The “transience of things” in Vajrayana Buddhist visual culture Rui Oliveira Lopes rui.o.lopes@gmail.com Abstract Resumo The idea of impermanence (anitya) is known as a critical concept found in Buddhism, regarded as one of the three marks of existence (trilaksana), along with suffering (duhkha) and non-self or self-annihilation (anātman). Buddha propagated the law of dependent arising (pratītyasamutpāda), which presents the idea that any phenomena arise in dependence on outer conditions and because of the natural flow of these conditions. Therefore, no worldly phenomena have a permanent essence or existence. The transience of all things deals with the awareness to ephemera, like ageing, illness, death, and rebirth, admitting that all conditioned things are in a constant state of flux. The notion that time is an illusion has been discussed more recently by physicists such as Julian Barbour, Carlo Rovelli, among others. However, this is a well-known concept in religious thought extant not only in Dharmic religions but also in Abrahamic and Taoic religions. Religious thought demonstrates different perspectives toward the impermanent nature of life, manifested in the sacred scriptures, in the classical spiritual literature, as well as in the religious arts. This paper examines the representation of the doctrines of impermanence and momentariness in Vajrayana Buddhist visual culture as a form of self-expression of the transient nature of the worldly existence. Ancient art treatises deal with the subject of artistic creativity as a form of self-expression and a means by which one could achieve another state of mind, transcending his human temporal condition. Therefore, the act of creating an image is often considered a process of visualisation to pursuit spiritual edification and meditation, leading to a way of living or a form of spiritual liberation. This paper argues that the religious concept of impermanence is represented in Buddhist visual culture in two ways: first, by the mnemonic function of the image as a reminder of our transient condition, through expressions of momentaneous existence, material detachment and emptiness; and second, by the intrinsic tempos involved in the creation of images and ritual implements, which emulates the constant state of flux of all conditioned things. A ideia de impermanência (anitya) é um conceito fundamental no Budismo, que se define como uma das três evidências de existência (trilaksana), juntamente com sofrimento (duhkha) e o não-ser ou niilismo do eu (anātman). O Buda difundiu a lei da originação dependente (pratītyasamutpāda), que essencialmente apresenta a ideia de que qualquer fenómeno emerge em dependência de condições exteriores e como resultado da dinâmica natural dessas condições. Consequentemente, qualquer fenómeno mundano é inibido de essência ou existência permanente. A natureza transitória de todas as coisas relaciona-se intrinsecamente com o efémero,o envelhecimento,a doença,a morte e o renascimento, admitindo-se que todas as coisas condicionadas se encontram num estado de constante fluxo. A noção de que o tempo é, na verdade, uma ilusão tem sido amplamente discutida por fisicos como Julian Barbour, Carlo Roseli, e outros. Contudo, a ilusão do tempo é conceito central no pensamento religioso não apenas entre as religiões Dármicas, mas também nas religiões Abraâmicas e Taoicas. O pensamento religioso evidencia perspectivas distintas sobre a natureza impermanente da vida, tanto nos textos sagrados como na literatura espiritual e nas artes religiosas. Este texto examina a representação das doutrinas da impermanência e momentaneidade na cultural visual do Budismo Vajrayana como uma forma de auto-expressão e meditação na essência transitória das coisas mundanas. Antigos tratados de arte exploram estas praticas artísticas como uma forma de auto-expressão e como um método ritualístico através do qual o praticante pretende atingir um elevado estado psíquico, transcendendo a sua condição humana temporal. Consequentemente, o acto de criar uma imagem, como resultado de uma performance ritual, é, em si, um processo de visualização no sentido de um estado meditativo e de edificação espiritual, conducente a uma outra forma de existência e liberação. Este texto, propõe que o conceito teológico de impermanência é representado na cultura visual Budista de duas formas: primeiro, através de uma função didática mnemônica da imagem, trazendo à memória a nossa condição transitória, através de expressões de existência momentânea, desapego material e vazio; e, em segundo, através de tempos intrínsecos envolvidos no processo de criação de imagens e implementos rituais que emulam o estado constante de fluxo de todas as coisas condicionadas. Keywords Tempo, Impermanência, Momentaneidade, Roda da Vida, Kapala, Visualização, Tantra Palavras-chave Time, Ompermanence, Momentariness, Wheel of life, Mandala, Kapala, Visualisation, Tantra 107 THE “TRANSIENCE OF THINGS” IN VAJRAYANA BUDDHIST VISUAL CULTURE | RUI OLIVEIRA LOPES Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences, Universiti Brunei Darussalam (UBD) CO N VO CA RT E N . º 8 — A RT E E T E M P O : T E M P O, C U LT U R A E C R I AÇÃO A RT Í ST I CA Impermanence: on time and temporality in Buddhist doctrine André Bareau states that “ever since its origin, the Buddhist doctrine is concerned with the problem of time” (Bareau 1957). In Buddhist philosophy, impermanence (anitya)1 refers to the idea that all conditioned things are temporary, without substance, continually changing, and in a continuous state of flux. Because of this impermanence and transient nature of all conditioned things, individuals tend to ignore it and develop attachment, which leads to suffering (duhkha) that is innate in the repeated cycle of existence (birth, ageing, death, rebirth, and death again), known as samsāra. It is through careful examination and cultivation of interior experience that one may achieve a state of consciousness realising that there is no real “I” or “Self” (anātman). In Buddhism, Self is a mere construction of our mind based on a collection of constantly changing physical and mental experiences and emotions. It is only through a full understanding, realisation, and acceptance of these three marks of existence that one can end suffering and the continuous cycle of momentaneous existence. This is the path leading to liberation (moksa) and enlightenment (nirvāna). The Buddhist doctrine of momentariness and impermanence is not about time itself, but rather about existence within time. All things are impermanent and only exist within a limited duration of time. It is a phenomenon of momentary existence which repeats through the cycle of birth and rebirth, and it is atomized into a succession of moments or instants (ksana) in continuous change (Gupta 1980; Craig 1998). Kelsang Gyatso, an eminent monk of the Gelugpa tradition of Tibetan Buddhism, states that there are two kinds of impermanence: gross and subtle impermanence. Gross impermanence is more visible and easily recognisable in all sentient beings as well as in all inanimate things. Ageing and death, as well as the loss of freshness of flowers in a vase, the change of landscape after a forest fire, or the decay of a building, are vivid examples of the transient nature of things and their existence within time (Gyatso 1984). Meditating on impermanence and the transient nature of everything, including ourselves, is the path that will lead to the end of suffering and, as a result, to solve temporary problems. In its turn, subtle impermanence requires a higher level of awareness to the subtle changes in ourselves as well as in all the other things around us that are in a constant flux of change. It was through the meditation of impermanence that Siddhārtha Gautama attained enlightenment. Since his awakening from ignorance about the truth, his followers benefit from what is known as the Three Jewels or Refuges (triratna): the Buddha, as the fully enlightened one; the dharma, the teachings of the Buddha, and the samgha, his followers — which refers not only to the Buddhist monastic community (monks and nuns) but also considers 108 Fig. 1 Wheel of Life (bhāvacakka), Pigments on cloth, 19th century, 115 x 76 cm. Rubin Museum of Art. Accession number: C2006.66.131, HAR78. 109 THE “TRANSIENCE OF THINGS” IN VAJRAYANA BUDDHIST VISUAL CULTURE | RUI OLIVEIRA LOPES the interrelation between them and the broader Buddhist community constituted of lay people who have taken the “refuges” and embraced Buddhism (Gombrich 1996; Harvey 2013). As Harvey (2013) explains, “refuge” is not a place to hide, but rather a process of meditation which purifies, uplifts, and strengthens the heart and mind. Meditation on the Buddha, both the historical buddha, Siddhārtha Gautama, and all the other past and future Buddhas, relates with the consciousness of the rediscovery of the dharma and the principle of awakening as a supreme form of attainment (siddhi). Meditation on dharma is to follow the path of the Middle Way, a term used to describe the Noble Eightfold Path rediscovered by the historical Buddha, leading to liberation and the end of impermanence and suffering. Finally, samgha (Buddhist community) is related to the practice of the right way of life according to individual choices between monastic or lay Buddhist path and the karmic correlation between both. In many Buddhist traditions, it is generally accepted that those who choose a monastic life tend to be in a better position and suitable environment to cultivate a state of complete detachment and attain liberation and enlightenment. However, that does not necessarily mean that only Buddhist monks will achieve nirvāna and those who live a secular life will not. The essence of Buddha’s teachings is principally concerned with the problem of time — impermanence — as a soteriological system. His teachings are abridged in the Four Noble Truths (catvāri āryasatyāni), which are the principles that he came to understand and be aware of while meditating under the bodhi tree: the truth of suffering (duhkha); the truth of the origin of suffering (pratītyasamutpāda); the truth of the cessation of suffering (nirodha); and the truth of the path to the cessation of suffering (mārga). These truths represent the awakening of the Buddha and his rediscovery of the path CO N VO CA RT E N . º 8 — A RT E E T E M P O : T E M P O, C U LT U R A E C R I AÇÃO A RT Í ST I CA Fig. 2 Yamāntaka, Pigments on cloth, 18th century, 42 x 27 cm. Shelley & Donald Rubin Collection. Accession number: P1994.10.13. 110 of liberation and the end of temporal existence for his followers. These philosophical concepts over the nature of time and momentariness of all things, as a gradual development of the teaching of impermanence, became especially critical in the Theravāda tradition, the oldest remaining Buddhist school, currently predominant in Southeast Asia (Burma, Laos, Thailand, Cambodia and Sri Lanka) (Bareau 1957; Miyamoto 1959; Prasad 1988) as well as in the Vajrayana tradition in Tibet. In the Mahāyāna tradition, the discussion of time is mostly concerned with the definition of three times: past; present; and future. The old Dārstāntika school in the Mahāyāna tradition argues that the three times are permanent, while the conditioned things within it (all sentient beings and inanimate things) are impermanent. The Mahāyāna sutras state that the Buddha as an Enlightened One was able to understand the nature and the essence of the three times and, consequently, transcend temporal existence (Lancaster 1974). The cognition of the three times is transcendent and beyond the reach of the ordinary man in his current state of mind and awareness. The dispute about the notions of time (impermanence) and temporality (eternity) among the early schools of Buddhism as an ontological system is at the core of the significant different viewpoints of Buddhist traditions (Bareau 1957; Inada 1974; Kalupahana 1974; Stambaugh 1990). For instance, Tibetan Buddhism teaches about four dimensions of time: past, present, future and the timeless time. While the three times are impermanent, the timeless time is permanent (Duckworth 2019). On the other hand, in Zen Buddhism, the Japanese monk Dōgen Zenji discussed the nature of time and being, conceiving the definition of being-time ujī in which there is an intrinsic a necessary causal relation between time and being (Stambaugh 1990; Roberts 2018). Nevertheless, these schools agreed with the fundamental precepts of Buddhism — Impermanence, Four Fig. 3 Yamāntaka, Pigments on cloth, 18th century. Private collection (In catalogue of the exhibition Quintessence of Returning Tibetan Cultural Relics from Overseas. Beijing, China, July 2012). 111 THE “TRANSIENCE OF THINGS” IN VAJRAYANA BUDDHIST VISUAL CULTURE | RUI OLIVEIRA LOPES Noble Truths, Dependent Origination, and NonSelf2 — as the central Buddhist doctrines. The Buddhist concept of impermanence is necessarily related to the principle of detachment (naiskramya), also referred in Buddhism as non-attachment or renunciation. In the Great Sutra on the Ending of Craving, the Buddha teaches that we experience suffering because we tend to feel desire and craving for worldly things and emotions, which are impermanent. As a solution, the first practice of the Noble Eightfold Path is the renunciation as “right intention” (samyaksamādhi). The ultimate expressions of detachment and renunciation are not necessarily the cultivation of poverty and renunciation to material comfort, but rather the renouncement to the sentiment of grasping. It is this sentiment of grasping that causes material and mental attachment to samsāra (cyclic mundane existence) and obstructs the way to liberation. To attain nirvāna, the Buddha exhorted his followers to develop renunciation as a means of eliminating attachment to the pleasures of the senses and cultivate the path of the right intention through morality, concentration, and wisdom (Bushwell and Lopez 1976). In this context, while morality is more linked to the desires of the body and the speech, concentration and wisdom are entirely focused in the constant awareness and meditation on our impermanent condition or existence in a limited time. As in many religious traditions, the central teachings of Buddhism around the doctrine of impermanence had a tremendous impact on visual culture and aesthetics. Buddhist rituals and meditation practices urged the production of material culture and the development of representation systems used as a process of visualisation for inner development. This paper examines the modes of visual representation of the concepts of impermanence, transience, ephemera, and cycle in Buddhist visual culture, from the evident expressions of meditation on CO N VO CA RT E N . º 8 — A RT E E T E M P O : T E M P O, C U LT U R A E C R I AÇÃO A RT Í ST I CA impermanence through the manufacture of objects made of skulls and human bones in Tantric Buddhism, the representation of cycles, personifications of time and death, and the Tibetan tradition of creation and destruction of sand mandalas. Time: the cosmic cycle of life, death, and rebirth The concept of cyclical patterns of existence is widely represented in Buddhist myths as well as in its visual culture and iconography. The complexity of Buddhist cosmology is often explained through the construction of visual diagrams representing the concepts of the universe and the cosmic cycle of life, death and reincarnation (samsāra) with concerning to human suffering and existence. Samsāra means “round” or “circle” that is governed by the principles of causality (karma). Such diagrams, symbolically representing the samsāra are known as bhāvacakka (wheel of life) or samsāracakka (wheel of samsāra) and are often found in Tibetan Buddhist visual culture (Fig. 1). The wheel is an archetype of motion, continuity, and change, represented as a mimesis of the phenomenal universe. It is an archaic solar symbol related to the notion of time within a timeless eternity — a primordial sacred existence (Jung 1969). When discussing the Indian symbols of time and eternity, Mircea Eliade distinguished a mythic or sacred time which is qualitatively distinct from profane time. While the sacred time is a-temporal and transcendental, the profane time is measurable, impermanent, chronological, and “historical” (Eliade 1961). The wheel of life is a cosmological diagram that synthesises Buddhist view of the universe and the teachings about the endless cycle of life, the principles of causality, different realms of existence, and the possibility of liberation. The earliest representation of the wheel of life is found in the Ajanta Caves complex in India, although it became one of the most distinctive subjects in Himalayan murals and roll paintings on cotton, known as thangka (Haldar 1950; Talim 2006). According to several early Indian texts, Buddha himself is the creator of the Wheel of Life and instructed his disciples to paint it in the entrance of Buddhist monasteries for the instruction of the laity and illiterate (Bushwell and Lopez 1976; Fremantle 2001). As a cosmological diagram, the representation of the Wheel of Life is systematically accurate in the hierarchy of the elements included in the pictorial composition, remaining generally unchangeable since the 5th century. Yama, the wrathful God of Death, holds the circle of samsāra containing the three mental poisons (trivisa), the principles of causality (karma), the six realms of existence of possible rebirth (samsāra), and the twelve nidānas (dvādaśanidānāni), also known as the twelve links of dependent origination, causing consciousness to be trapped in samsāra. Yama, represented with three eyes and a crown of skulls, clutches the Wheel of Life with both hands and both feet, ready to devour life and everything existing in the samsāra. Yama symbolises the impermanence of all sentient things trapped in eternal 112 Fig. 4 Virūpa stopping the Sun, Pigment on cloth, 17th century. Rubin Museum of Art. 113 THE “TRANSIENCE OF THINGS” IN VAJRAYANA BUDDHIST VISUAL CULTURE | RUI OLIVEIRA LOPES suffering due to their attachment and ignorance of the nature of the universe. Occasionally, Māra, the “Maker of Death” and the tempter of Buddha, devoted to preventing him from achieving liberation from the cycle of birth and death, is represented holding the Wheel of Life. Māra is described as the personification of the antagonistic forces to enlightenment. The Wheel of Life is divided into four circular layers. The hub, in the centre of the composition, contains the three poisons of delusion or ignorance (mohagginā), aggression or aversion (dosagginā), and desire or attachment (rāgagginā), respectively represented by a pig, a snake, and a bird. In Buddhism, these three poisons or fires are primary causes that keep all sentient beings trapped in samsāra. Positioned in a circular formation, the snake usually comes out of the pig’s mouth and the bird from the snake’s mouth, as it is said that ignorance leads to aversion and attachment. Again, the circular disposition of these three animals indicates the endless circle in which humans are trapped. In the Ādittapariyāya Sūtra (Fire Sermon), the Buddha refers to the three fires as a process of detachment from the five senses of mind and body that lead to feeling and craving. He describes the five senses as being “burning” with delusion, aggression, and desire, determining all causal relations and a duality between good and bad, affecting the possibilities of rebirth. A conscious disciple is aware of these fires and becomes disenchanted, dispassionate, and consequently, released from suffering3. The second layer, divided into two half-circles, represents karma. One half, with a white background, depicts people in a lively celebration towards an ascending direction, while the other half, with a black background, depicts people subjected to suffering, chained and dragged by demons towards a descending direction. The ascending/descending direction of the people in the karmic layer together with CO N VO CA RT E N . º 8 — A RT E E T E M P O : T E M P O, C U LT U R A E C R I AÇÃO A RT Í ST I CA Fig. 5 Virūpa stopping the Sun, Bronze. Private Collection. Fig. 6 Mahasiddha (Skull cup bearer), Brass with pigment, 17th century, 12 x 7,6 x 5,7 cm. Metropolitan Museum of Art. Accession number: 2004.81. 114 the contrasting light/dark background is generally interpreted as a path of bliss opposed to a path of misfortune. This layer represents the last stage of death and rebirth and the consequent higher or lower rebirth condition based on the result of their actions and inner intentions (cetanā). The Buddha defined karma as intention, contrasting to Brahmin ritualism and shifting the focus from the physical action to the psychological process (Gombrich 1996). In the Nibbedhika Sūtra (Penetrative Explanation), the Buddha explains that karma is more than just physical actions as it also involves the Buddhist notions of right speech and right mindfulness: “Intention, I tell you, is kamma. Intending, one does kamma by way of body, speech, & intellect”4. He further indicated which are the possibilities of rebirth according to karma: “And what is the diversity in kamma? There is kamma to be experienced in hell, kamma to be experienced in the realm of common animals, kamma to be experienced in the realm of the hungry shades [ghosts], kamma to be experienced in the human world, kamma to be experienced in the world of the devas. This is called the diversity in kamma”. These are represented in the third layer of the Wheel of Life. At last, Buddha explains that the practice of the eightfold path leads to the cessation of karma and the endless cycle of rebirth. The third layer depicts the six realms of rebirths, typically divided into two groups. The higher realms of divinities (deva), demigods (asura), and humans (manusya) are usually positioned in the top half of the wheel, while the lower realms of animals (tiryagyoni), hungry ghosts (preta), and hell (nāraka) are positioned in the bottom half. Frequently, the third layer represents only five realms, excluding the realm of demigods or merging it with the realm of divinities as they are very similar. We can see contrasting examples in Fig. 1 and Fig. 2. The asuras are ranked between the gods and humans. Because of their jealousy of the good fortunes of 115 THE “TRANSIENCE OF THINGS” IN VAJRAYANA BUDDHIST VISUAL CULTURE | RUI OLIVEIRA LOPES the divinities, they were expelled from the Heaven by Indra. As a result, the asura continues to engage in warfare against the devas, with the hope to regain their place in the heavens. Occasionally, the Wheel of Life represents the quarrel of the asura, attempting to recover their heavenly privilege (Fig. 1). In this painting, the artist rigorously depicted a discontinuous line as a moralistic expression to indicate the unfortunate rebirth of those who belonged to the highest realm, demonstrating that even those in the highest plane of existence are subjected to karma. The realm of humans is among the blissful forms of rebirth as they do not experience suffering as heavily as in other realms. Additionally, humans are in a privileged position to achieve enlightenment. Generally positioned in the bottom half of the wheel, the lower realms represent those who experience substantial suffering as a result of bad karma. In pictorial representations of the wheel of life, the animal realm does not usually portray any animals experiencing any form of suffering, as its generally acknowledged that animals are exploited by humans and do not have the self-awareness that is needed to achieve liberation. On the contrary, the hell realm, traditionally positioned at the bottom centre, is populated with people experiencing horrible tortures in the most varied ways. The punishments are usually presided by Yama, as the king of hell and the one who decides the decease’s destination upon death. The realm of hell (nāraka) is, in fact, closer to purgatory as the punishment is not eternal, but only temporary until the bad karma is worked off (Bushwell and Lopez 1976). Demons are often represented with wrathful expressions, surrounded by garlands of fire and easily identified by their ultramarine blue or black skin colour, echoing the attributes of Yama. Frequently, paintings of the Wheel of Life depict Maudgalyāyana, one of the Buddha’s closest disciples, who became known for his filial piety in popular literature, describing his efforts to rescue his mother from the realm of hell. Advised by the Buddha, Maudgalyāyana made merits on behalf of his mother, helping her to be reborn in a better condition (Teiser 2004, 2008). At the bottom right of the Wheel of Life is the hungry ghosts (preta) realm, which depicts supernatural beings under a higher level of suffering than that of humans. Pretas are said to have been born in such an unfortunate condition as a consequence of their greed and avarice, as well as deceitful and corrupted behaviour during their previous life. They are traditionally represented as human-like having distended abdomens and emaciated bodies as they are unable to eat or drink, despite their voracious appetite because they have an extremely thin neck and tiny mouth. In Zen and Mahāyāna Buddhism, there are several rituals to ease the suffering of hungry ghosts. Communities organise special festivities to present offerings to hungry ghosts and help them to achieve a better condition of rebirth. People rebirth in the realm of hungry ghosts because of their greed, envy, and jealousy. The six realms of rebirth and temporary existence are interrelated by karma the cause and effect of actions (Padmasambhava 1987). The length of time or life span in CO N VO CA RT E N . º 8 — A RT E E T E M P O : T E M P O, C U LT U R A E C R I AÇÃO A RT Í ST I CA each of these realms are not necessarily the same. Those in the lower realms remain in that condition for much more extended periods. Regardless of this separation of realms determined by the endless cycle of rebirth, the human realm, for instance, is also interlinked with other realms through their life experience and the karmic effects in the present life (ditthadhammavedaniya). A human will momentously experience the lower states when greedy, hateful or ignorant, or can momentously experience the higher states when happy, aware or detached from emotions. The fourth layer and outer rim represent the twelve nidānas (dvādaśanidānāni), also known as the twelve links of dependent origination which represent a samsāric causal chain reaction - pratityasamutpada (“interdependent origination”) — that is responsible for the endless cycle of rebirth. Along the outer edge, the twelve links of dependent origination symbolize how consciousness becomes trapped in samsāra under the power of ignorance, which leads to actions with karmic repercussions, the sensual desires of the body and mind, mental grasping at pleasures and existence, and ultimately birth, old age, and death. Nidānas means “fetters” in this causal chain that one needs to be aware of and avoid to achieve liberation from samsāra. The twelve nidānas are: ignorance (avidyā); volitional formations (samskāra); consciousness (vijñāna); name and form (nāmarūpa); the six senses (sadāyatana); physical contact (sparśa); feeling (vedanā); craving (trsna); grasping (upādāna); becoming (bhava); being born (jāti); and ageing and death (jarāmarana). The iconography of the twelve nidānas is generally standardized with minor variations (Hartmann 1940). Conventionally, a blindman represents ignorance as the main fetter keeping us trapped in our impermanent condition; a potter represents our volitions in the way we mould ourselves through our actions; the curiosity a man gazing into the sky or a monkey hanging on a tree or a rooftop represents our consciousness or sense of discernment; two men in a boat represent name and form as the physical and non-physical components of a person’s experience; a house or houses with a total of six windows represents the six senses as the means through which we experience the world and are attached to the pleasures of life; a couple in sexual intercourse represents sensory contact which will lead to the six senses; a man piercing his eye with an arrow represents the pleasant and unpleasant sensations that will lead to craving; a man receiving a drink or food represents the sense of craving which leads to pain; a monkey picking fruit represents our greedy behaviour; a pregnant woman represents becoming or our emotional tendencies which will lead to the arising of the sense of self; a woman giving birth represents the karmic actions that lead to rebirth; a wrapped corpse being carried represents death. In the Paticca-samuppada-vibhanga Sūtra, the Buddha addresses to the twelve causative links of dependent origination explaining how they give rise the sense of self leading to suffering: 116 At last, the surroundings of the Wheel of Life often represents the historical Buddha, Śākyamuni, and other manifestations of Buddha, such as Maitreya and Avalokiteśvara as soteriological possibilities to escape from the endless cycle of death and rebirth (Schmid 2008). The textual illustration of the Wheel of Life (bhavacakra) is one of the most relevant themes in Buddhist visual culture as it portrays the totality of Buddhist doctrine concerning the samsāra, which deals with the notions of temporality and eternity — time (profane) and a greater time (sacred). The wheel itself stands as a metaphor for the repeating cycles of momentariness and the constancy within a change of condition. The circularity of the wheel relates to the delimitation of time and space — impermanent/mundane as opposite to timeless/transcendent. Tibetan thangkas and murals at the entrance of monasteries and temples feature the wheel of life not only as a chart of moral and cosmological samsāric paths determined by a chain of causations but mostly as a pedagogical visual reference to abolish the three main factors that keep humans trapped in this endless impermanent condition: delusion, hatred and greed. As a result, most depictions of the Wheel of Life are not concerned with aesthetic values, but rather with its didactic function and canonical illustration. Yama/Yamāntaka: abolishing time In the context of the representation of time as an endless cycle of death and rebirth, another popular theme is the portrayal of Yama, the Lord of the Underworld, who is the personification of impermanence. As mentioned above, Yama is the one devouring life while holding the wheel of samsāra, standing as a metaphor of impermanence and the ultimate obstacle to enlightenment. As such, Yama is also related to the signs of momentariness, specifically birth, old age, sickness, suffering, and death. Yama is traditionally represented as a wrathful figure with a predominant belly and blue skin riding a buffalo. He holds a skull cup filled with blood or a lasso in his left hand and a vajra or a bone 117 THE “TRANSIENCE OF THINGS” IN VAJRAYANA BUDDHIST VISUAL CULTURE | RUI OLIVEIRA LOPES “And what is dependent co-arising? From ignorance as a requisite condition come fabrications. From fabrications as a requisite condition comes consciousness. From consciousness as a requisite condition comes name&-form. From name-&-form as a requisite condition come the six sense media. From the six sense, media as a requisite condition comes contact. From contact as a requisite condition comes feeling. From feeling as a requisite condition comes craving. From craving as a requisite condition comes clinging/sustenance. From clinging/sustenance as a requisite condition comes becoming. From becoming as a requisite condition comes birth. From birth as a requisite condition, then ageing & death, sorrow, lamentation, pain, distress, & despair come into play. Such is the origination of this entire mass of stress & suffering.”5 CO N VO CA RT E N . º 8 — A RT E E T E M P O : T E M P O, C U LT U R A E C R I AÇÃO A RT Í ST I CA mace in his right hand. In Abhidharma school of Theravāda Buddhism, Yama is a wrathful god (krodha-vighnantaka, often depicted as a judge in the hell realm, presiding the infernal bureaucracy of punishment and subterraneous prisons, which became very popular in Chinese visual culture (Bushwell and Lopez 1976) (Fig. 3). Despite this negative and evil representation, Yama is still considered as one of the eight dharmapāla (protector of dharma — Buddha’s teachings), upper supernatural beings understood to be protectors of Buddhism and, consequently, a defender of dharma (Linrothe 1999). It seems that Yama stands simultaneously in between impermanence and the path to a timeless existence, as the idea of and meditation on death is a reminder to humans’ impermanent condition conducive to awareness and, ultimately, to liberation. However, in Vajrayana Buddhism in Tibet and Nepal, Yama is often and most commonly represented in association with its antithetical manifestation, Yamāntaka, the destroyer of Yama. Yamāntaka is generally identified as a wrathful manifestation of Mañjuśrī, a bodhisattva in the Mahāyāna tradition, but a tantric deity in Vajrayana Buddhism, particularly among the Sakya, Kagyu and Gelug traditions. Tibetan manuscripts describe that one day Yama was ravaging around Tibet and they appealed to Mañjuśrī to protect them and to assume the form of Yamāntaka, and he destroyed Yama and all evil spirits. The imagery of Yamāntaka is essential in the rituals and tantric practice in Vajrayana Buddhism as it is one of the three primary religious protectors, along with Mahākāla and Vaiśravana. Unlike the Mahāyāna tradition, which emphasize a gradual path of spiritual evolution to attain the body, the speech and the mind of Buddha throughout many lifetimes, Vajrayana Buddhism offers a more radical and esoteric path to spiritual enlightenment. Esoteric Buddhism claims that humans are already enlightened, but restrained of their untrained and defiled sensory and psychological functions that prevent them from awakening. One of the influential treatises on the Buddha nature composed by the third Karmapa Lama of the Kagyu tradition, Rangjug Dorge (1284-1339) quotes the Hevajra Tantra, which states: “The Lord said: ‘All beings are buddhas, but this is obscured by accidental defilement. When this is removed, they are buddhas at once, of this, there is no doubt’” (Snellgrove 1959; Thrangu 2006). All beings dwelling in samsāra are in possession of the Buddha nature (essence), but because they are ignorant of the truth and the Buddha nature, they are trapped in the six realms of samsāra. According to Esoteric tantric Buddhism, the Buddha nature is obscured by incidental stains, which are the negative qualities of the body, speech and, mind. These are usually referred to as outer (physical), inner (mental) and secret (emptiness of all phenomena) afflictions or defilements that obstruct one from attaining enlightenment. Esoteric Buddhism recommends the rigorous meditative tantric practice to attain Buddhahood in the current lifetime, or just a few lifetimes, rather than through compassionate deeds for several lifetimes, like in the Mahāyāna bodhisattva path (Kossak, Singer, and Bruce-Gardner 118 “Now, if the adept [...] should paint to oppress that [defilement] which coerces, then at the beginning of the dark part of the month the [result will be that the] coercing one will burn himself up. In the second watch, chills and fevers will manifest his spirit completely stupefied. In the third watch, he will forsake his life. After death, he will depart this world [...]. As for [the] painting, this image, the likeness of Yamantaka [with] six faces, six arms and feet, black in colour, with a big belly, bearing a skull, his hair flaring out in anger, a tiger skin wrapped around the hips, holding all kinds of 119 THE “TRANSIENCE OF THINGS” IN VAJRAYANA BUDDHIST VISUAL CULTURE | RUI OLIVEIRA LOPES 1999). In this context, tantric meditation through the visualisation of wrathful representation of Yamāntaka, Mahākāla, and Vaiśravana is particularly crucial in the process of obliteration of obstructive defilements, towards the abolition of momentary existence in the cycle of samsāra. While Yamāntaka, the destroyer of death, and Mahākāla (mahā - “great” and kāla - “time/death”), the god of time, are metaphorically related to the abolition of death and temporal existence, Vaiśravana is the guardian of the North and protector of Buddhist monks, thought to bestow prosperity, giving the monks the freedom to pursue spiritual goals. These representations of wrathful gods are part of a complex process of visualisation in tantra practice, similar to conceptions of visualisation for spiritual meditation defined as composito loci by Ignatius Loyola in the Spiritual Exercises. Wrathful gods in Esoteric Buddhism are often represented bearing symbols associated with death and violence, such as skulls filled with blood, necklaces of skulls, and bone weapons. However, these images are understood as metaphors for the outer, inner and secret states (anger, greed, passion, and ignorance) that need to be destroyed, leading to the destruction of death itself. The process of visualisation as meditation aims to ultimately enable the initiate to internally create the image of the deity and hold it firmly in all its complexity during long periods of meditation. Through this process, the initiate develops the ability to access deep levels of the subconscious, away from defilement and illusion (Kossak, Singer, and Bruce-Gardner 1999). Gradually, the initiate will get closer to the body, speech, and mind of the Buddha nature and integrate himself with the wisdom associated with the deity. Early Tantric Buddhist spiritual exercise compendia, such as the Sādhanamālā (Garland of Realisation), Nispannayogāvalī (Garland of Completed Yogas), and the Mañjuśrīmūlakalpa (The Fundamental Mantra of Mañjuśrī) offer comprehensive prescriptive descriptions of tantric deities, which were used to set the conventions in Himalayan sacred art. These texts prescribe regular procedures for tantric ritual practices which conventionally describe the deities in great detail, explaining their attributes and iconography. For instance, the chapter Abhicāraka in the Mañjuśrīmūlakalpa describes rites involving painted images of Yamāntaka. The execution of the painting, as well as the materials applied, are an integral part of the tantric ritual. CO N VO CA RT E N . º 8 — A RT E E T E M P O : T E M P O, C U LT U R A E C R I AÇÃO A RT Í ST I CA implements and weapons, raising his hands in a terrifying manner, eyes red, with a cruel and evil appearance, three eyes like pennons, hair standing up vertically, a mass of flames or flying like black smoke, [skin] the colour of a dark snow or rain cloud, his appearance like that of the cosmic fire of destruction. One should paint him riding a water buffalo. A matter of a wrathful, cruel and dreadful [appearance]. Anger and cruelty are his eternal calling. Wrathful and fear-inspiring, implacably grasping evil. Amidst cruelty, he is at the extreme of cruelty. He can destroy all sentient beings. Paint him with this anger. Use your own blood for colour. Mix it together to make a dull wash of colour. With dog’s grease mixed with cow butter fill up a skull cup. Use a brush-tip made of a dead man’s hair. For the handle, use a bone from a dog. Fast, and then one should paint.” (Linrothe 1999) Once the painting is finished is only completed with consecration rituals known as Buddhābhiseka, which involves the recitation of mantras, placement of offerings, leading to the sacred empowerment of these images. Yamāntaka is conventionally depicted in union with his consort, Cāmundā, or as a solitary hero (ekavīra). The latter is particularly prevalent in both small scale sculpture figurines and pictorial thangkas (Bushwell and Lopez 1976). In one common pictorial representation, Yamāntaka stands with an aggressive stance of pratyālīdha as a destroyer of obstacles that prevent humans from achieving enlightenment (Fig. 3). The posture is described in the Nātyaśāstra treatise of classical dance and performing arts to represent destruction (Ghosh 1950). In this posture, Yamāntaka bends his right foot and leg and leans the body diagonally towards the right, and the left leg extended in the opposite direction. In the centre of the composition, riding on a water buffalo as a celestial vehicle, Yamāntaka stands on a corpse, laid impotent in the core of a lotus flower. Scholars have discussed lengthily the symbolic meaning of the corpse, which is generally interpreted as a personification of ignorance, the core obstacle to enlightenment. We argue that standing on a corpse may be related with the śāva sadhana tantric spiritual practice which required the practitioner to sit on a corpse for meditation (McDaniel 2004). This ritual aimed to achieve detachment from the physical world towards the absolute, resulting in liberation from samsāra. In this context, Mañjuśrī’s wrathful manifestation as Yamāntaka standing on a corpse means his heroic victory over Yama, the god of death, through the obliteration of ignorance, attachment, and hatred, the roots of samsāric existence. In this thangka, Yamāntaka is represented with the head of a water buffalo, three eyes, hair standing upwards, carrying weapons, and a skull tiara, surrounded by a mass of flames, corresponding in details to the above textual description given in the Mañjuśrīmūlakalpa. With the head of a water buffalo and the bodyweight diagonally towards the right, Yamāntaka stands as a protective 120 121 THE “TRANSIENCE OF THINGS” IN VAJRAYANA BUDDHIST VISUAL CULTURE | RUI OLIVEIRA LOPES deity against outer defilements: greed (rāga); hate (dvesa); delusion (moha); vanity (māna); and wrong views (drsti). These images are believed to help to clear the “obscuration of conflicting emotions” (kleśa-avarana). Yamāntaka is also represented with a demoniac and fearful face of a rāksasa (Fig. 4). Rāksasas are anthropomorphic creatures (ogre or goblin) originated in Vedic, and Purana literature described as an insatiable flesh-eating demon, with fangs protruding from the top of the mouth, flaming red eyes and drinking blood from skull cups. Despite their Vedic origin, rāksasas were later adopted in Buddhism in both male and female form, known as rāksasadeva. In the Buddhist pantheon, rāksasadeva is also called Nirrti and understood as a protector of Buddhism and destroyer of afflictions (kleśa) (Bushwell and Lopez 1976). The term probably derives from the term raksā frequently occurring in the Vedic texts meaning to protect, to preserve, to avoid or be aware of evil spirits and evil tendencies that continuously afflict sentient beings. In Tantric Buddhism, the term is used in ritual practices intended to remove all inner and outer obstacles and evils during the construction of mandalas, known as raksācakra (wheel of protection) (Bushwell and Lopez 1976). Our interpretation demonstrates that when is represented with a demoniac raksā face and the same pratyālīdha body posture but leaning diagonally to the left, Yamāntaka protects against inner afflictions: doubt (vicikitsā); dullness of mind (thīna); relentlessness (auddhatya); shamelessness (āhrīkya); and recklessness (anapatrapya). These images are believed to help to clear the “obscurations concerning the knowable”. Occasionally, there are thangkas intended to protect against inner and outer obstacles to attain liberation from samsāra (Fig. 5). These paintings typically represent Yamāntaka (outer) with the head of buffalo in the centre of the composition, sometimes accompanied by his consort Cāmundā, wearing a buffalo hide and a garland of bones, who offers him a skull cup filled with blood. In the bottom section of the painting, Yamāntaka (inner) is presented with the demoniac raksā face performing his wrathful dance. Yamāntaka is surrounded by four smaller Yamāntaka bull-headed figures, mounted on a buffalo, each in different colour: white, yellow, red and dark blue. These four figures represent the four tantric activities or mundane attainments (siddhi) of Yamāntaka’s destructive power (peaceful, increasing, powerful, and wrathful) that the tantric practitioner is expected to attain through the propitiation of Yamāntaka (Zopa Rinpoche 2009). In his explanation of the Ngöndro meditation practice, Thinley Norbu describes the four general or mundane siddhi: peaceful (pacifying and purifying obscurations by peaceful activities); increasing (life, merit, intellect growth by increasing activity); powerful (all phenomena are brought under our control by potent activity); and wrathful (all evil forces are subdued out of compassion by wrathful activities) (Norbu 1993). Through the embodiment of these spiritual attainments, one renounces the momentary existence in samsāra and enables access to Buddhahood. CO N VO CA RT E N . º 8 — A RT E E T E M P O : T E M P O, C U LT U R A E C R I AÇÃO A RT Í ST I CA Facing impermanence: skull and bones ritual implements In Tantric Buddhism iconography, the representation of skulls and human bone ritual implements are essential elements associated with the magical powers of wrathful deities. As a result, the use of skulls and implements made of human bones became a quintessential component in religious ceremonies and rituals (Laufer 1923; Gray 2006). Skull cups were traditionally made of human cranium often lavishly mounted and decorated with semi-precious stones, gilded copper and silver inlays and surmounted by a lid with a knob in the shape of a vajra. Occasionally, these cups were mounted on a triangular brass or silver base ornamented with flames pattern and skeleton figurines (Fig. 6). The use of skull cups is widespread in Buddhist Tantric rituals, from libations placed in altars dedicated to wrathful deities, containing wine along with dough cakes in the shape of eyes, ears, and tongues. These offers symbolised the blood and flesh offered to win the favour of these deities and to embody their ability to clear the obstacles toward enlightenment. Wrathful deities typically hold the skull cup in the left hand, representing wisdom, while in the right hand they hold the curved knife or the vajra (weapon), representing the method to destroy obstacles. Through immersive meditation and the rituals of visualisation, the wine and the dough cakes will be transformed into the nectar of immortality (amrta), to be then taken as a sacramental drink (Beer 2003). The use of skull cups in Tantric rituals and meditation practice became popular in the early times of Vajrayana Buddhism, especially among the Indian eccentric yogis known as mahāsiddha, so revered in the Tibetan Vajrayana tradition. Mahāsiddha were ascetic yogis who became well-known for attaining spiritual powers (siddhi) through spiritual exercises (sādhanā), which ultimately lead to the removal of obscurations of samsāra. They were known for their esoteric rituals and methods of mediation in cremation grounds, among burnt corpses and utilising human bones implements until they attained a state beyond life and death. Virūpa was one of the eighty-four revered mahāsiddha, especially important to the Sakya school. His legend is one of the predominant themes in Himalayan art (Fig. 7). While studying at Nalanda monastery, Virūpa became discouraged with his unsuccessful meditation on Cakrasamvara Tantra. Later, in a dream, he received instruction on Hevajra Tantra and finally attained enlightenment. He gave up his monastic life and lived as a wanderer. One day he was interruptedly drinking beer in a tavern, and the maid started to worry if he would be able to pay. He then said that he would stop drinking at noon. Moments later, he raised his hand and stopped the sun in his path. After he was drinking for three days, the local king restored cosmic order, paid Virūpa’s bill, and Virūpa surrendered his conduct. This legend represents Virūpa’s transcendent wisdom and his power to control time, and, therefore, the stream of existence. Virūpa is conventionally represented sitting in the sattva posture (relaxed with 122 Ephemeral reconstruction: sand mandalas and the kālacakra (wheel of time) practice In Tibetan Buddhism, sand mandalas involve the idea of simulating the process of creation and destruction and are often interpreted as a profound practice to attain detachment and meditate on human impermanence and the transient nature of samsāric existence. The tradition of sand mandala remains one of the most secret, intricate, and sacred ritual practices in Tibetan Buddhism, involving the chanting of mantras, music, dance, and numerous monks take several days to complete the ritual. The combination of these distinctive ritual arts is an integral component of the kālacakra (wheel of time) tantric ritual. Mandalas are always a 123 THE “TRANSIENCE OF THINGS” IN VAJRAYANA BUDDHIST VISUAL CULTURE | RUI OLIVEIRA LOPES one leg extended) with his arm raised in the air to stop the Sun, accompanied by a maid or female attendant carrying a skull cup, a traditional drinking vessel of the mahāsiddha (Figs. 8 and 9) (Linrothe 1999). Other influential Tantric Buddhist gurus were also represented using skull cups. Padmasambhava (Lotus-Born) was a revered as the leading propagator of tantric Buddhism in Tibet. He is believed to have gone to Tibet at the invitation of King Trisong Detsen and there founded the Nyingma Order of Tibetan Buddhism. Popularly known as Guru Rinpoche, he is traditionally represented in a yogic posture, holding a vajra, symbol the clarity of pure Buddhist thought, and a skull cup, representing detachment, transcendence, and triumph over death (Fig. 10). Skulls and human bones were used in several other ritual implements such as aprons and other ceremonial garments and musical instruments. The damaru is a doubled-sided hand-drum made of two attached craniums, ideally of a boy and a girl that have had a sky burial (no cremation). The union of male and female is a critical symbolic factor in tantric Buddhism and represent compassion and wisdom. The central waist of the drum is usually decorated with a brocade, leather or metal band, sometimes ornamented with beads, from which the handle hangs. On either side of the central band hangs the two padded striking pellets. The strikers were also usually made of human bones to empower the ritualistic effect. The damaru is mainly used in the chöd practice of the Nyingma and Kagyu schools of Tibetan Buddhism, a ritual known as “cutting practice” in which the drum sets the rhythm of impermanence to a “dance” of obliteration of the self. This practice seeks to cut the attachments of egotism and self through the visualisation of one’s own dismembered body being offered to the spirits and ghosts to clear karmic actions (Beer 2003). As in many other cultures, the skull is a symbol of impermanence and awareness of one’s momentary condition. Through the awareness of humans’ temporal existence, one is anticipated to develop detachment from the worldly things: material and emotional desires. CO N VO CA RT E N . º 8 — A RT E E T E M P O : T E M P O, C U LT U R A E C R I AÇÃO A RT Í ST I CA Fig. 7 Construction and dissolution of a sand mandala consecrated by the Dalai Lama in July 2015 at the University of California, Irvine. 124 visual representation of a tantra picturing a deity in union with his consort in his palace, which is also a representation of his state of mind. As an illustration of a sacred text, every iconographic element is meant to be “read”, and memorized for visualisation during meditation. During the ritual, the practitioner is initiated by a ritual master who has received permission by his own teacher through an oral transmission that has been passed in an unbroken lineage traceable to the origin of this teaching (Bryant 2003). The practitioner, and those who partake the ritual, are expected to “enter into the mandala”, embodying the deity state of mind in which the deity dwells. Time is an essential element in the performance of the kālacakra tantra ritual. Before the student begins receiving the teaching, the master takes six days to initiate the ritual with purification and consecration, one day for the apprentice preparation and two days for ritual initiation. Finally, upon completion, the existence of the mandala itself is temporary. The mandala is swept and Conclusion The problem of time and our existence within the duality of temporality and eternity is a quintessential concept in Buddhist philosophy. Buddhism presents a system of precepts rediscovered by the historical Buddha to help humankind to overcome a cycle of transient existence in which we experience suffering, pain, ageing, and death. To achieve liberation from this illusory existence, one needs to undertake spiritual exercises to annihilate any form of attachment to this cyclical existence. In the context of spiritual exercises and Buddhist meditation practice, visualisation helps to activate the mind, the spirit, and the body into a state of momentary transcendence. Visualisation is, in fact, a form of meditation practice allowing the practitioner to grasp and embody the symbolic aspects of the enlightened Buddha and, consequently, imitate his ability to protect the mind from attachment, anger, and ignorance. As a result, the use of images and ritual implements is an integral component 125 THE “TRANSIENCE OF THINGS” IN VAJRAYANA BUDDHIST VISUAL CULTURE | RUI OLIVEIRA LOPES dismantled. The grains of sand will return to the bottom of a water stream as a simulation of our transient nature and endless cycle of existence. The kālacakra tradition delves with the Buddhist concepts of time and cycles of existence, representing the flow of time (kāla) — past, present, and future events — and the omniscience of the deity, which transcends measurable time. The combination of the kālacakra deity with his consort represents the unity of male and female (yab-yum) — the duality of temporality and atemporality. As mentioned above, the wheel (cakra) not only evokes the idea of cycle and flow of time but also represents the great bliss of enlightenment that is replicated in the wheel of dharma, the symbol of Buddha teachings, through which one can attain enlightenment. Mandalas are traditionally made in two-dimensional representation in which the design is made in the floor, and then the monks use dyed rice or sand applied with tubes, funnels, and scrapers, called chak-pur to overtop the design pattern (Fig. 12). When the mandala is finished, a monk divides the mandala into eight parts with the vajra (Fig. 13). The mandala is then dismantled or swiped, conserved in a jar wrapped in a piece of silk and poured into a river or a water stream, returning to its original place so one day that grains of sand can be used again in a mandala (Fig. 14 and Fig. 15). Although in western culture sand mandalas, and many other tantric Buddhist visual culture, is generally perceived as an artistic expression requiring intricate creative and technical skills, these are ritual implements intrinsic to the performance of visualisation during meditation. The design of the mandala is not an act of creation, but rather a reconstruction of a transcendent realm that exists beyond our notion of time and space. Ultimately, the dissolution of the mandala is the enclosure of an entrance to a transcendent atemporal realm in which the monks who partake the ritual experience Buddha nature and a momentary suspension of time. CO N VO CA RT E N . º 8 — A RT E E T E M P O : T E M P O, C U LT U R A E C R I AÇÃO A RT Í ST I CA in Buddhist visualisation meditation practice, especially in the Vajrayana tradition. The representation of cosmological charts based on the descriptions in sacred texts allows one to “see” things the way they are in reality, assisting one to penetrate and mentally eliminate delusions and conceptual fabrications of this cyclical existence. Buddhist visual culture is an immersive visual metaphor conducive to inner development and transcendence over momentary existence. As a result, unlike Christian art, which is mostly devotional, Buddhist art is necessarily ritualistic, sacred, mystic and esoteric, involving many tantric practices that are often confined within the walls of the Tibetan monasteries. Correspondently, Tibetan Buddhist paintings should also be categorised as ritual implements, likewise skull cups, bells, ritual weapons, and the vajra. Buddhist tangkas and mural paintings are prescriptive and didactic images specifically designed for individual tantric ritual practices and progressive stages. These images and ceremonial objects hold a mnemonic function being utilised as a reminder of humankind transient condition, using representations of death, suffering, metaphorical destruction, material detachment and emptiness. Often, the concepts of impermanence and detachment are also reflected in the ephemeral and cyclical existence of Buddhist material culture in which the creation and destruction of sand mandalas and the fabrication of ritual implements using human bones emulate the constant flux of all conditioned things. Notes Early Buddhist scriptures were traditionally written in Pāli and Sanskrit. While Pāli is the scriptural language of Theravāda Buddhism, Sanskrit was traditionally and widely used in the Mahāyāna tradition. Following the common practice of academic scholars on Buddhist studies, this paper adopted Sanskrit transliteration for Buddhist terminology. 1 The doctrine of the Theravādin non-self (anātman) is related with the Mahāyāna concept of emptiness (śūnyatā) and the non-substantiality of everything. 2 “Adittapariyaya Sutta: The Fire Sermon” (SN 35.28), translated from the Pali by Thanissaro Bhikkhu. 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