Brill’s Encyclopedia of Buddhism Volume II: Lives Editor-in-chief Jonathan A. Silk Editors Richard Bowring Vincent Eltschinger Michael Radich Editorial Advisory Board Lucia Dolce Berthe Jansen John Jorgensen Christian Lammerts Francesco Sferra LEIDEN | BOSTON For use by the Author only | © 2019 Koninklijke Brill NV Contents Prelims Contributors ............................................................................................................................................................. xi Editors and Editorial Board .................................................................................................................................. xxxiii Primary Sources Abbreviations........................................................................................................................... xxxv Books Series and Journals Abbreviations ......................................................................................................... xxxvii General Abbreviations .......................................................................................................................................... xlii Introduction ............................................................................................................................................................. xliv Section One: Śākyamuni: South Asia .......................................................................................................................................... Barlaam and Josaphat ............................................................................................................................................ 3 39 Section Two: South & Southeast Asia: Ajātaśatru .................................................................................................................................................................. Āryadeva.................................................................................................................................................................... Āryaśūra..................................................................................................................................................................... Asaṅga/Maitreya(nātha)....................................................................................................................................... Bhāviveka .................................................................................................................................................................. Brahmā, Śakra, and Māra ...................................................................................................................................... Buddhaghoṣa............................................................................................................................................................ Buddhas of the Past: South Asia ......................................................................................................................... Buddhas of the Past and of the Future: Southeast Asia ............................................................................... Candragomin ........................................................................................................................................................... Candrakīrti................................................................................................................................................................ Ḍākinī ......................................................................................................................................................................... Devadatta .................................................................................................................................................................. Dharmakīrti .............................................................................................................................................................. Dharmapāla .............................................................................................................................................................. Dharmottara............................................................................................................................................................. Dignāga ...................................................................................................................................................................... Early Sarvāstivāda Masters ................................................................................................................................... Gavampati in Southeast Asia ............................................................................................................................... Gopadatta ................................................................................................................................................................. Guṇaprabha.............................................................................................................................................................. Haribhadra................................................................................................................................................................ Haribhaṭṭa ................................................................................................................................................................. Harivarman............................................................................................................................................................... Harṣa .......................................................................................................................................................................... Hayagrīva................................................................................................................................................................... Indian Tantric Authors: Overview ...................................................................................................................... Jñānagarbha ............................................................................................................................................................. Jñānapāda ................................................................................................................................................................. © Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, 2019 Also available online – www.brill.com For use by the Author only | © 2019 Koninklijke Brill NV 51 60 70 73 81 85 92 95 109 121 125 132 141 156 168 173 179 186 191 196 198 204 209 211 214 218 228 261 264 BEB, vol. II vi Contents Jñānaśrīmitra ........................................................................................................................................................... Kamalaśīla ................................................................................................................................................................ Karuṇāmaya ............................................................................................................................................................. Kṣemendra ................................................................................................................................................................ Kumāralāta ............................................................................................................................................................... Mahādeva.................................................................................................................................................................. Maitreya..................................................................................................................................................................... Mārīcī ......................................................................................................................................................................... Mātṛceṭa .................................................................................................................................................................... Nāgārjuna .................................................................................................................................................................. Paccekabuddhas/Pratyekabuddhas in Indic Sources ................................................................................... Phra Malai in Thailand and Southeast Asia..................................................................................................... Prajñākaragupta ...................................................................................................................................................... Ratnākaraśānti......................................................................................................................................................... Ratnakīrti .................................................................................................................................................................. Saṅghabhadra .......................................................................................................................................................... Śaṅkaranandana ..................................................................................................................................................... Śaṅkarasvāmin ........................................................................................................................................................ Śāntarakṣita .............................................................................................................................................................. Śāntideva ................................................................................................................................................................... Sarasvatī/Benzaiten................................................................................................................................................ Śāriputra .................................................................................................................................................................... Scholars of Premodern Pali Buddhism ............................................................................................................. Seers (ṛṣi/isi) and Brāhmaṇas in Southeast Asia ............................................................................................ Siddhas....................................................................................................................................................................... Śrīlāta ......................................................................................................................................................................... Sthiramati ................................................................................................................................................................. Śubhagupta............................................................................................................................................................... Tantric Buddhist Deities in Southeast Asia ..................................................................................................... Thera/Therī in Pali and Southeast Asian Buddhism ..................................................................................... Udbhaṭasiddhasvāmin .......................................................................................................................................... Upagupta ................................................................................................................................................................... Vāgīśvarakīrti ........................................................................................................................................................... Vasubandhu .............................................................................................................................................................. Vināyaka .................................................................................................................................................................... Yama and Hell Beings in Indian Buddhism ..................................................................................................... 269 272 279 286 293 298 302 325 332 335 348 357 363 366 371 374 378 382 383 391 398 409 420 437 443 452 456 458 463 474 479 481 490 492 507 513 East Asia: Ākāśagarbha in East Asia ...................................................................................................................................... Arhats in East Asian Buddhism .......................................................................................................................... Aśvaghoṣa (East Asian Aspects) ......................................................................................................................... Avalokiteśvara in East Asia................................................................................................................................... Dizang/Jizō ............................................................................................................................................................... Jianzhen (Ganjin) ................................................................................................................................................... Mahākāla in East Asia............................................................................................................................................ Mahākāśyapa in Chan-inspired Traditions...................................................................................................... Mañjuśrī in East Asia ............................................................................................................................................. Maudgalyāyana (Mulian)...................................................................................................................................... Musang (Wuxiang) ................................................................................................................................................. Tejaprabhā ................................................................................................................................................................ Yinyuan Longqi (Ingen) ........................................................................................................................................ For use by the Author only | © 2019 Koninklijke Brill NV 521 529 540 546 562 571 576 586 591 600 608 612 616 Contents vii China: Amoghavajra ............................................................................................................................................................ An Shigao .................................................................................................................................................................. Chengguan ................................................................................................................................................................ Daoxuan .................................................................................................................................................................... Falin ............................................................................................................................................................................ Faxian ......................................................................................................................................................................... Fazun .......................................................................................................................................................................... Hanshan Deqing ..................................................................................................................................................... Hongzhi Zhengjue .................................................................................................................................................. Huihong (see Juefan Huihong) Huineng (see Shenxiu) Huiyuan (see Lushan Huiyuan) Jigong.......................................................................................................................................................................... Juefan Huihong ....................................................................................................................................................... Liang Wudi................................................................................................................................................................ Lokakṣema ................................................................................................................................................................ Luo Qing .................................................................................................................................................................... Lushan Huiyuan ...................................................................................................................................................... Mazu Daoyi............................................................................................................................................................... Mingben (see Zhongfeng Mingben) Nāgārjuna in China ................................................................................................................................................ Nenghai...................................................................................................................................................................... Ouyang Jingwu ........................................................................................................................................................ Ouyi Zhixu ................................................................................................................................................................ Paramārtha ............................................................................................................................................................... Qian Qianyi............................................................................................................................................................... Qisong ........................................................................................................................................................................ Shenhui (see Shenxiu) Shenxiu, Huineng, and Shenhui ......................................................................................................................... Śubhākarasiṃha...................................................................................................................................................... Wumen ...................................................................................................................................................................... Wuxiang (see East Asia: Musang) Wuzhu ........................................................................................................................................................................ Xiao Ziliang............................................................................................................................................................... Yinshun...................................................................................................................................................................... Yixing ......................................................................................................................................................................... Yuan Hongdao ......................................................................................................................................................... Yuanwu Keqin .......................................................................................................................................................... Zhanran ..................................................................................................................................................................... Zhi Qian ..................................................................................................................................................................... Zhili............................................................................................................................................................................. Zhixu (see Ouyang Zhixu) Zhiyi............................................................................................................................................................................ Zhongfeng Mingben............................................................................................................................................... Zhuhong .................................................................................................................................................................... 623 630 642 648 653 657 662 668 673 679 684 689 700 707 711 722 727 735 741 748 752 759 764 768 777 782 787 791 795 800 806 810 814 818 826 833 839 844 Korea: Chinul......................................................................................................................................................................... Hyujŏng ..................................................................................................................................................................... Ich’adon ..................................................................................................................................................................... For use by the Author only | © 2019 Koninklijke Brill NV 853 860 864 viii Contents Kihwa ......................................................................................................................................................................... Kim Sisŭp .................................................................................................................................................................. Kyŏnghŏ..................................................................................................................................................................... Kyunyŏ ....................................................................................................................................................................... Muhak Chach’o ........................................................................................................................................................ Musang (see East Asia) Pou .............................................................................................................................................................................. Tosŏn .......................................................................................................................................................................... Ŭich’ŏn ....................................................................................................................................................................... Ŭisang ........................................................................................................................................................................ Wŏnch’ŭk .................................................................................................................................................................. Wŏnhyo...................................................................................................................................................................... Yi Nŭnghwa .............................................................................................................................................................. 869 873 877 882 887 891 895 900 903 908 913 918 Japan: Amaterasu Ōmikami .............................................................................................................................................. Annen......................................................................................................................................................................... Benzaiten (see South and Southeast Asia: Sarasvatī) Dōgen ......................................................................................................................................................................... Dōhan......................................................................................................................................................................... Eisai (see Yōsai) Eison ........................................................................................................................................................................... En no Gyōja .............................................................................................................................................................. Enchin ........................................................................................................................................................................ Ennin .......................................................................................................................................................................... Ganjin (see East Asia: Jianzhen) Genshin ..................................................................................................................................................................... Hachiman ................................................................................................................................................................. Hakuin ....................................................................................................................................................................... Hōnen ........................................................................................................................................................................ Ikkyū Sōjun ............................................................................................................................................................... Ingen (see East Asia: Yinyuan Longqi) Ippen Chishin .......................................................................................................................................................... Jakushō ...................................................................................................................................................................... Jiun Sonja .................................................................................................................................................................. Jizō (see East Asia: Dizang) Jōjin............................................................................................................................................................................. Jōkei ............................................................................................................................................................................ Kakuban .................................................................................................................................................................... Keizan Jōkin ............................................................................................................................................................. Kōmyō ........................................................................................................................................................................ Kūkai .......................................................................................................................................................................... Kūya ............................................................................................................................................................................ Menzan Zuihō ......................................................................................................................................................... Monkan ..................................................................................................................................................................... Mugai Nyodai ........................................................................................................................................................... Mujaku Dōchū ......................................................................................................................................................... Musō Soseki .............................................................................................................................................................. Myōe ........................................................................................................................................................................... Nichiren ..................................................................................................................................................................... Nōnin.......................................................................................................................................................................... For use by the Author only | © 2019 Koninklijke Brill NV 923 930 933 941 944 951 956 961 967 971 976 980 987 991 995 998 1002 1006 1011 1016 1020 1026 1036 1041 1047 1057 1062 1066 1071 1076 1088 Contents Raiyu........................................................................................................................................................................... Ryōgen........................................................................................................................................................................ Saichō ......................................................................................................................................................................... Saigyō ......................................................................................................................................................................... Shinran....................................................................................................................................................................... Shōtoku Taishi ......................................................................................................................................................... Tenjin ......................................................................................................................................................................... Tenkai ......................................................................................................................................................................... Yōsai/Eisai ................................................................................................................................................................. Zaō .............................................................................................................................................................................. ix 1094 1097 1102 1107 1111 1117 1122 1128 1134 1139 Tibetan Cultural Sphere Atiśa and the Bka’ gdams pa Masters ................................................................................................................ Ge sar of Gling ......................................................................................................................................................... Gter ston: Tibetan Buddhist Treasure Revealers ............................................................................................. Gtsang smyon Heruka ........................................................................................................................................... Lcang skya Rol pa’i Rdo rje ................................................................................................................................... Mi la ras pa................................................................................................................................................................ The Mongolian Jebdzundamba Khutugtu Lineage ....................................................................................... Padmasambhava in Tibetan Buddhism ............................................................................................................ The Sa skya School’s Five Forefathers................................................................................................................ Spirits of the Soil, Land, and Locality in Tibet ................................................................................................ Ston pa Gshen rab: The Bön Buddha ................................................................................................................. Tibet's Crazy Yogins ................................................................................................................................................ Tsong kha pa and his Immediate Successors .................................................................................................. Worldly Protector Deities in Tibet ..................................................................................................................... 1145 1159 1165 1171 1175 1181 1191 1197 1213 1226 1233 1239 1246 1254 Appendix To Volume I: Buddhist Narrative Literature in Japan ............................................................................................................. Poetry: Japan ............................................................................................................................................................ Korean Sŏn Literature............................................................................................................................................ For use by the Author only | © 2019 Koninklijke Brill NV 1269 1286 1294 Tejaprabhā *Tejaprabhā (Chn. Chishengguang; Jpn. Shijōkō [熾盛光]) is a prominent Tathāgata in East Asia, closely associated with astral deities. His cult emerged in China in the early 9th century as an amalgamation of Buddhist practices tied to astrology, and subsequently spread. His worship functioned as an apotropaic practice against calamities believed to be instigated by the planets envisioned as sentient deities. China Tejaprabhā is conceived of as a “luminous uṣṇīṣa of the Buddha” (chishengguang foding [熾盛光 佛頂]; T. 966 [XIX] 343a26). The Sanskrit name Tejaprabhā for the Chinese chishengguang (熾盛 光) appears to be a reconstruction by Nanjio Bunyiu (Nanjō Bun’yū [南條文雄]; 1883, 222; even if this reconstruction is basically correct, one would rather expect *Tejaprabha). Although the name Tejaprabhā remains unattested in Sanskrit literature, it continues to be used for the sake of convenience. A similar and possibly related figure is *Tejorāśi (reconstructed from the transcription 諦殊羅施). This name refers to the fourth of five uṣṇīṣas of the Tathāgata (如來五頂), which represent the supreme qualities of the five wisdoms (五智) of the Tathāgata. Tejorāśi symbolizes the Tathāgata’s light removing the darkness of beings, that is, the *Tejorāśyuṣṇīṣa (guangju foding [光聚 佛頂] or huoju ding [火聚頂]), who is depicted as a male figure in the Garbhadhātu-maṇḍala (Somekawa, 2013, 110–111; T. 854 [XVIII] 167c1–2; T. 1796 [XXXIX] 633c28–29). The first securely datable example of Tejaprabhā appears in the Da shengmiao jixiang pusa shuo chuzai jiaoling falun (大聖妙吉祥菩薩說除災教令法 輪, T. 966; Disaster-Eliminating Edifying DharmaWheel as Taught by the Great and Holy Excellent Auspicious Bodhisattva). The colophon to that text gives an alternate title of Chishengguang foding (熾 盛光佛頂), and states that it is a chapter extracted from a certain Wenshu dajihui jing (文殊大集會經, Sūtra of Mañjuśrī’s Great Gathering), the identity of which is uncertain (T. 966 [XIX] 342b13–14). According to appended remarks (okugaki [奧書]) to a version of this text surveyed by the editors of the Taishō Tripiṭaka (T. 966 [XIX] 347n20), it was translated in 796, which appears to mark the earliest known evidence of the Tejaprabhā cult in China. Narrated by →Mañjuśrī Bodhisattva, it explains an apotropaic homa practice requiring recitation of dhāraṇīs and the production of a painted maṇḍala on the ground or on fabric. It is stated that this homa is to be carried out if the nation experiences a solar or lunar eclipse, or if astrologically anomalous phenomena are witnessed (such as the planets falling out of order), or if an ominous comet infringes upon the natal nakṣatra (one of 28 lunar stations) of the king (i.e. the constellation in which the Moon was positioned at birth), or if the Sun or Moon are eclipsed in one’s natal zodiac sign (benming gong [本命宮]). This concern with astrological matters is further demonstrated by the instructions to paint the navagraha (i.e. the “nine planets”: Sun, Moon, five visible planets, the ascending node of the Moon called Rāhu, and comets collectively called Ketu), 12 zodiac signs and 28 nakṣatras around the *Tejaprabhā-buddhōṣṇīṣa (chishengguang foding [熾盛光佛頂]). This principal figure is to be depicted as a Tathāgata, since the text states that “great light is emitted from the pores of [his] body” (身諸毛孔 放大光明; T. 966 [XIX] 343a26). This ritual for Tejaprabhā is prescribed in the Xiuyao yigui (宿曜儀軌, Ritual for the Asterisms, T. 1304 [XXI] 423b8–9), a collection of mantras for the purposes of dispelling harmful astrological influences. This collection is spuriously attributed to the astronomer monk →Yixing (一行; 673/683– 727). Based on the texts it cites, it likely dates to the 9th century (Lü, 2009, 348). Another 9th-century text that mentions the Tejaprabhā ritual is the Qiyao rangzai jue (七曜攘災決, Secrets of SevenPlanet Apotropaism, T. 1308 [XXI] 428b22), a Chinese Buddhist manual of astrology and astral magic dated to between 806 and 865 (Kotyk, 2017b, 39). It is clear from these texts that the cult of Tejaprabhā became deeply connected to astrology, and flourished during the 9th century. Another key text for Tejaprabhā is the Chishengguang daweide xiaozai jixiang tuoluoni jing © Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, 2019 Also available online – www.brill.com For use by the Author only | © 2019 Koninklijke Brill NV BEB, vol. II Tejaprabhā (熾盛光大威德消災吉祥陀羅尼經, Great Venerable Disaster-Eliminating Auspicious Dhāraṇī Sūtra of Tejaprabhā; T. 963), which is attributed to →Amoghavajra (不空; 705–774). Its preface, written by Xingcheng (性澄; 1265–1342) in 1322, states that it was translated by Amoghavajra, but as Liao (2003, 330, 358) points out, there is no evidence or catalogue data indicating that this is true, as the earliest witness is found in the Qisha (磧砂) canon of 1322. T. 963 is a short work, in which Śākyamuni addresses the various astral deities, and teaches the “dhāraṇī of Tejaprabhā,” which is to be recited when facing astrologically unfavorable circumstances. This text should be identified as a Chinese composition, since it refers to native Chinese “field allocation” astrology (fenye chu [分野處]; T. 963 [XIX] 337c20–25, 338a12). This reference to “field allocation” astrology indicates a composition date toward the late 9th century, in light of the Song Gaoseng zhuan (宋高僧傳, Song Biographies of Eminent Monks; T. 2061), which records that the monk Wuji (無迹; 843–925) in the Guangqi (光啟) reign era (885–888) taught a Tejaprabhā ritual that was said to be able to eliminate “disasters related to field allocation” (fenye zhi zai [分野之災]; T. 2061 [L] 898a16–18). Such a Chinese element is not seen in the earlier Tejaprabhā text T. 966. A separate version of the same text as T. 963 is the Foshuo daweide jinlun foding Chishengguang Rulai xiaochu yiqie zainan tuoluoni jing (佛說大威德金輪 佛頂熾盛光如來消除一切災難陀羅尼經, Buddha Teaches the All-Disaster-Eliminating Dhāraṇī Sūtra of the Great Virtuous Gold-Wheel *BuddhōṣṇīṣaTejaprabhā Tathāgata; T. 964). The Xu yiqiejing yinyi (續一切經音義, Supplement to the Words of All the Sūtras and Their Meanings; T. 2129), a Buddhist glossary of terms with pronunciations and glosses compiled by the monk Xilin (希麟; d.u.) around 987, cites a similar title, Zuisheng wubi daweide jinlun foding Chishengguang tuoluoni jing (最勝無比大威德金輪 佛頂熾盛光陀羅尼經, Supreme Incomparable Great Virtuous Gold-Wheel Buddhōṣṇīṣa-Tejaprabhā Dhāraṇī Sūtra, T. 2129 [LIV] 962b22–23). The terms defined in the glossary appear to be derived from T. 963 or T. 964. The original text behind these two texts was therefore in wide circulation by the time Xilin was writing. A version of this dhāraṇī practice is also appended to the Beidou qixing humo fa (北斗七星 護摩法, Homa Ritual for the Seven Stars of the Big Dipper, T. 1310), a manual of astral magic attributed to Yixing comprising Indian and Daoist elements, which indicates that this practice was continually 613 reproduced and increasingly popular, especially within the evolving tradition of Chinese astral magic. The development of a Buddhist figure to dispel harmful astral influences was likely motivated by the popularization of foreign astrology in China during the late Tang, and the subsequent fears such beliefs produced. Astral magic in the late Tang was designed to counteract the negative influence of the nine planets (the navagraha), which strongly suggests Iranian influences (Kotyk, 2017b, 48–55). This is the context in which the Tejaprabhā cult and its iconography developed. Early illustrations of Tejaprabhā in China appear during the late Tang and early Song (late 9th to late 10th cents.). One of the earliest visual depictions of Tejaprabhā is found in a painting from Dunhuang (Stein no. Ch.liv.007) titled “Tejaprabhā Buddha and the Five Planets” (熾盛光佛并五星圖), produced by Zhang Huaixing (張淮興; d.u.) in 897. Here, Tejaprabhā rides an ox cart (Yu, 2011, 187). Another Tejaprabhā dhāraṇī, Chishengguang Fo daweide xiaozai jixiang tuoluoni jing (熾盛光佛大威 德銷災吉祥陀羅尼經), printed in China in 972 and stored at Ue no Bō (上之坊) in Nara (奈良), displays Tejaprabhā riding an ox cart, surrounded by the various astral deities (Su, 2011, 128). Extant specimens usually depict Tejaprabhā in the presence of the planets in anthropomorphic forms based on Iranian, rather than Indian, motifs (Kotyk, 2017a). Starting in the Northern Song period, the two “planets” of Yuebei (月孛) and Ziqi (紫炁), originally introduced from abroad between 785–805, were depicted in representations of Tejaprabhā (Liao, 2004–04, 72–74). Based on the aforementioned textual sources, the planets should be interpreted as beings placated by Tejaprabhā, rather than as his attendants or guardians. Tejaprabhā was a prominent figure within the Chinese Buddhist pantheon from the Song to the Ming. The Tiantai monk Zunshi (遵式; 964–1032) compiled the Chishengguang daochang niansong yi (熾盛光道場念誦儀, Ritual for the Altar and Recitation of Tejaprabhā, T. 1951), and various versions of the aforementioned Tejaprabhā dhāraṇī were printed until the Ming dynasty (Liao, 2015). Tangut Xixia and Korea The Tangut state was profoundly interested in astronomy and astrology, and the Tangut Tripiṭaka included sūtras dedicated to Tejaprabhā For use by the Author only | © 2019 Koninklijke Brill NV 614 Tejaprabhā (Samosyuk, 1997/1998, 354). A recension of the Tejaprabhā dhāraṇī was translated into Tangut (An, 2014). Several images dating to the 12th to 14th centuries from Khara-Khoto, a city in Tangut Xixia, show Tejaprabhā surrounded by the planetary deities (items #ХХ–2424, 2425, 2426, 2428, 2430, and 2431 of the State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, available online [see Bibliography for URL] and reproduced in Samosyuk, 1997/1998, 364–368). Astrology and Tejaprabhā rituals were widely practiced throughout the Koryŏ (高麗) dynasty (918–1392) (Sørensen, 2007, 99–101). The basis of the apotropaic court rituals centered on Tejaprabhā included the aforementioned T. 964 (Sørensen, 2010, 11–12). Tejaprabhā also makes a brief appearance in the legend of the founding of the Koryŏ state (Rogers, 1982, 8–9), which indicates the extent of the popularity of his cult in Koryŏ. The Museum of Fine Arts (Boston) possesses a late 14th-century Koryŏ dynasty painting (11.4001) titled “The Descent of Tejaprabha Buddha.” Japan The Tejaprabhā cult was introduced into Japan in the mid-9th century, as can be seen from a range of evidence. The catalogue of items brought back from China by the Tendai monk →Ennin (圓仁; 794–864, returned to Japan in 847), the Nittō shin gu shōgyō mokuroku (入唐新求聖教目錄; T. 2167), includes a “Tejaprabhā altar diagram” (Chisheng tan yang [熾 盛壇樣]) in one fascicle (T. 2167 [LV] 1084c8). The Asaba shō (阿娑縛抄), a 13th-century Tendai compendium of esoteric practice and lore, records that in 849, Ennin established a Tejaprabhā practice at Sōji-in (總持院; T. 3190 [XCIV] 42a6–9). The Shingon monk Shūei (宗叡; 809–884), who returned to Japan in 865, brought back with him the aforementioned maṇḍala ritual (T. 966), as well as a *Tejaprabhābuddhōṣṇīṣa-maṇḍala (Chisheng Foding mantuluo [熾盛佛頂曼荼羅]; T. 2174A [LV] 1108b12–1111a27). According to the Asaba shō, which states that the Tejaprabhā ritual is a secret of the Tendai school, the longform version of the Tejaprabhā ritual was, however, primarily a part of Tendai ritual, starting in the early Heian period (T. 3190 [XCIV]24c3–5). Another theory is found in the Gyōrin shō (行林 抄), where the author, Jōnen (靜然; d.u.), states that T. 963 was brought to Japan by a Chinese merchant in 907 (T. 2409 [LXXVI] 84b21–22). This shorter text may have been widely circulated, in contrast to the long form ritual practiced within Tendai. With respect to the long form ritual, fascicles 58–59 of the Asaba shō specifically explain the procedure for worshipping Tejaprabhā, and its early history in Japan. The ritual, which draws from various Chinese Buddhist texts, and is designed to placate astral deities, requires a complex altar in a specific arrangement, a Tejaprabhā maṇḍala, homa offerings, and mantras. Image plate no. 13 of fascicle 58 of the Asaba shō appears to be the maṇḍala prescribed in T. 966. The accompanying inscription states that the maṇḍala in the Asaba shō was created in 1140 based on an earlier version from the Tō-in (唐院), indicating that T. 966’s maṇḍala was faithfully preserved during the Heian period. Other medieval depictions of Tejaprabhā include the Kuyōtō zuzō (九曜等圖像, T. 3157 [XCII] 738), produced in 1164, and stored at Tōji (東寺) in Kyoto. It includes a line drawing of Tejaprabhā as a Tathāgata aflame, standing atop two lotuses, and holding a bowl and monk’s staff. This standing representation is unknown among Chinese sources, but appears to be based on depictions of Yaoshi Rulai (藥師如來), that is, Bhaiṣajyaguru (Su, 2011, 114–117). This development suggests that icons of Tejaprabhā continued to undergo innovations through this period. Bibliography *Specimens from the State Hermitage Museum may be viewed online: http://hermitagemuseum.org. An Ya (安婭), 2014. “Xixiawen yiben Chishengguang Rulai tuoluoni jing kaoshi” (西夏文譯本《熾盛光如來陀羅 尼經》考釋), Ningxia shehui kexue 182/1, 108–114. Kotyk, J., 2017a. “Astrological Iconography of Planetary Deities in Tang China: Near Eastern and Indian Icons in Chinese Buddhism,” JCBS 30, 33–88. Kotyk, J., 2017b. “Iranian Elements in Late-Tang Buddhist Astrology,” AM 30/1, 25–58. Liao Yang (廖暘), 2015. “Daweide Chishengguang Rulai jixiang tuoluoni jing benwen yanjiu” (《大威德熾盛 光如來吉祥陀羅尼經》本文研究), Dunhuang yanjiu 152/4, 64–72. Liao Yang (廖暘), 2004–04. “Chishengguang Fo goutu zhong xingyao de yanbian” (熾盛光佛構圖中星曜的 演變), Dunhuang yanjiu 86, 71–79. Liao Yang (廖暘), 2003. “Chishengguang Fo zaikao” (熾盛 光佛再考), Yishu shi yanjiu 5, 329–369. Lü Jianfu (呂建福), 2009. Mijiao lunkao (密教論考), Taipei: Kongting Shuyuan. For use by the Author only | © 2019 Koninklijke Brill NV Tejaprabhā McCoy, M., 2017. “Astral Visuality in the Chinese and Inner Asian Cult of Tejaprabhā Buddha, ca. 900-1300 AD.” diss., University of California Berkeley. Nanjio, Bunyiu, 1883. A Catalogue of the Chinese Translation of the Buddhist Tripitaka: The Sacred Canon of the Buddhists in China and Japan, Oxford: Clarendon Press. Rogers, M.C., 1982. “P’yŏnnyŏn T’ongnok: The Foundation Legend of the Koryŏ State,” Journal of Korean Studies 4/1, 3–72. Samosyuk, K., 1997/98. “The Planet Cult in the Tangut State of Xi Xia: The Khara Khoto Collection, State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg,” Silk Road Art and Archaeology 5, 353–368. Somekawa Eisuke (染川英輔), 2013. Mandara zuten (曼荼羅圖典), Tokyo: Daihōrinkaku. 615 Sørensen, H.H., 2010. “Worshipping the Cosmos: Tejaprabhā Rituals under the Koryŏ,” International Journal of Buddhist Thought & Culture 15, 7–26. 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