blessed One the Worthy One, the Fully Enlightened One") Terpujilah Para Bodhisattva-Mahasattva ("Homage to all Holy Beings and Great Beings") 2.VANDANA Namo Sanghyang Ādi Buddhaya (3x) "Homage to the Almighty God, shout the whole world" Namo Tassa Bhagavato Arahato Sammā-sambuddhassa (3x) "Homage to the Blessed One the Worthy One, the Fully Enlightened One" Namo Sarve Bodhisattvāya-Mahāsattvāya (3x) "Homage to all Holy Beings and Great Beings"

WAS THE BOROBUDUR BUILT FOR THE SANGHYANA ADI BUDDHA ?

A temple to Sanghyang Adi-Buddha In Buddhist temples throughout in the world, Gautama Buddha is the central figure. Borobudur transcends this. Inside the topmost, central stupa originally stood an incomplete and rough Buddha statue representing Sanghyang Adi-Buddha, or God Almighty, as described in esoteric Indonesian Vajrayana texts such as the Sanghyang Kamahayanikan.

That is why all small stupas are eventually culminating into the Great Stupa, dedicated to Sanghyang Adi-Buddha on top of the temple. Borobudur therefore is an absolutely unique symbol of Ultimate Truth. Borobudur consists of two million blocks of lava rock, 2,700 carved story panels and 504 Buddha statues. Borobudur is actually a giant textbook of Buddhism, as its base reliefs tell the story of the life of Buddha and the principles of his teachings. A universe in small scale

Bhumisambara (Borobudur’s original name) was built as a stepped pyramid. At the base of the massive temple, reliefs of Karmawibhangga — depiction of human life in the endless cycle of death and rebirth (Saṃsāra) as well as the law of cause and effect (karmic law) — were carved on all sides. All Buddhas sit in small bell-like stupa structures covering them, corresponding with what the Prajnaparamita sūtra calls “the Womb of the Buddhas”, symbolizing their Enlightened State.

Viewed from above, Borobudur takes the form of a giant mandala, symbolically depicting the path of the bodhisattva from samsara to nirvana, through the story of Sudhana described in the Gandavyuha sūtra, a part of the Avatamsaka sūtra. The monument guides pilgrims through an extensive system of stairways and corridors with 1,460 narrative relief panels on the walls and the balustrades. The temple is oriented to the four directions and is expanded vertically in accordance with Buddhist cosmology to construct the Universe in a small scale. There are all total four entrances and four complete steps for ascending the highest point from the lowest point from the four directions of East, South, West and North respectively to enter the monument.

Once a year, Buddhists from the whole world celebrate Vesak at the temple.

Built in 800 CE by the Shailendra dynasty, Borobodur is a Mahayana Buddhist complex of stupas – a gigantic Buddhist monument – at 42 meters or 100 feet tall and a total of 504 stupas in its 123 square meter grounds, it is the largest Buddhist monument in the world. The hundreds of stupas are not just a mass of stones ( laval andesite rocks ) but carved and built ( and all laid without mortar ) on top of a natural hillock, where using the terraces of the natural hills, the builders stacked stones to make these monumental stupas in perfect symmetry and total harmony. Borobudur perfectly reflects Buddhist cosmology, which divides the universe into three superimposing levels. The three levels are Kamadhatu (world of desire), Rupadhatu (world of forms), and Arupadhatu (world of formlessness).

⦁ Kamadhatu (⦁ Bhurloka) — The outer courtyard and the foot (base) part of the temple represents the lowest realm of common mortals; humans, animals and also demons. Where humans are still binded by their lust, desire and unholy way of life. The Kamadhatu level pictures the world of passion and the inevitable laws of karma — Karmavibhangga. The first 117 panels show various actions leading to one and the same result, while the other remaining 43 panels demonstrate the many results that follow one single effect.

⦁ Rupadhatu (⦁ Bhuvarloka) — The middle courtyard and the body of the temple represents life on earth in which the soul has been purged of all desires. The middle realm of holy people, rishis and lesser gods. People here began to see the light of truth. The reliefs of the Rupadhatu level show the stories based on the manuscripts of ⦁ Lalitavistara, ⦁ Jataka-Avadana and ⦁ Gandavyuha.

⦁ Arupadhatu (⦁ Svargaloka) — The inner courtyard and the roof of the temple represents the soul’s departure from the body and uniting with the gods in Nirvana. This is the highest and holiest realm of gods, or ⦁ Svarga loka. On the last three circular uppermost terraces, 72 stupas circle the huge main stupa that crowns the top of the temple. The circular form represents the eternity without beginning and without end, a superlative, tranquil, and pure state of the formless world. There are no reliefs on the three circular terraces. Arupadhatu takes the shape of a circle, representing the formless world.

The kamadhatu is represented by the base, the rupadhatu by the five square terraces, and the arupadhatu by the three circular platforms as well as the big stupa. The whole structure shows a uniquely Javanese blending of the very central ideas of ancestor worship, related to the idea of a terraced mountain, combined with the Buddhist concept of attaining Nirvana:

• Ordinary sentient beings live out their lives on the lowest level, the realm of desire. • Those who have burnt out all desire for continued existence leave the world of desire and live in the world on the level of form alone: they see forms but are not drawn to them. • Finally, full Buddhas go beyond even form, and experience reality at its purest, most fundamental level, the formless ocean of nirvana. The liberation from the cycle of saṃsāra where the enlightened soul had no longer attached to worldly form is corresponds to the concept of Śūnyatā, or the nonexistence of the self.

A series of five square bases is succeeded by three circular terraces ringed by those 72 stupas, representing the spiritual journey from the life of desire, through meditation to Nirvana. While viewed from above the whole resembles the sacred lotus flower. On these circular platforms, the famous 72 bell-shaped stupas are situated, inside of each a statue of a Buddha is placed. The top and centre of the entire structure is a large and empty stupa. All terraces and platforms can be reached by means of stairways which are situated at the four sides of the structure. The entire structure is formed in the shape of a giant twirling staircase, a style of architecture from prehistoric Indonesia. At the 10th and highest level of the temple, is the largest and tallest stupa in Borobudur. Within this stupa was found the ‘Unfinished Buddha’ symbolizing Sanghyang Adi-Buddha, which is now in the Karmawibhangga Museum.

The Jātaka level — Bhikkhuṇī Candraprabhā and Advisors warn the king.

An extremely well-balanced structure Borobudur‘s 10 levels are designed to correspond with the path to enlightenment. The base is stacked with 5 concentric square terraces connected by staircases in each direction, which are then topped by 3 circular terraces and ultimately by a monumental stupa.

The temple is designed so that visitors can walk clockwise down the open-air paths along the terraces as they move upward while meditating upon the path to enlightenment. The Buddhas are placed in three circles of 16, 24 and 32 and each looking at a specific spot on three corresponding circles which are situated outside of the perimeter of the structure. Esoterists from all over the world are still trying to find out the meanings contained in the structure of the temple. There are in these four galleries 432 larger statues of the Lord Buddha ranged at regular intervals along the upper part of the walls, each sitting in its own niche or recessed shrine.

All the 108 images on each side are seated with mūdra. On the North, the mūdra is Abhaya mūdra — Have no fear; on the East, the mūdra is Bhūmisparsha — Touching the earth; on the South, Dāna — Giving; on the West, Dhyāna — Meditation. Upon either wall of the four galleries we find a continuous series of bas-reliefs illustrating the religious phenomena in ascending gradation. • the first gallery, that is to say, displays a selection of scenes from the historical life of Buddha • the second shows us the minor deities of the Brahmanic worship adopted into the Buddhist Pantheon • the third contains the higher deities, at the plane in which the shrine rather than the deity itself is worshipped • in the fourth we find only groups of Dhyāni-Buddhas.

In the middle of each of the four sides of the square a steep stairway ascends, the gateway to each stairway being guarded by sitting lions, and spanned by ornate arches of the highest architectural perfection. The main entrance is on the eastern side. The reliefs also depicted mythical spiritual beings in Buddhist beliefs such as asuras, boddhisattvas, kinnaras, gandharvas and apsaras. The reliefs of noblemen, and noble women, kings, or divine beings such as apsaras, taras and boddhisattvas usually portrayed in tribhanga pose. The three bent pose on neck, hips, and knee with one leg resting and one uphold the body weight. This position is considered as the most graceful pose, such as the figure of Surasundari holding a lotus. The square lower part of the structure shows us, through hundreds of carved stone panels, all aspects of social or communal life. It is only after this ‘school of human development’ is passed, that the circular platforms with the 72 Stupas are reached. Where the lower part of the structure concerns itself with earthly matters, the upper part seems to be directed towards the cosmos and as such rises far above the lower levels in more than one sense.

Scheltema, in his book Monumental Java, describes it as “the most consummate achievement of Buddhist architecture in the whole world”. A variety of Javanese motifs and entities are also found in theses compositions, such as the structure of Javanese cottage houses, the birds on its roof or the motifs of trees and leaves.

A scripture set in stone- Borobudur is constructed from 2 million volcanic rocks, and assembled using a complex interlocking technique without the use of cement or mortar.

The monument has 2,672 relief panels that if aligned in a row, would stretch a length of over 6 kilometers. The reliefs are intended to impress lessons of wisdom on the believer’s mind as he ascended the stūpa, and so to prepare him for the attainment of the highest insights of Buddhism.

Reading the panels on the temple walls requires a specific technique. The panels on the wall read from left to right, while those on the balustrade read from right to left, conforming with the pradaksina. The story begins and ends at the eastern side of the gate at every level. Stairs connect each level to the next from each direction of the compass, but the idea is to always ascend from the stairs at the eastern corner. The ten levels of Borobudur are representations of the Mahayana philosophy which describe the ten levels of Bodhisattva that must be passed to attain the Buddhist perfection.

Jatakas or Buddha´s previous life

Seen from the sky, Borobudur is built in the form of Mount Meru, and is a vertical representation of the Sri Yantra. Borobudur teaches all the steps of Buddhist theology to reach the supreme Buddha state.

When ascending from lower levels to the upper levels, the density of the numbers of human figures gradually becomes very much diluted and also their physical gestures become highly controlled and less suggestive.

In the final upper galleries the compositions contain only the extremely calm, isolated rather static figures in few numbers in compositional space. It is a clear symbolization of the transformation from the earthly sinful life of action and reaction towards the spacious and peaceful state of isolation, meditation and transcendental mind. In the center and on top of the Borobudur mandala-temple, is located the Main Stupa, symbolizing something much bigger than individual Enlightenment. This Universal Stupa corresponds with “Emptiness beyond Emptines” or Absolute Emptiness in which Relative Emptiness (Enlightenment) disappears, also called Nirvana or Absolute Bottomlessness of the Cosmos.

The Pawon-Mendut alignment--RIGHT

An astronomical temple

The 4:6:9 ratio has a calendrical, astronomical and cosmological significance, as in Angkor Wat. The gates are adorned with Kala’s head carved on top of each and Makaras projecting from each side. This Kala-Makara motif is commonly found on the gates of Javanese temples.

The positioning of the 72 ‘occupied’ Stupas in three circles of 32, 24 and 16 might give us an indication as to what specific aspects of the cosmos these bell-shaped structures point. The circular platforms on which the Stupas are situated seem to concern themselves with the stars.

The ship reliefs on the East depict a ship underneath celestial objects, commemorating a voyage to Africa. This shows the Indonesians crossed the ocean without a compass, depending solely on the stars for navigation. In 2003–2004, a wooden replica of the Borobudur ship was made and sailed the Cinnamon Route from Jakarta to Accra in Ghana to demonstrate the trans-Indian Ocean trading links of medieval Indonesians and Africans.

A temple to Sanghyang Adi-Buddha

In Buddhist temples throughout in the world, Gautama Buddha is the central figure. Borobudur transcends this. Inside the topmost, central stupa originally stood an incomplete and rough Buddha statue representing Sanghyang Adi-Buddha, or God Almighty, as described in esoteric Indonesian Vajrayana texts such as the Sanghyang Kamahayanikan.

That is why all small stupas are eventually culminating into the Great Stupa, dedicated to Sanghyang Adi-Buddha on top of the temple. Borobudur therefore is an absolutely unique symbol of Ultimate Truth.

The Krakatau eruption But in the year 915 A.D. there occurred a terrible volcanic outburst. The great volcano of Krakatau (then called the Rahata or Cancer-volcano) broke out into an eruption so tremendous that it split the whole island into two parts — now called Java and Sumatra respectively — and brought into existence the Straits of Sunda. At the same time, the volcano Merapi threw out an incredible amount of sand and ashes, destroying almost the whole of Airlanggha’s kingdom, and entirely burying Borobudur, Mendut and Prambanan temples.

This catastrophe is mentioned in the inscriptions of King Airlanggga — sometimes called Jala-langgha (“he who walks over the waters”, apparently because he escaped from the floods caused by the eruption, and retired on Mount Lawu in Surakarta, where be met some Brahmans who were living in the woods there as ascetics.

After some time, however, he came out of his seclusion and made his way into East Java, where he married the daughter of the King of Kediri, and inherited his throne. Under his auspices, Sanskrit learning made great advances in the Kediri and Janggala regions, Buddhism and Hinduism flourished equally under his rule, and started to blend into the Shiva-Buddha religion. The present royal families of Bali and Lombok are descended from Airlangga.

The Borobudur Temple Compounds consists of three monuments: namely the Borobudur Temple and two smaller temples situated to the east on a straight axis to Borobudur:

⦁ Mendut Temple, whose depiction of Buddha is represented by a formidable monolith accompanied by two Bodhisattvas ⦁ Pawon Temple, a smaller temple whose inner space does not reveal which deity might have been the object of worship. Those three monuments represent phases in the attainment of Nirvana. During the full moon in May or June, Buddhists in Indonesia observe the Vesak annual ritual by walking from Mendut temple, past Pawon and then to Borobudur. The ritual takes the form of Buddhist prayer and pradakshina. For local Javanese who follow Kejawen or Buddhism, praying in Mendut temple is believed to help to heal diseases.

Indonesian Buddhism in the early 1990s was the unstable product of complex accommodations among religious ideology, Chinese ethnic identification, and political policy. Traditionally, Chinese Daoism (or Taoism), Confucianism, (agama Konghucu in Indonesian) and Buddhism, as well as the more nativist Buddhist Perbuddhi, all had adherents in the ethnic Chinese community. Following the attempted coup of 1965, any hint of deviation from the monotheistic tenets of the Pancasila was regarded as treason, and the founder of Perbuddhi, Bhikku Ashin Jinarakkhita, proposed that there was a single supreme deity, Sang Hyang Adi Buddha. He sought confirmation for this uniquely Indonesian version of Buddhism in ancient Javanese texts, and even the shape of the Buddhist temple complex at Borobudur in Jawa Tengah Province. In the years following the 1965 abortive coup, when all citizens were required to register with a specific religious denomination or be suspected of communist sympathies, the number of Buddhists swelled; some ninety new monasteries were built. In 1987 there were seven schools of Buddhism affiliated with the Perwalian Umat Buddha Indonesia (Walubi): Theravada, Buddhayana, Mahayana, Tridharma, Kasogatan, Maitreya, and Nichiren. According to a 1987 estimate, there were roughly 2.5 million followers of Buddhism, with 1 million of these affiliated with Theravada Buddhism and roughly 0.5 million belonging to the Buddhayana sect founded by Jinarakkhita. Other estimates placed Buddhists at around only 1 percent of the population, or less than 2 million. Buddhism was gaining in numbers because of the uncertain status of Confucianism. Confucianism was officially tolerated by the government, but since it was regarded as a system of ethical relations rather than a religion per se, it was not represented in the Department of Religious Affairs. Although various sects approach Buddhist doctrine in different ways, a central feature of the religion is acknowledgment of the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path. The Four Noble Truths involve the recognition that all existence is full of suffering; the origin of suffering is the craving for worldly objects; suffering ceases when craving ceases; and the Eightfold Path leads to enlightenment. The Eightfold Path invokes perfect views, resolve, speech, conduct, livelihood, effort, mindfulness, and concentration. Buddhism originally was an intellectual creed, and only marginally concerned with the supernatural. However, political necessity, and the personal emotional desire to be shielded from the terrors of the world by a powerful deity, have led to modifications. In many ways, Buddhism is highly individualistic, with each man and woman held responsible for his or her own self. Anyone can meditate alone; no temple is required, and no clergy is needed to act as intermediary. The community provides pagodas and temples to inspire the proper frame of mind to assist the worshippers in their devotion and self-awareness.

The Form of Emptiness and the “Emptiness of Form” The Design concepts of the Borobudur based on the Buddha Sutras

Dr. Uday Dokras B.Sc., B.A. (managerial economics) LL.B. Nagpur University, INDIA Graduate Studies, Queen’s University, Kingston, CANADA MBA CALSATATE USA Graduate Diploma in Law, Stockholm University, SWEDEN Ph.D. Stockholm University, SWEDEN Former General Manager -Go Airlines (India) Pvt Ltd.

Introduction - The Buddhist monument Borobudur, central Java, Indonesia. It was constructed about 778–850 ce under the Shailendra dynasty and has three major levels representing individual stages toward perfection. It is designed in a way to resemble the wheel of life.  The dharma wheel, or dharma chakra in Sanskrit, is one of the oldest symbols of Buddhism. Around the globe it is used to represent Buddhism in the same way that a cross represents Christianity or a Star of David represents Judaism. It is also one of the Eight Auspicious Symbols of Buddhism.The Borobudur stupa is therefore made in such a way that the devotees went round and round from a earlier-lower level climbing to a higher Upper level and reading or looking at the various reliefs carved on one side of the circumambulatory staircase. Borobudur, also transcribed Barabudur is a 7th-century Mahayana Buddhist temple in Magelang, Indonesia. 

STUPA Design Elements of the Borobudur

How can the eye see itself without a mirror? How can you clap with one hand? If we have attained this birth due to our karma (deeds) in our previous births, then how did we get our first birth? Gautama Buddha

Gautama Buddha was born in India in the 6th century. At the age of twenty-nine, he renounced riches to become a monk and lead a life of meditation. Originally, Buddhism was not a religion, but a doctrine that explained the steps to reaching Nirvana, a release from life's misery. The ultimate goal is to avoid rebirth and a continuation of life, cycle after cycle. When the Buddha gained Enlightenment, he taught his followers. In his famous sermon at Deer Park in what is now Benares, he established the principles of a faith that brings inner tranquility.

Hear me, gracious ones, for I offer you knowledge of the path to Enlightenment. This is the first noble truth: life is suffering. The second noble truth: suffering is caused by human fears and desires. Third: suffering can be eliminated. And the fourth noble truth is that the elimination of suffering can be achieved by following the Noble Eight-fold path.

The Eight-fold path shows the way to extinguish desire: correct view, correct intention, correct speech, correct conduct, correct livelihood, correct zeal, correct remembrance (which retains what is true and excludes the false) and correct meditation. On the island of Java stands a mountain of a thousand statues... surrounded by volcanoes, shrouded in mystery. In 1814, two hundred men cross the lush Kedu plains of Central Java to search out this legendary mountain near the small village of Boro. For six weeks, they slash and burn the choking vegetation. They clear away tons of volcanic ash. Hidden beneath the debris, they find strange figures carved in stone – thousands of them. Borobudur stands in the geographical center of the island of Java, fifteen miles from Yogyakarta, on a plateau that is the caldera of an ancient volcano ringed by the Menoreh mountains. Two sets of twin volcanoes – Merapi and Merbabu to the northeast, Sumbing and Sindoro to the northwest – stand sentinel across the plains. Merapi, the "fire mountain," is active. A legend is told of a heavenly architect who built Borobudur in a single day and laid a curse on anyone who dared ascend his holy shrine. According to Asian art historian, Jan Fontein: "There is a mountain south of Borobudur that when viewed from the monument looks very much like the profile of a man; the nose, lips and chin are clearly delineated. The story goes that the ridge depicts Gunadharma, the architect of Borobudur, who is believed to keep watch over his creation through the ages."

Borobudur could be regarded as a Vajradhatu–mandala and is, in turn, related to Mendut Temple, which is identified as a Garbhadhatu-mandala. The pair of mandalas( temples) is called Dharmadhatu-mandala. It was built as a nine-stepped structure to served as a place of worship- as a monument crowned with a great stupa. However, because the large stupa structure could not withstand the huge weight, it was disassembled to attain the present-day structure of Borobudur. Now built as a place of pilgrimage where ancient Javanese Buddhists could gain knowledge established only for a Yogin. But today it has a special place in the southwest area for the commoners and priests to accumulate a virtue. The profile originally intended was taller and sharper than what we see today. The shape of the stupa - like a badly-risen cake, results from a mix of climate and ambition. The first building campaign began with a basement covered in 160 relief panels but, when the substantial weight of the first terrace was added, the land slipped, no doubt because the core of the structure (part natural hill, part infill) soaked up water like a sponge. A decision was taken to abandon the basement by girdling it with a terrace - a corset to ensure against future landslips.

The figures for Borobudur are stupendous: stone embankment covering the basement: 11,600 cubic metres 1,460 narrative panels covering 1,900 square metres 1,212 decorative panels covering 600 square metres 100 monumental gargoyles to carry away the rainwater 432 Buddha images displayed from the galleries 72 Buddhas displayed in stupas on the great terrace 1,472 stupa-shaped ornaments

Originally, the Borobudur had three levels, each of them corresponding to a level of the Mahayana Buddhism universe: Kamadhatu, the lower level of human life, a world of passions overwhelming the human beings, is represented by the lower level of the temple, which is now partly buried.

Ruphadhatu is the second level. It is represented in the temple by the processional terrace and by the four rectangular terraces; it is ornamented by 2,000 bas-reliefs depicting the life of Prince Siddharta before he became the Buddha. On this level can also be found statues of the Buddha representing the five mudras (or hand positions). Above the rectangular terraces, three circular ones are ornamented by 72 stupas of stone. These stupas are bell-shaped, representing the sacred shape of Buddhism. Each of them encloses a statue of the Buddha. Above these circular terraces, the higher level corresponds to the world of total abstraction (Arupadhatu), represented by a large stupa, about 15 meters in diameter. As each level represents a period of human life, the pilgrims had to walk along them clockwise, starting with the stairs on the eastern side. They could thus gradually follow the rules of Buddhist philosophy and eventually gain access to Wisdom.

But in 1885, an accidental discovery rekindles interest in preserving this ancient treasure. J. W. Ijzerman, a Dutch architect involved in a restoration project, walks along the high processional path that surrounds the base of Borobudur. "And he noticed that the moldings of the wall continued underneath a crack that he saw in the floor," says Fontein. "This meant that all these stones must have been added at a time when part of the building was already finished." Ijzerman excitedly calls for a section of the path to be removed. When sixteen layers of stone have been pulled away, Ijzerman discovers another tier of panels quite unlike those of the upper galleries. These are portrayals of hellish tortures mixed with scenes of sweet pleasure. In all, one hundred sixty panels are uncovered. A few scenes had been left unfinished, with instructions to the stone carver inscribed in Sanskrit, and the style of lettering is so distinctive that it can be dated specifically to the middle of the 9th century. Experts conclude that Borobudur must have been built by the Sailendra kings who ruled in Central Java at that time. 3 Levels: Borobudur Temple has three levels representing the three worlds in the universe:

1. Kamadhatu or the world of desire, ⦁ Rupadhatu or the world of appearance and arupadhatu or the world without visual existence. At the level of rupadhatu, a man has left his desires but still has ego and resemblance. ⦁ Arupadhatu is a world where ego and resemblance no longer exist. At this level, a man has been released from samsara and decided to break his affiliation with the mortal world.

Kamadhatu is found at the foot of the structure, the five steps above it are described as rupadhatu and the third round terraces are described as arupadhatu . Similar to the Mahayana and the Tantric Buddhism, Vajrayana was practiced in Borobudur during ancient times and the ability to integrate the philosophy of Tantric or Vajrayana and Mahayana through reliefs and sculptures in the temple indicates the high intelligence of Borobudur’s architect.

Stupa: This is the Central component of a Buddhist temple, including Borobudur. Originally built to bury the relics of Buddha shortly after his body was cremated further developments indicate that it was used to store not only the relics of Buddhist monks but also Buddhist objects . A stupa, which describes the concept of Buddhism, has several sections, namely the basis of the stupa (Prasadha), the parts of the ball (dagob) or bell (genta) and the top or crown (yashti) . The stupa was also decorated with parasols (chattra) at the top of the yashti .

The stupas are on the terrace of the temple having a form different from that of other stupas in Indonesia. 1,537 stupas could be subdivided into 1,536 buffer stupas and 1 main stupa located from the second-level terrace to the tenth-level terrace. The number of stupas on each terrace is  different. 

The third terrace has the most number of stupas (416). On the basis of this evidence, it can be concluded that the number of stupas on each terrace is the multiples of 8, except on the second, fifth and tenth terraces.

The perforated stupas are erected from the seventh to the ninth terrace 2 forms and 4 types of stupas exist in Borobudur. The forms are plain and perforated. The plain stupas can be found from the second to the sixth terrace and in the tenth terrace, where the great stupa is located. The number of plain stupas is 1,465, whereas the number of perforated stupas is 72.

The stupas of Borobudur can be classified into four types, namely type A, type B, type C and type D. These four types are the 

⦁ Type A: plain stupas having a Prasadha with ornate lotus seams (dalla) and a semi-circle (kumuda), solid Anda, rectangular harmika and basic circleshaped yashti. This type of stupa is the smallest in Borobudur. There are 1,464 stupas of this type, which are located from the second to the sixth terrace on the ledges, niches and roofedgates or paduraksa. ⦁ Type B: Or the hollow space-diamond stupas which are 56 in numbe, located on the seventh and eighth terraces. containing the Dhyani Buddha Vairocana that symbolises the turning wheel of dharma They are characterised by a Prasadha with a flat seam (patta), lotus (gentha-side), ornate lotus (dalla) and semi-circle (kumuda), and the hollow space-diamond stupas are characterised by an Anda, a rectangular harmika and a basic circle-shaped yashti.

The type B stupas contain a statue of Dhyani Buddha Vairocana with the mudra or hand gesture of Dharma Chakra Parvatana. the plain stupas on these terraces are probably used as the boundary between the ledge (Vedika) and the floor (pradaksinapatha).

⦁ Type C: the hollow space-square stupas are 16 in number located on the ninth terrace containing no statues. Therse are characterised by a Prasadha with a flat seam (patta), lotus (gentha-side), ornate lotus (dalla) and semi-circle (kumuda), and the hollow space-square Anda, by an octagonal harmika and basic octagonal-shaped yashti. ⦁ Type D or Single main stupa that becomes the centre of the Borobudur Temple is characterized by Prasadha with a flat seam (patta), a lotus (genthaside), an ornate lotus (dalla) and a semi-circle (kumuda). The Anda is a solid, rectangular and octagonal harmika, with basic octagonal-shaped yashti. The Yashti on the main stupa has not been fully restored since the discovery of the temple. The reconstruction of the yashti was carried out on the basis of a picture showing that it previously contained three parasols. It is characterised by a (Chatra).

There is a main stupa, with a belt adorned with vines, which is located on the tenth terrace. It has been suggested that the main stupa should be stylised with a parasol. It has been found that the plain stupas (type A) are located from the second to the sixth terrace. This argument is visualised in the temple in the form of type C stupas or the hollow space-diamond stupas. The Dhyani-Buddha Vairocana statues placed in this position show the ambiguity between the being and nothingness or maya. Buddha was visualised in the arupadhatu stages, but he is still able to carry out his activities. The activities presented in arupadhatu, which teaches Dharma, finalise and liberate all beings. They are manifested from the seventh to the ninth terraces. The Vairocana Buddha statue is placed in this stupa in order to demonstrate his activity; Buddha teaches all beings and to all directions. The hollow space-square stupas, which do not contain a Buddha statue, hold a higher position than the hollow space-diamond stupas. They have become a symbol of the last level arupadhatu, eventually reaching a Parinirvana stage, which is symbolised by the main stupa. According to Parinirvana Sutra , Buddha of Kamadhatu went to the top, and after passing through various levels in arupadhatu, he entered the level of arupadhatu to eventually reach the level where feelings no longer exist. Then, Buddha went down from the top to the lowest level of rupadhatu. Then, he again reached the highest level of rupadhatu to finally enter Parinirvana. 3.1

Comparison between the stupas of Borobudur and other temples Stupas are also found in other Mahayana-Vajrayana Buddhist temples, such as Mendut, Pawon, Ngawen, Kalasan, Sari, Lumbung and Sewu Temples, as well as the Ratu Boko archaeological sites and Pura Pegulingan. The form of plain stupas found in all of these sites is similar to that of Borobudur.

It has been found that the plain stupas in Sewu Temple are similar to those of Borobudur, which are placed on the ledge. They reinforce the opinion about their function at Borobudur as a boundary between the ledge (Vedika) and floor (pradaksinapatha). The Sewu Temple was built in the late 8th century having Vajradhatu-mandala structure, with a great number of Dhyani Buddha figures. However, there was limited information on the essence of Boddhisattva who was worshipped in the temple because the inscription of Kelurak, which was found at Sewu Temple, provided information only about a temple named Manjusri-grha or the house of Manjusri, and it could be built to worship Manjusri . On the basis of the similarities found, it can be suggested that Borobudur and Sewu Temples are most probably correlated and were erected at the same time. Both temples also represent Sailendra art and Mahayana and Vajrayana sects, such as stupas on the ledge and Vajradhatu-mandala structure. The author found the main stupas or type A stupa at Pawon, Kalasan, Sari, Lumbung and Sewu Temples, as well as at the Ratu Baka archaeological site and Pura Pegulingan. The main stupas at Mendut and Ngawen Temples were built during the ancient times. The main stupas in both temples have collapsed or been damaged and cannot be reconstructed. Vairocana statues inside a hollow space-diamond stupa. The main stupa at Pura Pegulingan in Bali, which is similar to a miniature of stupa, can be found at these sites. The miniature of stupa at Pegulingan is probably related to the statues of Pancatathagata, which itself is related to the Vajrayana Buddhism doctrine, and it could be seen on the Dhyani Buddha statues that are placed on the four corners of the stupa (Astawa, 1996). The Ratu Boko Temple was built as a vihara and named Abhayagirivihara; it still preserves the legacy of Buddhism (Magetsari, 1981).

The main stupa at Ratu Boko, has been reconstructed ever since its discovery. Meanwhile, Ngawen, Mendut, Pawon, Kalasan, Sari, Lumbung and Sewu Temples have one main stupa surrounded by plain smaller stupas. The main stupas at these temples are the symbols of Parinirvana. It has been found that these main stupas in each temple were not decorated with parasols or chattra. 1

In 1931, a Dutch artist and scholar of Hindu and Buddhist architecture, W.O.J. Nieuwenkamp, developed a theory that Kedu Plain was once a lake and Borobudur initially represented a lotus flower floating on the lake. Lotus flowers are found in almost every Buddhist work of art, often serving as a throne for buddhas and base for stupas. The architecture of Borobudur itself suggests a lotus depiction, in which Buddha postures in Borobudur symbolize the Lotus Sutra, mostly found in many Mahayana Buddhism (a school of Buddhism widely spread in the east Asia region) texts. Three circular platforms on the top are also thought to represent a lotus petals. Borobudur's vertical organization reflects Buddhist cosmology, according to which the universe is divided into three superimposing spheres: kamadhatu (desire), rupadhatu (forms) and arupadhatu (formlessness). The Borobudur Temple Compounds is one of the greatest Buddhist monuments in the world, and was built in the 8th and 9th centuries AD during the reign of the Syailendra Dynasty. However the construction and the style of terraced structure where one climbs from one to the hiher terrace suggests another design concept. The Sutra famously states, "Form is emptiness (śūnyatā), emptiness is form." It is a condensed exposé on the Buddhist Mahayana teaching of the Two Truths doctrine, which says that ultimately all phenomena are sunyata, empty of an unchanging.essence. This word sunyata or shunyata translated most often as emptiness, vacuity, and sometimes voidness[2] – is a concept that found in diverse religions from Buddhist, Shaivite and Vaishnavite, which has multiple meanings depending on its doctrinal context. In Theravāda Buddhism, Suññatā often refers to the non-self (Pāli: anattā, Sanskrit: anātman) nature of the five aggregates of experience and the six sense spheres. Suññatā is also often used to refer to a meditative state or experience. However in  Mahāyāna Buddhism, practiced by the builders of the Borobodur stupa- śūnyatā refers to the tenet that "all things are empty of intrinsic existence and nature (svabhava)", but may also refer to the Buddha-nature teachings and primordial or empty awareness, as in Dzogchen, Shentong, or Chan.

At Borobudur, geometry, geomancy, and theology all instruct adherents toward the ultimate goal of enlightenment. Meticulously carved relief sculptures mediate a physical and spiritual journey that guides pilgrims progressively toward higher states of consciousness. The entire site contains 504 statues of the Buddha. An aerial view of Borobudur shows the overall plan forms a giant tantric Buddhist mandala. All tiers are connected with more than a hundred staircases. Some say the numbers are even higher — close to 500! — and others just lost count during the ascent.

HeartSutra (Sanskrit: प्रज्ञापारमिताहृदय Prajñāpāramitāhṛdaya ) is a popular sutra in Mahāyāna Buddhism. In Sanskrit, the title Prajñāpāramitāhṛdaya translates as "The Heart of the Perfection of Wisdom". Mahayana Buddhism (or the Mahayanas) can be defined as a major movement in the history of Buddhism which has its origins in northern India. It is made up of many schools and reinterpretations of fundamental human beliefs, values, and ideals not only those of the Buddhist teachings.

The recorded starting point for Mahāyāna, also known as the 'Great Vehicle' because it embraces so much, is the 2nd century CE, but it is assumed that this tidal wave of shifts began to grow before that date, building on existing schools and systems, and it continues today. Its exact origins are still not completely understood, but in contrast to previous Buddhist aspirations, great emphasis was placed equally on the doctrines of compassion (Skt: karunā) and insight (Skt: prajñā). In addition, the Bodhisattva, the human being who devotes him or herself to the service of others, became the new model for religious practice as opposed to the Arhat (Hīnayāna-Hearer or Seeker) who is concerned only with the self-interested pursuit of liberation.

This age also represents a massive social change in the way Buddhists practised because householders, lay practitioners, ie. those who have not renounced life to become monks or nuns, became equally as important as the clergy, ie. monastic practitioners devoting their whole lives to Buddha. Also, a new body of literature is associated with this movement known as the Perfection of Insight texts (Prajñā-pāramitā Sūtras) in which Buddha Sakyamuni (the historical Buddha) is seen in a new light as a supernatural being (later formalized as the trikāya - three bodies) and the concept and doctrine of emptiness (Skt: śūnyatā) became of major importance. Today, Mahayana Buddhism is predominant in north Aisa and has been strongly influenced culturally and by existing religions there such as Taoism and Confucianism.

Classification To clarify this complex movement of spiritual and religious thought and religious practice, it may help to understand the three main classifications of Buddhism to date: Theravada (also known as Hinayana, the vehicle of the Hearers), Mahayana, and Vajrayana. These are recognised by practitioners as the three main routes to enlightenment (Skt: bodhi, meaning awakening), the state that marks the culmination of all the Buddhist religious paths. The differences between them are as follows: Theravada is the only remaining school from the Early Buddhist period, its central texts are in Pali (Pāli Canon), the spoken language of the Buddha; and its exclusively monastic devotees strive to become enlightened for their own liberation. Mahayana uses Sanskrit as its main language, and monastic and lay followers work for the liberation of all sentient beings, making compassion and insight (wisdom) its central doctrines. Vajrayana, the Diamond School, originally exclusive to Tibet (in 20th century CE the Chinese occupation of Tibet forced it out of the country), emphasizes the permanence of the Buddha's teachings as symbolized by the vajra (thunderbolt), a ritual implement used for ceremonies, employs Tantra (techniques to reach enlightenment quickly) and focuses mainly on lay practitioners. The main schools of Buddhism practised today are Pure Land, Zen, Nichiren, Shingon, and Tendai (all Mahayanas); and Tibetan Buddhism (Vajrayāna). It is significant that Theravāda texts exclusively concern the Buddha's life and early teachings; whereas, due to widespread propagation (spreading of the teachings), Mahāyanā and Vajrayāna texts appear in at least six languages. Mahāyāna texts contain a mixture of ideas, the early texts probably composed in south India and confined to strict monastic Buddhism, the later texts written in northern India and no longer confined to monasticism but lay thinking also.

The Sutra under our discussion, famously states, "Form is emptiness (śūnyatā), emptiness is form." It is a condensed exposé on the Buddhist Mahayana teaching of the Two Truths doctrine, which says that ultimately all phenomena are sunyata, empty of an unchanging essence. This emptiness is a 'characteristic' of all phenomena, and not a transcendent reality, but also "empty" of an essence of its own. Specifically, it is a response to Sarvastivada teachings that "phenomena" or its constituents are real.

It has been called "the most frequently used and recited text in the entire Mahayana Buddhist tradition. The text has been translated into English dozens of times from Chinese, Sanskrit and Tibetan as well as other source languages.

In the sutra, Avalokiteśvara addresses Śariputra, explaining the fundamental emptiness (śūnyatā) of all phenomena, known through and as the five aggregates of human existence (skandhas): form (rūpa), feeling (vedanā), volitions (saṅkhāra), perceptions (saṃjñā), and consciousness (vijñāna). Avalokiteśvara famously states, "Form is Emptiness (śūnyatā). Emptiness is Form", and declares the other skandhas to be equally empty—that is, dependently originated.

Avalokiteśvara then goes through some of the most fundamental Buddhist teachings such as the Four Noble Truths, and explains that in emptiness none of these notions apply. This is interpreted according to the two truths doctrine as saying that teachings, while accurate descriptions of conventional truth, are mere statements about reality—they are not reality itself—and that they are therefore not applicable to the ultimate truth that is by definition beyond mental understanding. Thus the bodhisattva, as the archetypal Mahayana Buddhist, relies on the perfection of wisdom, defined in the Mahāprajñāpāramitā Sūtra to be the wisdom that perceives reality directly without conceptual attachment, thereby achieving nirvana.

The sutra concludes with the mantra gate gate pāragate pārasaṃgate bodhi svāhā, meaning "gone, gone, everyone gone to the other shore, awakening, svaha.

BOROBUDUR Design

Borobudur ground plan taking the form of a Mandala Borobudur is built as a single large stupa and, when viewed from above, takes the form of a giant tantric Buddhist mandala, simultaneously representing the Buddhist cosmology and the nature of mind. The original foundation is a square, approximately 118 metres (387 ft) on each side. It has nine platforms, of which the lower six are square and the upper three are circular.[74] The upper platform contains seventy-two small stupas surrounding one large central stupa. Each stupa is bell-shaped and pierced by numerous decorative openings. Statues of the Buddha sit inside the pierced enclosures. The design of Borobudur took the form of a step pyramid. Previously, the prehistoric Austronesian megalithic culture in Indonesia had constructed several earth mounds and stone step pyramid structures called punden berundak as discovered in Pangguyangan site near Cisolok , Kuningan.

The construction of stone pyramids is based on native beliefs that mountains and high places are the abode of ancestral spirits or hyangs. The punden berundak step pyramid is the basic design in Borobudur, believed to be the continuation of older megalithic tradition incorporated with Mahayana Buddhist ideas and symbolism.[79]

Aerial view of Borobudur, it took the form of a step pyramid and mandala plan

3 Realms of Buddhist Cosmology

The monument's three divisions symbolize the three "realms" of Buddhist cosmology, namely  1.Kamadhatu (the world of desires),  2.Rupadhatu (the world of forms), and finally  3.Arupadhatu (the formless world).

Ordinary sentient beings live out their lives on the lowest level, the realm of desire. Those who have burnt out all desire for continued existence leave the world of desire and live in the world on the level of form alone: they see forms but are not drawn to them. Finally, full Buddhas go beyond even form and experience reality at its purest, most fundamental level, the formless ocean of nirvana.

 The liberation from the cycle of Saṃsāra where the enlightened soul had no longer attached to worldly form corresponds to the concept of Śūnyatā, the complete voidness or the nonexistence of the self. Kāmadhātu is represented by the base, Rupadhatu by the five square platforms (the body), and Arupadhatu by the three circular platforms and the large topmost stupa. The architectural features between the three stages have metaphorical differences. For instance, square and detailed decorations in the Rupadhatu disappear into plain circular platforms in the Arupadhatu to represent how the world of forms—where men are still attached with forms and names—changes into the world of the formless.

Congregational worship in Borobudur wsas( and also is) performed in a walking pilgrimage. Pilgrims are guided by the system of staircases and corridors ascending to the top platform. Each platform represents one stage of enlightenment. The path that guides pilgrims was designed to symbolize Buddhist cosmology.

In 1885, a hidden structure under the base was accidentally discovered. The "hidden footing" contains reliefs, 160 of which are narratives describing the real Kāmadhātu. The remaining reliefs are panels with short inscriptions that apparently provide instructions for the sculptors, illustrating the scenes to be carved. The real base is hidden by an encasement base, the purpose of which remains a mystery. It was first thought that the real base had to be covered to prevent a disastrous subsidence of the monument into the hill. There is another theory that the encasement base was added because the original hidden footing was incorrectly designed, according to Vastu Shastra, the Indian ancient book about architecture and town planning. Regardless of why it was commissioned, the encasement base was built with detailed and meticulous design and with aesthetic and religious consideration.

STEPPED PYRAMID; You will need to climb 625 steps up and 625 steps down to see what gorgeous nature looks like. It's going to be worth it! Choose your level of difficulty at Suroloyo Peak: The first level is an easy track, where you can enjoy the Borobudur silhouette from afar.

BOROBUDUR: Mountain, Mandala, Monument (770 - 830)       SUDHANA LISTENING TO ONE OF THIS "52 FRIENDS," BOROBUDUR (770 - 830)

“The liturgical advantages of linear addition for temple design does not fully explain why, despite the paramount importance Indian architects attached to the concept of the “temple mountain” and their genius for finding ever more ingenious forms with which to express it, they do not appear to have attempted to build a pyramid in stone. Mountains, specifically the Himalayas, had long been seen as the haunt of the Hindu deities and the furthest reach from pedestrian, dust-bound humanity. The Khmer built temples on every mountain, or what passed for one, in their water-logged homeland and, where there were no hillocks, they erected mountains of masonry. The earliest “temple mountain” was probably the Step Pyramid of Djoser at Saqqara (2667 - 2648 B.C.E.,) followed by the “ziggurats” of Mesopotamia, a name meaning “to build a raised place” in Akkadian. The 14th Century B.C.E Babylonian Dur Kurigaizu may possibly have been the original “Tower of Babel,” to the conquered Hebrews a symbol of pagan hubris competing with their monotheistic, unnamable god. In Mesoamerica, isolated from the Eastern Hemisphere for millennia, the largest, if no longer most impressive temple mountain, was built at Cholula near Puebla, in the 9th Century, the aptly named Tlachihualtepetl, “the mountain built by hand” in Nahuatl, all 4.45 million cubic meters of it, now a grassy hill crowned by a Christian church. ​ Did Indian sthapakas disdain a mass of masonry as too literal an interpretation of what was at best a metaphor with many possible metaphysical tenors? Or was their anti-materialistic theology offended by the notion of making an imitation mountain – an illusion of an illusion – preferring an obvious “aedicule” or icon of a mountain, thus emphasizing that a temple, a mountain and Mt. Meru were merely “dependently-originated” emanations and mirages which would be destroyed, like their creator, Brahma, every 311 trillion 40 billion years ––just a “flash in eternity” in the words of the Bhagavad Gita. Still, it comes as a surprise that the first, great “temple mountain” in the Indic cultural ambit was built at a remote inland site surrounded by volcanoes on the Kedu Plain of South Java, 40km from present-day Yogyakarta. The temple mountain of Borobudur is estimated to have taken sixty years, from 770 to 830, to complete during the peak of the Mahayana Buddhist Sailendra Kingdom. Jayavarman II (790 - 835) may have been a feudatory of the Sailendras and even have spent time in Java before he declared the independence of the Khmer Empire in 802, while the temple was still under construction. ​ Perhaps as surprising as Borobudur’s location is that this first “temple mountain” achieved a level of architectural and theological sophistication never again equaled or attempted. The temple appears not only to have been laid-out according to a mandala, like those of India, but to have functioned as one as well, a yantra, a diagram or device for “consciousness raising,” here a literal pathway for attaining “enlightenment in this life-time” – or at least simulating its path over a weekend. Mandalas are intended to aid their makers’ meditations and visualizations and then destroyed once their outward, illusory form had been internalized; hence, they have always been regarded as ephemeral, painted on perishable fabric or even drawn in sand. At Borobudur, however, groups of pilgrims were presumably intended in the coming centuries to make their way around the padas of each of mandala’s concentric squares, upward and inward along a 3km long “liturgical path,” towards its central stupa and tip, the primal bindu or dot, literally climbing towards satori stone by stone and footstep by footstep.  ​ Upwards of 3500 mandalas are recorded from the 9th Century and although scholars have been unable to find one which corresponds exactly with Borobudur’s site plan, its similarities with several widely-used types are striking. For example, the 504 Buddha statues which line its terraces are aligned in accord with the Diamond World Mandala, one of the most widely used Tantric models. The 368 statues in the niches above the first four terraces sign with the mudra of the four Mahayana dhyani, tathagata or “wisdom” Buddhas, associated with the direction they face; the 72 Buddhas in the dagobas or stupas of the three round terraces (gold circles) have been associated with Vairocana, the central Buddha of that mandala of whom the other four are aspects or manifestations. ​ The identity of the 64 Buddhas on the 5th terrace (dark green) has occasioned considerable scholarly debate because 1) the Diamond World mandala has only five Buddhas and 2) the 64 statues are depicted in vitarka or teaching mudra, not used in that mandala. Some have speculated that the Buddhas of the 5th terrace and in the stupas are both Vairocana, while others have suggested the “extra,” “sixth” Buddha is the historical Buddha, born Siddhartha Gautama. A third group has put forward Vajradhara, a Buddha found especially in Vajrayana or Tantric sutras, the Adi-Buddha or source of the other five, representing the dharmakhana, the non-manifest or “subtle” “Buddha body,” “nature” or “essence,” equivalent to ultimate reality, sunyata or emptiness of thought and substance. Thus, Borobudur still withholds some of its secrets despite the great advances of modern research. All the Buddhas, significantly, face outward towards the world in keeping with the temple’s primarily didactic mission.

From templemountains.org ​ ​​ ​ The texts illustrated on Borobudur’s 2670 bas relief panels (1460 of them narrative, the rest decorative) in two registers on the walls and balustrades of its four concentric, redented terraces seem deliberately selected and sequenced to illustrate the three dhatus, lokas or “realms” of Buddhist cosmology, subdivided into thirty-three (or thereabout,) ranked levels of consciousness,  The original base, (now hidden by a “false foot,” added when the temple began to subside under its own massive weight,) the 1st terrace and the balustrade of the 2nd, depict events from the kamadhatu, the ten “desire worlds” inhabited by humans as well as the Vedic gods and demons

The panels on the three upper terraces are taken from the Gandavyuha, (The Structure of the World Compared to a Bubble or The Entrance into the Dharma) which constitutes the 39th chapter of the Flower Ornament Sutra and its sequel, the Bhadraari Sutra. These are important, if obscure, Mahayana texts describing the quest for enlightenment of a youth, Sudhana, in the course of which he is instructed by no fewer than fifty-two “good friends,” gurus, bodhisattvas and Buddhas, populating the rupadhatu, the eighteen “form worlds” of those who are no longer subject to cataleptic desires, experiencing only self-delight, but still occupy discrete territory in space and a unified consciousness capable of instructing others. On the fifth terrace bas reliefs are replaced by Buddhas in lattice-work stupas or dagobas, some with square, some with hexagonal matrices, which presumably represent the arupadhatu, the four “formless worlds” of beings who have transcended individual form and spatial dimension; since they therefore cannot be represented, they are bracketed in a kind of “architectural parenthesis” or "under erasure," partially visible within the dagobas as Buddhas withdrawn in meditating on the emptiness of their own meditations. See my Paper below LEFT

Bright Flame Banner Bodhisattva, Sumeru Banner Bodhisattva, Jeweled Banner Bodhisattva, Unobstructed Banner Bodhisattva, Flower Banner Bodhisattva, Leaving Filth Banner Bodhisattva, Sun Banner Bodhisattva, Wonderful Banner Bodhisattva, Leaving Dust Bodhisattva, Universal Light Banner Bodhisattva, Earth Awesome Might Bodhisattva, Jeweled Might Bodhisattva, Great Might Bodhisattva, Vajra Might Wisdom Bodhisattva, Leaving Filth Might Bodhisattva, Proper Dharma Sun Might Bodhisattva, Meritorious Virtue Mountain Might Bodhisattva, Wisdom Light Reflection Might Bodhisattva, Universal Auspicious Might Bodhisattva, Earth Treasury Bodhisattva, Empty Space Treasury Bodhisattva, Lotus Treasury Bodhisattva, Jeweled Treasury Bodhisattva, Sun Treasury Bodhisattva, Pure Virtue Treasury Bodhisattva, Dharma Seal Treasury Bodhisattva, Brightness Treasury Bodhisattva, Navel Treasury Bodhisattva, Lotus Virtue Treasury Bodhisattva, Good Eyes Bodhisattva, Pure Eyes Bodhisattva, Leaving Filth Eyes Bodhisattva, Unobstructed Eye Bodhisattva, Universal Seeing Eyes Bodhisattva, Good Contemplating Eyes Bodhisattva, Blue Lotus Flower Bodhisattva, Vajra Eyes Bodhisattva, Jeweled Eyes Bodhisattva, Eye of Emptiness Bodhisattva, Happy Eyes Bodhisattva, Universal Eyes Bodhisattva, Heavenly Crown Bodhisattva, Universally Illumining the Dharma Realm Wisdom Crown Bodhisattva, Way-place Crown Bodhisattva, Universally Illumining the Ten Directions Crown Bodhisattva, All Buddhas’ Treasury Crown Bodhisattva, Transcending All the Worlds Crown Bodhisattva, Universally Illumining Crown Bodhisattva, Indestructible Crown Bodhisattva, Maintaining All Thus Come One’s Lion Throne Crown Bodhisattva, Universally Illumining the Dharma Realm and Emptiness Crown Bodhisattva, Brahma King Cowl Bodhisattva, Dragon King Cowl Bodhisattva, All Transformation Buddhas’ Light Cowl Bodhisattva, Way-place Cowl Bodhisattva, Sounds of All the Ocean-like Vows Jeweled King Cowl Bodhisattva, All Buddhas' Light Mani Cowl Bodhisattva, Manifesting All of Emptiness' Level Marks Mani King Adorned Cowl Bodhisattva, Manifesting All Thus Come Ones’ Spiritual Transformations Mani King Banner Net Draped Cowl Bodhisattva, Emitting All the Sounds of Buddhas Turning the Dharma Wheel Cowl Bodhisattva, Speaking All Names and Sounds of the Three Periods of Time Cowl Bodhisattva, Great Light Bodhisattva, Leaving Filth Light Bodhisattva, Jeweled Light Bodhisattva, Leaving Dust Light Bodhisattva, Flaming Light Bodhisattva, Dharma Light Bodhisattva, Still and Quiet Light Bodhisattva, Sun Light Bodhisattva, Self-Mastery Light Bodhisattva, Heavenly Light Bodhisattva, Blessings and Virtue Banner Bodhisattva, Wisdom Banner Bodhisattva, Dharma Banner Bodhisattva, Spiritual Penetrations Banner Bodhisattva, Light Banner Bodhisattva, Flower Banner Bodhisattva, Mani Banner Bodhisattva, Bodhi Banner Bodhisattva, Brahma Banner Bodhisattva, Universal Light Banner Bodhisattva, Brahma Sound Banner Bodhisattva, Mountains Clanging Together Sound Bodhisattva, Pervading All Sounds of the Dharma Realm Bodhisattva, Shaking All Dharma Seas Thunderous Sound Bodhisattva, Subduing Demon Sound Bodhisattva, Great Compassion Expedient Cloud and Thunderous Sound Bodhisattva, Quelling All Worlds' Sufferings Comforting Sound Bodhisattva, Dharma Ascended Bodhisattva, Utmost Superior Bodhisattva, Wisdom Superior Bodhisattva, Meritorious Virtue Sumeru Superior Bodhisattva, Meritorious Virtue Coral Superior Bodhisattva, Renown Superior Bodhisattva, Universal Light Superior Bodhisattva, Great Kindness Superior Bodhisattva, Wisdom Sea Superior Bodhisattva, Buddha Seed Superior Bodhisattva, Light Victory Bodhisattva, Virtuous Victory Bodhisattva, Superior Victory Bodhisattva, Universal Brightness Victory Bodhisattva, Dharma Victory Bodhisattva, Moon Victory Bodhisattva, Empty Space Victory Bodhisattva, Jeweled Victory Bodhisattva, Banner Victory Bodhisattva, Wisdom Victory Bodhisattva, Sala Self-Mastery King Bodhisattva, Dharma Self-Mastery King Bodhisattva, Elephant Self-Mastery King Bodhisattva, Brahma Self-Mastery King Bodhisattva, Mountain Self-Mastery King Bodhisattva, Multitude Self-Mastery King Bodhisattva, Swift Self-Mastery King Bodhisattva, Still and Quiet Self-Mastery King Bodhisattva, Non-Moving Self-Mastery King Bodhisattva, Strength Self-Mastery King Bodhisattva, Most Superior Self-Mastery King Bodhisattva Still and Quiet Sound Bodhisattva, Unobstructed Sound Bodhisattva, Earth Shaking Sound Bodhisattva, Ocean Shaking Sound Bodhisattva, Cloud Sound Bodhisattva, Dharma Light Sound Bodhisattva, Empty Space Sound Bodhisattva, Proclaiming All Living Beings' Good Roots Sound Bodhisattva, Manifesting the Sound of All Great Vows Bodhisattva, Way-place Sound Bodhisattva, Sumeru Light Enlightenment Bodhisattva, Empty Space Enlightenment Bodhisattva, Leaving Defilement Enlightenment Bodhisattva, Unobstructed Enlightenment Bodhisattva, Good Enlightenment Bodhisattva, Universal Illumining the Three Periods Enlightenment Bodhisattva, Vast Great Enlightenment Bodhisattva, Universal Bright Enlightenment Bodhisattva, Dharma Realm Light Enlightenment Bodhisattva.

These Bodhisattvas Mahasattvas, five hundred in all, were Bodhisattvas who had accomplished Universal Worthy's conduct and vows.

Building structure

Approximately 55,000 cubic metres (72,000 cu yd) of andesite stones were taken from neighbouring stone quarries to build the monument.[84] The stone was cut to size, transported to the site and laid without mortar. Knobs, indentations and dovetails were used to form joints between stones. The roof of stupas, niches and arched gateways were constructed in corbelling method. Reliefs were created in situ after the building had been completed.

The monument is equipped with a good drainage system to cater to the area's high stormwater run-off. To prevent flooding, 100 spouts are installed at each corner, each with a unique carved gargoyle in the shape of a giant or makara.

Half cross-section with 4:6:9 height ratio for foot, body and head, respectively

Stairs of Borobudur through arches of Kala/A narrow corridor with reliefs on the wall

Borobudur differs markedly from the general design of other structures built for this purpose. Instead of being built on a flat surface, Borobudur is built on a natural hill. However, construction technique is similar to other temples in Java. Without the inner spaces seen in other temples, and with a general design similar to the shape of pyramid, Borobudur was first thought more likely to have served as a stupa, instead of a temple.[84] A stupa is intended as a shrine for the Buddha. Sometimes stupas were built only as devotional symbols of Buddhism. A temple, on the other hand, is used as a house of worship. The meticulous complexity of the monument's design suggests that Borobudur is in fact a temple.

Little is known about Gunadharma, the architect of the complex. His name is recounted from Javanese folk tales rather than from written inscriptions.

The basic unit of measurement used during construction was the tala, defined as the length of a human face from the forehead's hairline to the tip of the chin or the distance from the tip of the thumb to the tip of the middle finger when both fingers are stretched at their maximum distance.  The unit is thus relative from one individual to the next, but the monument has exact measurements. A survey conducted in 1977 revealed frequent findings of a ratio of 4:6:9 around the monument. The architect had used the formula to lay out the precise dimensions of the fractal and self-similar geometry in Borobudur's design. This ratio is also found in the designs of Pawon and Mendut, nearby Buddhist temples. Archeologists have conjectured that the 4:6:9 ratio and the tala have calendrical, astronomical and cosmological significance, as is the case with the temple of Angkor Wat in Cambodia.

The main structure can be divided into three components: base, body, and top.[85] The base is 123 m × 123 m (404 ft × 404 ft) in size with 4 metres (13 ft) walls.[84] The body is composed of five square platforms, each of diminishing height. The first terrace is set back 7 metres (23 ft) from the edge of the base. Each subsequent terrace is set back 2 metres (6.6 ft), leaving a narrow corridor at each stage. The top consists of three circular platforms, with each stage supporting a row of perforated stupas, arranged in concentric circles. There is one main dome at the center, the top of which is the highest point of the monument, 35 metres (115 ft) above ground level. Stairways at the center of each of the four sides give access to the top, with a number of arched gates overlooked by 32 lion statues. The gates are adorned with Kala's head carved on top of each and Makaras projecting from each side. This Kala-Makara motif is commonly found on the gates of Javanese temples. The main entrance is on the eastern side, the location of the first narrative reliefs. Stairways on the slopes of the hill also link the monument to the low-lying plain.

Pradakshina, in Hinduism and Buddhism, the rite of circumambulating in a clockwise direction an image, relic, shrine, or other sacred object. Circumambulating in a counterclockwise movement—i.e., keeping the left shoulder toward the central object—called prasavya, is observed in funeral ceremonies. Circumambulation (from Latin circum around and ambulātus to walk) is the act of moving around a sacred object or idol. Circumambulation of temples or deity images is an integral part of Hindu and Buddhist devotional practice (known in Sanskrit as pradakśiṇā). The notion of the middle way refers to the Buddha's resistance to unconditionally accept any extreme ways of practice or theoretical viewpoints. This practical middle path, which is the way to the attainment of nirvāṇa, is separated into eight sections which together bear the name of the noble eightfold path.

The position of narrative bas-reliefs stories on Borobudur wall Borobudur is constructed in such a way that it reveals various levels of terraces, showing intricate architecture that goes from being heavily ornamented with bas-reliefs to being plain in Arupadhatu circular terraces. The first four terrace walls are showcases for bas-relief sculptures. These are exquisite, considered to be the most elegant and graceful in the ancient Buddhist world.

The bas-reliefs in Borobudur depicted many scenes of daily life in 8th-century ancient Java, from the courtly palace life, hermit in the forest, to those of commoners in the village. It also depicted temple, marketplace, various flora and fauna, and also native vernacular architecture. People depicted here are the images of king, queen, princes, noblemen, courtier, soldier, servant, commoners, priest and hermit. The reliefs also depicted mythical beings in Buddhist.beliefs.such.as asuras,

Gods, bodhisattvas, kinnaras, gandharvas and apsaras. The images depicted on bas-relief often served as reference for historians to research for certain subjects, such as the study of architecture, weaponry, economy, fashion, and also mode of transportation of 8th-century Maritime Southeast Asia. One of the famous renderings of an 8th-century Southeast Asian double outrigger ship is Borobudur Ship. Today, the actual-size replica of Borobudur Ship that had sailed from Indonesia to Africa in 2004 is displayed in the Samudra Raksa Museum, located a few hundred meters north of Borobudur.

The Borobudur reliefs also pay close attention to Indian aesthetic discipline, such as pose and gesture that contain certain meanings and aesthetic value. The reliefs of noblemen, noble women, kings, or divine beings such as apsaras, taras and boddhisattvas are usually portrayed in tribhanga pose, the three-bend pose on neck, hips, and knee, with one leg resting and one upholding the body weight. This position is considered as the most graceful pose, such as the figure of Surasundari holding a lotus

During Borobudur excavation, archeologists discovered colour pigments of blue, red, green, black, as well as bits of gold foil, and concluded that the monument that we see today – a dark gray mass of volcanic stone, lacking in colour – was probably once coated with varjalepa white plaster and then painted with bright colors, serving perhaps as a beacon of Buddhist teaching.[93] The same vajralepa plaster can also be found in Sari, Kalasan and Sewu temples. It is likely that the bas-reliefs of Borobudur was originally quite colourful, before centuries of torrential tropical rainfalls peeled-off the colour pigments.

Narrative panels distribution Section Location Story No. of panels hidden foot wall Karmavibhangga 160 first gallery main wall Lalitavistara 120

	 	Jataka/Avadana	120
	balustrade	Jataka/Avadana	372
	 	Jataka/Avadana	128

second gallery balustrade Jataka/Avadana 100

	main wall	Gandavyuha	128

third gallery main wall Gandavyuha 88

	balustrade	Gandavyuha	88

fourth gallery main wall Gandavyuha 84

	balustrade	Gandavyuha	72

Total 1,460

Borobudur contains approximately 2,670 individual bas reliefs (1,460 narrative and 1,212 decorative panels), which cover the façades and balustrades. The total relief surface is 2,500 square metres (27,000 sq ft), and they are distributed at the hidden foot (Kāmadhātu) and the five square platforms (Rupadhatu).

The narrative panels, which tell the story of Sudhana and Manohara, are grouped into 11 series that encircle the monument with a total length of 3,000 metres (9,800 ft). The hidden foot contains the first series with 160 narrative panels, and the remaining 10 series are distributed throughout walls and balustrades in four galleries starting from the eastern entrance stairway to the left. Narrative panels on the wall read from right to left, while those on the balustrade read from left to right. This conforms with pradaksina, the ritual of circumambulation performed by pilgrims who move in a clockwise direction while keeping the sanctuary to their right.

The hidden foot depicts the workings of karmic law. The walls of the first gallery have two superimposed series of reliefs; each consists of 120 panels. The upper part depicts the biography of the Buddha, while the lower part of the wall and also the balustrades in the first and the second galleries tell the story of the Buddha's former lives. The remaining panels are devoted to Sudhana's further wandering about his search, terminated by his attainment of the Perfect Wisdom.

The law of karma (Karmavibhangga) The Karmavibangga scene on Borobudur's hidden foot, on the right depicting sinful act of killing and cooking turtles and fishes, on the left those who make living by killing animals will be tortured in hell, by being cooked alive, being cut, or being thrown into a burning house.

The 160 hidden panels do not form a continuous story, but each panel provides one complete illustration of cause and effect.[94] There are depictions of blameworthy activities, from gossip to murder, with their corresponding punishments. There are also praiseworthy activities, that include charity and pilgrimage to sanctuaries, and their subsequent rewards. The pains of hell and the pleasure of heaven are also illustrated. There are scenes of daily life, complete with the full panorama of samsara (the endless cycle of birth and death). The encasement base of the Borobudur temple was disassembled to reveal the hidden foot, and the reliefs were photographed by Casijan Chepas in 1890. It is these photographs that are displayed in Borobudur Museum (Karmawibhangga Museum), located just several hundred meters north of the temple. During the restoration, the foot encasement was reinstalled, covering the Karmawibhangga reliefs. Today, only the southeast corner of the hidden foot is revealed and visible for visitors. The story of Prince Siddhartha and the birth of Buddha (Lalitavistara)

Queen Maya riding horse carriage retreating to Lumbini to give birth to Prince Siddhartha Gautama

The story starts with the descent of the Buddha from the Tushita heaven and ends with his first sermon in the Deer Park near Benares. The relief shows the birth of the Buddha as Prince Siddhartha, son of King Suddhodana and Queen Maya of Kapilavastu (in Nepal).

The story is preceded by 27 panels showing various preparations, in the heavens and on the earth, to welcome the final incarnation of the Bodhisattva. Before descending from Tushita heaven, the Bodhisattva entrusted his crown to his successor, the future Buddha Maitreya. He descended on earth in the shape of white elephants with six tusks, penetrated to Queen Maya's right womb. Queen Maya had a dream of this event, which was interpreted that his son would become either a sovereign or a Buddha.

A relief of Jataka story of giant turtle that saving drowned sailors.

Prince Siddhartha Gautama became an ascetic hermit. While Queen Maya felt that it was the time to give birth, she went to the Lumbini park outside the Kapilavastu city. She stood under a plaksa tree, holding one branch with her right hand, and she gave birth to a son, Prince Siddhartha. The story on the panels continues until the prince becomes the Buddha.

The stories of Buddha's previous life (Jataka) and other legendary people (Avadana) Jatakas are stories about the Buddha before he was born as Prince Siddhartha. They are the stories that tell about the previous lives of the Buddha, in both human and animal form. The future Buddha may appear in them as a king, an outcast, a god, an elephant—but, in whatever form, he exhibits some virtue that the tale thereby inculcates. Avadanas are similar to jatakas, but the main figure is not the Bodhisattva himself. The saintly deeds in avadanas are attributed to other legendary persons. Jatakas and avadanas are treated in one and the same series in the reliefs of Borobudur.

The first twenty lower panels in the first gallery on the wall depict the Sudhanakumaravadana, or the saintly deeds of Sudhana. The first 135 upper panels in the same gallery on the balustrades are devoted to the 34 legends of the Jatakamala.[99] The remaining 237 panels depict stories from other sources, as do the lower series and panels in the second gallery. Some jatakas are depicted twice, for example the story of King Sibhi (Rama's forefather).

Sudhana's search for the ultimate truth (Gandavyuha)-Gandavyuha Sutra on 2 nd level North wall

The Gaṇḍavyūha Sutra or The Excellent Manifestation Sūtra (Tib. sdong po bkod pa'i mdo, Sutra of the Tree's Display; cf. Skt "gaṇḍi", "the trunk of a tree from the root to the beginning of the branches") is a Buddhist Mahayana Sutra of Indian origin dating roughly c. 200 to 300 CE. It depicts one of the world's most celebrated spiritual pilgrimages, and comprises the 39th chapter of the Avatamsaka Sutra, or Flower Ornament Scripture. In Buddhabhadra's Chinese translation of the Avatamsaka, this 39th chapter is entitled "Entrance into the Dharma Realm".The Sutra is described as the "Sudhana's quest for the ultimate truth", as the sutra chronicles the journey of a disciple, Sudhana ("Excellent Riches"), as he encounters various teachings and Bodhisattvas until his journey reaches full circle and he awakens to teachings of the Buddha.

A relief of the Gandavyuha story from Borobudur 2nd level north wall. RIGHT Sudhana learning from one of the fifty-two teachers along his journey toward enlightenment. Sanskrit manuscript, 11-12th century. In his quest for enlightenment, recounted in the last chapter of the Flower Ornament Scripture, Sudhana would converse with a diverse array of 53 kalyāṇa-mittatā (wise advisors), 20 of whom are female, including an enlightened prostitute named Vasumitrā, Gautama Buddha's wife and his mother, a queen, a princess and several goddesses. Male sages include a slave, a child, a physician, and a ship's captain. The antepenultimate master of Sudhana's pilgrimage is Maitreya. It is here that Sudhana encounters the Tower of Maitreya, which — along with Indra's net – is a most startling metaphor for the infinite: In the middle of the great tower... he saw the billion-world universe... and everywhere there was Sudhana at his feet... Thus Sudhana saw Maitreya's practices of... transcendence over countless eons (kalpa), from each of the squares of the check board wall... In the same way Sudhana... saw the whole supernal manifestation, was perfectly aware of it, understood it, contemplated it, used it as a means, beheld it, and saw himself there. 2 The penultimate master that Sudhana visits is the Mañjuśrī Bodhisattva, the bodhisattva of great wisdom. Thus, one of the grandest of pilgrimages approaches its conclusion by revisiting where it began. The Gaṇḍavyūha suggests that with a subtle shift of perspective we may come to see that the enlightenment that the pilgrim so fervently sought was not only with him at every stage of his journey, but before it began as well—that enlightenment is not something to be gained, but "something" the pilgrim never departed from. The final master that Sudhana visits is the bodhisattva Samantabhadra, who teaches him that wisdom only exists for the sake of putting it into practice; that it is only good insofar as it benefits all living beings. Samantabhadra concludes with a prayer of aspiration to buddhahood, which is recited by those who practice according to Atiśa's Bodhipathapradīpa, the foundation of the lamrim textual traditions of Tibetan Buddhism.

Gandavyuha is the story told in the final chapter of the Avatamsaka Sutra about Sudhana's tireless wandering in search of the Highest Perfect Wisdom. It covers two galleries (third and fourth) and also half of the second gallery, comprising in total of 460 panels. The principal figure of the story, the youth Sudhana, son of an extremely rich merchant, appears on the 16th panel. The preceding 15 panels form a prologue to the story of the miracles during Buddha's samadhi in the Garden of Jeta at Sravasti.

Sudhana was instructed by Manjusri to meet the monk Megasri, his first spiritual friend. As his journey continues, Sudhana meets 53 teachers, such as Supratisthita, the physician Megha (Spirit of Knowledge), the banker Muktaka, the monk Saradhvaja, the upasika Asa (Spirit of Supreme Enlightenment),Bhismottaranirghosa,

the Brahmin Jayosmayatna, Princess Maitrayani, the monk Sudarsana, a boy called Indriyesvara, the upasika Prabhuta, the banker Ratnachuda, King Anala, the god Siva Mahadeva, Queen Maya, Bodhisattva Maitreya and then back to Manjusri. Each spiritual friend gives Sudhana specific teachings, knowledge, and wisdom. These meetings are shown in the third gallery.

After a second meeting with Manjusri, Sudhana went to the residence of Bodhisattva Samantabhadra, depicted in the fourth gallery. The entire series of the fourth gallery is devoted to the teaching of Samantabhadra. The narrative panels finally end with Sudhana's achievement of the Supreme Knowledge and the Ultimate Truth.

A Buddha statue with the hand position of dharmachakra mudra”

Apart from the story of the Buddhist cosmology carved in stone, Borobudur has many statues of various Buddhas. The cross-legged statues are seated in a lotus position and distributed on the five square platforms (the Rupadhatu level), as well as on the top platform (the Arupadhatu level).

The Buddha statues are in niches at the Rupadhatu level, arranged in rows on the outer sides of the balustrades, the number of statues decreasing as platforms progressively diminish to the upper level. The first balustrades have 104 niches, the second 104, the third 88, the fourth 72 and the fifth 64. In total, there are 432 Buddha statues at the Rupadhatu level. At the Arupadhatu level (or the three circular platforms), Buddha statues are placed inside perforated stupas. The first circular platform has 32 stupas, the second 24 and the third 16, which adds up to 72 stupas.[4] Of the original 504 Buddha statues, over 300 are damaged (mostly headless), and 43 are missing. Since the monument's discovery, heads have been acquired as collector's items, mostly by Western museums. Some of these Buddha heads are now displayed in numbers of museums, such as the Tropenmuseum in Amsterdam, Musée Guimet in Paris, and The British Museum in London. Germany has in 2014 returned its collection and funded their reattachment and further conservation of the site.

Head from a Borobudur Buddha statue in Tropenmuseum, Amsterdam./Headless Buddha statue in Borobudur. Since its discovery, numbers of heads have been stolen and installed in museums abroad.

Emblem of Central Java displaying Borobudur. RIGHT -Lion gate guardian

At first glance, all the Buddha statues appear similar, but there is a subtle difference between them in the mudras, or the position of the hands. There are five groups of mudra: North, East, South, West and Zenith, which represent the five cardinal compass points according to Mahayana. The first four balustrades have the first four mudras: North, East, South and West, of which the Buddha statues that face one compass direction have the corresponding mudra. Buddha statues at the fifth balustrades and inside the 72 stupas on the top platform have the same mudra: Zenith. Each mudra represents one of the Five Dhyani Buddhas; each has its own symbolism.

Following the order of Pradakshina (clockwise circumumbulation) starting from the East, the mudras of the Borobudur buddha statues are: Statue Mudra Symbolic meaning Dhyani Buddha Location of the Statue

	Bhumisparsa mudra	Calling the Earth to witness	Aksobhya	Rupadhatu niches on 

the first four eastern balustrades

	Vara mudra	Benevolence, alms giving	Ratnasambhava	Rupadhatu niches on
the first four southern
balustrades

Dhyana mudra Concentration and meditation Amitabha Rupadhatu niches on the first four western balustrades Abhaya mudra Courage, fearlessness Amoghasiddhi Rupadhatu niches

on the first four 

northern balustrades Vitarka mudra Reasoning and virtue Vairochana Rupadhatu niches in all

directions on the 

fifth (uppermost) balustrade

	Dharmachakra mudra	Turning the Wheel of dharma (law)	Vairochana	Arupadhatu in 72 

perforated stupas

on three rounded
platforms

The rediscovery and reconstruction of Borobudur has been hailed by Indonesian Buddhists as the sign of the Buddhist revival in Indonesia. In 1934, Narada Thera, a missionary monk from Sri Lanka, visited Indonesia for the first time as part of his journey to spread the Dharma in Southeast Asia. This opportunity was used by a few local Buddhists to revive Buddhism in Indonesia. A bodhi tree planting ceremony was held in Southeastern side of Borobudur on 10 March 1934 under the blessing of Narada Thera, and some Upasakas were ordained as monks. Once a year, thousands of Buddhist from Indonesia and neighboring countries flock to Borobudur to commemorate national Vesak ceremony.

The emblem of Central Java province and Magelang Regency bears the image of Borobudur. It has become the symbol of Central Java, and also Indonesia on a wider scale. Borobudur has become the name of several establishments, such as Borobudur University, Borobudur Hotel in Central Jakarta, and several Indonesian restaurants abroad. Borobudur has appeared on Rupiah banknotes and stamps and in numbers of books, publications, documentaries and Indonesian tourism promotion materials. The monument has become one of the main tourism attraction in Indonesia, vital for generating local economy in the region surrounding the temple. The tourism sector of the city of Yogyakarta for example, flourishes partly because of its proximity to Borobudur and Prambanan temples.         The Form of Emptines and the “Emptiness of Form” ​ The explicit theological program, such as that depicted on the walls and balustrades of Borobudur’s five terraces, “terraces,” edges, galleries, gopuras and thresholds along the stupa’s east-west “liturgical axis” marks significant stages on a monk’s path to enlightenment and his attainment of the ten Mahayana paramitas, perfections or insights, necessary to become a bodhisattva, 

Nonetheless, a monk, like today’s visitors, would pass through 92 limens or “thresholds” in the course of crossing just these three enclosures; the succession of gates and doors along this “pilgrim’s progress” would frame an unobstructed view from the profane space of the 4th enclosure on the east, to its counterpart on the west and beyond, the forest around the temple. The Buddha image in the cella would be barely visible, though it marked the point where the two cardinal axes of the terrestrial plane intersect the vertical axis of spiritual ascent vanishing at the tip of the shikhara or summit of Mt. Meru, into formless space; in a literal sense, then, the “vanishing point.” From here, the bodhicitta, who had advanced far on the path to enlightenment, might perceive the statue, the shrine, the temple and the world beyond, even his perceiving them, as maya, just thoughts and hence illusions. The series of empty

92 east-facing Buddhas: Buddha: Akshobhya ("immovable") Buddha wisdom: vajra (diamond, clarity) mudra: bhumisparsa (earth-touching, dispelling.ignorance) 92 south-facing Buddhas: Buddha: Ratnasambhava (“born from a jewel”) Buddha wisdom: ratna (jewel, all-inclusive equanimity) mudra: varada (generosity, granting wishes)   92 west-facing Buddhas: Buddha: Amitabha (“infinite light”) Buddha wisdom: padma (lotus, compassion) mudra: dhyani (meditation)   92 north-facing Buddhas:  Buddha: Amoghasiddhi (“infallible accomplishment”) Buddha wisdom: karma (effective means) mudra: abhaya (fearlessness, reassurance)  

• 64 Buddhas on the 5th terrace:  Buddha: the historical Buddha (“the awakened one”) Buddha wisdom: dharma (doctrine) mudra: vitarka (teaching) 

 

• 72 Buddhas in stupas or dagobas:  Buddha: Vairocana (“essential radiance”) Buddha wisdom: tathagata (“thusness”) mudra: dharmachakra (“first turning of the wheel of dharma,” Buddha’s first sermon at the deer park, Sarnath)

Key to texts illustrated on the 1460 narrative bas relief panels   1. Karmavibhangga (The Law of Karma, moral fables) 160 panels hidden by the added base or “false foot”   2. Jatakas (Birth stories of the 547 previous incarnation of the historical Buddha from the Pali Canon) 600 panels on the 1st and 2nd terrace balustrades    3. Avadanas (Legends of Illustrious Men) 120 panels on the 1st terrace’s lower register   4. Lalitavistara (The Unfolding of the Play, scenes from the life of the historical Buddha, Siddhartha Gautama, the bodhisattva, Sakyamuni, up to his first sermon at Sarnath) 120 panels on the 1st terrace’s upper register    ⦁ Gandavyuha (The Structure of the World Compared to a Bubble from the Flower Ornament Sutra and its sequel the Bhadraari Sutra, the youth Sudhana’s journey to enlightenment) 460 panels on the 2nd, 3rd and 4th terraces’ two registers and balustrades doors in all four directions would frame sunyata or emptiness, stretching to infinity, while the concentric structures would be like echoes of the primal A-U-M, just reverberations. Paradoxically, the closer the adept approaches the  realization that “form is emptiness,” represented by the emptiness at the void at the temple’s center, the statue of Buddha who himself achieved nirvana or non-existence,  the more the architecture, its diamonds, rectangles, dimensions and alignments dematerialize and become mere reminders of their own lack of independent existence or origination. Might this help explain, in part, the architectural anti-climax and axial slackening of Jayavarman’s VII’s Buddhist complexes compared with the monumental massifs at the centers of the Baphuon or Angkor Wat? 

Narrative Panels Distribution section location story #panels hidden foot wall Karmavibhangga 160 first gallery main wall Lalitavistara 120

	 	Jataka/Avadana	120
	balustrade	Jataka/Avadana	372
	 	Jataka/Avadana	128

second gallery main wall Gandavyuha 128

	ballustrade	Jataka/Avadana	100

third gallery main wall Gandavyuha 88

	ballustrade	Gandavyuha	88

fourth gallery main wall Gandavyuha 84

	ballustrade	Gandavyuha	72

Total 1,460 FROM-https://templemountains.org/borobudur-compared-with-the-angkor-temple-mountain.html    ​

Lake Borobudur is an ancient lake that has been suggested once existed surrounding Borobudur Buddhist monument in Kedu Plain, Central Java, Indonesia. Unlike other temples, which were built on a flat surface, Borobudur was built on a bedrock hill, 265 m (869 ft) above sea level and 15 m (49 ft) above the floor of the dried-out paleolake.[1] The lake's existence had been the subject of intense discussion among archaeologists in the 20th century; Borobudur was thought to have been built on a lake shore or even surrounded by a lake.

In 1931, a Dutch artist and scholar of Hindu and Buddhist architecture, W.O.J. Nieuwenkamp, developed a theory that Kedu Plain was once a lake and Borobudur initially represented a lotus flower floating on the lake. Lotus flowers are found in almost every Buddhist work of art, often serving as a throne for buddhas and base for stupas. The architecture of Borobudur itself suggests a lotus depiction, in which Buddha postures in Borobudur symbolize the Lotus Sutra, mostly found in many Mahayana Buddhism (a school of Buddhism widely spread in the east Asia region) texts. Three circular platforms on the top are also thought to represent a lotus petals.

Nieuwenkamp has suggested that the landscape near Borobudur included lakes, and that the temples were arranged around these lakes in form of flowers and mathematical patterns considered to be auspicious, and that the temples were connected by paved brick roads lined by walls. These lakes and roads were later filled with metres of volcanic ash from the multiple eruptions of Mount Merapi, which lies very closely to the east of the area.

Nieuwenkamp's theory, however, was contested by many archaeologists, such as Dumarçay and Soekmono, arguing the natural environment surrounding the monument was dry land. This theory is controversial, but recent geological evidence supports Nieuwenkamp proposal.

Palynological investigation and geomorphology analysis

Dumarçay together with Professor Thanikaimoni had taken soil samples in 1974 and again in 1977 from trial trenches that had been dug into the hill, as well as from the plain immediately to the south. These samples were later analysed by Professor Thanikaimoni, who examined their pollen and spore content in order to identify the type of vegetation that had grown in the area around the time of Borobudur’s construction. They were unable to discover any pollen or spore samples that were characteristic of any vegetation known to grow in an aquatic environment. The area surrounding Borobudur appears to have been surrounded by agricultural land and palm trees at the time of the monument’s construction, as is still the case today.

Caesar Voûte and the geomorphologist Dr J.J. Nossin in 1985–86 field studies re-examined the Borobudur lake hypothesis and concluded the absence of a lake around Borobudur at the time of its construction and active use as a sanctuary.

These findings were endorsed by UNESCO in A New Perspective on Some Old Questions Pertaining to Borobudur compiled within the 2005 UNESCO publication titled "The Restoration of Borobudur".

In 2000s, geologists, on the other hand, support Nieuwenkamp's view, pointing out clay sediments found near the site. A study of stratigraphy, sediment and pollen samples conducted in 2000 supports the existence of a paleolake environment near Borobudur,[1] which tends to confirm Nieuwenkamp's theory. The lake area fluctuated with time and the study also proves that Borobudur was near the lake shore c. 13th and 14th centuries. River flows and volcanic activities shape the surrounding landscape, including the lake. One of the most active volcanoes in Indonesia, Mount Merapi's has been very active since the Pleistocene.

The location Borobudur surroundings, the ancient lake as suggested once located in south-southeast from Borobudur, and probably south from Mendut temple on Progo and Elo rivers confluence.

To reconcile among these findings, it seems that there was once a lake near Borobudur during its construction and at the time of its initial active use in the 9th century. However contrary to Nieuwenkamp's theory — of Borobudur as a blossoming lotus in the center of the pond — the lake was not surrounding the whole Borobudur of the bedrock hill completely, but just some small sections of it[

It might be possible that the lower parts of the Kedu plains surrounding Borobudur near the river, was once naturally flooded and created a small shallow lake for at least until 13th to 14th century. The nearest portion of this elongated lake was estimated to be located around 500 metres south from Borobudur along the small river that drained to the southeast where it joins the Progo river. The lake just flooded the lower portion of the valley located in south and southeast from the temple, while the east, west and northern sides are dry lands probably cultivated as rice paddies, orchards and palm trees just like today. There were probably other lakes located several hundred metres south from Mendut temple on Progo and Elo rivers confluence, and north from Pawon temple along Progo river. These lakes existed until the 13th to 14th centuries, when Merapi's volcanic activity, collapsed the natural dam barrier and finally drained the lake. 3

REFERENCES

⦁ Design Elements in the Bodoboudur- Forms and types of Borobudur’s stupas A. Revianur Department of Archaeology, Faculty of Humanities, Universitas Indonesia, Depok, Indonesia ⦁ Yoshifumi, U., & Hirota, D. (1985). Reflections on the Study of Buddhism: Notes on the Approaches of Ui Hakuju and D. T. Suzuki. The Eastern Buddhist, 18(2), new series, 114-130. Retrieved July 19, 2021, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/44346133 ⦁ The Main Stupa of Borobudur as Gnomon and Its Relation With Pranotomongso Calendar System See also-

⦁ Ferry M. Simatupang1, Irma I. Hariawang1, Emanuel Sungging Mumpuni,Department of Astronomy, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Science, Institut Teknologi Bandung, Jl. Ganesha 10, Bandung 40135, Indonesia.-2National Institute of Aeronautics and Space (LAPAN), Center of Space Science, Jl. Dr. Djundjunan 133, Bandung 40173, Indonesia

⦁ See my paper TEMPLE TRIAD on academia and also refer to my book -The Celestial Mysteries of the Borobodur temple ⦁ Dr Uday Dokras- BookScientific Borobudur ⦁ Dr Uday Dokras-STUPA as Cosmos & spiritual light house ⦁ Dr Uday Dokras-Indian design Influences on the Mandala of the Borobudur Stupa ⦁ Dr Uday Dokras-Sacred space and symbolic form ⦁ of a Stupa with reference to the Vedika or railing ⦁ Dr Uday Dokras- pape Mathematics at the Borobudur ⦁ Dr Uday Dokras- Indian Designs in the Borobudur Stupa

THE SECRET OF BOROBUDUR & the Sang Hyang Kamahayanikan

PART I

THE BELIEF SYSTEM OF ESOTERIC BUDDHISM IS OPEN ONLY TO THOSE WHO FEEL CALLED TO FOLLOW IT & ARE WILLING TO SUBMIT THEMSELVES TO INSTRUCTION BY A MASTER.

The history of Buddhism in Indonesia is closely related to the history of Hinduism, as a number of empires influenced by Indian culture were established around the same period. The arrival of Buddhism in the Indonesian archipelago began with trading activity, from the early 1st century, by way of the maritime Silk Road between Indonesia and India. Although the majority of Indonesian Buddhists are of the Chinese Mahayana school, more often than not the representative of Buddhism as selected by the Government would happen to be a Theravada monk. The Buddha died in the early 5th century B.C. His teachings, called the dharma, spread over Asia and developed into three basic traditions: Theravada, Mahayana and Vajrayana. Buddhists call them "vehicles," meaning they are ways to carry pilgrims from suffering to enlightenment.

That being said, very rarely one reads about the Sang Hyang Kamahayanikan when discussing the architecture of the incredible Borobudur stupa monument. Borobudur's popular terms of Kamadhatu, Rupadhatu, Arupadhatu are also contained in Sanghyang Kamahayanikan. In other words the design frescos of the Borubudur are directly influenced by the contents of the Sang Hyang Kamahayanikan.

This document is part of the prose literature of Javanese people. This Tantric Buddhist treatise describes Javanese Buddhism, architecture and iconography.  The back side of this literature contain a name of Javanese king, i.e. Mpu Sindok, who ruled East Java from 929 to 947 CE. The structure of Borobudur actually shows the developmental stages of a yogi’s experiences to achieve Buddhahood where feelings and thoughts stop. Borobudur's popular term of Kamadhatu, Rupadhatu, Arupadhatu are also contained in Sanghyang Kamahayanikan.

It was written about 929-947 CE by Mpu Shri Sambhara Surya Warama from East Java, the successor of the Mataram Kingdom which was shifted to East Java. However the development of Esoteric Buddhism has a long history connected to the original birthplace of Buddha and the trails and tribulations of the dogma of that time

Containing  Mahayana (especially Vajrayana) Buddhism teachings, mostly about the list of deities in found Mahayana Buddhism- which is often matched with the placement of the Buddhist kings in the Borobudur temple. The literature also contains the procedures in meditation.It teaches how one can attain Buddhahood, i.e. a student must first practice Pāramitā, then described Paramaguhya and Mahaguhya. As an addition, it also explained the philosophy of Adwaya that overcoming the dualism "existence" and "non-existence”. The text is restricted for the teachings in the Mahayana school, with focus on the tantric path of the Yogacara School using Mantranaya or the Mantra method. The text has been divided into two parts, each of which can be read independently.

⦁ The first section entitled Sang Hyang Kamahayanan Mantranaya, consists of 42 Sanskrit verses, each with a related commentary in elaborate old Javanese and regrouped under 11 subtopics and a conclusion.

⦁ The second section consists of instructions in 86 verses, written mainly in old Javanese, with a few middle level Sanskrit references. Both texts belong to the same school and are connected. The text is in a question and answer form. The Sang Hyang Kamahāyānikan consists of two parts, each of which forms a separate track. The fi rst part consists of a connected series of Sanskrit strophes with a more or less elaborate Old-Javanese commentary attached; at the end, the Sang Hyang Kamahāyānan Mantranaya is given as the title. It bears the same meaning as what is called mantracaryānaya in the verses and generally known as the Mantrayāna.

The second part is a doctrine written in Old-Javanese, punctuated with a few Sanskrit quotations of less high form, belonging to the same school as the first part, as per the examination of the content. The practical teachings in the Sang Hyang Kamahāyānikan are set out in four steps. The first, Mahāmārga (the great path); second, Paramabodhimārga or Paramamārga (the supreme path) has already been dealt with in the Sang Hyang Kamahāyānan Mantranaya and at the beginning of the Sang Hyang Kamahāyānan Advaya Sadhana.

⦁ Third, Mahāguhya (the great secret) and fourth,

⦁ Paramaguhya (the supreme secret) is the subject of this part of the text. The above practices are entry level meditations for tantric practices.

Sanghyang Kamahayanikan teaches how one can attain Buddhahood, i.e. a student must first practice Pāramitā, then the described Paramaguhya and Mahaguhya. Additionally, it also explains the philosophy of Adwaya; overcoming the dualism of “existence” and “non-existence”. In the book, there is a very detailed description of how a tantric yogi prepares himself for the spiritual path, from the start until the implementation of multilevel worship. It is said that the Vajrayana doctrines are meditation towards the Five Tathagatas. By worshipping them, a yogi can attain purity of mind.

Esoteric Buddhism is the mystical interpretation and practice of the belief system founded by the Buddha (known as Sakyamuni Buddha, l. c. 563 - c. 483 BCE). It is known by several names and is characterized by a personal relationship with a spirit guide or deity who leads one to enlightenment.

An initiate must first study with a master who shares writings, teachings, and knowledge not widely known and often referred to as "secret". The student masters various meditation techniques and studies the tantra, generally understood to mean "the continuum" as expressed in Tantric texts. This continuum is the pattern of universal love and compassion shown throughout time by the supernatural entities of buddhas, of which Sakyamuni Buddha was only one, to humanity.

An adherent of Esoteric Buddhism forms a relationship with one of these buddhas and is then spiritually led by the entity (or deity) on the path toward enlightenment as a bodhisattva. Vajrayana Buddhism (also known as Tibetan Buddhism) is regarded as a form of both Mahayana Buddhism and Esoteric Buddhism as it combines elements of both, and most schools, like Zen Buddhism, follow this same pattern in taking what works best from other schools to supplement the foundational teachings.

The beliefs and practices of Esoteric Buddhism are not as well known or widely recognized as those of the popular Mahayana Buddhism because they are not supposed to be. The belief system is open only to those who feel called to follow it and are willing to submit themselves to instruction by a master. The belief system may have developed as a reaction to the Hindu Revival of the 8th century CE inspired by the work of the philosopher Shankara (though this claim is challenged), which emphasized many of the same aspects of faith and knowledge later espoused by Esoteric Buddhism, including foundational knowledge, submission to a master’s teaching, and the importance of personal revelation.

Early Religious Reform

During the Vedic Period (c. 1500 - c. 500 BCE) in India, the belief system known as Sanatan Dharma ("Eternal Order"), better known as Hinduism, developed from earlier beliefs through the written works known as the Vedas which preserved a much older oral tradition. Hinduism was highly ritualized at this time. The Vedas ("knowledge") were composed in Sanskrit which most people could not understand, and the priests needed to interpret the texts, which were thought to explain the universe, human life, and how one should best live it. The Vedas maintained that there was a divine being, Brahman, who both created and was the universe. A spark of the divine (the atman) was within each person, and the purpose of life was to awaken this spark and live virtuously so that, after death, one’s own divine light would merge with Brahman in eternal unity, and one would be freed from the cycle of rebirth and death (known as samsara), which was associated with suffering.

Buddha Sculpture in Ajanta/ The Vedas (Rig-veda)

Around 600 BCE, a religious reform movement swept across India that questioned orthodox Hinduism. Different schools of thought developed at this time known as astika ("there exists"), which supported the Hindu claim regarding the existence of the atman, and nastika ("there does not exist"), which rejected that claim as well as almost all of the Hindu vision.

Nastika: The most famous nastika schools of the time were Charvaka, Jainism, and Buddhism. The first was entirely materialistic and denied the existence of the soul. The second two, while also denying the Hindu atman, recognized a self undifferentiated from the universe which suffered under the illusion it was a separate self distanced both from its source and from other selves in the world.

Buddhism: Establishment & Development

Buddha, according to tradition, was a Hindu prince named Siddhartha Gautama who renounced his position and wealth to seek spiritual enlightenment. He realized that suffering comes from attachment to transitory aspects of life and life itself, which was in a constant state of change and so could not be held, kept, or controlled, but which people insisted should be lasting. One suffered by continually insisting on an impossible permanence. By recognizing this, and following a path of non-attachment, one could attain nirvana ("liberation") at one’s death, freeing the self from samsara and attendant suffering.

Buddha founded his system on acceptance of the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path and taught his disciples a spiritual discipline whereby they could attain individual enlightenment just as he had. On his deathbed, he requested that no spiritual leader be chosen to replace him and each of his disciples should continue on his own path. After his death, however, a leader was chosen, and rules were written, and Buddha’s teachings were institutionalized.

The new faith splintered in 383 BCE over doctrinal differences, and many Buddhist schools developed including Sthaviravada and Mahasanghika, which would encourage still more. Buddhism at this time was vying with the more firmly established religions of Hinduism and Jainism for adherents and made little headway until it was embraced by Ashoka the Great (r. 268-232 BCE) of the Mauryan Empire who not only helped establish the system in India but spread it to Sri Lanka, Korea, Thailand, China, and Japan.

Shankara & Hindu Revival

Buddhism was enthusiastically received in these other lands but continued to struggle to gain and hold followers in India. Hinduism offered a greater variety of ritual and pageantry while also advancing the concept that everyone held a spark of the divine, was in fact a divine being and part of the universe, which contrasted sharply with the Buddhist doctrine of emptiness-of-self and simplicity of observance.

Buddhist efforts at conversion were hampered further by the Hindu Revival of the 8th and 9th centuries CE encouraged (according to tradition, at least) by the sage Shankara who advocated the doctrine of Advaita Vedānta ("non-duality") emphasizing the ultimate reality of Brahman, the existence of the atman, and the illusory nature of all else. Only Brahman existed and human beings existed, through the atman, as parts of Brahman. Shankara attacked Buddhist thought for its denial of the atman, but his understanding of liberation through oneness of the atman with Brahman is similar to the Buddhist concept of attaining nirvana through non-attachment.

Shankara’s doctrine relied on an adherent accepting a program based on revelation of ultimate reality. The program had four aspects of equal importance:

⦁ Śāstra – scriptures ⦁ Yukti – reason ⦁ Anubhava – knowledge through experience

Karma – spiritually relevant actions

A student submitted to a teacher who helped them understand scripture, apply reason and experience to interpretation of scripture, and act correctly on that interpretation. According to some scholars, this paradigm directly influenced Esoteric Buddhism. According to other views, the fundamentals of Esoteric Buddhism, especially a personal relationship with a spirit or deity, were already centuries old by the time Shankara appeared. In this view, Shankara may have influenced the 8th century CE form of Esoteric Buddhism, but his doctrine did not inspire or inform the fundamental beliefs and practices.

Undeniably the text [of these works] exhibits some of the trappings of an Indian Buddhist text, including many Sanskrit technical terms and doctrines of Indian origin. In an age when Chinese Buddhists were looking to India for the authentic Buddhism, giving a Chinese composition a Sanskrit veneer would make its presentation of a belief in the Absolute more credible. (435)

The belief system traveled from China to Japan where it was famously encouraged by Prince Shotoku (r. 594-622 CE) who helped to establish it throughout the country. Esoteric Buddhism was refined, systematized, and spread further by Kukai (also known as Kobo Daishi, l. 774-835 CE), a scholar-monk and poet who founded Shingon Buddhism in Japan. Shingon ("True Word") Buddhism adhered to the cosmic vision of Buddhism as an eternal set of strictures which had been articulated clearly by the Buddha but not conceived of by him, nor had he been the first buddha and certainly not the last. Shingon, like Vajrayana Buddhism, claimed one could attain complete enlightenment in one’s lifetime and only by submitting to the discipline of a virtuous teacher.

Copy of the Heart Sutra/ Chinese Diamond Sutra

Mainstream Buddhism emphasized adherence to the Eightfold Path after a recognition of the Four Noble Truths which led one to enlightenment and freedom, at death, from the cycle of rebirth. Esoteric Buddhism offers the same basic platform but claims one can attain results more quickly by embracing and then letting go of the attachments of life as one becomes more spiritually mature. One should not, then, renounce the world of illusion but recognize its value since one could not accrue spiritual merit without it and, without the spiritual merit one earned through the discipline of distancing oneself from that world, one could not advance toward enlightenment.

Buswell and Lopez note how one of the names for Esoteric Buddhism is Mantrayana and the importance of reciting a personal mantra in staying the course toward higher values. In the book Sang Hyang Kamahayanikan there is a very detailed description of how a tantric yogi prepare himself for spiritual path, from the start until the implementation of multilevel worships. It is said that the Vajrayana doctrines is meditation towards Five Tathagata. By worshipping them, a yogi can attain the purity of mind.

The history of Buddhism in Indonesia is closely related to the history of Hinduism, as a number of empires influenced by Indian culture were established around the same period. The arrival of Buddhism in the Indonesian archipelago began with trading activity, from the early 1st century, by way of the maritime Silk Road between Indonesia and India. The oldest Buddhist archaeological site in Indonesia is arguably the Batujaya stupas complex in Karawang, West Java. The oldest relic in Batujaya was estimated to originate from the 2nd century, while the latest dated from the 12th century. Subsequently, significant numbers of Buddhist sites were found in Jambi, Palembang, and Riau provinces in Sumatra, as well as in Central and East Java. The Indonesian archipelago has, over the centuries, witnessed the rise and fall of powerful Buddhist empires, such as the Sailendra dynasty, the Mataram, and Srivijaya empires.

Borobudur Temple Compounds, located in Central Java, Indonesia

According to some Chinese source, a Chinese Buddhist monk I-tsing on his pilgrim journey to India, witnessed the powerful maritime empire of Srivijaya based on Sumatra in the 7th century. The empire served as a Buddhist learning center in the region. A notable Srivijayan revered Buddhist scholar is Dharmakirti, a Srivijayan prince of the Sailendra dynasty, born around the turn of the 7th century in Sumatra.[7] He became a revered scholar-monk in Srivijaya and moved to India to become a teacher at the famed Nalanda University, as well as a poet. He built on and reinterpreted the work of Dignaga, the pioneer of Buddhist Logic, and was very influential among Brahman logicians as well as Buddhists. His theories became normative in Tibet and are studied to this day as a part of the basic monastic curriculum. Other Buddhist monks that visited Indonesia were Atisha, Dharmapala, a professor of Nalanda, and the South Indian Buddhist Vajrabodhi. Srivijaya was the largest Buddhist empire ever formed in Indonesian history.

A number of Buddhist historical heritages can be found in Indonesia, including the 8th century Borobudur mandala monument and Sewu temple in Central Java, Batujaya in West Java, Muaro Jambi, Muara Takus and Bahal temple in Sumatra, and numerous of statues or inscriptions from the earlier history of Indonesian Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms. During the era of Kediri, Singhasari and Majapahit empire, buddhism — identified as Dharma ri Kasogatan- was acknowledged as one of kingdom's official religions along with Hinduism. Although some of kings might favour Hinduism over another, nevertheless the harmony, toleration, and even syncretism were promoted as manifested in Bhinneka Tunggal Ika national motto, coined from Kakawin Sutasoma, written by Mpu Tantular to promotes tolerance between Hindus (Shivaites) and Buddhists.[8] The classical era of ancient Java also had produces some of the exquisite examples of Buddhist arts, such as the statue of Prajnaparamita and the statue of Buddha Vairochana and Boddhisttva Padmapani and Vajrapani in Mendut temple.

Shailendra dynasty,a dynasty that flourished in Java from about 750 to 850 after the fall of the Funan kingdom of mainland Southeast Asia. The dynasty was marked by a great cultural renaissance associated with the introduction of Mahāyāna Buddhism, and it attained a high level of artistic expression in the many temples and monuments built under its rule. During the reign of one of its kings, the famous stupa of Borobuḍur (q.v.) was built. The Social Context of Politics and Culture Borobudur was built at the peak of the Shailendra dynasty’s reign during a period when the system of government was highly feudalistic and rulers were selected through conquest and lineage. At that time, there were two competing forces in the region, namely the Hindu Sanjaya dynasty and the Buddhist Shailendra dynasty. The only written evidence of the existence of the Sanjaya dynasty in Central Java is the Canggal inscription, which is dated to 732. After that, the Sanjaya dynasty was suppressed by the Shailendra dynasty, and the area was dominated by inscriptions from the Shailendra family.

Except for its legacy of monuments, little is known of the dynasty. It apparently emanated from the agricultural lowlands of interior Java but extended its real power to the northwestern coasts of the island, from which its emissaries traded with and raided the Malay peninsula and Indochina. There is a Khmer tradition of Shailendra overlordship in the latter part of the 8th century. The Shailendra dynasty was driven to Sumatra (Palembang) in the mid-9th century.

bas-relief from the Shailendra dynasty-King and queen with subjects, bas relief from the Shailendra dynasty, 8th century; in Borobudur, central Java, Indonesia.

The Buddhist temples that the Shailendra dynasty built were also magnificent and luxurious in the southern region of Central Java, with Borobudur being the largest temple there. Construction of the temple began around 750 AD and ended in the early decades of the 9th century. By the mid-9 th century, relations had deteriorated severely between the Shailendra and Sanjaya dynasties. The ending of the Shailendra dynasty in Java is generally dated to around 852, when the Sanjaya ruler Pikatan defeated Shailendra’s ruler Balaputra.

This sequence of events indicates that far from strengthening the Shailendra dynasty, the construction of the temple might have imposed an untenable burden on the population, possibly weakening their support for their ruler and increasing their vulnerability to invasion and defeat.

The phenomenon of monumental buildings in the development of human civilisation is very important and interesting to study for several reasons.

⦁ Firstly, the phenomenon shows the dynamics of the transformation of the metaphysical dimension in the form of material culture, which provides an overview of the dynamics of the economic development, power, technology and ideology of the civilisation concerned . ⦁ Secondly, the establishment of monumental buildings in principle involves the allocation of scarce resources, which has consequences on the development of social welfare.

⦁ It is important to evaluate the financial and economic feasibility of allocating these resources as the misallocation of resources has a great potential to reduce the level of social welfare.1

One of the most remarkable monumental buildings representing ancient Javanese culture is the Borobudur temple in Central Java, Indonesia, built by the Shailendra dynasty during the HinduBuddhist period of the 9th century AD . It is  the largest Buddhist site in the world and it remains in use today

A major attraction of Borobudur lies in the mystery that surrounds it –

⦁ There are no records that enable people living in the world today to know exactly who constructed it and ⦁ why it was constructed. ⦁ how the extravagant costs incurred in its construction were handled and what benefits were derived by people living at that time. ⦁ how the extravagant costs incurred in its construction were handled and what benefits were derived by the Royalty who commissioned it.

structure and spirit of Borobudur can only be understood from the perspective of Buddhism, which originates in the Sutras and Tantras. It can be said that the reliefs carved on the walls of the Borobudur indicate the existence of distinctive Buddhist teachings, which were a subtle integration between Mahayana and Tantric teachings of Buddhism, particularly from the Sanskrit and Ancient Javanese book Sang Hyang Kamahayanikan. (See my paper of the same name)

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The Ambiguous Feasibility of Borobudur Temple Irmawati Marwoto1 , Mandala Manurung2 1Department of Archaeology, Faculty of Humanities, University of Indonesia, 2Department of Archaeology, Faculty of Humanities, University of Indonesia International Journal of Innovation, Creativity and Change. www.ijicc.net Volume 14, Issue 8, 2020 749

This distinctive blend of indigenous Javanese and Indian Buddhism is also evidenced by the selection of sutras and tantrasthat can be practisedin harmony, with no apparent cosmological conflict. This implies that the monasteries in Java already had comprehensive religious libraries, thus allowing the integration of religious teachings in a unified and holistic manner. The predominance of these two Buddhist schools affecting the Borobudur temple does not mean that the other streams did not have any influence on its form and uses.

Archaeologists have identified many Buddhist streams in the Borobudur reliefs. The similarity among the various schools of Buddhism is evinced in their agreement that life is suffering, that the cause of suffering can be eliminated, and that there are ways to eliminate it. Thus, the way (yana) of eliminating the cause of suffering was developed by the various schools of Buddhism.

Borobudur and Kedu Plain

Mount Merapi, colour lithograph, Junghuhn and Mieling, 1853–1854

Borobudur

The Kedu Plain lies to the north west of Yogyakarta and west of Gunung Merapi and south west of Magelang, in Central Java. Kedu Plain, also known as Progo River valley, is the fertile volcanic plain that lies between the volcanoes, Mount Sumbing and Mount Sundoro to the west, and Mount Merbabu and Mount Merapi to the east, roughly corresponds to present-day Magelang and Temanggung Regency of Central Java, Indonesia.

The Kedu Plain hosts a large number of Hindu and Buddhist temples dated, from the 8th to the 9th century. Because of this, the Kedu Plain is considered the cradle of classic Indonesian civilization. The temples in the region include-

Borobudur: The gigantic 8th century stone ⦁ mandala ⦁ Buddhist monument was built by the ⦁ Sailendras.

Mendut: The 8th century Buddhist temple is housing three large stone statues of ⦁ Vairocana, ⦁ Avalokiteshvara, and ⦁ Vajrapani.

Pawon: The small 8th century Buddhist temple near the bank of Progo River is located between Mendut and Borobudur.

Ngawen: The 8th century Buddhist temple is located about 5 kilometers east of Mendut temple.

Banon: The ruins of a Hindu temple; located several hundred meters north of Pawon temple. However, no significant remains of the temple have survived, thus, its reconstruction is impossible. Only the statues of ⦁ Shiva, ⦁ Vishnu, ⦁ Agastya, and ⦁ Ganesha have been discovered, which are now displayed at the ⦁ National Museum of Indonesia, ⦁ Jakarta.

Canggal: also known as Candi Gunung Wukir. One of the oldest Hindu temples in the area. The temple is located in the ⦁ Muntilan area, near the temple a ⦁ Canggal inscription connected with ⦁ Sri Sanjaya, the king of ⦁ Mataram Kingdom was discovered. Gunung Sari: The ruins of a Hindu temple on top of a hill, located near Candi Gunung Wukir, on the outskirts of Muntilan. Umbul: in Grabag, ⦁ Magelang; it served as a bathing and resting place for the kings of ⦁ Mataram.

Mount Merapi, Gunung Merapi (literally Fire Mountain in Indonesian and Javanese), is an active stratovolcano located on the border between the province of Central Java and the Special Region of Yogyakarta, Indonesia adjoining the Kedu Plains. It is the most active volcano in Indonesia and has erupted regularly since 1548. It is located approximately 28 kilometres (17 mi) north of Yogyakarta city which has a population of 2.4 million, and thousands of people live on the flanks of the volcano, with villages as high as 1,700 metres (5,577 ft) above sea level.

Smoke can often be seen emerging from the mountaintop, and several eruptions have caused fatalities. A pyroclastic flow from a large explosion killed 27 people on 22 November 1994, mostly in the town of Muntilan, west of the volcano.[3] Another large eruption occurred in 2006, shortly before the Yogyakarta earthquake. In light of the hazards that Merapi poses to populated areas, it was designated as one of the Decade Volcanoes.

Borobudur. 9th-century Buddhist monument, reportedly the world's largest. Seven terraces to the top represent the steps from the earthly realm to ⦁ Nirvana. Reliefs of the birth, enlightenment and death of the ⦁

Pawon. 8th-century Buddhist temple.

Mendut. 8th-century ⦁ Mahayana Buddhist temple.

Ngawen. Five aligned sanctuaries, one decorated with finely sculpted lions. 8th-century Buddhist temple located east from Mendut temple. The name linked to Venuvana, "the temple of bamboo forest".

Banon. 8th-century Hindu temple located north from Pawon temple. The few remains make it impossible to reconstruct the temple. The Hindu god statue from this temple is now located at the ⦁ National Museum in Jakarta.

Umbul, a 9th-century bathing complex in Grabag, Magelang

Gunung Sari. Ruins of three secondary temples and the foot of the main temple remain.

Gunung Wukir. One of the oldest inscriptions on Java, written in 732 ⦁ CE, found here. Only the bases remain of the main sanctuary and three secondary temples.

	In anticipation of Mount Merapi’s possible eruption, the Borobudur Conservation Agency covers many stupas in the eighth level of the Borobudur temple in Magelang, Central Java. The agency may cover the remaining stupas if volcanic activity increases. Back in 2010, the ninth century temple was affected by a major eruption. At the time, acidic volcanic ash from Mt. Merapi covered 72 stupas.

The part of present-day Central Java then known as the Mataram kingdom was the geographical area of the kingdom contested by the Shailendra Buddhist dynastie and Sanjaya Hindu. That is why temples in southern Central Java are mainly Buddhist, whereas those in northern Central Java are Hindu,

The Mataram Kingdom was a Javanese Hindu–Buddhist kingdom that flourished between the 8th and 11th centuries. It was based in Central Java, and later in East Java. Established by King Sanjaya, the kingdom was ruled by the Sailendra dynasty.During the intervening period of late 8th century and the mid-9th century, the kingdom saw the blossoming of classical Javanese art and architecture reflected in the rapid growth of temple construction. Temples dotted the landscape of its heartland in Mataram. The most notable of the temples constructed in Mataram are Kalasan, Sewu, Borobudur and Prambanan, all quite close to present-day city of Yogyakarta. 

Later the dynasty divided into two kingdoms identified by religious patronage—the Buddhist and Shivaist dynasties. Civil war followed. The outcome was that the Mataram kingdom was divided into two powerful kingdoms; the Shivaist dynasty of Mataram kingdom in Java led by Rakai Pikatan and the Buddhist dynasty of Srivijaya kingdom in Sumatra led by Balaputradewa. Hostility between them did not end until 1016 when the Sailendra clan based in Srivijaya incited a rebellion by Wurawari, a vassal of the Mataram kingdom, and sacked the capital of Watugaluh in East Java. Srivijaya rose to become the undisputed hegemonic empire in the region. The Shivaist dynasty survived, reclaimed east Java in 1019, and then established the Kahuripan kingdom led by Airlangga, son of Udayana of Bali.

In the middle of the 9th century however, the two dynasties were united through the marriage bonds between a prince of Sanjaya, Rakai Pikatan and Pramodawhardani, a daughter of the Shailendra dynasty. Nonetheless, the two dynasties appeared to have competed with each other to build temples. The Sanjaya dynasty constructed Hindu temples, the largest of which was the Prambanan temple in Yogyakarta. Tthe Shailendra dynasty constructed Buddhist temples, of which the largest was Borobudur, also known as Kamulan.1

The financial infeasibility of the construction of the Borobudur temple is evaluated based on the rationality of resource use. Table 1 above shows that the net flow of funds would have always been negative from the beginning to year 100. This means that additional financial costs for construction and maintenance would have been greater than any financial benefits. The flow pattern shows that the construction of Borobudur temple was financially irrational or unfeasible. This raises the question of whether the funds allocated to construct the Borobudur temple were the cause of the collapse of the Shailendra dynasty. The need for funds to complete the construction of the Borobudur temple was IDR 28 trillion, which in the present context is still a very large amount of money. If the Shailendra dynasty currently still had control over the area of Central Java, then building Borobudur would require additional tax revenues greater than IDR 28 trillion. The target additional tax revenue would not be possible to achieve, as the current total tax revenue of Central Java province is only IDR 10 trillion per year

A house of worship that should represent divine presence, a place where truth, freedom, peace and prosperity flourished turned into a place rampant with the struggle for power and influence. The house of worship became a representation of conflict rooted in the thirst for power. The Indic tradition of Hindu-Buddhist architecture recognize the concept of arranging elements in three parts or three elements. Subsequently, the design, plan and layout of the temple follows the rule of space allocation within three elements; commonly identified as foot (base), body (center), and head (roof). The three zones is arranged according to a sacred hierarchy. Each Hindu and Buddhist concepts has their own terms, but the concept's essentials is identical. Either the compound site plan (horizontally) or the temple structure (vertically) consists of three zones.

Bhurloka (in Buddhism: ⦁ Kāmadhātu), the lowest realm of common mortals; humans, animals also demons. Where humans still bound by their lust, desire and unholy way of life. The outer courtyard and the foot (base) part of each temples is symbolized the realm of bhurloka. Bhuvarloka (in Buddhism: ⦁ Rupadhatu), the middle realm of holy people, ⦁ rishis, ascetics, and lesser gods. People here began to see the light of truth. The middle courtyard and the body of each temples is symbolized the realm of bhuvarloka.

Svarloka (in Buddhism: ⦁ Arupadhatu), the highest and holiest realm of gods, also known as ⦁ svargaloka. The inner courtyard and the roof of each temples is symbolized the realm of svarloka. The roof of Hindu structure usually crowned with ⦁ ratna (⦁ sanskrit: jewel) or ⦁ vajra, or in eastern Java period, crowned by cube structure. While ⦁ stupa or dagoba cylindrical structure served as the pinnacle of Buddhist ones. Style Soekmono, an Indonesian archaeologist, has classified the candi styles into two main groups: a central Java style, which predominantly date from before 1,000 CE, and an eastern Java style, which date from after 1,000 CE. He groups the temples of Sumatra and Bali into the eastern Java style.

Structure elements

Bima temple, one of Dieng temples. It was one of the earliest temples in Java. Central Java style(Bubrah temple)/Eastern Java style-Bajang Ratu gate/Bubrah temple near Prambanan, an example of Central Javanese style, while Bajang Ratu gate in Trowulan is an example of Eastern Javanese style. Parts of the temple Central Java Style Eastern Java Style

Shape of the structure Tends to be bulky Tends to be slender and tall

Roof Clearly shows stepped roof sections, usually consist of 3 parts The multiple parts of stepped sections formed a combined roof structure smoothly Pinnacle Stupa (Buddhist temples), Ratna or Vajra (Hindu temples) Cube (mostly Hindu temples), sometimes Dagoba cylindrical structures (Buddhist temples) Portal and niches adornment Kala-Makara style; Kala head without lower jaw opening its mouth located on top of the portal, connected with double Makara on each side of the portal Only Kala head sneering with the mouth complete with lower jaw located on top of the portal, Makara is absent

Relief Projected rather high from the background, the images was done in naturalistic style Projected rather flat from the background, the images was done in stylized style similar to Balinese wayang image Layout and location of the main temple Concentric mandala, symmetric, formal; with main temple located in the center of the complex surrounded by smaller perwara temples in regular rows Linear, asymmetric, followed topography of the site; with main temple located in the back or furthermost from the entrance, often located in the highest ground of the complex, perwara temples is located in front of the main temple

Direction Mostly faced east Mostly faced west

Materials Mostly andesite stone Mostly red brick

There are material, form, and location exceptions to these general design traits. While the Penataran, Jawi, Jago, Kidal and Singhasari temples, for example, belong to the eastern Java group, they use andesite stone similar to the Central Java temple material. Temple ruins in Trowulan, such as Brahu, Jabung and Pari temples use red brick. Also the Prambanan temple is tall and slender similar to the east Java style, yet the roof design is Central Javan in style. The location also do not always correlate with the temple styles, for example Candi Badut is located in Malang, East Java, yet the period and style belongs to older 8th century central Javanese style. The earlier northern central Java complexes, such as the Dieng temples, are smaller and contain only several temples which exhibit simpler carving, whereas the later southern complexes, such as Sewu temple, are grander, with a richer elaboration of carving, and concentric layout of the temple complex. The Majapahit period saw the revival of Austronesian megalithic design elements, such stepped pyramids (punden berundak). These design cues are seen in the Sukuh and Cetho temples in Mount Lawu in eastern Central Java, and in stepped sanctuary structures on the Mount Penanggungan slopes that are similar to meso-American stepped pyramids.

MATERIALS

Most of well-preserved candi in Indonesia are made from andesite stone. This is mainly owed to the stone's durability, compared to bricks, against tropical weathers and torrential rains. Nevertheless, certain periods, especially the Majapahit era, saw the extensive use of red brick as temple and building materials. Interlocking andesite stone blocks forming a corbeling arch in Borobudur.

. The materials commonly used in temple construction in Indonesia are:

Andesite is an extrusive igneous ⦁ volcanic rock, of ⦁ intermediate composition, with ⦁ aphanitic to ⦁ porphyritic texture. Its colour ranges from light to dark grey. Andesite is especially abundant in the volcanic island of Java, mined from a certain cliffs or stone quarry with andesite deposit formed from compressed ancient magma chamber or cooled down lava spill. Each andesite stone is custom made into blocks with interlocking technique, to construct temple walls, floors and building. Andesite stones are easily formed and carved with iron ⦁ chisel, making it a suitable material for temple walls and decorations carved as ⦁ bas-reliefs. The walls of andesite was then carved with exquisite narrative bas-reliefs, which can be observed in many temples, especially in Borobudur and Prambanan. Andesite rocks are also used as the material for carved statues: the images of deities and Buddha.

Red brick Jabung temple, dated from Majapahit period.

Brick is also used to construct temples. The oldest brick temple structure is the Batujaya temple compound in Karawang, West Java, dated from 2nd to 12th century CE. Although brick had been used in the candi of Indonesia's classical age, it was Majapahit architects of the 14th and 15th centuries who mastered it.[15] Making use of a vine sap and palm sugar mortar, their temples had a strong geometric quality. The example of Majapahit temples are Brahu temple in Trowulan, Pari in Sidoarjo, Jabung in Probolinggo. Temples of Sumatra, such as Bahal temple, Muaro Jambi, and Muara Takus are made from bricks. However, compared to lava andesite stone, clay red bricks are less durable, especially if exposed to hot and humid tropical elements and torrential monsoon rain. As a result, many red brick structures were crumbling down over centuries, and reconstruction efforts require recasting and replacing the damaged structure with new bricks.

Tuff is a volcanic rock that is quite abundant near Javanese volcanoes or limestone formations. In Indonesian and Javanese languages, tuff is called batu putih (white stone), which corresponds to its light color. The chalky characteristic of this stone, however, has made it unsuitable to be carved into bas-reliefs of building ornaments. Compared to andesite, tuff is considered as an inferior quality building material. In Javanese temples, tuff usually are used as stone fillings — forming the inner structure of the temple — while the outer layer employed andesite that is more suitable to be carved. The tuff quarries can be found in Sewu limestone ranges near Ratu Boko hill. The tuff fillings in the temple can be examined in ⦁ Ratu Boko crematorium temple. Tuff was used as building material of outer walls of temple compound, such as te walls found buried around Sewu and Sambisari temple. Stucco is materials similar to modern ⦁ concrete, made from the mixture of sand, stone, water, and sometimes ground clamshell. The stucco as temple building material is observable in the ⦁ Batujaya temple compound in West Java.

Traces of worn off vajralepa plaster on Sari's relief.

Plaster called vajralepa (Sanskrit: diamond plaster) is used to coat the temple walls. The white-yellowish plaster is made from the mixture of ground ⦁ limestone, tuff or white earth (⦁ kaolin), with plant substances such as gums or resins as binder. The varjalepa white plaster was applied upon the andesite walls, and then painted with bright colors, serving perhaps as a beacon of Buddhist teaching.⦁ [16] The traces of worn-off vajralepa plaster can be observed in Borobudur, ⦁ Sari, ⦁ Kalasan and ⦁ Sewu temple walls. Wood is believed to be used in some of candi construction or at least as parts of temple building material. Sari and ⦁ Plaosan temples, for example, are known to have traces of stone indentions to support wooden beams and floors in its second floor, as well as traces of wooden stairs. ⦁ Ratu Boko compound has building bases and stone umpak column base, which suggests that the wooden capitals once stood there to support wooden roof structure made of organic materials. Traces of holes to install wooden window railings and wooden doors are observable in many of the perwara (complementary smaller) temples. Of course, wooden materials are easily decayed in a humid tropical climate, leaving no traces after centuries.

MOTIFS Kala-Makara

Kala-makara on the portal of Borobudur gates, Kala's head on top of the portal and makaras flanking either sides. The candis of ancient Java are notable with the application of kala-makara as both decorative and symbolic elements of the temple architecture. Kala is the giant symbolizing time, by making kala's head as temple portals element, it symbolizes that time consumes everything. Kala is also a protective figure, with fierce giant face it scares away malevolent spirits. Makara is a mythical sea monster, the vahana of sea-god Varuna. It has been depicted typically as half mammal and half fish. In many temples the depiction is in the form of half fish or seal with the head of an elephant. It is also shown with head and jaws of a crocodile, an elephant trunk, the tusks and ears of a wild boar, the darting eyes of a monkey, the scales and the flexible body of a fish, and the swirling tailing feathers of a peacock. Both kala and makara are applied as the protective figures of the temple's entrance. Kala is the giant head, often takes place on top of the entrance with makaras projected on either sides of kala's head, flanking the portal or projecting on the top corner as antefixes. The kala-makara theme also can be found on stair railings on either sides. On the upper part of stairs, the mouth of kala's head projecting makara downward. The intricate stone carving of twin makaras flanking the lower level of stairs, with its curved bodies forming the stair's railings. Other than makaras, kala's head might also project its tongue as stair's railings. These types of stair-decorations can be observed in Borobudur and Prambanan. Makara's trunks are often describes as handling gold ornaments or spouting jewels, while in its mouth often projected Gana dwarf figures or animals such as lions or parrots.

Linga-Yoni

Central Javanese linga-yoni with spout decorated and supported by nāga serpent, Yogyakarta 9th century. In ancient Javanese candi, the linga-yoni symbolism was only found in Hindu temples, more precisely those of Shivaist faith. Therefore, they are absent in Buddhist temples. The linga is a phallic post or cylinder symbolic of the god Shiva and of creative power. Some lingas are segmented into three parts: a square base symbolic of Brahma, an octagonal middle section symbolic of Vishnu, and a round tip symbolic of Shiva. The lingas that survive from the Javanese classical period are generally made of polished stone of this shape. Lingas are implanted in a flat square base with a hole in it, called a yoni, symbolic of the womb and also represents Parvati, Shiva's consort. A yoni usually has a kind of spout, usually decorated with nāga, to help channeled and collects the liquids poured upon linga-yoni during Hindu ritual. As a religious symbol, the function of the linga is primarily that of worship and ritual. Oldest remains of linga-yoni can be found in Dieng temples from earlier period circa 7th century. Originally each temples might have a complete pair of linga-yoni unity.

However, most of the times, the linga is missing.

In the tradition of Javanese kingship, certain lingas were erected as symbols of the king himself or his dynasty, and were housed in royal temples in order to express the king's consubstantiality with Shiva. The example is the linga-yoni of Gunung Wukir temple, according to Canggal inscription is connected to King Sanjaya from the Mataram Kingdom, in 654 Saka (732 CE).[17] Other temples that contains complete linga-yoni include Sambisari and Ijo temples. Eastern Javanese temples that contains linga-yoni are Panataran and Jawi temple, although the linga is missing.

Bas-reliefs

The most exquisite of the temple bas-reliefs can be found in Borobudur and Prambanan temples. The first four terrace of Borobudur walls are showcases for bas-relief sculptures. These are exquisite, considered to be the most elegant and graceful in the ancient Buddhist world. The Buddhist scriptures describes as bas-reliefs in Borobudur such as Karmavibhangga (the law of karma), Lalitavistara (the birth of Buddha), Jataka, Avadana and Gandavyuha. While in Prambanan the Hindu scriptures is describes in its bas-relief panels; the Ramayana and Bhagavata Purana (popularly known as Krishnayana).

The bas-reliefs in Borobudur depicted many scenes of daily life in 8th-century ancient Java, from the courtly palace life, hermit in the forest, to those of commoners in the village. It also depicted temple, marketplace, various flora and fauna, and also native vernacular architecture. People depicted here are the images of king, queen, princes, noblemen, courtier, soldier, servant, commoners, priest and hermit. The reliefs also depicted mythical spiritual beings in Buddhist beliefs such as asuras, gods, boddhisattvas, kinnaras, gandharvas and apsaras. The images depicted on bas-relief often served as reference for historians to research for certain subjects, such as the study of architecture, weaponry, economy, fashion, and also mode of transportation of 8th-century Maritime Southeast Asia. One of the famous renderings of an 8th-century Southeast Asian double outrigger ship is Borobudur Ship.

Hanuman battling enemy, bas-relief of Ramayana on Penataran temple, East Java style.

There are significant distinction of bas-reliefs' style and aesthetics between the Central Javanese period (prior of 1000 CE) and East Javanese period (after 1000 CE). The earlier Central Javanese style, as observable in Borobudur and Prambanan, are more exquisite and naturalistic in style. The reliefs is projected rather high from the background, the images was done in naturalistic style with proper ideal body proportion. On the other hand, the bas-reliefs of Eastern Javanese style is projected rather flat from the background, the images was done in stiffer pose and stylized style, similar to currently Balinese wayang images. The East Javanese style is currently preserved in Balinese art, style and aesthetics in temple bas-reliefs, also wayang shadow puppet imagery, as well as the Kamasan painting.

Deities

Kalpataru and Kinnaras

Kinnara (male), Kinnari (female), Apsara, and Devata guarding Kalpataru, the divine tree of life. 8th century Pawon temple, Java, Indonesia. The images of coupled Kinnara and Kinnari can be found in Borobudur, Mendut, Pawon, Sewu, Sari, and Prambanan temples. Usually, they are depicted as birds with human heads, or humans with lower limbs of birds. The pair of Kinnara and Kinnari usually is depicted guarding Kalpataru (Kalpavriksha), the tree of life, and sometimes guarding a jar of treasure. There are bas-relief in Borobudur depicting the story of the famous kinnari, Manohara.

The lower outer wall of Prambanan temples were adorned with row of small niche containing image of simha (lion) flanked by two panels depicting bountiful kalpataru (kalpavriksha) tree. These wish-fulfilling sacred trees according to Hindu-Buddhist beliefs, is flanked on either side by kinnaras or animals, such as pairs of birds, deer, sheep, monkeys, horses, elephants etc. The pattern of lion in niche flanked by kalpataru trees is typical in Prambanan temple compound, thus it is called as "Prambanan panel". Boddhisattva and Tara

A Bodhisattva flanked by two Taras in Sewu temple.

In Buddhist temples, the panels of bas-reliefs usually adorned with exquisite images of male figure of Bodhisattvas and female figure of Taras, along with Gandarvas heavenly musicians, and sometimes the flock of Gana dwarfs. These are the deities and divinities in Buddhist beliefs, which resides in the Tushita heaven in Buddhism cosmology. Bodhisattvas are usually depicted as handsome man with peaceful and serene facial expression, adorned with luxurious jewelry akin to a king or a deity. While the Taras are his female counterparts, figures of beautiful celestial maidens. Both figures are depicted gracefully, usually holding various kinds of lotus (red padma, blue utpala, or white kumuda), monk staff (khakkhara) or fly whisk (chamara), and standing in tribhanga pose. The notable images of boddhisattvas could be found adorning the outer walls of Plaosan, Sari, Kalasan, Sewu, Pawon and of course Borobudur temple.

Devata and Apsara

A Devata flanked by two apsaras in Prambanan temple.

In Hindu temples, the celestial couple; male Devatas and female Apsaras are usually found adorns the panels of temple's walls. They are the Hindu counterpart of Buddhist Bodhisattva-Tara celestial beings. On the other side of narrative panels in Prambanan, the temple wall along the gallery were adorned with the statues and reliefs of devatas and brahmin sages. The figure of lokapalas, the celestial guardians of directions can be found in Shiva temple. The Brahmin sage editors of veda were carved on Brahma temple wall, while in Vishnu temple the figures of a male deities devatas flanked by two apsaras. The depiction of celestial beings of lesser gods and goddesses- devatas and apsaras, describes the Hindu concept of sacred realm of Svargaloka. This is corresponds to the concept of the towering Hindu temple as the epitome of Mount Meru in Hindu cosmology.

Guardians-Dvarapala

One of dvarapala statues guarding Sewu temple.

Most of larger temple compound in ancient Java were guarded by a pair of dvarapala statues, as gate guardians. The twin giants usually placed flanked the entrance in front of the temple, or in four cardinal points. Dvarapala took form of two fierce giants or demons that ward off evil and malevolent spirits from entering the sacred temple compounds. In Central Javanese art, dvarapala is mostly portrayed as a stout and rather chubby giant, with fierce face of glaring round goggle eyes, protruding fangs, curly hairs and moustaches, with fat and round belly. The giant usually depicted as holding gada and sometimes knives as weapon.

In East Javanese art and Balinese version however, the dvarapala usually depicted rather well-built and muscular, with a fine example taken from Adan-adan site near Kediri.[19] The exception is a gigantic dvarapala of Singhasari near Malang, East Java that measures 3.7 metres tall. The most notable dvarapala statues are those of candi Sewu, each pair guarding four cardinal points of the grand temple complex, making them a total eight large dvarapala statues in perfect condition. The dvarapalas of Sewu temple has become the prototype of Gupolo guardian in later Javanese art, copied as guardians in Javanese keratons of Yogyakarta and Surakarta. Another fine example is two pairs of dvarapala guarding the twin temples of Plaosan.

Lion

Lion guardian of Borobudur.

The statues of a pair of lions (Sanskrit: Siṁha, Indonesian and Javanese: Singa) flanking the portal, are often placed as the guardians of candi entrance. Lions were never native to Southeast Asia in recorded history. As the result, the depiction of lions in ancient Southeast Asian art, especially in ancient Java and Cambodia, is far from the naturalistic style as depicted in Greek or Persian art counterparts, since the depictions were all based on perception and imagination. The cultural depictions and the reverence of lions as the noble and powerful beasts in Southeast Asia was influenced by Indian culture especially through Buddhist symbolism. Statues of a pair of lions often founds in temples in Southeast Asia as the gate guardians. In Borobudur Buddhist monument Central Java, Indonesia, andesite stone statues of lions guard four main entrances of Borobudur. The thrones of Buddha and Boddhisattva found in Kalasan and Mendut Buddhist temples of ancient Java depicted elephants, lions, and makara. The statue of winged lion also found in Penataran temple East Java. Stupa, Ratna and Vajra pinnacles

Bell-shaped perforated stupas of Borobudur.

The religions dedicated in the temples of ancient Java can be easily distinguished mainly from its pinnacles on top of the roof. Bell-shaped stupa can be found on the Buddhist temples' roof, while ratna, the pinnacle ornaments symbolize gem, mostly founds in Hindu temples.

The typical stupas in Javanese classical temple architecture is best described as those of Borobudur style; the bell-shaped stupa. The stupa in Borobudur upper round terrace of Arupadhatu consist of round lotus pedestal (padmasana or "lotus pad"), gently sloped bell-shaped dome (anda), a rectangular or octagonal shape (harmika)[20] sits on top of the dome serves as the base of hexagonal rod-like pinnacle (yasti).

Each stupa is pierced by numerous decorative openings, either in the shape of rectangular or rhombus. Statues of the Buddha sit inside the pierced stupa enclosures. Borobudur was first thought more likely to have served as a stupa, instead of a temple. A stupa is intended as a shrine for the Buddha. Sometimes stupas were built only as devotional symbols of Buddhism. A temple, on the other hand, is used as a house of worship.

Prambanan vajra pinnacle.

Ratna pinnacle took form of a curved obtuse pyramidal shape or sometimes cylindrical, completed with several base structure or pedestals took form as some ornamental seams (Javanese:pelipit). This form is known as keben pinnacle or the form of Barringtonia asiatica fruit. It can be found as the pinnacle of both Hindu and Buddhist temples. Nevertheless, it is most prevalent in Hindu temples. The example of temple with ratna pinnacle is Sambisari and Ijo temple.

In Prambanan, the stylized vajra replaced ratna as the temple's pinnacles. In ancient Javanese temple architecture, the vajra pinnacle is probably served as the Hindu counterparts of Buddhist stupa pinnacle. This practice is preserved in Balinese Hindu temples of later period where the multi-tiered meru towers are crowned with vajra pinnacles. Nevertheless, vajra is actually a familiar symbols in both dharmic faiths. In later periods of Eastern Java temple architecture, the false lingga-yoni, or cube can be found in Hindu temple's roof, while cylindrical dagoba on top of Buddhist counterparts. Java

Cangkuang, Garut West Java

Batujaya, a compound of Buddhist ⦁ Stupa made from red brick and mortar located at Batu Jaya, ⦁ Karawang, ⦁ West Java. Probably dated back to ⦁ Tarumanagara kingdom in the 6th century AD. Cibuaya, a compound of Vishnuite Hindu temples made from red brick and mortar also located at Batu Jaya, ⦁ Karawang, ⦁ West Java. Probably linked to Tarumanagara kingdom in the 6th century AD.

Bojongmenje, ruins of Hindu temple in Rancaekek, ⦁ Bandung Regency. Candi Cangkuang, the only one of the few surviving West Java's Hindu temple estimated dated from the 8th century, located at Leles, ⦁ Garut, ⦁ West Java. Located on an island in the middle of a lake covered by water lilies. Unlike other Javanese temple characteristics by grand architecture, Cangkuang temple is more modest with only one structure still standing. ⦁ Shiva statue faces east toward the sunrise. Date uncertain. Central Java-Dieng Plateau

Arjuna group of Dieng temples The Hindu temple compound located in Dieng Plateau, near Wonosobo, Central Java. Eight small Hindu temples from the 7th and 8th centuries, the oldest in Central Java. Surrounded by craters of boiling mud, colored lakes, caves, sulphur outlets, hot water sources and underground channels.

The temples are:

⦁ Arjuna temple ⦁ Semar temple ⦁ Srikandi temple ⦁ Puntadewa temple ⦁ Sembadra temple ⦁ Dwarawati temple ⦁ Gatotkaca temple ⦁ Bima temple

Gedong Songo

Gedong Songo III

South-west of Semarang, Central Java. Five temples constructed in 8th and 9th centuries. The site highlights how, in Hinduism, location of temples was as important as the structures themselves. The site has panoramas of three volcanoes and Dieng Plateau.

Slopes of Merapi

As we know, the rulers of Sanjaya built many magnificent and luxurious Hindu temples in the northern region of Central Java, the largest of which is the Prambanan temple. This temple compounds date from the 8th to 9th century CE, linked with historic Mataram Kingdom that ruled Central Java during that period. Shailendras, the ruling family of the kingdom were known as the avid temple builders. Indeed, some temples in the area, including Kalasan, Sari, and Sewu are credited to their second monarch King Panangkaran. Among these temple compounds, Sewu is the oldest, completed in 792 according to Manjusrigrha inscription. Lumbung and Bubrah also dated from around the same period or slightly later. Prambanan however, was the latest addition in the complex, finished and inaugurated in 856 during the reign of King Pikatan according to Shivagrha inscription.

The high concentration of candi can be found especially dense in Sleman Regency in Yogyakarta, also Magelang and Klaten in Central Java; which corresponds to the historical region of Kedu Plain (Progo River valley, Temanggung-Magelang-Muntilan area) and Kewu Plain (Opak River valley, around Prambanan), the cradle of Javanese civilization. Other sites with notable temple compounds. includes Malang, Blitar and Trowulan areas in East Java. West Java also contains a small number of temples such as Batujaya and Cangkuang. Outside of Java, the candi type of temple can be found in Bali, Sumatra, and Southern Kalimantan, although they are quite scarce. In Sumatra, two exceptional sites are notable for its temple density; the Muaro Jambi Temple Compounds in Jambi and Padang Lawas or Bahal complex in North Sumatra.

The candis might be built on plain or uneven terrain. Prambanan and Sewu temples for example, are built on even flat low-lying terrain, while the temples of Gedong Songo and Ijo are built on hill terraces on higher grounds or mountain slopes. Borobudur on the other hand is built upon a bedrock hill. The position, orientation and spatial organization of the temples within the landscape, and also their architectural designs, were determined by socio-cultural, religious and economic factors of the people, polity or the civilization that built and support them.

Map showing the location of the main sites of the so-called "Indonesian classical period" or Hindu-Buddhist period. Black dots represent Hindu sites and red dots Buddhist sites.

After the move of the capital to eastern Java circa the 11th century, the temple was neglected. For centuries later, it fell into disrepair, buried under Mount Merapi volcanic debris and shaken by earthquakes. The temple collapsed in about 1600s due to a massive earthquake.

Prambanan is a Hindu temple compound dedicated to Trimurti, the three highest gods in Hinduism, while Sewu, Lumbung and Bubrah temples are Mahayana Buddhist. Both Prambanan and Sewu are actually temple compounds arranged in the mandala layout, surrounded with hundreds of pervara (guardian complementary) temples. Originally, Prambanan consists of 240 structures, Sewu consists of 249 structures, while Lumbung temple consists of 17 structures. With combined numbers of over 500 temples, Prambanan Temple Compounds represents not only an architectural and cultural treasure, but also an example of religious harmony and peaceful cohabitation between faiths in Indonesia's past.

Prambanan

Prambanan temple or locally known in Javanese as Rara Jonggrang, is a grand Hindu temple complex dating from the 9th century, it is notable for its shrines and statues of Hindu patheon and Ramayana bas relief. Murtis or Hindu deity statues venerated in Prambanan complex including the main deity Shiva Mahadeva, Vishnu, Brahma, Durga Mahisasuramardini, Ganesha, Agastya, and Nandi bull.

Sewu

Sewu or originally known as Manjusrigrha complex, with its four pairs of Dvarapala giant statues, is the largest Buddhist temple complex in Indonesia, and the second largest Buddhist temple after Borobudur. Archaeologists believe the original name for the temple compound to be Manjusrigrha, which means "the house of Manjusri", one of the main boddhisattva in Mahayana Buddhism belief. Bubrah

Bubrah is a 9th-century Buddhist temple located between Lumbung in the south and Sewu in the north. Experts believe that the temple was designed as a part of the greater Sewu temple compound mandala.

Lumbung

Candi Lumbung a 9th-century Buddhist temple compound located within the complex of Prambanan Temple Tourism Park, Central Java, Indonesia. The original name of this temple is unknown, however the local Javanese named the temple "candi lumbung", which means "rice barn temple" in Javanese language.  

Sewu temple compound/Lumbung temple/Bubrah

Plaosan. Buddhist temple located a few kilometres east from Sewu temple compound. The temple probably dated from 9th century. Thought to have been built by a Hindu king for his Buddhist queen. Two main temples with reliefs of ⦁ Boddhisatva and ⦁ Tara. Also rows of slender ⦁ stupas. Ratu Boko. Complex of fortified gates, bathing pools, and elevated walled stone enclosure, all located on top of the hill. Sajiwan. Buddhist temple decorated with reliefs concerning education. The base and staircase are decorated with animal fables from the ⦁ Jatakas. Banyunibo. A Buddhist temple with unique design of roof.

Barong. A Hindu temple complex with large stepped stone courtyard. Located on the slope of the hill. Ijo. A cluster of Hindu temple located near the top of Ijo hill. The main temple houses a large ⦁ lingam and ⦁ yoni.

⦁ Arca Bugisan. Seven Buddha and ⦁ bodhisattva statues, some collapsed, representing different poses and expressions. Kalasan. This 8th-century Buddhist temple is the oldest in the area. Built to house the image of Boddhisattvadevi Tara by King ⦁ Panangkaran, ornamented with finely carved reliefs. Sari. Once a sanctuary for Buddhist monks. 8th century. Nine stupas at the top with two rooms beneath, each believed to be places for monks to meditate. Sambisari. 9th-century Hindu temple discovered in 1966, once buried 6.5 metres under volcanic ash. The main temple houses a linga and yoni, and the wall surround it displayed the images of Agastya, Durga, and Ganesha.

Kedulan. Discovered in 1994 by sand diggers, 4 metres deep. Square base of main temple visible. Secondary temples not yet fully excavated. ⦁ The ⦁ Shiva temple Candi ⦁ Prambanan consist of three ascending realms, temple's base (Bhurloka), body (Bhurvaloka) and roof (Svarloka). ⦁ The candi structure and layout recognize the hierarchy of the zones, spanned from the less holy to the holiest realms.

The Universal Mandala: Borobudur

Built in the 8th century by the ruling Shailendra dynasty of central Java, Borobudur is a unique cultural universe combining the features of a mountain, a stupa, and a pyramid of the megalithic period, showing how Indian themes were grafted onto a pre-existing Javanese genius. Its vast reliefs depict two major Buddhist narratives: the Lalitavistara, which narrates the life of Buddha, and Gandavyuha, which portrays the pilgrimage of the youth Sudhana in his search for knowledge. While the life of Buddha is sketched in many Buddhist monuments around Asia, the reliefs of Borobudur contain important variations. One example is the “Great Departure” of Prince Siddhartha from the royal palace as he embarks on his quest for enlightenment. The feet of his horse are lifted by Hindu gods Indra and Brahma to stop any noise that could wake up the guards assigned to prevent his departure; a perfect blending of Buddhist and Hindu narratives of Nirvana.

As a Buddhist text, Gandavyuha was circulated widely around Asia, sometimes as a gift among rulers. For example, the Chinese emperor received a Sanskrit language text of the book as a gift from the king of Odisha in the 8th century.

Gandavyuha gives Borobudur a special meaning as a universal mandala. Its message, as leading Borobudur scholar John Miksic notes, is “that one should not expect to find enlightenment only in one place, or in one source. Sudhana’s Good Friends [[[spiritual]] instructors] are women, men and children from all levels of society, as well as supernatural beings. Anyone is eligible for enlightenment and there is no suggestion that wisdom is something to be jealously hoarded and imparted only to the elite.”

Relief in Borobudur showing the “Great Departure” (Siddhartha leaving the palace). Sunrise to RIGHT

Borobudur thus represents the essence of the Nirvana Route. Its Buddhist-Hindu conception of enlightenment beckoned all people, irrespective of age, sex, wealth, or place of origin. What a far cry from the European Enlightenment, with its parochial Eurocentric worldview that contributed much to racism, elitism, and imperialism!

Sang Hyang Kamahāyānikan: Translation and Analytical Study Ven. Budi Utomo Ph.D. (Bhikkhu Ditthisampanno) Lecture and Principal of Smaratungga Buddhist College, Indonesia. Ph.D. Candidate in Buddhist Studies, Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University. ditthisampanno@gmail.com