The Content of Stūpas and Images and the Indo-Tibetan Concept of Relics

Yael Bentor

Śarira, or what is generally translated as (bodily) relics of the Buddha or Buddhist saints, has long occupied an important place in the stupa cult of the Buddhist world. As widely known, there are stupas that contain nothing while those that have 'relics' do not always contain what is expected to see: the bone fragments or ashes of 'bodily remains'. This paper serves as a survey of the occurrence of (bodily) relics in stupas of the areas that are parts of greater Gandhara that is present day eastern Afghanistan and Taxila.

This article reconsiders sites, practices, and ideas about the physical remains of the special dead in South Asian religions. Questioning the common notion of “relics” as a point of distinction between “Buddhism” and “Hinduism,” it explores the constellation of ideas and practices surrounding the remains of gods, demons, people, and animals in South Asian religions. Archaeological and literary evidence for liṅgas, stūpas, and related sites and structures are used to explore shared discourses and practices among Buddhists and Śaivas in particular. Through such test-cases, it shows how bones and other physical remains of the special dead could become areas of engagement, especially when linked to sacred landscape. Attention to these contact zones reveals sharing, borrowing, and competition among ancient and medieval groups that modern scholarship has studied primarily in terms of assumed differences between “Hinduism” and “Buddhism.”

This installment of my tripartite study of Esoteric Buddhism in the Sri Lanka of the late 7th through late 10th centuries focuses on two subjects. The longest section addresses the Abhayagiri's 'Mahanetraprasada' arama and its relationship to the mysterious Eye Relic during both the Esoteric Buddhist period as well as the Shravakayana restoration under the primacy of the Mahavihara. There is also an accounting of the vatadage sites, with particular emphasis on the vatadages at the Lankarama, the Ambasthala, and at Medirigiriya. Finally, there is an attempt to provide a conspectus on the present state of understanding of the practice and influence of Esoteric Buddhism at the Abhayagirivihara and affiliated monasteries, as well as an assessment of the role of Buddha Relics in the 'state protection Buddhism' of the Vajrayana as practiced by such figures as Amoghavajra and, apparently, the Abhayagirivasins. The Appendices are devoted to a close reading of the curious biography of Aggabodhi V and his association with padhanagharas and pamshukulika monks; a history of 80-year conflict between Rajarattha and the Cholas over the Pandya that serves as background for understanding the Abhayagiri regulatory inscriptions of Kassapa V and Mahinda IV; and a short chronology of the significant events during the last century and a half of the Anuradhapura period. This is a rather long paper (c. 270 pages) and the reader might benefit from the independent Table of Contents provided elsewhere on this site.

The Content of StrTpas and Images and the Indo-Tibetan Concept of Relics. Yael Bentor The purpose of the present paper is to demonstrate that most objects found within Tibetan stilpas and images are best understood in terms of the Indo-Tibetan concept ofrelics. In the category ofrelics are included not only physical remains and objects associated with holy persons, but also the Buddhist teachings in the form of books and dharanrs. The latter type of relic is based on the sacred power of the Sutra texts and on views that locate the Buddha in his teachings rather than in his physical body. Dhdrarus encapsulate the teachings just as a single fragment of bone is seen to contain the entire Buddha. Another type of relic is the stilpa which is considered to be a relic of the dharmakiya, parallel to the physical remains which are relics of the nirmdnakdya. These notions conespond to developments in the theories about the multiple bodies of the Buddha and the dharmakdya in its abstract meanings. Even images came to be considered relics. Similar to physical relics, the scriptures, and stfipas, images too are an answer to the problem of the presence of the parinirvanaed Buddha in the samsaric world. The category of relics of contact, that is to say, objects that came into contact with holy persons, was extended to include a variety of blessed substances and blessing bestowing receptacles, such as ma nt prlls, images or tsha lsftas. Holy places and objects have'relics'as well, such as earth, water, stones and wood from holy places or fragments of decayed or destroyed holy objects. Among the types of written relics are name mantras which encapsulate the essence not ofthe teachings, but ofparticular Buddhas and lamas, and so are akin to physical relics. All these types of relics are deposited in Tibetan stripas and images in a manner that demonstrates a hierarchical scale of values. INtnopucrroN It is argued here that the entire content of Tibetan stilpas andimages, ranging from a piece ofbear's hidel to collected works of a Tibetan lama, are identifiably 'relics' as this term is understood within the Indo-Tibetan tradition. I seek to clarify the IndoTibetan concept ofrelics through a diachronical review ofthe whole range ofvariefy of relics in India and Tibet. Further conclusions are drawn from accounts of the actual practice. In contrast to the desecrating methods, oblivious to cultural context, that characterize much of the earlier writings on the contents of Tibetan stupas and images, my methodology is a constructive one.2 It combines a textual study of the rich Tibetan literature on the subject with observ'ations of the practice and interviews with performers and other religious experts. The medieval christian consecration of churches was a fusion of two rituals: l ) The earlier ritual of deposition of re lics within the altar. 2) The ritual of lustration, which was adopted in the eighth century (Davies 1986: 192-93). The first ritual is said to be modelled after funerary rites while the latter is modelled afterbaptism. In a similar *This paper does not take into account very much ofthe literature which appeared since this paper was written for the Seminar on Relic Veneration (American Academy of Religion, 1995). 22 rur, TIBET JoURNAL fashion, the Tibetan process of sacralizingstupas and images consists of two distinct rituals: 1) The deposition of relics and dharants (gzungs 'bul ot gzungs gzhug) which is the earliest known form of the ritual. 2) The final consecration (rab gnas) which hansformsthat stupaor image into an embodimentof ayi dan (Bentor 1996).1 Very rarely do Tibetan rituals completely supplant their earlier forms (contrary to Tucci's claim, see the conclusions below). Typically, Tibetan rituals are an assemblage of various rituals of different ages with the more recent tantric version assuming a dominant position. Although the insertion of relics historically preceded the final consecration ritual as practiced by Tibetans, it is still today incorporated' and in a more elaborate form, in the Tibetan process of sacralizing and consecrating stupasand images (Bentor 1994b). It is precisely this historical dimension that has yet to receive the attention it deserves. DlecgroNtcaL OveRvtpw In order to better understand the raison d'Atre of the objects found within Tibetan stupas and images, we need to clarify the Indo-Tibetan concept of relics, and its diachronical developments. As I have dealt with this topic elsewhere ( I 995a), here I cover this topic in a summary fashion while providing, whenever possible, different examples. This overview will serve as a background for the second part of this paper. In the earliest Buddhistperiod, the foremost relics were the physical remains ({artra, or dhatu) of Buddha Sakyamuni. To these were added physical remains of a variety of Buddhist personages, ranging from Buddhas to local monastics.a In Tibet, the corporeal rctics enshrin edin slupas are, for the most part, those of contemporary Tibetan lamas of greater or lesser fame, though relics of renowned Indian and early Tibetan personages, including the relics of Buddha Sakyamuni are by no means uncommon (see below). 'Contact relics' (paribhogika-dhdtu, sku ba[) or objects which came in contact with the Buddha or other holy personages were also recognized in the early Buddhist period.5 This widespread cult of bodily relics existed in India alongside various doctrinal stands claiming that the Buddha had passed into a state of nirvana which left nothing behind. The tradition had to come to terms with the problematic status of the Buddha in the world of samseTra, with the question of the immanence of the transcendent. One of the answers to this is: "Le Bouddha y est et n'y est pas' Il est pr6sent, bien que perdu dans le nirvaata... Les sto0pas ne contredisent pas la d6finition du nirvana. Ils en sont compl6r:rentaires" (Mus 1937:126). The various solutions to this problemas itrelates to the relic cult were discussedalready alsobyFak(1977), Eckel (1985, I 992), Schopen ( 1 987, I 988), Trainor ( I 990, I 992), and Collins (1 992: 235), among others. Here, I would like to draw attention only to the implications of the various theories on the multiple bodies of the Buddha which distinguished the physical body of the Buddha that gives rise to bodily relics from the other bodies, especially from the dharmakaya.6 Though the dharmakaya does not leave any relics, the phenomenon of relics is still possible. They are regarded as skillful means serving for the benefit of sentient beings, just like the physical remains themselves. The best known scripture expressing this idea is the Suvarnaprabhasottama Sutra. This Blessed One is not created; the Tathagata has not arisen. His body that is as hard as the tlrunderbolt manifests his ransformedbody (sprul pa'i sku). And hence there is nothing called a relic of the great sage even the size of a grain of mustard. How will there be a relic in a body without bone and blood? The depositing ofa relic is by an expedient Tibetans norve images. Obser actual perform within slripas tant source fot two genres of detailed instru and the practi, offering dhclr dharants,Her of relics. This in the last phe The second cftags,'indice that were actl dkar chags pr of the relics. , the particular ofthar subgrc the stupa and alize the lama the making of also wrote ab ited in the "\\ ( 1994). This . Teacher (kuo This early er close resemb There are n tice of depos (gsar ma) are have certain tures. The lar schools and i for most of tt on the Tibeta Tibetans in t space of .ilup cal manner x l. Psvsrcel r All larger rec seed-like reli is considerec of their relicr Iithere are Ir together * it precio'.rs sub THE CONTENT OF STUPAS AND IMAGES nvo distinct ngs gzhug) vab gnas) iror 1996).1 contrary to t e an assem- iion assumreceded the ioraled. and onsecrating lon that has hin Tibetan lics. and its 995a). here ible. differ- ipart of this cal remains i remains of )nastics.4 In of contem- : : Indian and t\ no means , or objects riso recogus doctrinal letr nothing 'fie Buddha anscendent. lnt bien que du ninalta. :o this prob- ...23 (thabs) on account ofthe welfare ofbeings. For as is the dharmakaya ofthe perfectly Enlightened One, [as is] the sphere of dharma (.dharmadhatu) of the Tathagata, [as is] the exposition of the Dharma, so is the body of the Blessed One.7 Note the use of the simile ofrelics even the size of a grain of mustard here.8 This simile would take on a life of its own in the course of time (see below). While criticizing the notion of relics emerging from the body of the Tathigata, this passage does provide a legitimation for the existence of relics as skillful means. Furthermore, it conelates the body of the Buddha with the dharmakaya,the dharmadhdtu, as well as the teach- ings of the Buddha. Of special importance with regard to the classifications ofrelics is the trend, which located the presence of the already-in-nirvana Buddha in his teachings, in distinction to those who saw his presence in his corporeal relics. This hend which preceded the fully evolved theories on the three and more bodies of the Buddha, centers on distinguishin gthe dharmakdya (in its meaning of 'body of the teachings') from the physical body. In regard to the relic cult, by 'teachings' is meant not the study and practice ofthe Buddhist tenets, but the sacred power ofthe Sutra text. The perception of the book as a source of sacred power in the early Mahdydna literature was investigatedbySchopen (1975,1982)andotherscholars.e Especiallystudiedarethe passages inthe Astasahasrika-Prajfiapdramita Sritra (chapters 3 & 4) upholding the worship of that very SDtra as superior to worshipping the relics of the Buddha deposited in stupas. Even though these passages evidently disparage the cult of relics, the very fact that this cult was chosen as the basis of comparison points to its wide popularity. Another example for such a process is the Buddhist adoption of the fire ritual. Although inthe Dtghanikaya (1.5) the Buddha rejected the Brahmanical sacrifice declaring that the best form of sacrifice is the Buddhist path to the attainment of nirvana, over the course of time the Buddhist tradition appropriated the fire ritual as one of many diverse means that might be employed on the path to enlightenment. It is precisely because of the importance ofthe relic cult, that the cult of the book modelled itself on it. Accordingly, Buddhist scriptures were deposited in sltpas as well, as mentio:red for example in the Pratyutpanna Sfrtra, one of the earlier Mahdydna S[tras.r0 Buddhist scriptures where indeed discovered in archaeological excavations of strytas in Gilgit, and Cenhal Asia.ll These texts, dated to the 5th-8th centuries,l 2 are among the best known examples for early Buddhist Sanskrit manuscripts. I3 :,'e there is As we shall see, a large space within Tibetan stupas and images is taken up by books, including the Buddhist scriptures and writings of Tibetan lamas. This was not the case in Indian stupas that mostly contained only fragments of the scriptures (Hstian Tsang 1885: Il 146-1).t4 Most frequently the verse oflnterdependent Origination, theye dharma... gathcl,ts was deposited in stupas (Taddei 1970). This verse, which is regarded as subsuming the entire Buddhist teachings, came to contain the presence of the Buddh a in stupas as well (Boucher 1 99 1 : I 5). The two parallel and competing practices of depositing physical relics-as the essence of the Buddhaand the verse of Interdependent Origination-as the essence of his teachingsconverged. I Tsing (635-7 13 c.r.) witnessed the practice of combining both physical relics and the verse of Interdependent Origination within the same s/r.rpa ( 1896: 150to This practice was translated to images as well (Boucher I 99 I : l4- I 5). 1 5 I 1. Tibetan stfipas and images contain not only books, but also dhdranls. Smaller , s ill there stupas and images containdharanrs alone. T\etermdhdranrwhichseems originally Eckel ( I 985, l-15). among 'the various ry sical bodl' :cially fronr he phenom- ins tor rhe " 'oest knon n : :s as hard . :rpedient 24 run rrBET JoURNAL to have referred to retaining in memory the teaching of the Buddha was gradually used also for a mnemonic device which assists one in remembering the teachings (Lamotte 1976: 1863-1864; Braarvig 1985). Hence the dlnra4trwas regarded as the essence of the teachings. Therefore, similar to the verse of Interdependent Origination dharanrs too have been considered to contain the entire teachings. Their recitation may lead to the comprehension of the meaning of the teachings, especially when these are beyond expression in words or conceptual thoughts. As the written S0tras were considered to be the embodiment of sacred power, so too were the dharants which epitomize their teachings. In the usual hyperbolic style of Sfitras, these scripfures teach that in a stllpa ot image, in which such a dhdrapl or text is deposited, numerous Buddhas abide.lT A stfrpa in which such a dharaniis deposited "will be called astupa of the essence of the Buddha, will be calledastfrpa of the essence of the Tathdgata."ls Furtherrnore, such a stupa would become a stfrpa of the relics of the Buddha. le Not only that, it would also contain his teachings. "Wherever this text resides... the eighty-four thousand heaps of the Dharma reside."20 Hence, these dharants were considered to infuse stupas (and images) with the presence ofthe Buddha, his relics and his teachings. These Dharanl S[tras contain the various concepts of relics we have observed so far. In a typical st7lra-style argument, they claim that the practice of depositing their texts, or the dhdranis taught in them, within stupqs and images is superior to the deposition of physical relics or S0tras. Again, the practice they teach is given a status excelling other highly regarded practices. The prescriptions of the Dharanr Sritras were not merely theoretical. Archaeological evidence for the deposition of such dhdranis in stfipas and images has been found throughout the Buddhist world.2l In Tibet the five most popular among them are designated by the name "the five great dharaltrs" (gzungs chen sde lnga).22 THsonrlrcel Careconrps or Rsltcs The types of relics encountered so far may be summarized under three categories: l. The bodily remains of the Buddha and of other saintly persons of great or local fame.2. Various objects that came into contact or were otherwise associated with them. 3. Relics of the Dharma including entire scriptures, or, in the majority of cases, the verse oflnterdependent Origination as well as dharants derived from the vari- ous Dhdranr S[tras. In Tibetan literature one finds systematic threefold, fourfold and fivefold classifications of relics that should be deposited in stiipas.23 A three- foldclassificationispresentedbymKhasgrubrje(1385-1438):l.Relicsofthedharmakfrya which are dharants.2. Bodily relics which are mustard-seed-like relics that emerge frombodily remains.2a 3. Relics of the garb (sku bal) which are images. These are successively the highest, the middle and the lowest (mKhas grub rje 1968: 106). Dharanrs are classified here as relics of the dharmakaya which are superior even to the bodily relics. Such ranking of dharants is probably based on the position ofthe Dharani Sfitras, the latest phase oflndian relic advocacy. Fourfold classifications of relics are much more frequent in Tibetan works.2s rJe btsun Grags p argyal mtshan (1147 -1216) iists them as follows: 1. Bodily relics (stn gdung gi ring bsre[).2. Bodily relics which are like mustard seeds(sku gdungWngs 'bru lta bu'i ringbsrel). 3. Hairs and nails which are called relics ofthe garb (dbu skra dang sen mo la sku bal gyi ring bsrel zhes brjod pa).4. Dharants which are called relics of the dharmakaya (gzungs rnams lq chos lEi sku'i ring bsrel zhes brjod pa). THE CONTENT OF STUPAS AND IMAGES .,.25 While mKhas grub rje explained the relics of the garb to be images, in the fourfold classification they are usually interpreted as hair and nails as well as various objects that came into contact with the holy personage. The fourth category is formed by dividing the bodily relics of the threefold classification into two. While mKhas grub rje explains the bodily relics as mustard-seed-like relics which emerge from bodily remains, in the fourfold classification there is a distinction between these two categories. Mustard seed serves as a simile for the smallest measure (Emmerick I 967). We have seen above that the Suvarnaprabhasottama declares that "there is nothing called a relic of a great sage even the size of a grain of mustard." Sfitras which advocate the relic cult, such as the Adbhutadharma-paryaya, Ktitagara and Mahdrana Sr7/ras state that if someone were to build for the Buddha a stfrpa the size of an amalaka fruit and were to place in it a relic the size of a mustard seed, an inconceivable merit would be produced.26 Here 'relics the size of a mustard seed' are used in an hyperbolic sense. As in other similar usages, the hyperbole took on a life of its own. In the Tibetan fourfold classification of relics, bodily relics which are like mustard seeds appear as a separate category. Relics which are like mustard seed are tiny crystalline globules which are said to grow out of other relics orto emerge from holy personages (even while living) and sacred objects. They may function both as relics and as' si gns of saintly death' (Martin 1992 and l 99 q.27 Of particular importance is the ability auributed to mustard-seed-like relics to emerge out of other relics or to multiply. Consequently there is a constant supply of relics even when only one tiny fragment is available. This type of relic provides the possibility (which would otherwise be remote) of depositing a relic of Buddha Sakyamuniin stfipasconstructed nowadays. Such a relic would grow out ofpieces ofhis bones, or from another mustard-seed-like relic that originated from the Buddha's relics. The fourfold classification of relics includes two types of bodily relics, relics of contact, and dhdrants. This closely resembles our summary of relics found in India. Another common Tibetan classification of relics is a fivefold one:28 l. Relics of the dharmakaya.2. Bodily remains of the Buddha. 3. Relics of the garb (contact relics). 4. Relics of the Dharma(chos lq,i ring bsrel).5. Relics which are like mustard seeds. Relics of the Dharma are distinguished here from relics of the dharmakaya.While relics of the Dharma are explained as dharants and books, relics ofthe dharmakaya include stLpas and tsha rsftas (miniatlre stfrpas made of clay with the help of a mold),2e which symbolize the dharmakaya.In the fivefold classification, relics of the Dharma have the meaning that relics of the dharmakdya had in the cases discussed above, referring to the relics ofthe corpus of teachings. Relics of the dharmakayahere are symbols of the dharmakaya.In rejecting the reality of the phenomenon of relics the Suvarnaprabhasottama Sfrtra clatmed (see above) that the true nature of the Buddha is the dharmakdya which is devoid of bone and blood and therefore cannot produce relics. This argument is based on an assumption that while the physical body can form relics, the dharmakdya cannot. The fivefold Tibetan classification of relics clearly does speak about relics of the d& armakdya. These are not created outof the dharmakaya,butsymbolize it. This type of relic makes amends for the asymmetry among the various bodies of the Buddha as far as their relics are concerned. Whether an actual body or a manifestation, the physical body produces relics of bodily remains. The dharmakdy,c, in one of its earlier and more concrete senses, 'the corpus ofteachings', also has relics in the form ofdharqntsand books. Now afso the dharmakdya in its abstract aspects of the Buddha's qualities, the 26 rsl rrBET JoURNAL realization of enlightenment, the path to enlightenment, reality as it is, and so forth (Eckel 1992: 97 -109; Hanison 1992), came to have relics. The stupa in which the various types of relics were deposited became in and of itself a relic. Since early Buddhist history the stupawas not only a container of the physical relics of the Buddha, but also a symbol and a reminder of his enlightenment and his nirvana.30 It became the presence of the Buddha who is absent in the samsaric world, an immanent presence of the transcendent (Mus 1937; Eckel 1992). As the various parts of the stltpa were equated to different aspects of the teachings on the path to enlightenment,the stupa as a totality became a symbol of the Dharma, the corpus of teachings.3l Following the developments of the theories on the multiple bodies of the Buddhas, the stupa became a symbol of the dharmakdya in its abstract meanings. One practical implication of the perception of sfapas and tsha tshas as relics is thatsmailslr.rpasandtsha lsftasweredepositedwithin largerstupasor images. Such a practice has been known since about the seventh century in India. Thousands of miniature srrlpcs were found within stupasinBodhgaya, Nalandd, Sdrndth, Mlrp[rkhas, Paharpur, etc.:z Similar evidence is found also in Central Asia, Ceylon, Burma, Thailandandlndonesia.33 HsiianTsang(1885: 146-147)reportedhowhisteacher Jayasena (Ching-kian) made seven koris of small stapas which he deposited within a larger one. These miniature stupas and tsha tshas are not only symbols of an abstract concept, but are also reliquaries. In Tibet the clay used to make such lsfta tsftas is mixed with funerary ashes. Such a custom may have existed in India as well (Schopen 1994a). This is in fact the most common method of depositing the relics of Tibetan lamas within the stupas made to contain their remains (see below). Panellel Pnecrrcss rN Orsen BuopHtsr Cou'lrruEs Before furning to the content of Tibetan stupas and images, we should briefly mention similar practices of depositing relics in other Buddhist countries. Chinese. Korean and Japanese stupas and images dated to the eighth century onward contain most of the categories of relics discussed so far.34 Physical remains were found in reliquaries placed within these images and stupas. The relics of the Dharma included entire Shtras such as Vajracchedikd, Prajftaparamita, Suvarnaprabhdsottama, Saddharmapundartka and Avatarysaka Sutras; as well as dhdrapts including the Rafmivimalq Dharant Sutra printed in 751 c.e. and the Guhyadhatu Dharant Sutra dated to 975 c.e. Also deposited were small stipas and images as well as paintings of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas such as Sakyamuni Buddha, Amitibha, MafljuSrr, Samantabhadra, Maitreya and Ksitigarbha. Some of the stupas contained several hundreds and even thousands ofitems. Several stupas founded in the state of Xixia (Tangut) (1038-1227 c.n.) also contained Xixia, Sanskrit and Chinese scriptures and one fragment of a Dharanr Sutra, as well as wood blocks for printing, stfrpas, images, thangkas, and tsha tshqs (Gr4rrald & Sorensen 1 99 1 ). AcrueI- TlesreN Ptecrtcls The most important evidence for understanding the contents of Tibetan stupas and images comes from literary and ethnological sources of the acfual practice. Though most studies by Western scholars have entailed emptying stupas and images of their content followed by a description of the items extracted from their religiocultural context,35 this method seems to be the least informative and fruitful.36 THE CONI'ENT OF STUPAS AND IMAGES of two distinct g=ungs gzhug) tion (rab gnas) Bentor 1996).3 s ms (contrary to s are an assem- version assumpreceded the :orporated, and id consecrating rension that has 11 trithin Tibetan f relics, and its e(1995a),here pssible, differond part of this n1'sical remains ;ical remains of monastics.a In rose ofcontemned Indian and rre by no means , ba['1 or objects ere also recog- rrious doctrinal rich left nothing s ofthe Buddha e transcendent. r6sent, bien que on du nirvana. ns to this prob7). Eckel (1985, 12 235), among of the various e physical body :specially from s Tibetans nowadays are engaged in extensive constructions of temples, stupas, arrd images. Observations of this activity and discussions with the supervising lamas and actual performers can provide important insights into the practice of depositing relics within slizpas and images.37 Below I emphasize ethnographical data as an important source for the content of Tibetan stLpas and images. In addition there are also two genres of Tibetan literature on this practice. First, ritual manuals which contain detailed instructions for laying the interior of stupasand images.38 These manuals and the practice they prescribe are called gzungs 'bul lag len-the procedures for offering dharants; or gzungs gzhug lag len-the procedures for the insertion of dharants. Here the word gzungs or dharant serves as a collective name for all types of relics. This usage reflects the importanc e of dhdranrs among relics as expressed in the last phase ofthe development ofthe concept ofrelics surveyed above.39 The second genre of literature on the contents of sllipas and images are dkar cftrzgs, 'indices' or'guides' to specific stfipasor images which describe the objects that u,ere actually deposited, or at least should have been deposited, in them. The dkar chags provide more specific details than do the manuals on the exact identity of the relics. such as whose they are or by whom they were blessed, as well as on the particular lineages of the lamas of the deceased and on the particular teachings ofthar subgroup and so forth. The purpose ofthe dkar chags is usually to eulogize the stupa and the benefits to be derived from worshipping it, as well as to memorialize the lama enshrined there and to describe the merit of those who contributed to the making of lhat stupa, including donors and craft persons. Martin (1992 and 1994) also wrote about dkar chag as a genre per se. The record ofsacred objects deposited in the "White Sttpa" of Peking in 1279 c.E. was recently translated by Franke (1994).This stupa was consecrated during the Yiian Dynasty by the Tibetan State Teacher(kuoshih)Yeshesrinchen(d.1294),adiscipleof'Phagspa(1235-1280). This early evidence for the practice according to the Sino-Tibetan tradition bears close resemblance to the present-day Tibetan practice. There are no major differences between the Tibetan schools in regard to the prac- tice of depositing relics in stupas and images. The traditions of the New Schools (gsar ma) are very simil:r to each other, u'hile the rNying ma and Bon po traditions have certain supplementary objects a-'d practices based on various gter ma scriptures. The lamas whose relics and writings are enshrined obviously vary with the schools and sub-schools. The practice of depositing relics, in general terms valid for most of the Tibetan schools, will be described below. This description is based on the Tibetan manuals mentioned above and on observations of the practice among Tibetans in the Kathmandu Valley during the years 1987-1989. The entire inner space of slapas and inages is filled with the various types of relics in an hierarchical manner which reflects the ranking of Tibetan sacred objects. Ptiystcel REMAINS AND REt-tcs wHtcH ARE LrKE MUSTARD SEEDS :s. the phenom- 1. serv'ing for the All larger receptacles fhe best known :hat is as hard hence there is Horl'rvill there ',.an expedient ... 27 and many small ones contain physical remains and mustardseed-like relics of Buddhas and lamas. The status of the lama in the Tibetan tradition is considered to be not inferior to that ofthe Buddha. In the case ofthe deposition of their relics, Buddhas and lamas are equal. rJe btsun Grags pa rgyal mtshan says: If there are Iin addition to the relics of the lama also] relics ofthe Tathdgata, combine [both] together r.vithout [any distinction of] superior and inferior. adom with grain, incense and precious substances and inserl them so they would rentain there for a long time (p.241 . I ).40 28 mn rrBET JoURNAL Some of the objects described as pills or beads, especially when deposited at the head of an image or stipa,4l may be physical remains or mustard-seed-like relics, The two types of physical relics of Buddhas and lamas are placed at the highest point-the usnrsa of an image or in the tip of a stupa.42 When a stupa is constructed specifically to enshrine the remains of a deceased lama, these remains are mixed with clay which is made into a large number of /sfta tshas.43 The tsha tshas are deposited in the 'vase' (bum pa, kumbha) of a stfrpa or in the body of an image at the level of the Yoga Tantra (see below) and upward. In spite of the attempts made by various writers mentioned above to categorize and classify the different fypes ofrelics, there are particular cases ofcategory crossing. Tsha tshas in the form of stupas are at the same time not only relics of the dharmakaya,but also contain physical relics. In addition they are also receptacles ofthe Buddha's mind (see below). Furthermore, tsha fs&cs are also relics of contact of those who made them, as tsha tshas made by renowned personages are often deposited in stupas and images. For example, a tsha tsha in the shape of a stfrpa, made by AtiSa, was among the relics deposited in the Sakyamuni image in the new Shel dkar chos sde Monastery in Bodhanath, Nepal in 1988. Still, among the various categories to which tsha tshas may belong, there would often be one that is dominant. A tsha tshamadeby Ati6a is first of all arelic of contact. Atsha tshawhich contains remains of a deceased lama is above all a reliquary. Occasionally, rather than depositing the physical relics in the form of tsha tshas, the embalmed body of the deceased lama is placed entire into the slapc's vase. Embalming is more common in the case oflamas who are especially exalted in the eyes of an entire sect, such as Dalai Lamas, Panchen Lamas and important tutors (on embalming see Uebach l98l ). The head of the rNying ma pa sect, bDud Joms Rinpoche, 'Jigs bral Ye shes rdo rje ( 1904-1987) was embalmed and placed ina stupa in Bodhanath, Nepal. The gold-plated face of the embalmed lama can be seen (behind a small altar containing his ritual implements) through a latticed window in the vase of the sttipa.In the absence of other physical remains of an embalmed lama, the salts used in the process of embalming Qtur tshwa) gain importance and serve as relics as well. Physical relics may be deposited not only in sthpas (receptacles of the Buddha's mind) and images (receptacles of the Buddha's body) but also, as unlikely as it might seem, in books (receptacles of the Buddha's speech). Books may be written with ink mixed with relics.44 2. Rellcs oF CONTACT AND ASSocrATroN Relics of contact arc first of all parts of the body that become detached during the person's life, especially hair and nails, as well as objects that came into intimate contact with them, mainly clothing. For example, in the 'vase' of the stfipa for bDud 'joms Rinpoche were deposited his garments, towel, spoons, knife, toothbrush, etc. In the image of Padmasambhava at Zhe chen monastery at Bodhanath, Nepal, were deposited the following contact relics among many others: a shoe of Nyang ral Nyi ma 'od zer, meditation cord of Milarepa, seating cushion of Taranatha, a pill made from the meditation cord of Tilopa, lion milk offered by the mountain deity gNyan chen thang tha to Dil mgo mkhyen brtse Rinpoch e, dharma medicine (chos sman) which is made to exhibit signs, prepared according to the bKa' brgyad bde gshegs kun 'dus (rediscovered by Nyang ral Nyi ma 'od zer) by many Knowledge Holders (rig 'dzin), including the Fifteenth Karma pa and dPa' bo Rinpoche together at Studien 3: 54 Scott, Walter l9i Shackleton Baile University P Sircar, D.C. 195, Information i Skorupski, Tader sMin gling Lo ch, la brten te m Collected Wc Snellgrove, Davr Successors (l Snodgrass, Adria Sommarstrom, B, 50 241-251. Staal, Frits 1983. 2 vols. sTag tshang Lo ts bcas pa'i bsg Kathmandu. l Strickmann, Micl Gallimard, Br Strong, John 197 Buddhist Ava 1983. Th Sukatno, Hadiyat Report: Const (T-ll'3) (Ban1 Swearer, Donald Intage Conse, Taddei. Maurizic and LVest 20. Tambiah, Stanlel (Cambridge: Trainor, Kevin l9 , _ Theravdda Bt 1992. "\\ in Sri Lanka.' Tsiang, Katherinr nasty: The Er the Sixth Cen Tsong kha pa, Blr 'chang chen p mo)," The Tib, vol. 161, pp.: Tucci, Giuseppe Tibetica. yo1. Marina Vesci. l 988). 1919. Tibt Books. 1980) 1 959. "A' ..1.siae 22: 179 THE CONTENT OF STUPAS AND IMAGES ...29 mTshur phu, and long life pills prepared by Lo chen Vairocana.45 Books as well are not only relics of the Dharma but relics of contact too. For example, most of the private library of bDud Joms Rinpoche was deposited in 1989 as his relics of contact in the stfipa u,hich was built to enshrine his body.a6 Some of the objects that have excited the interest of their investigators, such as a 'redpencil ofEuropean origin' (Leonov 1992:.107) orthe bearhide (Hatt 1980: 20910) ar.e probably relics of contact as well. The bear's hide which motivated Hatt ( 1 980: 209- 1 0) to engage in speculations is in all probability a contact relic ofthe lama whose remains were deposited in the stupa opened by Hatt. This was even suggested to him: "It is suggested that the skin may be only a fragment of a footrest or the visor of a cap of the deceased" ( I 980: 209). Being unfamiliar with Indo-Tibetan concepts of relics, Hatt was reluctant to accept this suggestion. In the case of one's root and lineage lamas, their relics of contact are deposited according to the parts of the body with which they came in contact. Hair, skulls, hats and teeth are placed in the head of an image or in the wheels ('khor lo) of a stilpa. Upper garments and shirts are lodged in the upper part of the body of an image or in the upper vase (bum pa) of a stupa.ln the lower body of the image and the crossed legs as well as in the lower v ase of a stfipa and the steps leading to it (bang rim) are housed lower garments, sitting cushion, shoes,47 pellets containing excrement (Vairocana) and urine (Aksobhya),48 as well as white and red bodhicitta (the reproductive substances-semen and blood). When the relics of contact belong to Indian or early Tibetan scholars and saints, they are deposited high in the head of an image or the wheels of a stfrpa, regardless of the part of the body with which they are associated. Among the relics of association are images. A particular crossing of categories occurs here since images are also receptacles of the Buddha's body. Images may have developed in Buddhism as one ofthe solutions to the problem ofthe presence or the representation in the samsaric world of the absent Buddha (Collins 1992:235236; Eckel 1992).ln this regard images are similar to physical relics and stupas as well as to the corpus of teachings (dharmakdya) discussed above.49 It is not so surprising, therefore, that images function as relics. In the Theravdda tradition, the uddesika shrines of the Pdli literature,50 were usually identified as images.sl Images were deposited within stupas also in India. Bronze and stone images were found within stupas in Safrcr, Devimori, Sdrndth, Ratnagiri, etc. (Mitra 1981: 31). Tsha tshas made in the form of images were often found within stupas.s2 This tradition was continued in Tibet. For, example, a Buddha image studied by Reedy ( 1986) contained inside a smaller four-faced image of Sarvavidvairocana as well as rmagel,sha tshas of Padmasambhava, Santaraksita, Usnrsavijaya, White Tdrd and !ajradhara. The Tibetan manuals prescribe the deposition of various images. Images of Indian and early Tibetan scholars and 'saints' are placed together with their other relics of contact at the head of the larger image or stupa. The body of an image, or the 'vase' in the case of a stupa is dedicated to the various types of teachings in an hierarchical order, hence images of deities belonging to the Highest Yoga Tantra are housed above the heart of an image or in the upper'vase'. Then, in descending order, images related to the Lower Tantras, S[tras and Vinaya are placed down to the level of the crossed legs or the steps of a stupa. The heart of the larger image has a special importance. There are deposited small images of the deity portrayed in the large image, preferably made of /i ma meta1.53 Also images ofone's ownyi dant (istaclevata) a30 rHe rrBEr JoURNAL are placed there. Instead of images also thangkas of the various types of deities mentioned above may be set in stupas and images. Mandalas belonging to the different classes of the Tantra are also deposited within srapas and images according to the hierarchy ofthe Tantra classes.54 Another type ofrelics ofcontact are substances (byin rdzas or dam rdzas) blessed by various personages as well as blessing bestowing receptacles (byin rten).This category covers various objects such as images that belonged to lamas held in esteem, pills or pellets (ril hu) prepared by them, and so forth. For example, in the Sakyamuni images at the new Shel dkar Chos sde monastery built in Bodhanath, Nepal in 1988 were deposited 'mani pills' (ma ni ril bu)ss prepared by the l4th Dalai Lama. The sKu 'bum mThong ba rang grol Stupa in Sikkim contains "a jewel blessed by Buddha KaSyapa, brought by Nlgdrjuna fromthe naga land, concealed by Padmasambhava at Turquoise Lake in Tsari, and rediscovered by Ye-shes rdo-rje."56 Holy places and objects have 'relics' as well. These are relics of association, not with people, but with sites and objects. Earth (sc sna),water (chu sna), stone and wood from holy places in India and Tibet are deposited in stfipas and images.sT In the "White Stlpa" in Peking, earth from under the enlightenment seat in Bodhgaya, as well as from Wu-t'ai-shan, were deposited (Franke 1994: 180). Among the types of woodespeciallypopr.rlarare fragments of thebodhitree fromBodhgaya.58 Ruins of sacred images, stupas, temples and so forth turn into relics as well. The sanctity of the disintegrating old objects contributes to that of the new one. Old images and other receptacles may also be ground to dust and mixed with the materials used in making new images. Altematively, the dust may be used for making tsha rslras which are then deposited in nerv images, just like tsha lsias containing physical remains of lamas. The recent tragic events in Tibet produced large quantities of this type of relic, though the practice is much older. For example, a piece of cloth from the image of Mahdkala in the Norbu Linka temple in Lhasa was deposited in the Sakyamuni image of the new shel dkar chos sde monastery. A piece of the walking stick (or perhaps umbrella) of rJe Tsong kha pa, formerly deposited in a stfrpa dedicated to his remains in dGa' ldan Monastery near Lhasa, was among the items placed in r 987 in a new stupabuiltby sTag 'tsher Rinpoche, Thubten Jigme Norbu, the elder brother of His Holiness the Dalai Lama, in Bloomington, Indiana (u.S.R.;.sl By re-enshrining these objects, exiled Tibetans transfer the sacred geography of Tibet to their new homes in India, Nepal and other countries. Such a transfer ofsacred geography took place, in the past, in the opposite direction. For example, Tibetans transfered the eight holy places related to the most important events in the life of the Buddha, by building in Tibet the eight s/rpds connected with these events, each with its distinct shape.60 Decaying holy scriptures are also not discarded. In a practice similar to the Jewish geniza, they are deposited in stupas, images or tsha khangs (tsha tsha khang pa, tsha tsha house). The latter are edifices built especially to house tsha tshas and other holy objects.6l Special windows are constructed in the tsha khang allowing a continuous deposition of sacred objects there. Nowadays in addition to scriptures also modem Tibetan magazines are discarded in such tsha khangs,as they contain not only the sacred ribetan letters but also words and photos of ribetan lamas. The books found in Dunhuang, Gilgit and so forth are occasionally explained as being like geniza.In Tibet, at least, holy books deposited in stupas are primarily considered to be relics of the Dharma. The deposition of damaged books in such a THE CONTENT OF STUPAS AND IMAGES ...31 stupa is only secondary. Damaged books are not used to replace relics of the Dharma. when possible care is taken to produce perfect new relics of the Dharma. The damaged ones are then conjoined with the relics of the Dharma for sacralizing the stupa or image. 3. Boors AND DHARANIs Books and dft araus ocaupy most ofthe interior space ofribetan sthpcs and images. For example, the image of Padmasambhava, built in 1987- 1989 by Dil mgo mKhyen brtse Rinpoche in zhe chen Monastery in Bodhanath, Nepal, houses the entire Kanjur and Tenjur, rNying ma rgyud 'bum,bKa' ma rglas pa as well as other works important to rNying ma pas.62 rnthe stfrpa for bDud 'joms Rinpoche, in addition to most of his private library and his own collected works, are also the rNying ma rgyud 'bum, bKa' ma rgyas pd, Rin chen gter rndzod and the collected works of 'Jam mgon 'Ju Mi pham rgya mtsho. The triad of images called mKhan slob chos gsumor built by mKhas btsun bzang po Rinpoche in the same monastery for bDud 'joms Rinpoche contains among others the bKa' thang sde lnga, Mi la ras pa'i mGur 'bum, and the collected works of 'Ju Mi pham. The image of Sakyamuni Buddha in the new Shel dkar chos sde monastery in Bodhanath contains important collections of works by dGe lugs pa writers, including the Lam rim chen mo and sNgags rim chen ruo by Tsong kha pa, Blo sbyong nyi ma'od zerby Hor ston Nam mkha' dpal (1373-1447),fl as well asthe mDo sde skal bzang (Bhadrakarpa sfrtra), gSang 'dus rtsa rg,,ud (Guhyasamaja Root Tantra), sPyod jug (Bodhicaryavatdra), Padma bka' thang (biography of Padmasambhava), rNal 'byor ma bdag ,jug (self initiation into the mandala of VajrayoginT), Bla ma mchod pa (Guru-yoga) and others. In sum, the category of books includes everything from scriptures of both Sltras and rantras to commentaries by both Indian and Tibetan teachers. The books held in esteem vary with the sect. All these books are placed according to hierarchy. Tantras, commentaries on them yi dams belonging to the Highest yoga Tantra are placed above the heart of an image and in the upper 'vase' of a stupa.ltems related to the Father Tantras are deposited to the right, those related to the Mother Tantras on the left, and sadhanas of Non-dual Tantras at the center. Below the heart in a descending order are Tantras of the Lower Tantras. In the lower part of the image and the crossed legs are housed sotrai and Vinaya texts as well as commentaries devoted to them. Another type of written relic is the name mantra (mtshan sngags). This type of mantra encapsulates the essence not of the teachings, but of Buddhas and lamas.65 Hence they are akin, in certain aspects, to the physical relics. Name mantras of Budand and sadhanas dhas and Bodhisattvas, especially ofthe seven Buddhas ofour era66 are deposited intheusnt;aorthetipofastfrpa.lntheheador'wheels'(ofastfrpa)arehousedname mantras of the lineage of lamas. These are the lamas who transmitted major teachings of the sect or sub-sect, such as the Great Seal (Mahdmudrd) in the bKa'brgyud pa, the Path and Fruit (Lam 'bras) in the Sa skya pa, or the Stages of the path (Lam rim) in tlre dGe lugs pa, as well as the lamas who taught the tantra,the bodhisatna and vinaya vows. The name mantras of Indian and ribetan scholars and .saints' are also deposited in the head together with their other relics. Images of particular Buddhas may contain many thousands of mantras of that Buddha. Those of a particular lama are filled chiefly with their own name mantra and the heart mantra of theiryl dam and Dharma protectors as well as the name mantras of the lineage of 32 rHs rrBET JoURNAL lamas for that particular yi dam of the lama. When an image of one'syi darn is made mainly for the purpose sf sadhana, the name mantras and blessing bestowing receptacles of the lineage of lamas who conferred the initiationfor the yi dam areplaced in the head, while mantras related to the sddhana practice are set in the heart. Usually at the heart are deposited mantras and images.of the portrayed deity together with images, books and stfipas of one's ownyi dam. Dharants, besides being relics of the Dharma, can cross into the category of physical relics when they are written with ink mixed with the bodily relics ofvarious lamas. Such dharaltls are deposited at the head.67 At the throat of the image are placed the vowels and consonants of the Sanskrit alphabet. As the essence of speech these fifty letters are also a tlpe of relic. As relics of the Dharma , dhdranfs are deposited according to the hierarchy of the class of the teaching to which they belong. But the Five Great Dharalrs should be placed at every part of the image or stupa (stupas contain especially large numbers of the Five Great Dhdranls). There is also a special dharanr called the 'pigeon of awareness' (rig pa phug ron)which is inserted at every possible place in the image or stupa for the sake of absolving one from the consequences of any mistakes that might have been committed during the deposition of relics, such as inserting a dharantupside down or not in its proper place. Small images owned by private lay persons, monks or nuns very often contain only dharants. These would usually consist of about a dozen rolled dharanrs of the lineage of lamas, of the different Tantra sections, of the Sutra and Vinaya sections, the Five Great Dharanis, mantras of the Dharma protectors and wealth deities, verses of auspiciousness (sfrli brjod) andrequests for the fulfillment of wishes ('dod 'gsot). Very small images or stupos may contain nothing but the Five Great Dhdralrs. Dharqnts and mantras sanctify thangkas and books as well. Often the three sced syllables of the body, speech and mind (O,!1, Ah, Hur.n) arewritten on the back of the painting behind the head, throat and heart of the main deity or of each deity represented. When this practice is performed more elaboratety, also the dhdrapis of the deities depicted in the painting may be written behind them. In addition the seed syllables for blessing the ayatanas may be written behind e ach of the sense organs. To these may be added the verse of Interdependent Origination (the ye dharma... gAfia), the confession of sins, the consecration mantra, etc. Besides relics of the Dharma, other relics may be found on thebackof thangtas, for example, a hand-print which is a relic of contact. Books may end with the verse of Interdependcnt Origination as a short form of sacralization. The fifty letters of the Sanskrit alphabet, Om, Ah, HEm, and the hundred-syllable mantra of one's yi dam may be written as well. 4. SrUpes AND TSHA TSHAS We have little to add to rvhat was already said about stupas and tsha tsftas. In his manual Kong sprul Blo gros mtha' yas says: "Old bKa' gdams pa stupas6S as well as tsha rslas [made] by Sm6i69 and Jo bo rJe [Ati6a] and so forth are especially exalted" (p. l0a). Indeed, stupas inthe distinctive old bKa' gdams pa style are commonly deposited in larger images or stupas. Such a stilpa was deposited, for example, inthe stupa made forbDud'joms Rinpoche in Bodhanalh. Atsha tshamade by AtiSa was deposited in the image of Sakyamuni Buddha in the new Shel dkar THE CONTENT OF STUPAS AND IMAGES ...33 Chos sde monastery. Tse CoNreNr or rse Peorsrels The items contained in the pedestals do not belong to the relic category but are regarded as offerings and 'omens' for mundane purposes only. Special care is taken to set a partition (usually of yellow cloth) which separates the relics proper from the content ofthe pedestals.T0 It should be emphasized that this distinction is stressed by the tradition itself. While the relics proper can serye both mundane and supramundane pu{poses, the content of the pedestals is considered to provide for mundane purposes alone. The contents ofTibetan pedestals bear a certain resemblance to the so-called foundation deposits found throughout the Buddhist, Hindu and the ancient West Asian world. Objects were buried under the altar used in the Vedic fire ritual.Tl Hindu and Buddhist manuals for the construction of temples also prescribe the deposition of multi-chambered caskets containing precious substances, herbs, grain, seeds, metals, barks, roots, waters, soil, the eight auspicious objects and so forth in the garbhagrha of the temple.12 These substances which are deposited in the four or eight directions around the center are considered to contain the deities of the Vastumagdala-the wealth ofthe earth. Similar deposits were found in Southeast Asia, Java, Bali, East Asia etc.73 Noteworthy are similar deposits of herbs, gems, scents, and animals which were deposited in hollow images according to theurgists such as Julianus, the tradition of the Chaldaean OraclesTa as well as various Egyptian texts.75 The purpose of these deposits was to "induce the presence of a god in an inanimate'receptacle"' (Dodds, p.295). "Proclus gives a list of magical herbs, stones, etc., good for various purposes. Each god has his 'sympathetic' representative in the animal, the vegetable, and the mineral world, which is, or contains, a 'symbol' of its divine cause and it thus en rapport with the latter. These 'symbols' were concealed inside the statue..." (ibid., p.292). Lewy writes that according to Psellus "the practisers of the telestic science fiIl the cavities of the statues with substances belonging to the potencies presiding over them (i.e. over the statues): animals, plants, stones, herbs, seals, engravings, sometimes also sympathetic spices; and set up (i.e. dedicate) together with them mixing bowls, vessels for offering libations, censers; vivify the images and move them with a secret power" (195611978:496). A similar tradition exists in Tibet. Special heasure vases (bum gter) or prosperity vases (g.yang bum) are placed at the bottom of stupas and images.76 Semi-precious stones special to various deities (b/a rdo), such as wealth deities (nor lha), earth deities (sa yi lha) and serpent deities (klu, ndga) are deposited in them.77 The stones (turquoise, quartz, etc.) are tied to the center ofa tiny stupa pole (srog shing, yasti) together with a woodblock print of that deity and its dharar.tt.18 According to the Tibetan tradition the presence of Buddhas and yi dams is contained in a stilpq or image by means of both the relics proper and the final consecration (see below). Deposits such as the treasure vases serve mainly for purposes such as prosperity, and for subduing harming deities under the stupa or image. There is no doubt, however, that the wealth deities, earth deities, serpent deities, etc., are made present in the lower part of a stupa $ image by means of their stones, pictures and dhdrants, as well as by the special ritual for their empowerment which is based, as usual, on the tantric fourfold generation. These deposits doubtlessly deserve further investigations especially from a comparative perspective, although this is beyond 34 tnr. TIBET JoURNAL the scope ofthe present paper. Some of the items which have surprised those who opened Tibetan images and stfrpas, such as the peas that spilled from an image of Vajrasattva in the American Museum of Natural History as well as the "dried peas, rice, beans, barley, nuts, fragments of lotus stalks, fruit pits, saffron, tea, sandalwood, juniper, cloves and other spices..." and so forth, found inside thatimage (Preston 1983) belong to the contents of the pedestals. The pedesfa.ls of Tibetan stfipas and images are divided into two parts. The upper is the lotus throne (pad khri), while the lower is the lion throne (seng khri). The heasure vases mentioned above are placed in the lion throne. In addition there are images and mantras of various protectors (mgon po),verses of auspiciousness, prayers for wish fulfillment taken from Sltras and Tantras. Weapons such a swords, spears, bows and arrows, etc., and nowadays also miniature guns and cannons, are placed at the very bottom as omens for peace (their use is neutralized under the weight of the stapa). In the lotus throne are deposited objects meant for increasing everything desired and protecting from the undesired. Most important are the wheels of the male and female wealth deities, Jambhala and Vasudhara, called yaksa wheels (gnod sbyin 'khor lo),which are deposited in the pedestals of nearly every stupa or image, even the smallest ones.79 In larger stupas or images, actual images of these deities are lodged. lnthe stupa for bDud 'joms Rinpoche, for example, images of Jambhala and VaiSravana (rNam thos sras) were housed. Other wheels include especially the wheel of Ganesa or, rather, Ganapati (Tshogs bdag) who assists in overcoming obstacles, the wheel ofthe eight auspicious signs (bkra shis nags brgtad, astamaigala), the wheel of double vajra, wheels for control over life and rebirth, prevention of sickness and death, protection from lightening and earthquakes and so forth.80 There are also various verses for auspiciousness (sfrrs brjofi andprayers for wish fulfillment ('dod gsol). For protection there are images, dharaltts,mantras and wheels of Dharma protectors. Also deposited are the substances called the 'five times five' (lnga tshan lnga) that include the five grains ( 'bru lnga), five precious substances (Rinpoche lnga), five scents (dri lnga),lle medicinal herbs (sman lnga), andthe five essences (snying po lnga)8| Their deposition in images and stupas is meant for the increase of edibles (the grains), riches (precious substances), health (medicines), and so forth. In addition, there are the three medicinal fruits (a nt ra, ba ru re and sl<yu ru ra),82 the six good medicinal herbsS3 for increasing health, various light colored seeds, edibles such as the 'three white ones' (milk, yoghurt, and butter), the 'three sweets' (sugar, honey and molasses, but not meat, beer, garlic, onion, radish, etc.), various fruits, all for increasing foodstuffs. fine cloth and especially silk for fine clothing, precious substances such as gold, silver, coral, pearls, turquoise, crystal and so forth (but not bronze, brass and lead), for increasing wealth and also farming utensils for increasing crops.84 The purpose of all these substances is an increase in all these items for the patrons, the makers of the image or stfrpa,the worshippers and the entire region.85 Rrrulls AccovpaNyrNc rgp DtposrrroN op RELrcs The entire content of the stt1pa or image is twice rendered sacred in two separate rituals. First, prior to enclosure inthe stupa or image, the content is empowered in a ritual called gzungs sgrub, 'empowerment of dharants' .86 Even though the objects deposited tn stupas and images, especially the relics proper, are sacred by their THE CONTENT OF STUPAS AND IMAGES ,.. 35 own nature, this ritual is considered indispensable. The pre-tantric practice of the deposition of relics and other objects in stupas and images is combined with the tantric ritual of empowering the inner content. The Tibetan tradition does not neglect an opportunity for applying the basic process of the sAdhana in the sanctification ofpeople and objects. The various relics and dhdrants are visualized as a dam tshig sems dpa' (samaya-sattva) andlhe ye shes sems dpa' Qfiana-sattva) is absorbed into it. The more recent traditions and later developments in the practice almost always incorporated the older rituals. The second sacralizing ritual takes place after the relics and other objects have been deposited, rhe stupq or image sealed and its construction completed. The stupa or image together with its content is consecrated in a final ritual calledrab gnas Qtratisthd,Bentor 1996). CoNcr-usroNs Even a Tibetological visionary of the stature of Giuseppe Tucci could say that he could find no evidence that stfipaswere"erected on the relics of some saints." Tucci could go on to argue that in Tibet the final consecration replaced the deposition of relics. We are led to assume that at some point Tibetans discontinued the Buddhist tradition of placing relics within stupas. We have already stated that the construction of the stupas (mchod,,/en )... generally in Tibet have no funerary character. And ifby chance this character should be present, then it is merely a secondary one and it is surely rather rare since in my explorations of hundreds ofslapas (ntchod rten), with inscriptions, I did notfind even one ofthem which the epigraphic data could allow lo consider as being erected on the relics ofsone saints. They, instead, are inspired by that complex religious sentiment moulding the entire life of the Tibetans, and inherited by them, perhaps even exaggerated, from their lndian masters (Tucci I 93211988: 26, emphasis mine). It [consecration) takes the place ofthat 'life' (i:ita say the Pdli sources) which introduced into the mc'od rten either some part of the Master's body, like his nails or hair, or an object which had come in contact with him, like a piece of his dress, or relics which, becoming transformed into a magic replica of the Saint himself bound his mysterious presence to that monument or that image (Tucci 1949: 3 1 3, emphasis mine). As we have seen here, the content of the actual body of Tibetan stupqs and images clearly reflects the Tibetan concepts of relics. originating from the physical remains of the Buddha, the term 'relic' has acquired various new meanings based on common practices as well as on new theoretical developments. Most of these developments in theory and practice took place already in India. Certain concepts of relics may have been initially linked to certain doctrines. over the centuries. however, these linkages were mostly forgotten. Already in India together with the consolidation of the various contesting theories, the practices too had been harmonized. Inside Tibetan stupas and images were enclosed all the various types of relics that developed in India. Yet, even though most fypes of relics deposited in Tibetan slapas and images do have precedents in India, the practice did not reach the degree of elaboration it received in Tibet. Although several studies have been devoted to the content of Tibetan sttipas and images, on the whole they have failed to recognize that the objects of their observations and speculations are all part of the well established Buddhist tradition of relic veneration.ST The very exuberance and complexity of the Tibetan practice, in this area as in others, which might at first seem to obscure the original intentions, at second glance can be seen to intensi$z and amplify them. 36 ruE TrBET JoURNAL Notes 1. 2. 3. Hatt's study was initiated when a small rectangle of animal hide was found in the mchod rten (Hatt 1980: 209). The primary method of investigating the content of Tibetan stupas and images in the past usually involved little more than emptying private and museum pieces of their fillings. This method results in a collection ofobscure descriptions ofthe contents of stupas and images devoid ofcultural context. For some ofthe previous sfudies representing differing approaches, see Lange I 964, Schulemann 1 969, Hatt 1 980, Sommarstrom I 980, Preston 1983, Reedy 1986, Pal 1991, and Leonov 1992. Parallel to the Christian consecration the Tibetan final consecration also includes bathing. Bathing was one of the major components of the consecration of images already in the 4. Brihat-Samhitd (chapter 6) dated to ca. 500 c.e. (Witzel 1987:476). Among the various priests who should consecrate images according to their respective traditions,the BrihatSamhita mentions Buddhists. According to his inscription dated to the third century o,c.e., A6oka undertook a pilgrimageto a stilpa of Konakamana, a former Buddha (Sircar 1957175:37). Relics of two of the Buddha's main disciples, Sariputra and Maudgalydyana were found in various s/r7pas in India dated as early as the second century n.c.e. (Cunningham 185411966: 191, 209). Other strTpas were built for Arhats and Pratyekabuddhas (Gombrich 1971: 105; Fa Hsien 1886/ 1965: 40). Numerous remains of monastics of local fame were found as well (Schopen 1991). 5. For example, Fa Hsien, the Chinese pilgrim to India in the early fifth century c.E. lists amongthe relics of contacthevisited, theBuddha's alms-bowl, robes, sfaff, spittoon,hair, nails, tooth and shadow (1886/65: 122,index: sr.r6 'Relics ofBuddha'). When the hnayakpudra-vastu speaks ofSariputra's relics, it lists in addition to his corporeal relics also his alms-bowl and robe (see Roth 1980: 183-184; Schopen 1994b: 46; also Samyutta' nikaya partY, Mahavagga, Feer I 898/1960: 161- 163, translated in Woodward 1930/65: 6. Strong, 1983; Tambiah 1984:205-207; Snellgrove 1987: 35-38, and the works just 140-143). mentioned. 7. Emmerick 1970: 7-8.I have emended the first and last verses in his translation. This passage was refened to by Schopen 197 5: 157 and cited by Snellgrove 1987:37 and more recently by Boucher 1993:579. A similar idea is found also in the Buddha-baladhanaprdtihdrya-vikurvdtta-nirdeia Srlra (Schopen 1978: 332 and 1987:223, n. 58). For a similar notion with regard to images, see Lancaster 1974. 8. On the measure of mustard seed, see Emmerick 1967. 9. Schopen 1975; Lancaster 1981; Mitomo 1984; Kajiyama 1985; Snellgrove 1987; Williams 1989: 164-184; Eckel 1992: 97-99; Harrison 1992, etc. 10. Chapter 13, verses 8-9, translation by Hanison 1990: 103. These verses are found in the early translation of the Siitra into Chinese dated by Harrison to at least the early third century c.E. 1L The possibility that the 'library' of Dunhuang has been a further development of what originally was a reliquary chamber of Hong Bian (Hung-pien) the preceptor of the Buddhists in Dunhuang in the ninth century, has been considered (Huntington 1986). 12. Earlier Buddhist manuscripts were recently unearthed in Afghanistan (Salomon 1996). The circumstances oftheir deposition are, however, obscure. ( 1986: 227).ltremains to be shown whether the mound in Gilgit was indeed a stupa. It has been suggested that scriptures were buried there out of fear of an approaching calamity. Another possibility is that the manuscripts were buried in the ground as a ritualized method for discarding damaged holy objects, in analogy 13. See for example, Bogard-Levin gerLa. Sources such as the Pra tyutpanna Silta and others cited in Schopen 1975) Mitomo ( 1 984) and Harrison ( I 992), however, suggest that the written scriptures are relics and recommend placing them in stupas. to the Jewish ( THE CONTENT OF STUPAS AND IMACES 14. For Chinese stnpas erected during the Northem ...37 Qi (550-77) in which entire Buddhist texts were placed see Tsiang (1 996: esp. p.256) and references there, 15. Ye dharma hetuprabhava hetum tesdm lafiAgab hy avadat rcsAm ca vo nirodha evam vadt mahdiramanah."Those dharmas which arise from a cause, the Tath6gata has declared their cause. And that which is the cessation ofthem, thus the great renunciant has taught" (tr. Boucher 1991:11). 16. Similarly the Sutra on the Merit of Building a Stfrpa,preserved in Chinese only, provides the possibility ofplacing both types ofrelics together (Boucher 1991). For the deposition of the dharma in images and sttipas see also Swearer forthcoming, chapter 3. 17. The Guhyadhdtu or Sarvatathdgatadhisthdna-hrdaya-guhya-dhdtu-karan/a-mudrd-ndmadharanr-mahayana-sutra (Toh.507, 883; P.1 41, 508; Tog Palace, no.469, vol. 1 02, pp.1 1 9). This passage is found in Tog Palace, vol. 1 02, p.8.5-6. It is paraphrased in Schopen 1982: 103, where the entire siltra is summarized. 18. The Bodhi-manddlarikdra-ndma-dhdranl-upacdra included only in the Phug brag Kanjur (microfiche, the Institute forthe Advanced Studies of World Religions, see Jampa Samten 992 120). Anotherversion was found in Dunhuang, PT. 555 (Schener-Schaub 1994). This passage is found in Phug brag bKa' 'gyur rGyud Tsha, vol. 1 16, fols. 66a2-3. ' 19. (1) The Vimalosnlsa or Samanta-mukha-praveia-raimi-vimalosntsa-prabhdsa-sarvatathagata-hrdaya-samaya-vilokita-nama-dhdrani(Toh. 599, 983; P.206, 608; Tog Palace 557, vol. 104, pp.517 -543), especially the passage in Tog Palace, vol. 104, p.530. 1-2 and p.541.5-6. (2) The Guhyadhatu, see above, especially the passage in Tog Palace, vol. 102, pp.l2.7-13.1. (3) The Raimi-vimala-viiuddha-prabha-nAma-dhdrant (Toh. 510, 982;P.218; Tog Palace 559, vol. 104, pp.563-593), especially the passage found in Tog Palace, vol. 104, p.575.1-3. 20 The Guhyadhatu (see above) Tog Palace, vol. 102, p.8.5-7. 21. Tucci, 193211988:74; Liebenthal 1947:23-24,37; Schopen 1982 and 1985; Sukatno 1983 (I would like to thank Peter Skilling for sending me this report on Indonesia); Lawson 1985; von Hiniiber 1987-88; Yuyama 1989. 22. Thesefiveare l.gbugtorrnamrgtal(Usnisavijaya),2.gTbugtordrimed(Wmalosnrsa), 3. gSangbaringbsrel (Guhyadhdtu),4. Byangchubrgtan bum(BodhifgarbhaJalafiknralak;a),5. rTen 'brel snying po (Pratttyasamutpada). See Grags pa rgyal mtshan, p.240.4; Fifth Dalai Lama,p.409.6; Padma'phrin las, p.318; 'Jam dbyangs bzhad pall,p.487.6; Kong sprul, p.103; Krang dbyi sun, p.2507 . 23. See Bentor 1994a for a more detailed treatment of this subject. 24. This will be clarified below. 25. Such are found in the works of rJe btsun Grags pa rgyal mtshan (p.240.3-4), sTag tshang Lo tse ba $oL47a), First Panchen Lama (p.801), Padma 'phrin las (p.304), lCang skya I 9.84.3, 84.5), 'Jam dbyangs bzhad pa I (p.49a), Cung thang dKon mchog bstan pa'i sgron me 9.465), Chos kyi dbang phyug (fol. 7a), Kong sprul (p. 10 1 ) and others. 26. Bentor 1988. In his Satapaficaiatka,Matrcetadescribes the cessation of the life of the Buddha as: "Having split your Form Body as mustard seeds you have entered complete nirviina" (Shackleton Bailey 1951: 144). On relics the size of mustard seed see also Scherrer-Schaub 1994:724,n.99 and references there. For the use ofthis simile in the Southern Schools see also Adikaram 1953: 137; Bigandet 1912: Il89. After the Buddha's nirvana his relics are also said to have dispersed in the world into invisible particles like mustard seeds (see Strong 1979: 223). 27. For a similar phenomenon in China see Faure 1991: 132-147 . 28. This was recounted by Padma'phrin las (pp.304-305) and Kong sprul Blo gros mtha'yas (p. 1 0 1 ), [both presented also a fourfold classification] as well as by Chos kyi grags pa (pp.281-283), Chos rnam pa (pp.6-7) and others. 29. Tsha /sftas include not only miniature stlpas but also miniature images in relief. Some tsha tshas are tablets which include impressions of stupas, images and dhdranrs. 30. Tucci 193211988; B6nisti I 960; Dallapiccola 1 980; Roth 1 980; Harvey I 984, I 990; Snodgrass 1985; Brown 1986; Fussman 1986, etc. 38 rHe rrBET JoURNAL 31. Tucci 1932188:40-43; Bdnisti 1960; Roth 1980; Harvey 1990:83-95. 32. Cunningham I 892: 46-47;Tucci 1932188 Chandra and Dikshit 1936: 125-125; Dikshit 1938: 83-84; Taddei 1970 and references there; Schopen 1994a. 33. See Taddei and references there. 34. See Bentor I 995a: 255-56 and references there. See also Franke 1972 & I 977; Howard 1985; Whitfield 1989; Ruppert 1995. 35. See a note at the beginning ofthe present paper. 36. See for example Reedy, who in 1986 studied in detail the contents often opened images, and in 1991 said: "The conclusion ofthis research is that the data obtained from removing and studying statue contents are not useful enough to justi$ further statue openings" (p. l3). 37. A few descriptions of these proceedings were published in recent years, including Gyalzur & Verwey 1983, Heath 1992andAnon. 1996. 38. Among the authors of such manuals are those by rJe btsun Grags pa rgyal mtshan, the Fifth Dalai Lama, the First Panchen Lama, the Third 'Brug chen, the Eight 'Brug chen, the First Kong sprul (Ris med), sTag tshang Lo tsa ba (Sa skya pa), Chos kyi dbang phyug, the First lCang skya, the First 'Jam dbyangs bzhad pa, Ye shes rgyal mtshan, (the last three belong to the dGe lugs pa tradition), Padma 'phrin las (Northern rNying ma tradition), Prajfra6asa (sMin gling or Sourhem rNying ma tradition), and Chos kyi grags pa ('Bri gung pa). For more details see Bentor 1996:367-69. For a recent publication accompanied by illustrations, see Khenpo Phuntsok Tashi 1998. 39. In the context of relics, the specific meaningof dharanr-is a type of long mantra prescribed in the Dhdrani Sitras. Dhdrant subsequently acquired a general meaning ofthe genre to which it belongs, encompassing all types ofrelics. There is also a practical reason for the name given to the manuals, since in Tlbet dhdranis take up the larger percentage of the volume within images and s/rlpas. 40. See also Chos kyi grags pa, pp.312-313. 4 1 . For example Lange 1964: l2l . 42. Lcang skya I, p.86.3.4 instructs one to place them in the stupa located at the head of the s tfip a-pole (1tasti, s rog-s h ing). 43. ontsha tshas see, Francke 1914, Tucci 1932ll98&,wylie 1964-5, saraswati 1967, Taddei 1 970, Sangay 1974, combe 1975, Kailashvol. 9 (1982, Brauen, Ramble, Skorupski, etc.), Hou 1984a & 1984b, Kilty 1984, Dargyay 1986, Schopen 1994a, etc. Among the Tibetan works on tsha tshas see those by Gung thang pa, Kong sprul, and Mi pham. 44. See for example Chos kyi dbang phyug, fol. 5a. 45. I would like to thank Matthieu Ricard for providing me with a list of relics deposited in this image of Padmasambhava. Among the more exotic relics of contact listed in Martin (1994) are sitting cushion and loincloth of rilopa, loincloth of Mi la ras pa, and dance costumes of previous Sa skya pa masters. For footprints see also Hatt 19g0. 46. only books recently printed in India and Nepal were deposited there. Bya bral Rinpoche (Sangs rgyas rdo {e), who was responsible for building th e stilpa,has preserved the older books. 47. There are some discussions in the manuals whether it is appropriate to place shoes, even if they did belong to lamas,insttipas (Kong sprul, p.113). 48. on the homology between the five nectars (blood, semen, flesh, urine and excrement) and the five Tathagatas see, Wayman 1977 291. 49. Images, like some other types of relics, may serye as signs of saintly death (Martin 1994). 50. uddesika shrines are one among three types ofshrines; the others being physical remains and relics ofcontact and association (Kc lingabodhi Jdtakaly 22g). 5 1. Gombrich 1971: 105; Damrong Rajanubhab 1973; Trainor 1990: 109-r l0; phra Rajavara- muni 1990-1991: 136. 52. See for example, chandra and Dikshit 1936: 124-125 and plates LX-LX; see also Dikshit 1 938: 84; Mitra I 981 : 98. See also references to tsha tshas in a note above. 53. A highly valued alloy for images (see Tucci 1959; Dagyab 1977:51-5j\. THE CONTENT OF STUPAS AND IMAGES .., 39 54.lnstupasalone are setalso thema4lalasof the Two Stainless Ones (Dri medmamgnyis): Ra6mivimala ('Od zer dri med) and Mmalosmsa (gTsug tor dri med), whose practices are especially relatedto stiipas, together with their respective dhdrapts, tsha tshas, etc. The origin of this ritual, the purpose of which is to empower (bsgrub pa) the stiipa, may be found in their respective Dhdram S[tras (Toh. nos.60l, 884, 599,982,983). Later renowned Tibetan lamas such as Bu ston, sMin gling Lo chen DharmaSrl and Blo gter dbang po, wrote lengthy manuals for these rituals. Recently Pema Dorjee (1996: 4l-47)has described their m altda I as. 55. On the ritual by which such pills are prepared in Nepal, the Mani Rimdu (Ma ni ril bsgrub) see Kohn 1988. 56. (Martin 1994). The blessed substances or blessing bestowing receptacles which are related to Indian or early Tibetan scholars and 'saints' are housed at the head of an image. Substances blessed by means ofrituals ofthe Highest Yoga Tantra are deposited above the heart. Pills (ril bu) for long life and wisdom related to the Lower Tantras should be set at the lower part ofthe body. 57. Mumford also relates that in Northem Nepal "Lama Dorje had brought earth and water as well as herbs from Milarepa's cave in Nyeshang and from Muktinath (cia mig),from Bodhgaya in India and from Lumbini, the birth place of the Buddha" and inserted them in a stupahe was building (1989: 97). See also Martin 1994. 58. On the bodhi tree see Hallisey 1996. 59. For another such example, see Heath 1992: 127. 60. See Bentor 1995b and references there. 61.Tsha tshas do not necessarily contain physical relics. They are often made for the accumulation of merit and may be deposited in rivers, mountains or in tsha khangs (see Gung thang pa, Kong sprul, and Mi pham). 62. For illustrations, see Bentor 1994b. 63. The mKhan po (abbot or master) is Sentaraksita, the Slob dpon (preceptor) is padmasambhava, and the Chos rgyal, or'Dharma King' is Khri srong lde'u brtsan. 64. Published in English translation as Nam kha Pel (1992). 65. Name mantras of Tibetan lamas are formed from the Sanskrit equivalent of their Tibetan names. For example , the name mantra of Kun dga' snying po, the first among the five early Sa skya pa hierarchs, is Om Ah numah Anandagarbhaya Hum (Grags pa rgyal mtshan, p.2aj.a.Q. usually the refuge formula is also appended to the name of each lama in the lineage. 66. Rabs bdun, for their names see Rigzin 1986: 438. 67. 68. 69. 70. sTag tshang Lo tsa ba, fol. 48a. On this type of stupa see Hatt 1980. SmrtiSr-rjfiAna, one of the last among the translators of the .old' Tantras. For an illustration see, Bentor 1994b: ftg. 23. l. At least in recent perfomtances (Staal 1983, I: 395-409). 72. Kramrisch 1946:126-128;Goudriaan 1965:60-66, 137-|39;Dagens 1984: 33-35; Marasinghe 1991 : xxvii-xxix, 48-59. 73. O'Connor 1966; Mitra 1984; Strickmann, 1996. 74. According to Psellus who draws on Proclus' commentary onthe chaldaean oracles. 75. See Scott 1924-1936:Ill244; Weynants-Ronday t926; Dodds 1951/195j:291-295. 76. For an illustration, see Bentor 1994b: frg.20. 77. See also Pema Dorjee 1996:46. 78. For a photograph of such stfrpa poles that were deposited in the stupa for bDud Joms Rinpoche, see Bentor I 994b: fig 2 1 . In that picture are seen also various pills: prosperity pills (g..vang rdzas ril bu), pills made of the essence of earth and water from holy sites all over the world (sa chu byung bcud t'il bu), pills of naga medicine (klu sman ril bu), etc. which were deposited in the vases. The texts used for the preparation ofthe treasury vases at the monastery of bDud 'joms Rinpoche by the two Bhutanese monks dGe slong dKar 7 40 rnn rrBET JoURNAL po and rNam grol bzang po were rediscovered by bDud 'joms Rinpoche himself and by Nyang ral Nyi ma 'od zer (see the bibliography). See also the works by Tshe mchog gling Ye shes rgyal mtshan (dGe lugs pa) and Blo gter dbang po (Sa skya pa). 79. Such wheels were placed in the "White St0pa" in Peking (Franke 1994 174-75). On yantras in images in south-east Asia, see Bizot 1981 . 80. For Tibetan amulets and wheels, see also Skorupski 1983. 81. The number five corresponds, of course, to the number of the Tathdgata 'families'. On these substances as well as on their further symbolism there are studies available in Western languages including those by Carelli 1941 : 17- l9; Beyer 1973: 29Q; Wayman 82. 83. 84. 85. 86. 87. 1973:79-81; Snellgrove 1987:224,n. 171;andPemaDorjee 1996:40-41. AmongTibetan lists of the twenty-five substances, one might mention those by Tsong kha pa (pp.l2l.5-122.3), dPa'bo gTsug lag phreng ba (p.108), Gung thangpa (p.59) and lCang skya I (P.6299, p.86.1). See Monier-Wiiliams 459c; Go 'jo dBang 'dus 1983: 399. See Krang dbyi sun 2512; Dash 1976; Molvray 1988. For an illustration, see Bentor 1 994b: fig.1 9. The different ecological conditions in the countries ofthe Tibetan diaspora have caused certain changes in these items as compared to the prescriptions in the manuals, as some of the edibles and organic substances tend to decompose inside slrTpas or images built in India or Nepal. Special manuals have been written for this purpose. The manual written by bDud 'joms Rinpoche was used for empowering the content of his own stlpa in Bodhanath (rNying ma pa); the manual by the Fifteenth Karma pa mKha' khyab rdo rje by dPa' bo Rinpoche in his monastery in Bodhanath in 1988 (Karma pa); in the dGe lugs pa monastery Shel dkar chos sde the manual of lCang skya I (P.6302) was used. Some of the manuals for depositing relics and dharanis also contain instructions for this ritual. The yaksa and other wheels, as well as the vases for the subterranean beings require an additional empowerment. Such rituals are found, for example, in the manuals of bDud Joms Rinpoche, pp,425-428; The Fifth Dalai Lama, pp.422-423; Padma 'phrin las, pp.346348; lCang skya I, P.6299, p.85.4-5; lCang skya 1,P.6302,pp.91.4-92.1. However, see, Gyalzur & Verwey 1983, Reedy 1991, etc. Bibliography Adikaram E. W. 1953. Early History of Buddhism in Ceylon, (Colombo: M. D. Gunasena) Anon 1996. 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The Content of Stūpas and Images and the Indo-Tibetan Concept of Relics

The Content of Stūpas and Images and the Indo-Tibetan Concept of Relics

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