Theory of Knowledge
Glossary
ahimsa: the principle of doing no harm
abductive reasoning: reasoning that infers the best
explanation based on the evidence available
absent-mindedness: inattentiveness that leads to lack
of memory
absolutism: belief in absolute truth and absolute
cultural, religious, political and moral standards against
which all other views can be judged
abstract: conceptual, nonrepresentational, independent
of concrete specific physical existence
aesthetics: the branch of philosophy that studies beauty
and the arts; principles concerned with beauty and
artistic taste
affiliation: having a connection with a specific group or
organisation
agnostic: a person who believes that nothing can be
known of the existence or nature of God
alien: a person who is a not a citizen of the country
that they live in or a species that is not native to the
environment it is found in
allegory: a text or artwork that can be interpreted to
reveal a hidden meaning, usually moral or political in
nature
AlphaZero: a computer that can play the game Go and
beat human world champions
alternative facts: in the context of post-truth politics,
alternative views to more widely-accepted and verified
beliefs
ambiguity: when a word, statement, image or situation
can have more than one meaning or interpretation
amoral: outside the scope of morality; lacking any moral
framework
anarchist: a person who believes there should be no
people or organisations who rule as a matter of right
anchoring bias: where a particular concept or idea
is mentioned before a question is asked – this has a
‘priming effect’ which may affect the response given
anthropology (cultural and social): the study of the
development of culture and society
antithesis: the negation of a thesis
applied artificial intelligence: also known as weak AI
or narrow AI, the use of software for a specific problem
solving or reasoning task
Argand diagram: a geometric representation of
complex numbers that uses a real x axis to represent
the‘real’ part of the complex number, and the real y axis
to represent the‘imaginary’part of the complex number
(the Argand diagram is also called the complex plane
or z-plane)
arithmetic: the process of counting and calculating in
numbers
art brut: the ‘raw art’ movement began by Jean Dubuffet
(1901–1985), which recognised the value of primitive or
low art that belonged outside the conventional tradition
of fine art
Arte povera: An Italian art movement that used ordinary
but unconventional materials to create art works
artificial general intelligence (AGI): also known as
strong AI or full AI, the capacity of a machine to perform
the same intellectual task that a human, can including
the full range of human cognition
artisan, craftsman: a worker skilled in a particular trade
or craft
assent: an expression of agreement
assimilation: integration
astrology: a belief that the movement of the planets
affects human behaviour in predictable ways
asylum: shelter and protection; in a political context,
protection granted by a state to persons who are
political refugees
augmented reality: the technology that overlays a
computer simulation onto the real world
authenticity: validity, genuineness
authoritarian: relating to a government that imposes its
authority over people and limits their freedom
authority: the moral or legal right to make decisions in,
and take responsibility for, and exercise power within a
particular field of knowledge or activity; the word can
also be used to denote a person or group who has that
authority
autocracy: a government based on one person with
supreme authority and power
automation: the use of robots and machine systems to
replace human work
autonomous: self-governing
availability heuristic: a bias where recent or easily
remembered examples affect our judgement
avant-garde: innovative ideas considered to be at
the forefront of new developments and techniques in
the arts
axiom: a starting assumption, often regarded as a selfevident truth or, more loosely, something we assume to
be true or accept as true within a particular system
bacteriophage: a virus that destroys bacteria
ballpark: estimated, rough, imprecise
barbarian: Herodotus refers to the Persians as
barbarians. For Herodotus ‘barbarians’ denoted all nonGreeks, and the word originally meant a speaker of an
incomprehensible language. The word did not have the
same negative connotations that people might associate
it with today
belief: a confident opinion; something thought to
be true
benevolent: kind, well-meaning
benign: harmless, non-threatening, innocent
bias: prejudice, unfairness, favouritism, one-sided
preference
bioavailability: the measure of drug absorption over
time
Big Bang: the theory that the universe began with
an infinitely dense singularity ‘exploding’ in a rapid
expansion 13.8 billion years ago
big data: the vast amount of varied digital data sets,
which can be analysed to identify patterns, associations
and trends
bit: a binary unit of information in a computer
bitcoin and Ethereum: types of cryptocurrency
blind faith: faith without evidence, understanding or
discrimination; faith that is not open to evaluation or
critical thought
block chain: a decentralised distributed ledger of
transactions which is permanent
blocking: when there is an obstruction to your ability to
recall information
bodhisattva: a Buddhist who has achieved
enlightenment, but delays reaching nirvana out of
compassion for those who are suffering
body language: conscious or unconscious body
movements and positions that communicate our
attitudes and feelings
censorship: the suppression or limitation of any material
or views and beliefs that are considered to be unsuitable
or inappropriate
centipede effect: over-consciousness of your
performance in a way that interferes with what you are
doing
certain knowledge: a state of affairs when we can be
definite that something is the case
certainty: the quality of having no doubt
chatbot: a computer that simulates human conversation
cherry-picking: picking out sections of a text that
appear, at face value, to support a particular opinion,
while ignoring the context and other sections of the text
that might promote a different view
circular reasoning: the fallacy of assuming the truth of
what you are supposed to be proving
clickbait: content deliberately designed to encourage
you to click on the link, which will take you to another
web page; for example a visual image or an attentiongrabbing headline
cognitive (knowledge) tool: the mental process
of acquiring knowledge, for example via the senses,
memory, imagination, experience and rational thought
cognitive bias: when bias affects the process of
acquiring knowledge and understanding
cognitive science: the study of the mind and its
processes through an interdisciplinary approach that
involves philosophy, psychology, linguistics and the
natural sciences
bot: an automated computer programme
coherence theory (of truth): the theory that a
proposition is true if it fits in with our overall set of beliefs
bourgeoisie: the middle class – Marx thought that they
benefited most from a capitalist economic system
collaborative: produced by two or more people
working together
breadth of knowledge: a span of knowledge covering
many aspects of a subject
communism: a social, political and economic ideology
in which there are no class divisions, all property is
communally owned, and the government directs all
economic production
bureaucratic: overly concerned with procedure and
administration at the expense of efficiency
canon: a collection of works considered by scholars to
be the most important and influential; in the context of
religion, a body of authorised religious works accepted
as authoritative within that religion
capitalist: employing an economic system where there
is limited government intervention, and the production
and distribution of resources depend on the investment
of private capital
cardinality: the number of elements in a set; for
example, the set {0, 1, 2} has three elements and so has
cardinality 3
caricature: comic exaggeration
competency: capability; the possession of sufficient
knowledge or skills
complex: complicated, multifaceted
complex number: in mathematics, a combination of a
real number and an imaginary number, for example 3 + 4i
compound interest: the addition of interest to the
principal sum of a loan or deposit to make that sum
larger, and therefore make subsequent interest greater;
or in other words, interest on interest
concept: an abstract idea or something conceived
conceptual: relating to abstract ideas
confirmation bias: the tendency to believe evidence
that supports your opinions, and ignore or discount
evidence that goes against what you believe
conjecture: a guess or imaginative hypothesis
connotation: the ideas and associations a word evokes
in addition to its literal meaning
consensus theory (of truth): the theory that truth is
based on a set of beliefs that the majority of people
agree on
consistent: noncontradictory, not permitting the proof
of two statements that contradict one another
and islands, although since 1976, it has been possible
for crofters to purchase their crofts to become owner
occupiers
cryptocurrency: a medium of exchange and store of
value which can be used like money
cubism: an artistic movement in which objects were
analysed, broken up and reassembled in an abstracted
form
conspiracy theory: either a denial that an event took
place, or the belief in an explanation for an event based
on the idea that there was a deliberate and secret
agency of people or organisations
cultural appropriation: the adoption of elements of one
culture by members of another culture
constructivism: the theory that mathematical truth and
proofs should be positively constructed
cyborg: a cybernetic organism, which combines organic
and mechanical parts
contestable: where there are different possible answers,
opinions or views on the same question or topic; a
contestable knowledge claim or question is one that can
be argued about, where there is more than one possible
interpretation or answer
datum (plural data): in the context of technology,
‘something given’ – usually any facts and statistics
gathered together for investigation; an unstructured
collection of facts and figures
contingency: something that is dependent upon chance
deductive reasoning: reasoning from the general to the
particular
contraindication: a situation when a particular remedy
or procedure should not be used
controlled experiments: experiments that are
performed with carefully regulated variables to provide a
standard of comparison for similar experiments with just
one differing variable
conviction: a firmly held belief
correspondence theory (of truth): the theory that a
statement is true if it corresponds to a fact
corroborate: to confirm or support a statement or
theory
corroboree: an Australian Aboriginal dance ceremony
cosmogony: the study of the origins of the universe
cosmology: the study of the universe
countability: in mathematics, a set is countable if it can
be put into a one-to-one relationship with the natural
numbers {1, 2, 3, …}
coup d’état: when a small group of people seizes power
by force
covenant: an agreement or promise of commitment
creation science: treating the theory that God created
the universe as recorded in the Book of Genesis as a
scientific theory
creativity: the ability to bring something into being
through the imagination; the ability to generate ideas
or produce objects that are original, surprising and
valuable
critical: involving objective analysis and evaluation
crofter: traditionally, a tenant farmer of a small
agricultural land holding in the Scottish Highlands
culture: the shared ideas, beliefs, customs and practices
of a community or society
decode: decrypt, decipher, translate
deep learning: a technology at the centre of artificial
intelligence that uses big data to predict or decide
deepfake: the use of artificial intelligence (AI) to create
fake videos creating the false impression of authenticity
deism: the belief in an impersonal creator god, who is
evident through reason and the laws of nature, but does
not intervene in human affairs
deity (plural deities): a god or supernatural being
dematerialisation: when technology loses its physical
substance
demographics: the characteristics of human
populations
denomination: a distinct religious group within
Christianity (for example, the Anglican, Georgian
Orthodox and Lutheran churches)
denotation: the literal meaning of a word
deontological ethics: the belief that ethics is
fundamentally a matter of doing your duty and fulfilling
your obligations
depth of knowledge: knowledge that focuses on,
amplifies and explores specific topics
descent: as an adjective, dependent on parentage or
ancestry
designer baby: a baby genetically engineered in
vitro with specially selected traits, which can vary from
lowered disease-risk to gender selection
Deuteronomic cycle: a cycle of rebellion, oppression
and repentance as a way of interpreting historic events
diagonalisation argument: a mathematical proof
published by Cantor in 1891 which demonstrated
that there are infinite sets which cannot be put into
one-to-one correspondence with the infinite set of
natural numbers
dialectics: a method of argument that involves a
disagreement between opposing sides
diaspora: people who have been dispersed from their
homeland or have spread out from their homeland,
while maintaining a close connection with it
discernment: the ability to use sharp perceptions to
judge well
disinformation: intentionally false or inaccurate
information spread as an act of deception
disinterested: free from bias and self-interest, which
may help us to make objective judgements
dissent: disagreement; nonconformity
Distributed Denial of Service: flooding the bandwidth
of a target (usually a web server) to prevent it from
conducting normal business; this is an illegal practice in
many countries
divine: something of a supernatural nature that is sacred
or godlike; as a verb, it can also mean ‘to discover
something in a supernatural way’
dogmatism: a tendency to lay down principles as
undeniably true without consideration of evidence or the
opinions of others
Dunning–Kruger effect: a cognitive bias where we
find it difficult to know the limit of our knowledge and
expertise. If we have a little knowledge in a particular
area, we may overestimate our level of knowledge and
competence in that area. In this way, a little knowledge
may lead to an unjustified illusion of greater knowledge
empathy: the ability to imagine and understand the
feelings and viewpoint of another person
empirical: based on and verified by observation and
experience
empiricism: a school of thought which claims that
all knowledge must ultimately be based on sense
perception
empiricist: a supporter of empiricism
enlightenment: a state of perfect knowledge about
existence, perfect wisdom and infinite compassion
epidemiology: the study of the origins and spread of
diseases
epistemic injustice: injustice that happens when
knowledge is ignored, not believed or not understood
epistemology: the philosophical study of how we know
what we know, and the exploration of the difference
between justified belief and opinion
equality: the state of being equal in terms of status,
rights and opportunities
equity: the quality of being fair and impartial
espionage: the practice of spying to obtain political or
military information
ethical: conforming to accepted moral standards
ethics: the branch of knowledge to do with right and
wrong, and the study of the moral principles that govern
our beliefs and behaviours
ethnolinguistics: a field of linguistics that studies the
relationship between language and culture
ethology: the study of animal behaviour
Eucharist: a ritual in which Christians remember Jesus’s
last supper and sacrifice by breaking bread and drinking
wine, as symbols of Jesus’s body and blood
echo chamber: a space in which sound reverberates,
so any sounds made are repeated over and over as
they bounce from the walls; an environment in which
people only encounter beliefs or opinions like their own,
so they don’t consider alternative ideas and their own
ideas are reinforced; in the context of technology, the
effect created by social media and news whereby people
only encounter ideas that are the same as their own,
reinforcing their existing perspective
evidence: signs that you can see, hear, experience or
read to support the truth of an assertion
economic determinism: the theory that history is
determined by economic factors
evolutionary epistemology: the theory that knowledge
evolves by natural selection
efficacy: effectiveness
exegesis: drawing meaning from a text in a critical way
Euclidean geometry: a system of mathematics
attributed to the Greek mathematician, Euclid, based on
five axioms
euphemism: a softer-sounding word or phrase used
to disguise something unpleasant or not usually talked
about in polite conversation
eisegesis: reading meaning into a text
exegete: a person who engages in exegesis
elegant: concise; stylish and graceful
experiential: based on experience
emotive meaning: the aura of favourable or
unfavourable feeling that hovers about a word
experimental subjects: the individuals who are
experimented on
emotivism: the view that ethical claims are an
expression of feeling and emotion
expert: a person with specialist skills and/or knowledge
expertise: specialised skills and knowledge
explanation: an account or statement that makes
something clear; in the context of the study of history, a
justification or reason that makes sense of why an event
or action took place
explicit: clear, made obvious, openly expressed
extremism: an ideology in which people are prepared
to take extreme actions including the use of violence for
their religious or political causes
extrinsic religiosity: participating in social worship to
conform to a social norm or convention
fabricate: manufacture, make up
factual: containing facts
factual memory: our memory of meanings, facts and
information
fallacy: a mistaken belief, an invalid argument
fallible: capable of making mistakes or being wrong
false dichotomy: when a situation is presented
as having just two possible options, when other
perspectives are not only possible, but highly likely
falsehood: a lie or misrepresentation; something that is
put forward as a fact or a truth, but it is not
falsify: to prove something to be false
fantasy: the imagination of impossible or improbable
characters, situations or narratives
fideism: reliance on faith for all knowledge; a belief that
faith is superior to reason
Fields medal: an award made every four years by the
International Congress of Mathematics to recognise
outstanding mathematical achievements; it is sometimes
described as the equivalent of a Nobel Prize for
mathematics
filial piety: showing love, respect and support for one’s
parents
forest produce: things other than timber that can be
found in the forest, including wild honey, fruits, edible
plants and firewood
formal system: in mathematics, a system used to
deduce theorems from axioms according to a set of
logical rules
futurism: an artistic movement that began in Italy
and emphasised speed, technology, youth, violence
and objects such as the car, the airplane and the
industrial city
general revelation: knowledge of God that is
discovered through natural ways, such as observing the
natural world, observing patterns in history and applying
reason
generalisation: making statements that apply to all
cases, on the basis of some specific cases
genre: an artistic style or type; it can apply to any of
the arts
Gettier case: an example of a justified true belief that
does not appear to be knowledge
go native: to adopt the attitudes and behaviour of a
foreign group with whom one has lived for an extended
period
God’s eye view: when a knower assumes that they have
access to knowledge that only an omniscient god could
have KEY
golden ratio: image a line – divide it into two unequal
parts in such a way that the ratio of the whole line to the
big part is the same ratio as the big part to the small part.
The ratio is 1:1.618; which is known as the golden ratio
Google effect (or Google amnesia): the tendency to
forget information that can easily be found online
Gospel: the teachings or revelations of Jesus, meaning
‘good news’, originally set out in the four gospels in the
New Testament, Matthew, Mark, Luke and John
grammar: the rules for constructing meaningful phrases
and sentences out of words
‘great man’ theory of history: the belief that history is
driven by great individuals
Gross Domestic Product: a measure of the goods and
services produced in a country to estimate the size and
growth rate of the economy
hacktivism: gaining unauthorised access to computer
files or networks to further social or political ends
hegemon: the dominant group, class or state that
exercises hegemonic power and promotes hegemonic
ideas
hegemony: the dominance of one group supported by
a set of ideas, or the dominance of a set of ideas that
become the norm in a way that inhibits the circulation of
alternative ideas
heretic: a person within a group who has
unconventional or unorthodox beliefs
hermeneutics: the science of interpretation
heterogeneous: mixed; composed of different parts
heuristics: when a person finds, discovers or learns
something
hindsight bias: mistakenly thinking, after something has
happened, that you had known it would happen
historiography: the study of historical perspectives
history from above: also known as ‘top-down’ history,
this focuses on the perspectives of the leaders, rulers
and those in power, and the social and cultural elites of
the time
history from below: also known as ‘bottom-up’ history,
this focuses on the perspectives of the ordinary people,
such as the working class, women, ethnic minorities or
any other voices that may have been neglected by a
‘top-down’ approach
infallible: not capable of being wrong or making
mistakes
holism: the belief that the best way to understand some
things is by looking at them as a whole rather than by
analysing them into separate parts
infer: to come to a conclusion reached on the basis of
evidence and reasoning
holistic: considering all factors of any situation, in the
belief that all aspects are interconnected and can only
be understood in relation to the whole
homeopathy: a system of alternative medicine that
believes in treating ailments with minute concentrations
of substances that in larger amounts would case the
same symptoms of the ailment; it is based on the
principle that ‘like cures like’
homogeneous: consistent; of uniform structure
throughout
host state: a state that governs the national territory in
which an indigenous society lives
inference: a conclusion based on evidence and
reasoning
infinity: something without bounds, often treated as an
unreal number
information theory: the mathematical study of the
coding of information, and how that information can be
quantified, stored and communicated reliably through
computer circuits and telecommunications
information: data that has been processed and
structured, and can be used to answer who, what, when
and where questions; in the context of technology, facts
about something, or the process, storage and spread of
data by a computer
hyperthymesia: a condition in which a person can
remember an abnormally large number of their own life
experiences in detail
inherent: existing in something as a permanent
characteristic
hypothermia: unusually low body temperature
instantiation: the representation of an abstraction by
an example of the abstraction; for example, ‘apple’ is an
abstract idea; this particular apple is an instantiation of
the idea
hypothesis (plural hypotheses): a proposed
explanation or starting point, based on limited evidence
that can be tested in an investigation
icon: a symbol or representation often uncritically
venerated. In Eastern churches, these figures usually
represent Christ, the Virgin Mary, or a saint
identity: how a person, group or nation sees themselves
in relation to other people, groups, nations, ideas, and
the world
idiom: a colloquial expression whose figurative meaning
cannot be deciphered from its literal meaning
innate: something we are born with
intangible: nonmaterial and unquantifiable
intellectual property: the ownership of knowledge or
unique products that have been created
intellectual capital: the collective knowledge of people
in an organisation or society
intellectual virtues: virtues that are required for the
pursuit of knowledge
ignorance: lack of knowledge
interpolate: to insert something of a different nature
into something else
illusion of explanatory depth: the illusion that you
understand something in detail when you do not
interpretation: an explanation of the meaning
implicit: implied, hidden
in vitro fertilisation: a laboratory procedure in which
an egg is fertilised outside the body; the term in vitro
means ‘in glass’. In the past, IVF babies have been called
‘test-tube babies’
inadvertent: not deliberate, happening without design
or intention
indigenous people: literally, ‘people belonging to a
place’, the term is used to refer to people who inherit
and practise unique cultures and ways of relating to
people and their environment
indigenous rights: the rights of native people who
originate from a particular place
inductivism: the use of and preference for inductive
methods of reasoning to develop natural laws
intrinsic religiosity: where religion is the organising
principle of an individual’s life; a central and personal
experience
introspective: looking inside oneself
intuitionism: the theory that mathematical objects
are mental constructions, and that as we create
mathematical objects, so we create the reality of them
invalid: an argument that does not follow logically from
the premises
irony: a figure of speech in which words are used to say
one thing and mean the opposite
irrational number: any number that cannot be written
as a fraction with one integer over another (e.g. 2, π)
judiciary: the system of courts and collection of judges
in a country
justification: in the context of truth, a reason or reasons
for a belief or support for a truth claim
justify: to show that a belief or decision is well-founded
and reasonable
key concept: in the context of a TOK essay, the central
TOK idea specified in the essay title, for example
‘certainty’, ‘justification’, ‘interpretation’ etc.
kitsch: derivative, cliched art
law of large numbers: a statistical principle which
says that random variations tend to cancel out when a
population is large enough
law: a generalised description of observations about a
relationship between two or more things in the natural
world; often the description is mathematical
layperson: a person not from the profession; in a
religious context, a person without professional or
specialised knowledge in their religion
legitimate: genuine; conforming to acknowledged
standards
liberalism: an ideology that regards protecting and
enhancing individual freedoms to be a central issue for
politics, and strives towards social changes that bring
about equality and freedom for all
linguistic determinism: the idea that our language and
its structures limit and determine what and how we think,
and what we can know
linguistic relativity: the idea that language shapes and
influences the way we think and what we can know
logic: the principles of – or a system of – rules that
govern reason, and a branch of philosophy
logical empiricism: the belief that all human knowledge
should be reduced to logical and scientific foundations
(it is often regarded as synonymous with logical
positivism)
logical positivism: the belief that all knowledge comes
from logical inferences based on observable facts, and
that a statement can only be meaningful if it can be
determined to be true or false
mental map: a personal mental picture of what is true
and false, reasonable and unreasonable, right and
wrong, beautiful and ugly
meta-analysis: analysis of data to establish trends based
on various different studies
metacognitive: relating to your own thought processes
metaphor: a figure of speech which describes
something using words that are not literally true,
for example, ‘she is an angel’, ‘he is a book-worm’ or
‘knowledge is a map’
metaphysical: abstract, beyond physical, supernatural,
independent of physical reality
mimetic: from mimesis, the Greek word for ‘imitation’,
associated with the idea that art copies reality
misattribution: when credit is given to the wrong
person or source, whether deliberately or mistakenly
misinformation: incorrect information, unintentionally
false information
modifier words: words that qualify a seemingly clear
and precise statement, and make it vague or ambiguous
monarchy: a form of government that has a monarch
(king, queen or emperor) as the supreme authority
monolithic: relating to one large, unchanging entity
monotheistic: having one personal god
moral: following one’s personal principles of what is
right or wrong
moral absolutism: the belief that there is at least
one universal moral principle, which should always
be followed, irrespective of the context or their
consequences
mother tongue: the first language that you were
brought up to speak
myth: an ancient, traditional story about gods, heroes
or groups of people, usually concerning the history of a
people or explaining a phenomenon. Myths often, but
not always, involve supernatural beings
mythology: a collection of traditional stories usually
belonging to a particular religious or cultural tradition
logicism: the theory that mathematics can be derived
from logic, without the need of any specifically
mathematical concepts
nanotechnology: a branch of technology that
manipulates individual atoms and molecules
manifest: as an adjective, clear or obvious; as a verb, to
become clear, obvious, visible, evident or noticeable
narrative: a story that tells about a series of events. It
can be factual, fictitious or a blend of both
mathematical empiricism: a form of realism that
says that we discover mathematical facts by empirical
research, just like facts in any of the other sciences
natural number: often called the counting numbers,
they go from 1, 2, 3 … infinity (∞)
mathematicism: the theory that everything in the
universe is ultimately mathematical
matrilineal: passed down through the mother
neutral: unbiased, impartial, not supporting either side
of an argument
neutrino: an uncharged sub-atomic particle with zero
mass when at rest
noise: unwanted disturbances in electrical signals;
meaningless data, including data that cannot be
understood or interpreted by machines
non-putrifying bacteria: bacteria that do not help to
decompose dead or decaying matter
non-theistic: having no personal god or no gods at all
nuance: subtle difference or shades of meaning
objectivity: a detached way of looking at the world,
largely independent of personal feelings or opinions,
that expects to be corroborated by a knowledge
community
observer effect: in the natural sciences, the observer
effect refers to the principle that the act of observing
a phenomenon changes the phenomenon being
observed (in the human sciences the observer effect
refers to the tendency of people to behave differently
when they are being observed)
ochlocracy: mob rule, majoritarianism
omnipotent: all-powerful
omnipresent: present everywhere and at all times
omniscient: all-knowing; having an intuitive, immediate
awareness of all truth
optical telescope: a telescope that gathers and focuses
light, mostly from the visible light spectrum, to create a
magnified image that can be viewed directly
outlier: a value or datum very different from others
outrage: intense anger and shock
panacea: a solution or remedy for all difficulties
pantheon: an overview of a culture’s gods and
goddesses that reflects the culture’s values
phenomenon (plural phenomena): an event,
experience or occurrence
phlogiston: a hypothetical component of combustible
substances
place-value system: a numerical system in which the
position of a digit indicates its value as well as the digit
itself; therefore in ‘9’, the digit 9 denotes only ‘nine’; in
‘90’ because its place has shifted left, it denotes ‘ninety’
in a decimal system
plagiarism: passing off someone else’s idea or work as
your own
plane: a flat surface that extends forever in two
dimensions but has no thickness
Platonist: relating to the ideas of the Greek philosopher,
Plato (c 427–348 BCE)
pluralist theory (of truth): the theory that there are
multiple truths, and various meanings of the word ‘truth’
pluralistic: relating to a system in which multiple groups,
ideas, or practices coexist. In the context of religion,
having many different beliefs and practices
pluralistic history: accepting that there are various
different perspectives that may be justified, and multiple
possible accounts of the past
polarising: in this context, dividing people into two
main groups with opposite views
political science: the scientific study of the state,
governments, power and political activity
political spectrum (plural spectra): a system of
classifying different political positions in relation to
different political values
paradigm: a pattern, model or example that provides a
framework of understanding
political values: abstract ideas about the needs of
the people that drive political positions, for example,
equality, freedom, tradition, progress, etc
pathogen: a virus, bacterium or other micro-organism
that can cause disease
polymath: a person with expertise in several different
fields of knowledge
patrilineal: passed down through the father
polytheistic: having many gods
peer: a person of equal standing, usually a member of
your own tribe
population: in the context of mathematics, the entire
group of objects, measurements or events from which a
sample is drawn
peer review: the evaluation of academic or scientific
work by experts working in the same field
percept: what we notice via the process of sense
perception
perception: an awareness of something in and through
the mind
personal memory: the internal recollection of the
various events that make up our lives
perspective: point of view, a particular way of seeing or
considering something
pharmaceutical: related to drugs
portrait: a painting, photograph, or other artistic
representation of a person which tries to show the
personality of the person portrayed
positivism: the belief that the only authentic knowledge
is that which can be scientifically verified or proven
through logic or mathematics
post hoc ergo propter hoc: the fallacy of confusing a
correlation with a causal connection
post-colonial age: the period of time after colonial rule
has ended
post-modern: a movement of 20th-century thinkers who
thought that knowledge, reason, ethics and truth are a
social, cultural and political construction
Purchasing Power Parity: a standard of measurement
used to compare the economic productivity and
standards of living of different countries
post-truth: relating to or denoting circumstances in
which objective facts are less influential in shaping public
opinion than appeals to emotion and personal belief
quaint: pleasantly, amusingly or interestingly strange
postulate: a statement underlying a theory; something
assumed to be true (they are slightly different to
axioms but the two words are frequently used
interchangeably)
power: control, influence, strength; the capacity to
control and influence situations and people
practical memory: the remembered ability to know how
to do something, such as playing the piano
qualitative: relating to, measuring or measured by the
quality of something, rather than its quantity; qualitative
studies use a method to give a detailed narrative about
a human phenomenon that describes a culture or shares
a story
quantitative: relating to, measuring or measured by the
quantity of something, rather than its quality
quantum mechanics: a branch of mechanics describing
the motion and interaction of subatomic particles
quantum theory: a theory in physics which explains the
behaviour of subatomic particles
practical or material (knowledge) tool: the device
used to complement or enhance cognition, such as a
microscope or an iPad
radicalism: a political desire to change social structures
in radical ways
pragmatic theory (of truth): the theory that a
proposition is true if it is useful or works in practice
radio telescope: a telescope that detects radio waves
and microwaves which lie outside the visible spectrum
precession: a slow and continuous change in the
orientation of the axis of a rotating body pre-colonial (to
be added at first proof of Decoding?)
rational number: any number that can be written as a
fraction, that is, a ratio of integers
premise: assumption on which an argument is based, or
from which a conclusion is drawn
rationalist: a supporter of rationalism, a school of
thought which relies on deduction rather than sensory
perception to determine truth
prescriptivism: the view that ethical claims are
imperatives
rationality: the ability to reason and think clearly,
sensibly or logically
primary emotions: universal emotions which are usually
said to comprise happiness, sadness, anger, fear, disgust
and surprise
reactance: the tendency of people to react against
advice, rules and regulations perceived as a threat to
their freedom
primary source: Any object or written source from the
time or based on the time being studied, for example
the eyewitness account of a soldier fighting in the
Second World War would be a primary source even if it
was written fifty years after the event
real number: any number that can represent a position
on a number line; real numbers include all rational and
irrational numbers
procedural: related to actions
proof: generally refers to conclusive evidence, leaving
little place for doubt; however, a mathematical proof
is more than just a general proof – it is a conclusive
deduction from axioms that leaves no room for doubt or
argument
propaganda: the deliberate manipulation, distortion
and spreading of information in order to influence what
people think, usually for political purposes
realistic imagination: imagination which is informed
and guided by the relevant facts
reductionism: the belief that some subjects can be
explained in terms of other more fundamental ones
reductive fallacy: the fallacy of saying that just because
A is composed of B, it follows that A is nothing but B
redundancy theory (of truth): the theory that truth has
no essential property, and the word can be substituted
for another or left out altogether
refute: to prove a statement or theory wrong
proselytising: evangelising, persuading others to join a
particular group or religion
relativity: recognising that knowledge claims are
dependent on contextual factors or frames of reference
pseudoscience: a system of beliefs and practices that
are claimed to be scientific but which are incompatible
with the scientific method
religious experience: a temporary experience that
defies normal description, in which the person having
the experience feels that a power from outside themself
is acting to reveal a truth that could not be reached by
reason alone
psychology: the scientific study of the human mind and
behaviour
pulsar: a small, dense, spinning neutron star
religious fundamentalism: a belief in the absolute
authority of a particular sacred text, religious leader and/
or god
secular humanism: a system of belief that believes in
human values, consequentialist ethics based on reason,
and a commitment to science, democracy and freedom
replication: the process of repeating
secular: not concerned with religion
response bias: the tendency to try and please a person
interviewing us or a person carrying out a questionnaire,
by choosing the answer we feel will please them
semantic: relating to the meaning of language
responsibility: a duty or moral obligation
retaliatory killings: killings made in revenge for killing
people or livestock
retribution: punishment inflicted in response to an
action
revelation: something that has been revealed or
disclosed, usually by God or God’s representatives or
messengers
rigour: strictness; the quality of being extremely
thorough and careful
ritual: a prescribed ceremonial action or set of actions
that have a symbolic meaning for the individual and the
community
rule of thumb: an approximation based on experience
rule worship: blindly following moral rules irrespective
of whether or not they are appropriate
sacrament: a special ritual which is said to impart
God’s grace
sacred: holy; entitled to reverence and respect; set apart
for the worship of a god or gods
sacrifice: to give up something valuable to help others,
or to appease a god or spirit
sage: a wise person
Sapir–Whorf hypothesis: the claim that the language
you speak influences or determines the way you see the
world
scepticism: an attitude of doubt; a method of obtaining
knowledge through systematic doubt and continual
testing
scholasticism: a method of learning characteristic of the
Middle Ages, and based on logic and traditional beliefs
about what is true
scientific method: a method of procedure for the way
scientific investigations are conducted
scientific paradigm: a worldview that underlies
the theories and methodology in a particular field
of science
scientism: an exaggerated trust in the efficacy of the
methods of the natural sciences applied to any and all
areas of investigation
sentient: conscious, capable of feeling
shaman: a priest or priestess who uses magic to cure the
sick, divine the hidden and control events
Shulba Sutras: a body of Hindu writings regarded as
appendices to the Vedas; they are arguably Hinduism’s
most authoritative scriptures
singularity: in the context of AI, the point when
computer intelligence will surpass human intelligence; a
moment of irreversible change for humans and human
knowledge
social contract: an actual or implicit agreement
between rulers and the people they rule, that defines the
rights and responsibilities of each
social justice: the idea that all people should have equal
access to – and opportunities for – wealth, education,
health, and justice
social media: websites and apps that allow people to
form a network, and create and share digital content
and information with one another, such as Facebook™,
Twitter™, WhatsApp™ or Instagram™
socialism: a social system based on public ownership of
the means of production, and an equitable distribution
of wealth
sociology: the study of the structure and function of
society
sound: the property of a syllogism that contains two true
premises and a valid argument
special revelation: knowledge of God that is not
available through reason; knowledge of God that is
revealed in a supernatural way
spin doctor: a person whose role it is to portray a
political party in a favourable light, especially to present
the media with a positive interpretation of a particular
event
spirituality: a concern with the human spirit or soul,
rather than with material or physical things
state: a legal entity that has one central government,
which is sovereign over a defined territory and a
permanent population
stereotype: a fixed, oversimplified and often negative
picture of an individual or group, based on their
membership of that group
scriptures: sacred writings; religious texts
subjectivity: looking at the world from a personal point
of view, under the influence of feelings and emotions
secondary emotions: complex emotions which can be
thought of as mixtures of primary emotions
subliminal: subconscious
subtle: precise and delicate distinctions
surrealism: an artistic movement that tried to release the
creative potential of the unconscious mind by expressing
imaginative dreams and visions
syllogism: a deductive argument with two premises and
a conclusion
syntax: the arrangement of words to form sentences or
phrases – an example of syntax in toddlers might be a
word pair such as ‘my bed’ or ‘biscuits gone’
synthesis: the placing together of different parts or
elements (evidence) to form a connected whole; in the
context of dialectics, a connected whole, a resolution,
or a new idea which resolves the conflict between thesis
and antithesis
tacit: unspoken; implicit but not expressed
tally: to keep count (of things or events)
Talmud: the book of Jewish law and theology
tautology: saying the same thing in two different but
completely equivalent ways; repeating something
already implied
taxonomy: classification system, categorisation
tenet: principle, important truth
terrorism: the use of violence, especially against
civilians, intended to create a climate of fear in the
pursuit of political aims
traditional medicine: the indigenous knowledge,
practices and skills used by indigenous peoples (and
others) to diagnose and treat illnesses and injuries, and
to maintain health
transcendental power: supernatural power; in this case,
the power of art to take us anywhere, show us anything
including past lives and let us see into the minds of
others
transient: temporary, fleeting
trans-theistic: beyond theism and atheism
treatise: a detailed written account
tribalism: the behaviours and attitudes that arise out of
membership of or loyalty to a social group
trickle-down theory: the theory that lowering taxes
for wealthy corporations and high-income earners will
lead to greater investments, and will expand economic
prosperity. The benefits of the expanded economy will
then ‘trickle down’ to the workers
Triptika: a set of three texts that are said to record the
words of the Buddha
truth: in accord with fact or reality, a belief accepted as
true, or faithfulness to a standard
Turing Test: a test put forward by Alan Turing where
if a computer can pass itself off as a human, it would
constitute intelligence on the part of the computer
textual analysis: a data-gathering process that analyses
choices of words and the ways in which they are used, to
try to develop a greater understanding of the meaning
of a text and the culture in which it was written
universal grammar: the idea that all human languages,
no matter how different they appear, share some
fundamental similarities
theist: a person who believes in a god or gods who
interact with people and the world
universals: qualities that can be shared by different
individuals at the same time, for example redness,
roundness, beauty
theocracy: literally ‘government by God’ in which God
is seen as the supreme leader, acting through religious
authorities; in other words, government by religious
authorities
theologian: a person who studies the nature of God
and religious beliefs, usually within a particular religious
tradition
theorem: a principle or statement that can be
demonstrated or proved using logic, but is not
self-evident
theory: an interconnected system of ideas intended to
explain something in depth
tolerance: acceptance of different perspectives and
behaviours, even if you disagree with them
totalitarian state: a state in which the ruling authorities
have total political, social and cultural control over those
living in the state
traditional knowledge: a body of knowledge that is
developed, sustained and passed on over generations
within a community
utilitarian approach: a perspective that values
usefulness above all other considerations
utilitarianism: the belief that ethics can ultimately
be reduced to the principle that we should maximise
happiness
vagueness: when something is not clear or has no
distinct boundaries, is imprecise and defies exact
definition
validity: the property of an argument in which the
conclusion follows logically from the premises
values: standards of behaviour; regard for things of
important moral worth
veneration: the act of worship or showing great respect
verification: the process of establishing the validity or
accuracy of something
Verstehen position: the belief that the main aim of the
human sciences is to understand the meaning of various
social practices as they are understood by the agents
themselves
vigilante: a citizen who enforces the law in their
community without legal authority, and often breaks the
law when doing so
viral: spreading widely and quickly
virtual reality: the technology that generates a
computer simulation of an environment, such as a
headset that shows images of a ‘virtual’ world
virtue ethics: the theory that an ethical action is one
performed by a virtuous person for the right reason
wabi-sabi (侘寂): finding beauty in the imperfect,
impermanent and incomplete
wallet: in terms of cryptocurrency, a software program
that allows users to send and receive digital currency
and monitor their balance
weak artificial intelligence: also known as applied AI
or narrow AI, the use of software for a specific problem
solving or reasoning task
whistleblowing: when a person or group makes public
or passes on information about wrongdoing usually by
or within an organisation
wisdom of repugnance: the claim that we can validly
appeal to our feelings of disgust to justify our moral
beliefs
wise nature fallacy: the false assumption that because
something is natural it is therefore good
worldview: an overarching theory about the nature of
the universe and human beings’ place in it
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