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Yoga Tantra Theory and Praxis In The Light of The Hevajra Tantra A Metaphysical Perspective

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FOREWORD

Anybody who ventures to write on Tantrism disturbs a hornet’s nest. No other area in the entire range of the philosophical scene in India is more bewildering and controversial than the philosophy of Tantrism, whether Hindu or Buddhist. There are authors who give a very euphoric picture of Tantras, considering this way of life as a panacea of all our ills, while a few authors go to the other extreme, painting it in dismal colours by interpreting it as a license to licentiousness. Not that dispassionate study is altogether lacking, but these are mostly from a historical or an orientalist point of view, so that a strictly metaphysical analysis of the system is rather rare.

Dr. Tomy does well to take up a seminal text for an indepth analysis, situating it squarely in the Mahayana-Vajrayana tradition. He rightly treats Vajrayana as a continuation of the central Mahayana concepts, giving the Madhyamika-Yogacara system as the background to which Tantric elements are grafted on. His essay is to be appreciated strictly as an analysis of the metaphysical foundation of a philosophico-religious system. He adheres closely to the text, without being diffident about bringing out its deeper philosophical implications, showing the Praxis springing from these foundations. Praxis is through and through informed by the theory, and this is very lucidly elicited by the author.

Buddhahoood comprises two different elements - one noumenal and the other empirical, without any incompatibility between them. These are Prajna (Wisdom) and Kanina (Compassion). Buddha is thus bipolar in essence, one as the ultimate reality in itself, and the other being concerned with suffering mankind. This bipolarity is extended so as to cover everything that there is. Reality is bipolar, but there is a sort of self-estrangement on its pan, so that one element is alienated from the other. This is the root cause of suffering. The spiritual demand is to bring them back to each other, the process of healing being executed in different stages by the Praxis. Yoga is the name given to this process of healing.

Tantrism has never been in the main stream of philosophical thinking in India and misinterpretations are rampant because of its esoteric character. Viewed objectively and analytically, without predilections, it sheds light on the darker recesses of human psyche. Man’s existential predicament is really being pulled at contrary directions, so that he cannot be at peace with himself. Tantrism shows the way out, by seeking to integrate these contrary pulls and thus achieving a holistic personhood.

There arc many other points of acute perceptiveness in Dr. Tomy’s book. His treatment of the oblique employment of language in Tantric Mysticism, the significance of apparently meaningless utterances, the nature of religious symbolism - to mention only a few - is penetrating and stimulating. I am convinced that his work would be well received by scholars and laymen alike. Scholars would find in it plenty that will interest them, and the enquiring laymen would discover a novel way of life in which the burden of guilt oppressing him could be eased.

Prof. Ashok Kumar Chatterjee

Former Head

Department of Philosophy and Religion Banaras Hindu University Varanasi-221 005 U.P

PREFACE

Vajrayana is a difficult and delicate theme to explore. The main difficulty arises from its secretive and esoteric nature and the mystery surrounding the tantric texts and tantric lore. The cautious attempts to interpret these texts have been made with great apology, reluctance, and compunction. On account of its overtly erotic elements it is disowned in scholarly circles as an illegitimate child of Mahayana’s tryst with Tantrism. Hence most scholars refuse to stand squarely by tantric tradition, let alone consider it as a viable template for human life.

In recent years scholars of diverse cultural, religious and ethical provenance have pitched in to interpret and possibly rehabilitate tantrism in the galaxy of Indian religio-cultural tradition. Work on Vajrayana has been limited mainly to editing and translating tantric texts. The area of analysis and systematisation of the doctrine and praxis contained in these texts remains largely a virgin territory. The orientalists, cultural anthropologists, philologists, sociologists, archaeologists, and historians have had their say on tantrism in general and Vajrayana in particular yet. they have said almost nothing about, how Vajravdna appeals to a student of Buddhist philosophy and how he ‘makes sense’ out of the tantric tradition.

The task, albeit an uphill one, and the path lonely, as Vajrayana is a road less travelled by, has proved to be a most rewarding research experience. From the plethora of ideas and practices, a system of Vajrayanic theory and praxis seems to emerge. The eclectic and syncretic tendency of Vajravdna is responsible for the catholicity of its ideas, practices, and goals, which are mundane as well as supra mundane. The influence of tantrism in general, and Vajravdna m particular, has been so immense that it has genetically modified the Indian way of life, if not the view of life. Art, architecture, sculpture, painting and literature have all been flavoured by tantrism. Vajruydna has been able to enter the innermost chambers of the human psyche and satisfy certain vital aspirations and yearnings of man as no other system hitherto. So much so. even its amoral appearance attracts the ire only of the scholar, not of the commoner.

At the completion of this research project I am moved by profound gratitude and reverence for my revered Guruji. Prof. Ashok Kumar Chattcrjee, without whose scholarly help and advice this thesis would not have come into existence. The numerous rounds of discussions that we have had helped me understand the intricacies and the nuances of Mahaydna philosophy on the one hand and of tantric tradition on the other, which (intricacies and nuances) are the bases on which Vajraydna. particularly the Hevajrci Tantra. has been analysed. A doyen of Mahaydna philosophy, versatile in Indian Philosophy as well as in Western thought. Guruji has been a source of incisive insights and inspiration. His paternal prodding, uncompromising commitment to quality and scholarly precision will 1 cherish for years to come.

I owe an immense debt of gratitude to my supervisor Dr. Munni K. Agrawal, Reader in the Department of Philosophy and Religion, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi. She has accompanied me closely throughout the research period with able advice and maternal encouragement. In spite of her busy teaching schedules, she has gone through the manuscript patiently and offered suggestions and recommendations, pointing out areas for further elaboration and clarification.

This research work has been financed by the Junior Research Fellowship awarded to me by the Indian Council of Philosophical Research (I.C.P.R.), New Delhi, under the Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government of India. I place on record my sincere thanks and profound gratitude to the Council for the financial assistance given to me to complete this project.

My sincere gratitude to the members of the Faculty at the Department of Philosophy, Banaras Hindu University, Prof. D.A. Gangadhar, Prof. U. C. Dubey, Prof. S. Vijay Kumar. Prof. A.K. Rai, Prof. Mukul Raj, Prof. Urmila Chaturvedi. Dr. K.P. Mishra and Dr. Deobrat Chaubey, Dr. Kripa Shankar Ojha, and Dr. Abhimanyu Singh.

1 am greatly indebted to Dr. Francis Alencherry

S.D.B., the Provincial, Fr. John Berger, S.D.B., and the Salesian Province of Kolkata for permitting me to undertake my doctoral studies at BHU. I owe a debt of gratitude to the former professors of Philosophy at Salesian College, Sonada, Fr. Nicholas LoGroi, S.D.B., Fr. Joseph Vcrzotto. S.D.B., Dr. Scaria Thuruthiyil, S.D.B., and Dr. Joseph Alapurackal, S.D.B. I express my heartfelt thanks to my Uncle Dr. Anthony Mookcnthottam, M.S.F.S., for all the help and inspiration to study Indian Philosophy. I express my love and gratitude to Prof. T.S. Devadoss, Prof. R. Gopalakrishnan, Prof. Panneerselvam, Prof. P. Krishnan. Prof. Godavari Mishra. and Dr. L. Anthony Savari Raj of the Department of Philosophy, University of Madras, where I pursued the Master’s degree in Indian Philosophy. I place on record my love and gratitude to Dr. C.S. Sundaram who taught me Sanskrit at Madras Sanskrit. College. Mylapore.

I am profoundly grateful to late Dr. J.X. Muthupackiam, S.J., for going through the manuscript painstakingly and for offering valid suggestions for the improvement of language, style and presentation. I am grateful to Dr. Raj Mohan, I.M.S., Dr. George Praseed, I.M.S., Dr. Mathew George Kariapuram, S.D.B., Dr. George Thadathil, S.D.B., and Fr. Antony Erathara, S.D.B., for helping me with methodological accuracy and the technical format followed in this book.

My gratitude goes out to the Staff of Salcsian College Sonada, for their unstinting support to this project. I thank my Students who gave me the impetus to deepen my knowledge of Buddhist Philosophy by their probing questions.

I am grateful to the Librarians and staff of the Central and Departmental Libraries, BHU; Vishwa Jytoi Gurukul Library, Christnagar; Jfiana Pravah Library, Varanasi; Santarakshita Library, Central Institute of Higher Tibetan Studies. Saranath; The Namgyal Institute of Tibctology Library, Gangtok; Salesian College Library, Sonada and The Asiatic Society Library, Kolkata. They lent me several important volumes for consultation and provided me with other research facilities.

I express my love and affection for my parents, brothers, sisters, and relations for their constant encouragement and support. I remember with love Mr. Joseph Augustine, my eldest brother, Mrs. Geeta Chatterjee, Miss Shipra Chatteijee, Sr. Agnes Bhutia, I.B.V.M., Fr. Jude Sebastian, S.D.B., Fr. J. Pauria, S.D.B., Prof. Sisir Basu, Dr. C.D. Sebastian, Dr. George P.M., Dr. Emmanuel U.P., Dr. Varun Kumar Tripathi and Dr. Anil Kumar Sonker, Fr. Johnson V.T., and Mr. Shashank Srivastav who helped and encouraged me in different ways to complete this research project.


INTRODUCTION

Mahdyana Buddhism flourished during the period between the second and the eighth century A.D., while between the seventh and the twelfth centuries, it was tantric Buddhism that dominated the scene. The creative activity of the latter period was almost exclusively devoted to tantras.1 S.K. Ramchandra Rao points out that “Nalanda, Vikramsila and Odantapura Universities were well-known centres of Tantrik studies”.2 According to tradition some of the greatest minds of Buddhist doctrine like Santarak$ita, Santidcva, and even Nagaijuna and AsaAga were great scholars as well as tantric adepts.

Tantric Buddhism took the world of Buddhist thought by storm. It baffles the student of Buddhist philosophy how a system known for its speculative sophistication could now degenerate, if it does as some allege, into mere esoteric and occult practices. This makes the scholar suspect that there is more to Vajrayana than what meets the eye. But certain pertinent questions have to be answered before he can arrive at definite conclusions. What is the essence of Vajrayana? Is it merely a set of obscure practices performed for nefarious purposes? Is there a definite theory, which informs its prescribed praxis?


1. Yoga Tantra


The nameYoga Tantra' is generally applied to the third and higher grade of Buddhist tantras. But here the term 'Yoga Tantra' is not employed to refer to this class of tantra. nor is it used to refer to the Hevajra Tantra itself, for, the latter does not belong to this grade of Yoga Tantras at all but to the Anuttarayoga Tantras and more precisely, to the YoginiTantras. At times, the term 4Yoga Tantra’ is also used to refer to the common elements of the Yoga and Anuttarayoga Tantras. The Blue Annals called the Yoga and Anuttarayoga Tantras as ‘outer’ yoga tantra and ‘inner’ yoga tantra.4 However, I have used the term * Yoga Tantra' to refer to the Vajrayanic theory and praxis of Anuttarayoga Tantra leading to the mystic union (yoga), of polarities within the individual, which is the essence and goal of Vajrayana.

Yogic practices existed long before the advent of Tantric Buddhism. The term 'yoga' has several meanings, such as samadhi, union etc. Patanjali's describes yoga as the cessation of mental modifications (yogas citta-vnti-nirodhah)5. The Bhagavad Gita characterises it as ‘equanimity in all circumstances’ (samaivatii yoga ucyate) or as ‘skill in action’ (yogah karmasu kausalam).b Yoga is the goal for the Buddhists as well, but understood in a quite different sense from that of their Hindu counterparts. For

the HInayanists, as Stcherbatsky states, ‘yoga’ is profound meditation in which the infinite number of separate evanescent entities (dharmas), the ultimate constituents of reality, gradually steer into quiescence leading to an absolute annihilation of all life.6 7 8 It is concentrated thought (samddhi) or fixing the attention on a single point (ekagrata) and persisting in that state {punah punah cetasi nivesanam). Dasabhumikasutra advocates the practice of yoga in the first stage called vimala for achieving the purification of all forms.9 For the Madhyamika, it would mean the cessation of views about reality, and for the Yogacara. the cancellation of subject-object duality. The Madhyamika and Yogacara understanding of yoga, albeit near to the ‘citta vrtti nirodha' of Patanjali's, is from a different metaphysical stock; the former is monistic and absolutistic, while the latter springs from the dualism of purusa and prakrti.


In all, the Buddhist conception of yoga is far from those of the Brahminical theist and monist as well. For the theist it is union with God or at least being in his presence, while for the monist, yoga is merging into the impersonal absolute (brahma veda brahmaiva bhavati). For the Buddhists, yoga does not mean' to be united with God or be swallowed up by the Absolute. Evan-Wentz speaks of Buddhist yoga as essentially overcoming ignorance by being yoked to knowledge.10 11 While it is some form of cessation for the Hinayanist and the Mahayanist, (of dharmas for the Hinayanist, of views for the Madhyamika, of subject-object duality for the Yogdcara), yoga for the Vajrayanist, is different. In Vajrayana, yoga is the mystic union of the bi-polarity within the psyche of the sadhaka, and the consequent rc-integration of the individual. In Vajrayana, the state of mystic union (yoga) or yuganaddha is expressed through the symbol of ‘sexual embrace’, the most intimate of relationships.”


2. Theory and Praxis


The Vajryanic theory is the confluence of two distinct streams of thought, namely the Mahdydna and the Tantra. By Mahayanic thought we mean the general notions of Madhyamika and Yogdcara, without going into further distinctions of the different branches of these schools. Tantric insights found in Vajrayana spring from the general stock of ideas collectively called Tantrism to which both the Hindus and the Buddhists had recourse. The praxis also has elements from both Mahayanic and tantric traditions. The practice of virtue, the study of Madhyamika and Yogdcara notions are incumbent on the Vajrayanist as well. Tsong-kha-pa writes, Intelligence which apprehends the profound nature of all that is, is the same in Mantraydna as it is in the two lower courses (Hmaydna and Pdramitaydna), because without understanding existentiality it is impossible to cross the ocean of sariisdra by exhausting our emotional reactions.12 The early Buddhism and the later Mahayana tradition become preparatory stages for the practice of Vajraydna. Yogi C.N. Chen points that, “he who is not well accomplished in the Hmaydna meditation of purification and in the Mahayana meditation of sublimation should not practice the Vajraydna meditation either of Hevajra or of any other Heruka.”

The term ‘praxis’ sums up the entire realm of tan trie practices adopted by the Vajrayanists. The term ‘praxis’ is more comprehensive than the term ‘practice’ as the former refers also to the principles that inform the various practices. ‘Praxis’ is closer to principles than to practices; it is applied principles as distinct and differentiated from static theories. This work does not enumerate or describe the various Vajrayanic practices but attempts to reveal the principles, which are applied therein. The happy marriage between the Mahayanic and the tantric notions gave birth to this unique form of tanlra called the Vajraydna.


3. The Hevajra Tantra


Hevajra Tantra has been chosen as the constant reference in our effort to delineate the theory and praxis of Vajrayana. According to A.K. Warder, it is one of the most significant Vajrayanic texts, on account of the number of commentaries written on them, the most important of which are the Yogaratnamala of Krsnacarya and the MuktdvalTof Ratnakarasanti. I have made extensive use of these commentaries, thanks to the efforts of D.L. Snellgrove, G.W. Farrow and I. Menon, and Ram Shankar Tripathi and Thakur Sain Negi. The text and its commentaries help us to interpret the theory and praxis in the light of Mahdyana philosophy as well as to explain the tantric insights informing them. Hevojra Tantra is a product of the mature years of Vajrayana and is respected as an authoritative text on tantric theory and praxis, and is oft quoted by scholars.


4. Nature and Scope


Vajrayana has been analysed mostly by the Buddhologists, Orientalists, Indologists and Archaeologists. Great has been the contribution of tantric scholars like Mm. H.P. Shastri, Benoytosh Bhattacharyya,


5. B. Dasgupta, P.C. Bagchi, Mm. Gopinath Kaviraj, Chintaharan Chakravarti, Agehananda Bharati, David Snellgrove, Arthur Avalon, Mircea Eliade, W.Y. Evans-Wentz, Giuseppe Tucci, Herbert V. Guenther, Lama Anagarika Govinda, F.D. Lessing, Alex Wayman and others. Their efforts have shed much light on such issues as the origin and development of Vajrayana, the date and authorship of tantric texts, identity of tantric deities, masters and tantric sites (pithas). Some of their works have given us details of tantric practices and their possible links with other traditions and religious observances. They have corroborated their findings with historical, textual and archaeological evidences. The laudable efforts of these eminent scholars have furnished us with a great amount of useful data for deeper analysis and interpretation.

The present study docs not focus on the historical and Indological specifics associated with texts, authors, places, and the like. We do not enter into the rewarding enterprise of comparing Hevajra Tantra with other tantric texts or attempt to relate Vajrayana with Hindu tantras and other religious traditions. Issues of exegesis and hermeneutics, if any, that crop up in a textual analysis, are mentioned and bypassed. The present study is not a textual analysis but a thematic one. Our effort is only to accentuate the universal and fundamental themes of Vajrayana and relate it with the basic notions of Mahayana and tantrism. This is a humble contribution to the construction of a Vajryanic theory and praxis in the light of the insights found in the Hevajra Tantra.


5. The Hypothesis


It is my contention that Vajrayana is a continuation and development of the Mahayana tradition, and not a degeneration. Tantric Buddhism is not monolithic but contains diverse strands of thought and action, from the frivolous to the most sublime. In it there is a confluence of the Mahayanic metaphysics and tantric insights, resulting in the theory of Vajrayana. The unique conception of the Absolute as vajra, its bipolarity, and its nature as bliss constitute the salient features of Vajrayanic metaphysics. The praxis, drawn from a large number of sources, is the Vajrayanic metaphysics in action, the goal of which is to attain the union of polarities leading to psychic reintegration. Therefore Vajrayana is metaphysics and not a mere cluster of unmeaning practices; it is theory as well as praxis.


6. The Significance of the Study


Vajrayana is a system ‘more sinned against than sinning’. It has been treated as a pariah in the world of Indian philosophy, for it finds no place in the classical compendia of Indian Philosophy like the Sar\>a-dar.suna-sariigraha of Madhavacarya or even in the modem ones of Hiriyanna, Dasgupta or Radhakrishnan. It is neither criticised nor condemned; but worse, ignored. This untouchability is probably due to the presence of certain questionable practices within its praxis. Though philosophers have shunned tantra, Orientalists, and Indologists, both oriental and occidental, have taken keen interest in tantrism in general and Vujruyanu in particular. Among these, some authors like S.B. Dasgupta are impartial and non-judgemental in their evaluation of tantrism while others like Benoytosh Bhattacharyya, who calls it a ‘disease’ to be eradicated,14 are hostile. Even today, Vajrayana is conceived merely as a bundle of occult and esoteric practices, which are not to be discussed. The present study attempts to clear some of these prejudices and aspersions that have cast a slur on an important and popular Indian tradition and reveal the structure of its theory and praxis.


7. The Contribution to the Study of Vajrayana


Much of the prejudice and misconception about Vajraydna result from the faulty approach of judging the system in the light of a set of practices, which this study strives to rectify by advocating a reverse process; that is, by viewing the Vajrayanic practices in the light of its metaphysics. Hence in this work we present first the theory of Vajraydna and then try to understand the praxis in the light of that. This helps one to understand the ‘why’ of what the Vajrayanists do. While it is right to judge the tree from its ‘fruit,’ it is wrong to judge it from its ‘root’. Vajrayanic praxis may be rooted in certain unconventional practices, but Vajraydna itself must not be condemned without reference to the ‘fruits’ it bears. Hence this study also takes care to highlight the ‘fruits’- the relevance of Vajraydna for modem man.

This book claims no novelty of ideas, as Mahayanic and tantric insights are not unknown entities to the reader. Moreover, there are many works on Vajraydna. This work is original only in its approach, and its attempt to bring Vajraydna under a philosophic scan. Vajrayanic theory is analysed in the light of Mahayana philosophy and tantric insights, and its praxis is viewed in the light of its metaphysics.

Hevujra Tantra has been edited and translated by Sncllgrovc, Farrow and Menon, but it has not been analysed or studied in depth. Others who have edited the Hevujra Tantra have given it nothing more than an introduction to the text. Many authors use Hevujra Tantra as their constant reference, but do no more. Some highlight the practices followed in Vajraydna and neglect the theory that informs them, while others mention the salient features of Vajraydna and stop at that. There has hardly been any attempt, to highlight the metaphysics of Vajrayana, which emerges out of the confluence of Mahayanic thought and tantric insights, and to view the practices in the light of that metaphysics. In the present study, a modest attempt has been made to bring forward the theory of Vujraydna in the light of the insights presented in Hcvajra Tantra. And it views the Vajrayanic praxis in the light of its metaphysics and highlights its relevance for modem man.


8. The Limitations and the Difficulties


An attempt to study Vajrayana meets several limitations and difficulties. A host of controversial issues, which are significant, remain inconclusive due to the absence of adequate textual, historical, and archaeological evidences. A few important tantric texts have been edited and published, thanks to the effort of the Oriental Institute of Baroda, the Mithila Institute of Darbhanga and others. However, a Large number still remains confined to manuscripts in the possession of individuals, and probably a larger number still is lost or corrupted beyond recovery. The secrecy imposed on tantric practices would not allow us closer access. Tantric realisation is an inner experience, which requires prolonged practice under a competent Guru and cannot be fully captured through a purely academic enterprise as the present one.

The Hevajra Tantra itself has certain inherent difficulties, which throw further challenge to the scholar. The language is enigmatic and esoteric and is fraught with ambiguity, equivocation, contradictions, and paradoxes. The use of picturesque language, symbolic expressions, iconographic details require interpretation at every step. In this endeavour, the commentaries like the Yogaratnamala of Krsnacarya, and the Muktavall of Ratnakarasanti as well as the explanations offered by Snellgrove, Farrow and Menon have been of immense help.

It is utterly presumptuous to imagine that the present study is an exhaustive and the final account of the theory and praxis of Vajraydna. Vajrayanic insights and praxis continue to taunt the intellect of the scholar and elude his academic grasp. However, it is fervently hoped that the lead given in the present study will be pursued further by more competent scholars interested in tantric Buddhism.


9. The Methodology


This book bases itself primarily on the two editions and translations of the Hevajra Tantra, one by D.L. Snellgrove and the other by G.W. Farrow and I. Menon. Snellgrovc’s edition, in two parts, is entitled ‘The Hevajra Tantra: A Critical Study’. Part One furnishes us with an erudite introduction, the English translation of the text and a resume of the content; and Part Two contains the Sanskrit and Tibetan versions of the text as well as the Sanskrit version of the Yogaratnamala. Farrow and Menon give us in one volume entitled, ‘The Concealed Essence of the Hevajra Tantra', the Sanskrit text of the Hevajra Tantra, its English translation, as well as the English translation of the commentary - Yogaratnamala - side by side, making the text very scholar-friendly. The study has had recourse to another commentary on the Hevajra Tantra, namely the Muktavali of Ratnakarasanti, besides other tantric works in their Sanskrit originals edited by Mm. H.P Shastri, Benoytosh Bhattacharyya, P.C. Bagchi, and others. The Tibetan and the Chinese sources are referred to through the works and translations by learned scholars like Evans-Wentz, Giuseppe Tucci, Herbert V. Guenther, Lama Anagarika Govinda, F.D. Lessing, Alex Wayman, Kazi Dawa Samdup and others. Besides these, other general works on tantrism and specific ones on Vajraydnu have shed much light on some of the puzzling obscurities in which the text abounds.

This work is both analytic and synthetic in approach. The study of Hevajra Tanlra reveals the presence of the basic Madhyamika and Yogacara concepts in the text, but in a disorderly and unsystematic manner, side by side with specifically tantric notions. These notions appear again and again, not only in concepts but also in other forms, such as symbols, images, iconographic details, and sandhyabhdsd. The commentaries explain these notions in terms of the metaphysics of Madhyamika and Yogacara. The text of the Hevajra Tanlra, and the explanations provided by the commentaries as well as verses from other tantric texts, give us sufficient ground to posit the existence of a metaphysical framework in Vajrayana. An analysis of this metaphysical framework shows that all of its different strands are not entirely of Mahayana stock but some of it are of tantric origin, and that at times even the Mahayanic notions have been modified and coloured by tantric insights.

Hevajra Tantra has been subjected to a thematic analysis along metaphysical lines. Verses and phrases, which reveal the metaphysical structure of the text, have been culled out and scrutinised in the light of Madhyamika and Yogacara traditions. Specifically tantric notions, which are incorporated in the text, are also analysed. The modifications and novelties grafted on to the Mahayanic notions under tantric influence are brought to the fore. The relevant passages are grouped together and synthesised to constitute a coherent Vajrayanic metaphysical superstructure built on the Mahayanic metaphysical

foundation, which undoubtedly is .the inspiration for Vajraydna. The Hevajra Tantra, along with

Yogaratnamald. and other important tantras, is frequently summoned to substantiate and corroborate the metaphysical claims. The practices associated with Hevajra sadhana are not given as one systematic whole within the text. Theory and praxis lie interspersed in a somewhat confused manner. This is probably deliberate, since tantric sadhana is not to be learned from books, but from a competent Guru. However, for our purely academic purpose, these scattered references to the Hevajra practices have been grouped together to form a consistent praxis. Yet the exact nature of the praxis is not very clear in some cases. There is no attempt to justify or advocate them but only to show how they are related to and consistent with the theoretical framework of Vajraydna.

The Vajrayanic theory and praxis is constructed with ample reference to classical Mahayanic and tantric texts and commentaries. They are further substantiated with the views and opinions of scholars in Madhyamika and Yogacara, as well as in Vajraydna. As the approach of the present study is new, and the effort to construct a theory and praxis unprecedented, all the assertions made here may not be shared by the scholars in the field. However, textual references and indications give us sufficient ground to arrive at the assertions we have made and the conclusions we have drawn in this work. Our presentation of the theme is expository, not argumentative, or confrontational. Controversies are pointed out but not entertained or entered into beyond a point and we do not take sides. Our focus is on presenting, as far as possible, a closely-knit theory and praxis of Vajraydna basing ourselves on the Hevajra Tantra and its principal commentaries the Yogaratnamald and the Muktavali.


10. The Layout of Material


The material is organised into seven chapters. Every chapter begins with a few relevant introductory remarks and concludes with a brief summary of the issues dealt with. In the Introduction, the theme is analysed and the title is elaborated and justified. The nature and scope of the thesis is laid bare so as to enable the reader to have the right perspective as he enters into it. The contention of the author is explained briefly and the significance and novelty of the approach is indicated. The reader is made aware of the limitations and difficulties that the study has met with, and how, and to what extent they have been surmounted.


The first chapter presents a bird’s-eye view of the world of Tantrism. It analyses the various nuances of the term ‘tantra’, the origin of tantrism, and its salient features. A brief survey of the Hindu Tantras is included to complete the broader picture of the tantric tradition. The origin and development of Vajrayana from Mantrayana to Kdhtcakraydna are treated at some length. The discussion then focuses on the classification of Buddhist tantras. In the sub-section on Vajrayanic literature, the different genre of Buddhist tantric literature as well as some of the important texts are referred to. One of the characteristics of tantric

literature is the use of sandhyabhasa and other unique modes of communication. The controversies surrounding the term 'sandhyabhasa’ are only referred to but not elaborated on, as they bear little consequence to this study. The chapter ends with a brief reference to the great tantric masters, the Siddhacaryas, under whose supervision Vajray&na took shape and flourished. The second chapter introduces the Hevajra Tantra, the text in the light of which this work has been carried out. The title ‘Hevajra Tantra * is analysed into its constituent parts 'he' and 'vajra' signifying koruna and prajM respectively. The date of composition

and authorship are discussed, followed by a brief comment on the different versions of the text and the context in which it is believed to have been proclaimed by the Buddha. A brief analysis of the language and style of the text is added to aid the reader to appreciate the text better. Snellgrove gives a critical resume of the content of the text, which is helpful in grouping together related verses. In this chapter, an attempt has been made to make a thematic analysis of the text so that the discussion on the theory and praxis of Vajraydna becomes clear. The chapter concludes with a brief account of the commentarial literature on the

Hevajra Tantra as well as a discussion on its significance and position among other major Buddhist tantras. The third and the fourth chapters together delineate the theory of Vajrayana, which is constituted of two distinct strands, namely Mahayanic and tantric. The third chapter concentrates on the Mahayanic metaphysical foundation, which is at the core of Vajrayanic theory. It discusses the nature of Existence, Avidya, and the Absolute. There is a brief account of the understanding of sunyata and vijndna as elaborated in Mddhymnika and Yogacara respectively. The two views on Reality, namely paramartha and saritviti as

found in the Hevajra Tantra. are highlighted. The Absolute is viewed as vajra. sahaja. and mahasukha, which is a Vajrayanic modification of the conception of the Absolute inherited from its Mahayanic predecessors. The text emphasises the immanence of the Absolute as the underlying principle of unity. The notion of Tathagata, and the modification of the trikdya system in the hands of the Vajrayanists arc commented upon. Though the Hcvajra Tantra does not employ the term tathagaiagarhha, the notion that every sentient being is a potential tathagata is at the core of the text, and this is embodied in the person of the Vajragarbha to whom the Bhagavan preaches the Hevajra Tantra.


The fourth chapter explains the tantric base of the Vajrayanic metaphysics. The Absolute is conceived as bipolar and the Mahayanic notions of sunyata and karurta

form the two polarities. They are now called prajna and

updya respectively. The two are considered female and

male and are identified with the two nadis, Inland and

rasand as well as with vowels (ali) and consonants (kali). The concept of union is fundamental to the tantric perception of Reality. The Absolute is viewed as the union (yuganaddha) of the polarities. Vajrayana assigns a central place to the body and it is conceived as the microcosm. The chapter analyses the notions of Body, Speech, and Mind, which form the core of the pancaskandhas, the five aggregates of phenomenal existence. The chapter concludes with a brief account of the ‘homologous vision’ of existence as delineated in the text.

The fifth and sixth chapters together furnish us with the praxis of Vajrayana. The fifth chapter gives us the fundamental tools for praxis. The chapter explains the mandala in general, and the mandala of Hevajra and Nairatmya in particular. The body itself is conceived as a mandala. The meaning and significance of the mandala is explained and its connection with Vajrayanic theory is established. The conception of deity is another important issue that is discussed. The significance of the dhydni Buddhas, the Dakinis, Hevajra, Nairatmya and their ‘retinue-goddesses’ is explained. The chapter devotes some space to the symbolic meaning and significance of the deity in the VajraySnic praxis. The role of Mantra as an important tool in stabilising the mind and the need for a competent Gum in tantric praxis are explained.

The sixth chapter deals with the praxis proper, which consists essentially of the process of Generation and the process of Completion. The praxis of Hevajra sadhana calls for an intense preparation of the yogi and the yogint. The strict philosophical training as enjoined by the Hevajra Tantra is followed by the application of the vows and the conferring of consecrations. The process of Generation consists of meditation on the Hevajra mandala, which begins with certain preliminaries. The meditation on the

Hevajra mandala consists of the four stages of Sole Hero Yoga and the §adafiga-yoga. This meditation (on the Hevajra mandala) is followed by the ’ isualisation of the Nairatmya mandala. The process of Completion is aimed at achieving union, which may be external, involving the female practitioner, or internal in which the union is between the two subtle nadls, namely lalana and rasana. This union is achieved with different mudras in which the different moments and the joys are noted by the practitioner.


The seventh chapter explains the relevance of Vajrayanic theory and praxis for our times. This concluding chapter contains a brief appraisal of the essential aspects of Vajrayanic theory: its understanding of the nature of existence, the nature of nescience, the conception of the Absolute as vajra and as bi-polar, the Absolute as union or yoga of polarities and as great bliss. The chapter shows how Vajrayana has set Buddhism in a ‘new key’. There is an emphasis on visualisation over conceptualisation and a shift from

‘meaning’ to ‘meaninglessness*. The physical is conceived as the spiritual and psychic fragmentation is replaced by re-integration. Vajrayana has shed much light on the nature of human psyche and it holds much therapeutic relevance for man. The chapter also considers some of the popular questions, such as, whether Vajrayana is a degeneration or development, whether it is practical and relevant for modem man, and whether it is Metaphysics, Religion or Psychology. Vajrayana is presented as a tantric form of

mysticism. We also discuss what potential it holds for personal re-integration and universal harmony. Finally, the chapter concludes with a note on how Vajrayanic theory and praxis promote a new vision of man, metaphysics, and religion.

1
D.L. Snellgrove, The Hevajra Tantra: A Critical Study (London: Oxford University Press, 1959; Reprint, 1980), Parti, p.4. From now on referred to as HT(S).
2
2. S.K. Ramchandra Rao, Tibetan Tantrik Tradition (..., Arnold-Heinemann, 1977), p.31. Jagaddala University in North Bengal was another centre for tantric studies. For details see pp. 30-36.
3
James B. Robinson, trans., Buddha's Lions: The Lives of the Eighty-four Siddhas (caturafSi-siddha-pravftti by Abhayadatta) (Berkeley. Dharma Publishing, 1979), p.5. But modem scholars dispute these claims.
4
   George N. Roerich, The Blue Annals (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1949; Reprint 1996), p.351.
5
   Christopher Chappie and Yogi Anand Viraj, The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali (Delhi: Satguru Publications. 1990). Samadhi Pdda. 2.
6
   Swami Tapasyananda, Trans., Srmiad Bhagavad Gita (Mylapore, Sri Ramakrishna Math,...) 2:48, 50.
7
   Theodore Stcherbatsky, The Conception of Buddhist Nirvdna, 2nd edition (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1977), Part II, p.4.
8
   Ibid.. Part II. p.7.
9
   ".. .sarvdkdraparifodhandbhinirhdra eva yogah karanhaft" P.L. Vaidya. cd.. Dasabhumikasutra (Darbhanga: The Mithiia Institute, 1967). 16. (emphasis added) From now on referred to as DBHS.
10
   W.Y. Evan-Wentz, ed., Tibetan Yoga and Secret Doctrines. 2nd edition (London: Oxford University Press. 195S; Paperback. 1907), p.39.
11
   Herbert V. Guenther. Tibetan Buddhism without Mystification (Leiden: E.J. Brill. 1966), p.57.
12
   as found in Ibid., p.61.
13
   Yogi C.M. Chen, "A Safe Guide of the Practitioner of Hevajra Tantra”, in Encyclopaedia of Buddhist Tantra, (EBT) vol.4, ed., Sadhu Santideva (New Delhi: Cosmo Publications. 2001), p.997.
14
Benoytosh Bhattacharyya writes, “If at any time in the history of India the mind of the nation as a whole has been diseased, it was in the Tantric age, or the period immediately preceding die Muhammadan conquest of India....Some should therefore take up the study comprising the diagnosis, aetiology, pathology and prognosis of the disease, so that more capable men may take up its treatment and eradication in the future." (emphasis added) See Benoytosh Bhattacharyya, An Introduction to Buddhist Esoterism (Delhi- Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited, 1980; Repruit 1989), Preface. From now on referred to as IBE.

TANTRIC BUDDHISM

The phenomenon of tantric 2 Buddhism that dominated the scene of Indian Buddhism from the eighth to the thirteenth century was the result of a fusion of divergent thoughts and practices. Tantric Buddhism was forged from a variety of metaphysical currents, and religious practices, within a particular socio-political context. To understand its theory and praxis, it is essential to have a panoramic view of tantrism in general, and identify the labyrinth of influences that gave birth to it in particular.- This chapter is an attempt to unravel the genesis, nay the genetics of tantric Buddhism as well as trace its growth and development.


1. Tantra


The essence of tantm is revealed in its etymology. The term ‘tantra' comes either from the Sanskrit root ‘tan’ (to spread) or from ‘tantri' (knowledge). Hence, 'tantrci' may be understood as ‘that which spreads knowledge’.3 Kautilya (3rd century B.C.) used the wordtantra’ to signify ‘fundamental canons of a system of thought’4 Again, in referring to certain systems of Philosophy and Disciplines, such as Nydya, Sdrhkhya and Cikitsa, expressions such as ‘Nyaya-tantresu4Sdmkhya-tantresu’ and Cikitsa-tantresu *, were commonly used.5 The Rcitncigotravibhaga, a text belonging to the Buddhist Tathagatagarbha literature. Was popularly known as Uttaratantra. Therefore, the term 1 tantra', at least initially, meant any work, treatise, or handbook teaching some doctrine or practice, not necessarily a tantric one with the connotation it has now.

The term 4tantra’ could also be related to the Sanskrit verbal roots 'tan' which means ‘to stretch’, or ‘expound’, and to fra' which means ‘to save’ Hence ‘tantra' is ‘that which saves’ This soteriological nuance of the term 4tantra' assumes importance in the face of the common misconception that the primary aim of tantra is to procure mundane benefits.

The Tibetan equivalent of the Sanskrit wordtantra’, 4rgyud’, literally means a ‘continuum’ or an ‘unbroken stream’, flowing from ignorance to enlightenment. This is significant especially in relation to the tantric praxis. Tantra puts into practice the homeopathic dictum of ‘curing the like by the like’ (sitnilia similibus curantur). That is, unlike the Sutra path, the ‘rgyiuT enables dissonant emotions such as raga (passion), dvesa (wrath), moha (delusion) etc., to be transmuted into blissful states of realisation, without renunciation or rejection.6 7 This resonates with the spirit of the Madhyamikakdrika that sariisdra and nirvana are essentially one and the same continuum. Thus the tantric practitioner can cultivate an uninterrupted continuum between his ordinary initial mind, the advanced mind on the Path, and the resultant fully enlightened mind of the Buddha.8 While the Sanskrit root of the term 'tantra' points to its theoretical aspect, the Tibetan root highlights its praxis. Tantra must be understood in terms of both theory and praxis.

There have been several attempts to define Tantra. Benoytosh Bhattacharyya in his introduction to Nispannayogdvali states, “Tantras are psychic sciences, which prescribe a variety of psychic exercises in order to experience certain supernormal phenomena.”9 This definition, while highlighting the psychic aspect of tantric praxis, seems to ignore the large number of physical practices enjoined by Kriya and Carya Tantras. Again, tantric praxis produces not only the experience of

certain ‘supernormal phenomena’ but also the attainment of siddhis and other temporal benefits, for which alone tantra was often pursued. Mahamahopadhyaya Haraprasad Shastri, in his introduction to N.N. Vasu’s Modern Buddhism and its Followers in Orissa, writes, “The word Tantra is very loosely used. Ordinary people understand by it any system other than the Vedas. But it really means the worship of Sakti, or female energy. The female energy is worshipped in conjunction with male energy. The union of male and female is the essence of Tantra.”10 This definition, albeit applicable to the Hindu lantras as well as the higher Yoga and Anuttarayoga tantras of the Buddhists, fails to include the lower Kriya and Caryd Tantras. Tantra defies definition as it embraces within its fold elements from all quarters; it is theory and praxis; it is philosophy and religion. Hence a definition may in fact do violence to the very spirit of the system, and so it is best left undefined. However, it may be described as a special genre of religious literature, a unique philosophy and a sophisticated psychic praxis of an esoteric nature. We shall now proceed to explore the sources of the theory and praxis of tantra.


2. Rise of Tantrism


Tantrism, whether Hindu, Buddhist or Jaina, is not an absolute novelty within the Philosophico-religious traditions of India. It is rather a continuation, a modification and innovation grafted on their respective traditions. In this sense it marks a point of arrival and departure. The evolution of tantra, its theory and praxis, occurred over several centuries. It owes much to a wide variety of socio-cultural and religious influences. It is possible to posit a store of primitive tantric elements scattered across several cultures, from which Hindu, Buddhist and Jaina Tantras borrowed freely over an indefinite period of time. P.G. Yogi points out that “...Tantrik tradition was not evolved by Hinduism or Buddhism out of its own select material, but has in fact grown out of the soil which both the Hindus and Buddhists use.”11 However, certain specific contribution to tantrism by the respective traditions is not ruled out.


2.1 Antiquity of Tantrism


Available historical data indicate that tantrism is of very ancient magical descent. The genealogy of certain tantric rites has been traced back to the Vedas, especially the Rg-vedct (10th century B.C.) and the Athcir\>a-veda. On account of its close relation with the ritualistic tradition of the Vedas, tontra has been called snitisakhavisesah.'12 Certain symbols engraved on coins belonging to the sixth and seventh century B.C., have been identified as tantric hieroglyphics. Upanisads like the Tripuropanisad

contain descriptions of tantric hieroglyphics. Tantric deities were already worshipped in the fifth century is proved by the Gangdhar stone inscriptions (424 A.D.). Again, certain Agamas may possibly belong to the same period. 13 The antiquity of tantrism is still difficult to determine though a number of tantric texts have been discovered. This is because these texts are of a much later development. Tantric practices were in circulation long before the texts delineating them made their appearance. Most of the tantric texts belong to the period between the eighth and the fourteenth century A.D., which is considered to be the golden period of tantrism in terms of textual and artistic production.14 Adequate historical data is not available as yet to arrive at a more certain date as the early stages of tantrism are much older than their first references in literature. Hence even if the tantras can be dated with some certainity the genesis of tantrism may still continue to elude the grasp of the historian.


Much scholarly wrangling has taken place on the question whether the Hindu tantras preceded the Buddhist tantras or vice versa. Mircea Eliade is of the opinion that Hindu tantrism is prior to its Buddhist counterpart. According to him, tantrism is essentially a Hindu phenomenon. However the oldest datable tantric documents are Buddhist. But Eliade counters, “Even if the oldest datable documents are Buddhist (they arc Chinese, not Indian), Hindu tantrism in all likelihood and for several reasons, surely preceded

Tantric Buddhism, even if both later interacted.”15 But Benoytosh Bhattacharyya is of the view that the Buddhist Tantras were the inspiration for the Hindu Tantras. He writes, The developments on Tantra made by [he Buddhists and the extraordinary plastic art they developed did not fail again to create an impression on the minds of the Hindus, and they readily incorporated many ideas, doctrines, and gods, originally conceived by the

Buddhists in their religion and literature.... The bulk of the literature which goes by the name of the Hindu Tantras, arose almost immediately aflcr the Buddhist ideas had established themselves, though after the Tantric Age, even up to the last century, Tantric works were continued to be written by the Hindus.16 17

Benoytosh Bhattacharyya tries to establish the relative priority of the origin of certain deities common to both the systems in an effort to prove the priority of Buddhist Tantras. He concludes his lengthy argument stating, “it is possible to declare without fear of contradiction, that the Buddhists were the first to introduce the Tantras into their religion, and that the Hindus borrowed them from the Buddhists in later times, and that it is idle to say that later Buddhism was an outcome of Saivism.” Historical information available so far is scanty and confusing, rendering such an endeavour futile at the present stage. Further, the scope of this work neither warrants nor permits such an enterprise. The primary concern of the present section is only to identify the wellsprings of tantric theory and praxis.


2.2 Sources of Tantric Theory.


Tantric theory shares much in common with the classical Indian systems (Dars'anas)... Its linguistic or metalinguistic speculations are based on those of Mlmamsa. Its cosmology is modelled on the categories of Samkhya. Tantric metaphysics, mostly of the non-dualistic, absolutistic type is Vedantic18 especially in case of Hindu Tantras, and Mahayanic in case of Buddhist Tantras. S.B. Dasgupta writes,

...we find in the Hindu Tantras the ideas of Vedanta. Yoga. Samkhya, Nvdya-vaisesika. the Puranas and even of the medical sciences and the law-books - all scattered here and there; so also in the Buddhist Tanlras we find fragments of metaphysical thought, which arc all taken from the leading schools of Mahayana Buddhism as influenced by Vedantic monism.19

Tantric theory is a jumble of ideas drawn from Sunyavada, Yogdedra-vijndnavada and Vedanta, including even the leading tenets of early Buddhism. This rather unsystematic and confused presentation of tantric theory is probably because, the primary aim of tantrism is to build up a sure praxis to attain the goal in the shortest and easiest way possible, and not to construct a precise metaphysical system. While Vedanta and Mahayana represent the exoteric teaching, tantrism represents the esoteric one. The two are different yet they are not opposed to each other. The latter aims at the culmination of the spiritual journey, which begins with the comprehension of the monistic and absolutistic philosophy of the former. It is as though tantrism picks up from where the Upanis ads and the Mahayana philosophy leaves off.20 From the theoretical point of view, tantrism has not been inventive, but definitely innovative in interpreting existing notions in a new light. This is not to underplay the significance of certain typically tantric insights into the nature of reality, which we shall discuss at a later stage. 2.3 Sources of Tantric Praxis

The primary concern of tantrism was not to establish a metaphysical system, but “to indicate and explain the practical method of realising the truth.”21 It is in the field of tantric sddhana that tantrism shows its ingenuity and creativity. Tantric sddhana drew inspiration from Vcdic practices and is interspersed with elements of Yoga, besides numerous other cultural and religious ingredients.

The ascription of a Vedic origin to tantric praxis may be debated. However, the roots of certain tantric rites may be traced back to different parts of the Vedic literature, though tantrism as a system was not developed then. Some Tantras do acknowledge their Vedic parentage. The Kularnava Tantra states: "Tasmat veddtmakarii sastram vidhi kaulatmakam priye. ”


Vedic authorities are cited in justification of kaula rites.23 Most of the Vedic loans are from the Atharvci-vedci especially the Saubhagya-kanda of the Athar\>a-veda. The Kalikularnava Tantra begins by stating, ‘‘Now Devi says in the Atharvana Samhita”.24 25 The Yantra-Cintamani of Damodara is considered the quintessence of the Atharva-veda. The tantric Upanisads like Kaula, Rudra etc., seem to maintain the Vedic lineage in the Tantras. The Pahcardtra system owes its descent to a less known vedic school called the

Ekaydna sakha (sec Kalpataruparimala under Brahma Sutra, 11:2:42). The origin of certain mantras, yantras, and cakras has been traced to the Vedas especially the Atharva-veda, and Taittiriya Aranyaka 25 Sensualism, which is a hallmark of the Tantras, is also found in the Vedas. Aitareya Aranyaka (11:3.7.3) states that neither the seed of man nor the blood of woman should be despised as they arc forms of Adilya and Agni respectively. The use of intoxicants for sacrificial purpose was known in Vedic times. Some claim

that the hymns of Rg-veda point to the $at-kamias of the Tantras.26 Dhamia Sastras. Patanjnli’s Yoga Sutra (iv.I), and Puranas(likc Padnui. Devi. Kahka. and Lingci) and even early secular books like the Arthasaiftra of Kautilya (xiv.3), refer to tantric practices.27 Tantric elements arc observable in Jaina canonical works in Prakrit as well.28 Mircea Eliade, however, cautions us that there was no tantrism in Vedic and Brahmanic times, but merely elements that later evolved

and became part of tantrism. Hence scattered references to the Vedic tradition in the tantric texts must not be taken to establish the Vedic origin of the Tantras. It is likely that such references were introduced later to win acceptance among orthodox circles.29 The references to some of these practices could only mean, at best, that they were prevalent in some form in such ancient times. However, it does not show that they were either sanctioned or recommended by the Vedas.


The genetics of Tantra may lead us far beyond the confines of Vedic tradition and Aryan influences. Mircea Eliade believes that an ancient fund of autochthonous cults, whose existence is presumed, rather than proved, transformed Vedic esoterism into tantrism.30 These autochthonous practices comprise of the old traditions of unsystematised yoga and body cult, shamanic cultures of Central Asia, medicine, witchcraft, sorcery, occultism, magic - white and black, astrology, religious eroticism and folkloristic ritual. Certain tantric practices may have been inspired by the primitive agrarian economy and the matriarchal social structures of prehistoric times. Mircea Eliade writes,


It is obvious, for example, that the symbolisms and cults of Mother Earth, of human and agricultural fertility, of the sacrality of woman, and the like, could not develop and constitute a complex religious system except through the discovery of agriculture; it is equally obvious that a preagricultural society, devoted to hunting, could not feel the sacrality of Mother Earth in the same way or with the same intensity.”31


Fertility symbolism, eroticism and worship of the phallus are natural outcome of the pastoral concerns of a primitive people. Again, the emphasis on the female element in tantrism may be understood in the context of the matriarchal social structures of prehistoric societies.32 The £akta conception of Sakti as the active partner in the cosmic act of creation while Siva remains purely passive probably had its origin in the primitive matriarchal cultures.33 While tantric praxis has its ancestry in the Vcdic practices and in the autochthonous cults, tantric speculation has sprung from early Upanisadic sources such as the Chandogya. the Maitri and others, the Mmidriisa and Samkhva doctrines,3'* the absolutistic systems of Vedanta. Madhvamika and Yoga earn. Thus a wide variety of influences and diverse cross-cultural currents seem to have fathered the emergence of tantrism. We have various essences, the orthodox speculation, the heterodox praxis, the Vedic ritualism and the yogico-mystic traditions of the Dravidians, other indigenous cults and autochthonous traditions brewing up in a prehistoric matriarchal social structure and agrarian economy, fanned by a spirit of revolt and challenge to the established socio-religious system, giving rise to what we now call Tantrism.


3. Salient Features of Tantrism


In this section we intend to discuss the chief characteristics of tantrism in general, without making any distinction between Hindu, Buddhist and Jaina tantras. S.B. Dasgupta holds that there is in fact no essential difference between the two major schools, the Hindu and the Buddhist schools of Tantrism; but other scholars like Lama Anagarika Govinda see it otherwise.


3.1 The Spirit of Heterodoxy


One of the main features of tantrism is that it is a departure from tradition, especially the Vedic. The term ‘lantrika’ (follower of Tantra) was used as a mark of 34 distinction from ‘vaidika’ (follower of Veda).35 36 Tantric tradition came to be deemed extraneous and even opposed to Vcdic tradition, though the former seemed to have borrowed certain elements from the latter. Most of the Vcdic loans were from the Atharva-veda, which always smacked of relative heterodoxy, seen from the fact that many Brahmins referred to the Veda as only ltrayi' (threefold).'<1 The term ‘tantra' was used to denote scriptures, which expounded non-vedic doctrines and practices. The content of tantras differed from the content of the Vedas and its exegetical literature.37 In the eighteenth chapter of Rudrayamala, Vas'istha the self-controlled the son of Brahma, was advised to go to Cina and learn the sadhana of the goddess. Thereupon, Vasistha expressed the confusion in his mind and addressed the Buddha,


Yet seeing the type of discipline (viz. the lefthanded rituals involved), doubts assail my mind. Destroy them and my wicked mind bent on the Vcdic ritual (only). O Lord, in thy abode there arc rites which have been ostracised from the Veda (vedahahiskrtdh) How is it that wine, meat, woman arc drunk, eaten, and enjoyed by heaven-clad (i.c. nude, digatnbara) siddhas (adepts) who are excellent (vat ah ) and trained in the drinking of blood? They drink constantly and enjoy beautiful women (muhurnndudi prapibanti ramayanli varanganam).... They are beyond the Vedas (vedasydgocardh ).

It is said that the Buddha then instructed him in Cinacara involving the use of wine, meat, women etc. and Vasistha obtained siddhi.

The break with the tradition was characteristic of tantrism. It was a departure not only from Brahmanism and classical Hinduism but also from Jainism and Buddhism and even from Mahavdna philosophy to some extent.The differences became more pronounced when we consider the sadhanas. The tantras advocated certain peculiar and heterodox guidelines, which were at times repulsive and obnoxious. Some of these were drawn from certain practices that we find in witchcraft, sorcery, shamanism, occultism, magic and the like. However, tantrism rises far above these heterodox practices in its nature and scope. The cult of the body, including scxo-yogic practices, along with esoteric geometric patterns (yantra), gestures (mudra) and incantations (mantra) arc nothing but instruments to attain spiritual transcendence.


3.2 The Spirit of Revolt


According to some scholars, tantrism as a movement of the masses, is a reaction against the social ills and excesses of the established religions. It professed equality of all, encouraged free social interaction among all castes, and unrestricted access to ritual worship for all. in blatant opposition to the existing Brahmanic traditions. This heterodox spirit is seen especially among the Bauls of Bengal who were called, 'ulto pathiks' (followers of the reverse order of things). They shared the spirit of social criticism upheld by the Santa poets of Northern and Upper

India, the mystics of Mardfhd, and the Sikh, and the Siifi poets. The Hevcijra Tantra re-echoes the same spirit when it states, “The one who performs the Heruka yoga interacts with all the five castes. He conceives of the five castes unified as one caste because he does not distinguish between one or many castes.”41 The text adds, ‘‘Even those untouchable Candalas and other outcastes and those whose minds are intent on living for slaughter will attain accomplishment if they follow the Hevajra method of this there is no doubt.”42 43 The yogi is urged to violate all Vedic injunctions incumbent on the orthodox sadhaka. “The yog/ should not think of anything as being prohibited and he should never think of anything as being inedible. There is not anything, good or bad, that he should not think or say.

Tantrism revelled in the worship of unorthodox deities while principal deities of established religion were relegated to humbler positions. The treatment meted out to these gods smack of a spirit of revolt. They are presented as incapable of alleviating the miseries of the sadhaka who finally takes refuge in the tantric deities. Benoytosh Bhattacharyya points out that in the Buddhist Tantras we find a number of Hindu gods insulted, calumniated and humiliated. It is stated that the worshipper of Mityuvancana Tara attains such power that even the ends of his hair cannot be destroyed by the Hindu gods, such as Brahma, India, the Moon, the Sun, Siva, the deities of the waters, Yama and Man mat ha,


3.3 Ritualism


Tantrism is essentially ritualistic, with rites and rituals of varying complexity occupying a fundamental position in all tantras, whether Hindu, Buddhist, or Jaina.4' It echoes the strong trend that probably affected all religions, to substitute tangible and popular ritual for the earlier abstract meditations.40 Tantrism did not focus on developing new lines of speculation though certain new metaphysical insights may be read into the theory and praxis of tantra. The metaphysical subtleties, which are not altogether wanting, belong to the respective traditions, Hindu, Buddhist, or Jaina to which they owe allegiance. 4' Tantrism is primarily a sadhana, a fund of practical yoga and mantric method. Heterodox and even repulsive practices, including sexo-yogic practices, are not only not ruled out, but positively recommended. Mircea Eliade points out that these repulsive and frightening practices prove that the adept is free from fear and disgust, and is able to employ the meanest of objects for the noblest of purposes.48 49 Ritual is both external and more importantly internal, especially in the higher tantras. The practice of meditation (dhydna), visualisation of the deities and internal worship of them are integral to the ritual.40 Even in external worship the deity is invoked from within the adept’s own heart and also dismissed therein. Again, worship involves the employment of both gross (sthula) and subtle (suksma) objects, such as intricate formulas {mantra), geometrical designs {yantra), physical gestures {mudra) etc. These are tools by which the Ultimate Reality is realised and the experience articulated.


3.4 Centrality of the Body


One of the fundamental postulates of tantrism is that truth resides within the body of the adept. The human body is credited to be the easiest medium through which truth can be realised.50 Tantrism adopts a mystic physiology in which the body, which is the microcosm, is identified with the universe, which is the macrocosm. 51 52 53 Tantrism is deeply anthropocentric in the sense that there is a macromicrocosmic equation. The ‘cosmic being’, which is as old as Rg-veda (X.90) is adopted and magnified in tantrism. The gods, heavens, hells etc., are all present within the human body."' Body and bodily faculties are not dismissed but employed in the practice of sadhana. “The tantras do not teach to subdue the senses, but to increase their power and then to harness them in the sendee of the achievement of lasting entasy, the target of these methods thus being the same as that of the orthodox.’03 Along with the gross physical body a subtle yogic body is also recognised. This secondary somatic system consisting of nadis and cakras located along an imagined spinal column is common to all yogic disciplines and is at the core of tantric theory and praxis as well.


3.5 The Ultimate Reality as Bi-polar


The notion of the bi-polar structure of the ultimate is the comer stone of tantric speculation. Viewed theologically, the ultimate non-dual reality possesses two aspects in its fundamental nature. The polarities may be characterised as negative and the positive or static (nivitti) and the dynamic (prav/tti).55 56 In its metaphysical aspect it may be characterised as 'prakasa-vimarsa, prajna-upaya, or sunyata-karuna. In its theistic aspect it is Siva-Sakti, Heruka-Nairatmya or (Vajradhara - Vajravarahi). In its physical aspect it is present as the pair of Agni-soma, and male-female reproductive principles. This truth is most effectively manifested in man and woman; and the creation of the universe is compared to a prolonged sexual union. The same principle is depicted in the ‘half man-half woman’ (Ardhanarlsavara) form of Siva. The bi-polarity does not deny the inseparable unity of the two principles just as there is no dichotomy between fire and heat though the two are different.50 The absolute is non-dual (advaya)57 in nature though bi-polar.


3.6 Realisation as the union of polarities


As in other schools of thought, liberation from bondage is the chief goal of tantrism. Liberation is the perfect state of union between the two aspects of reality and the realisation of the non-dual nature of the self and the not-self.5S Tantric sadhana is designed to bring about the re-integration of the adept’s body, speech and mind with the cosmic entities, that is, a fusion of the microcosm and the macrocosm. In the Hindu tantras, it takes place when the internal Sakti (Kundalini) with whom the yogin has completely identified himself reaches Her destination, the supreme Siva, restoring the primeval union.59 Dhyana, mantra, nyasa, mudra and the judicious use of sexo-yogic practices are employed to achieve the union of polarities

. 3.7 The Pursuit of Siddhis


Besides the common goal of spiritual emancipation, tantrism in general caters to procuring several mundane benefits for its followers. Some of these practical attainments include astrology, medicine and magic. Many 58 59 tantric texts deal with super-normal abilities (siddhis)60 and the Six rites (so (karma ni). The six rites arc: Sami. Vasikarana. Stambhana. Vidvesana, Uccdtana and Marana. 61 62 In Tantrism the border between the magical and the spiritual is a thin one. It is mostly on account of the former that tantrism became popular.


3.8 Predominance of Female Deities


Tantrism in general has a predominance of female manifestations. In the Vedas, on the contrary, we have a preponderance of male deities. Tantrism assigns a leading role to Sakti in her jiiana aspect, since without her grace or revelation no redemption through the body is possible.02 The Saktas assign the governance of the world to the three manifestations of Devi, namely, Tara or Nilasarasvatl. Sundari and Kali. They hold that everything in the world is of‘female form’. She is the efficient cause of emanation as well as its spiritual base, and for the adept she is the Divine

Mother.03 Devi appears under various names and forms, of benevolent as well as of terrifying natures. In the Hindu Tantras. the benevolent ones are Gauri. Uma, and Parvatl, and those of terrifying forms are Durga and Kali. 04 In the Buddhist Tantras, we find benign goddesses such as Locana, Pandara, Mamaki and Aryatfira. as well as those of terrifying nature such as Ekajata, Nairatmya, and Vajravarahi. However, the role of the female deities in Buddhist tantric tradition is different from that of its Hindu counterpart.


3.9 Deities of Terrifying Nature


The presence of male and female deities of ferocious appearance is another feature of Tantrism. The tantrics hold that though these deities appear terrifying externally, they are extremely compassionate internally, and act constantly for the wellbeing of the practitioner. A passage with reference to the fierce form of Yamari states: “After making my obeisance by my head to Lord Yamari, who is of dignified appearance; internally compassionate, but externally terrific for the good of all beings, I write the procedure of his worship for the benefit of all"63 64 65 Deities are said to assume these terrible forms to overawe and coerce people to perform these rites. Deities of terrible nature are invoked especially to discharge terrible functions. In addition to these, we have a whole host of godlings, spirits, demons, ghosts (pisaca, vetala. preta. bhuta) and the like who are sought in certain tantric . • 06 practices.


3.10 Emphasis on Guru and Dlksa


Tantrism proves to be a dangerous path for those who are uninitiated and unaccompanied by a competent Guru. No sadhuka should attempt it by himself. The Guru is identified with the principal deity and the initiate is expected to abide by the Guru’s directions. Every tantric tradition insists on the necessity of initiation (dlksa)66 67 from a competent spiritual guide. The Sanskrit root ‘diks’ means to ‘dedicate or consecrate’ Dlksa is exclusively used to refer to ‘spiritual initiation’. The sacred is also secret. Hence there is an elaborate array of formulas and symbols, which are made known only to the initiated in secret assemblies (guhyasamdja). The Tantric code Language (sandhyahhasd) is a deliberate device to keep curious onlookers at bay. These are the major features of tantrism in general. Space docs not permit us to enter into a more detailed investigation of these at this juncture. However, these salient features will re-emerge in the course of our discussion and provide greater clarity. We now proceed to narrow down out discussion to the major schools of tantrism.


4. Hindu Tantrism


Tantrism permeated Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism in the course of centuries and gave rise to various schools of tantra within their own fold. The Sammohana tantra (ch.5) and Saktisangama tantra (1,2,850 recognise Sdkta. Saiva. Vaisnava, Saura. Ganapatya, and Buddhist schools of tantra. These six tantric darsanas remind one of the Six Darsanas of classical Indian Philosophy/’8 At the outset, we have to admit that the divisions of tantra are not clear-cut and the bewildering number of tantric schools and subschools make the task of ordering them a Herculean ordeal. The difference among the various tantric schools lies in the doctrines professed, the variety of deities worshipped, and practices employed by each school. The main divisions60 of the Hindu tantras are the worshippers of Siva (Saivas), the worshippers of Sakti (Saktas) and the worshippers of Visnu (Vaisnavas). It is difficult to distinguish clearly the Saiva 68 69 and the Sakta schools as Siva and Sakti arc ontologically inseparable. Schools of lesser importance arc the worshippers of SQrya (Sauras) and the worshippers of Ganapati or Ganesa (Ganapatyas). As an exhaustive treatment of the Hindu tantras is not pertinent to this work only a brief survey is intended here.


4.1 The Saivas


The Saiva tantras centred on Siva, are often classified into Daksina, Vania and Siddhanta (or Madhyania). The Daksina sect is further divided into the Bhairava and Kashmir Saivism. Kashmir Saivism is also known as the pure Trika system on account of its three key concepts -Siva-Sakii-Annu or Pati-Pasu-Pasa. It aims at moving from one’s individuality to universality. It conceives individual souls and the material world as identical with Siva. Doctrinal differences within Kashmir Saivism have given rise to different systems such as Pralyabliiiija, Spanda, Krama and Kula. Some of the most noted tantras of Kashmir Saivism arc Malinrvijaya, Svacchanda. Netra. Vijnanabhairava. Paratrinisikd. and Knlarnava. Abhinavagupta seems to give the highest importance to Mdlinh'ijaya.10 The Vania division comprises of Sirascheda, Sammohana and other tantras. The Siddhanta section claims for itself the Saivagamas.

1
   The term 'tantric* has no basis in any Sanskrit adjectival form, but it is used widely to characterise the entire development of theory and pi axis based on the class of texts called Tantras. And 'Tantrism* or 'Tantricism* is used as noun to signify the same. For the sake of uniformity 1 use 'Tantrism*.
2
   For a brief introduction to Tantric Buddhism, the reader may have recourse to the following article by the author. Tomy Augustine, “Tantric Buddhism: An Introduction" Jnanalirlha, voI.IV, no.2 (July-Dccember 2004) pp. 179-199.
3
   'tunyale. visUiryate jridnum anena iti tantrumS.B. Dasgupta. .4;/ Introduction to TOntric Buddhism, 3rd ed. (Calcutta: University of Calcutta, 1974) p.2. From now on referred to as 1TB.
4
   S. Ahltayananda, Histoiy of Mysticism: The Unchanging
Testament (Delhi: Sri Satguru Publications, 1996) p. 171.
5
   S.B. Dasgupta. ITB. p.2.
6
   "...bhavenaiva vimucyante vajragarbha mahakrpa
badhyante bhdvabandhena mucyante tatparijnava..." (O Vajragarbha of great, it is by utilising the existent itself that men are liberated. Men are bound by the bondage of existence and are liberated by understanding the nature of existence.) G.W. Farrow & I. Menon, trans. & eds.. The Concealed Essence of the Hevajra with the Commentary Yogaratnamald (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited. 1992) 1:1:10-11. From now on referred to as HT(F).
7
   "No samsdrasya nirvandt kimeid asli vises anam.
na nirvdn asya samsdrdl kimeid asti visesa/tam." MK.XXV.19. (Sariisdra has nothing that distinguishes it from Nirvana. Nindna has nothing that distinguishes it from Sariisdra).
8
   Graham Coleman, ed., A Handbook of Tibetan Culture (Calcutta: Rupa & Co., 1995; Second Impression, 1997) pp.391-392.
9
   Benoytosh Bhattacharyya, ed., Nispannayogdvali of Malidpandita Abhaydkdragupta (Baroda: Oriental Institute, 1972), p.14.
10
as quoted in Benoytosh Bhattacharyya, IBE, p.53.
11
   P.G. Yogi. “An Analysis of Tantrayana (Vajrayana)" in Bulletin of Tibetology (BT), No.3 (1998), p.30.
12
   S.K. Moharana, Tantric Buddhism (New Delhi: Aryan Books International, 2001). p.3.
13
   Andie Padoux, "Tantrism: Hindu Tantrism", in The Encyclopaedia of Religion, vol.14. ed., Mircea Eliade, (New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1987), p.275.
14
   Ibid., p.276.
15
   Ibid., p.275.
16
   Benoytosh Bhattacharyya. Sadhcmamdld, vol.II, (Baroda: Oriental Institute. 1928), p. xix.
17
   Benoytosh Bhattacharyya, IBE, p.147.
18
   Andre Padoux.‘‘Tantrism: Hindu Tantrism", p.277.
19
   S. B. Dasgupta., ITB. p.4.
20
   S. Abhayananda , History of Mysticism: The Unchanging Testament, pp. 175-176.
21
   S. B. Dasgupta, ITB. p.l.
22
   VidySraina TSranalha, ed., Kuldrnava Tantra (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1984) 11:85.
23
   Sec Ibid., II: 140-141
24
   As quoted in Chintaharan Chakravarti. “Antiquity of Tantricism , in EBT vol.l, p.35<
25
   Ibid., p.36.
26
   Ibid., p.37.
27
   Ibid., pp.41-42.
28
   In the Sthananga Sutra (iv.4) MahSvira refers to the Saya*v3dms who were considered sensualists. Curative spells are found in the Uttanhihydyana Si'ttra. The Sutrakr tango (II.2) refers to the practice of incantations and conjuring, the art to make one happy or miserable. Ibid.. p.4I.
29
   Andre Padoux, "Tantrism: Hindu Tantrism". p.275.
30
   Ibid.
31
   Mircea Eliade, The Sacred and the Profane: The Nature of Religion (translated front the French by Willard R. Trask) (New York: A Harvest/HBJ Book, 1959), p. 17.
32
   Sanjukta Gupta, Dirk Jan Hoens, and Teun Goudriaan, Hindu Tantrism. (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1979), p. 17
33
   Ibid., p.55
34
The tantric duality of Siva-Sakti betrays some affinity to the Sahkhyan principle of Purufa and Prakni. While there is no identity of Purtifn and Prakfli in Sttiiklnv, there is transcendental unity of Siva and Sakti in Sdkta and Saiva philosophies. This could be a case of tantric innovation of the basic S&hkhyan thought. Ibid.. p.49.
35
   Andre Padoux, “Tantrism: An Overview" in The Encyclopaedia of Religion, vol.14., p.273.
36
   Agchananda Bharati. The Tantric Tradition, (London: Rider & Co., 1965; This edition, 1992), p.82. see fn.30.
37
   Sanjnkta Gupta, Dirk Jan Hocus, and Teun Goudriaan, Hindu Tantrism. pp.5-6.
38
   Agchananda Bharati, The Tantric Tradition, p.68
39
   Andre Padoux, “Tantrism: An Overview" vol.14., p.273.
40
   Ted Honderich, ed., The Oxford Companion to Philosophy (Oxford: Oxford University Press. 1995). p.S64.
41
   "hcrukayogasya puriiso vihdrah patlcavarneyn/ paiicavarnasanidyuktam ekavarnarh tu kalpitam/ tmekenaikavarnenp yasmGd bliedo na lakfyate//"(HT (F) 1:6:4.
42
   "candfilce/tdakdrddyd mdrundrthacittakdh /
Ic ‘pi hevajram tigainya sidhyanie ndtra satiifoyah " (HT (F) 11:4:78.
43
   ”iidkdryaiil vidyale kincin ndbhakft’arii vidyate sada/ ndcintyarii vidyate hy atra ndvdcyariiyac chubhd ubhamll “HT (F) I: 7:24.
44
   see Bhattacharyya Benoytosh, 1BE. pp. 116-119.
45
   Andre Padoux. "Tantrism: An Overview", p. 274.
46
   A.K.. Warder, Indian Buddhism, 2nd cd. (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. 1980), p. 493.
47
   Sanjukta Gupta, Dirk Jan Hocns, and Teun Goudriaan, Hindu Tantrism, p.47.
48
   Andre Padoux, "Tantrism: Hindu Tantrism", p. 279.
49
   Sanjukta Gupta, Dirk Jan Hocns, and Teun Goudriaan, Hindu Tantrism. p.8.
50
   S.B. Dusgupta . ITB, p.3.
51
   Sanjukla Gupta, Dirk Jan Hocns, and Teun Goudriaan, Hindu
Tnntri.\m. p.8.
52
   Ibid., p.57.
53
   Agchananda Bharati, Tlic Tantric Tradition, p.290.
54
   However, it should be noted that this yogic body is not supposed to have any objective existence in the sense the physical body has. The yogic body is “a heuristic device aiding meditation, not any objective structure; the physical and the yogic body belong to two different logical levels.” Ibid., p.291.
55
   S.B. Dasgupta . ITB, p.4.
56
   Sanjukta Gupta, Dirk Jan Hoens, and Teun Goudriaan. Hindu Tantrum. pp.54-56.
57
   In the Buddhist context, the term ‘advaya’ means knowledge that is free from the duality of the extremes of ‘Is’ and ’Is not’. Murti distinguishes 'advaya' from 'advaita' of Sartkara. Advaita is knowledge of a differenceless entity - Brahman. Advaya is purely
58
an epistemological approach; the advaita is ontological. See T.R.V. Murti, The Central Philosophy of Buddhism, (New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Pvt. Ltd., 1955; This edition, 1998) p.217. From now on referred to as CPB. See also Sanjukta Gupta, Dirk Jan Hoens, and Teun Goudriaan, Hindu Tantrism, p.52. David Kalupahana points out that the substantist terminology of the Hindu tantras is conspicuously absent in the Buddhist tantras. See David J. Kalupahana, A History of Buddhist Philosophy: Continuities and Discontinuities (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, 1994), p.224.
58 S.B. Dasgupta , 1TB, p.4.
59 Sanjukta Gupta, Dirk Jan Hoens, and Teun Goudriaan, Hindu
59
Tantrism, p.62.
60
   The eight great siddhis recognised by the Hindus are: Atomization (Animd). Levitation (laghimd), Magnification (Atalnmd), Extension (Prdpti). Efficacy (Prdkdmya). Sovereignty (Kitva). Mastery over elements (Vasitva) and Capacity to will actual facts (Kdmavsdyitva). At times 18, 24 and even 34 kinds of Siddhis aie spoken of. See Benoytosh Bhattacharyya. 1BH. p. S3.
61
   Siinti is the power to remove disease and save persons from the terrible consequences of evil stars or the bad karmas of the previous birth. Vasikarana, is the power to bewitch other men or women or even gods, and animals and get work done by them. Stambhana is the power by which the adept can stop all actions of others, and to stop the effect even when the cause is operating. Vidvesana is the power to separate two friends, relatives or lovers by creating animosity between them. Uccsllann is the power to cause one's enemy to lice the country in disgrace. Miirana is the power to kill or permanently injure enemies. Ibid., pp.89-90.
62
   Sanjukta Gupta, Dirk Jan Hoens, and Teun Gouduaan. Hindu Tantrism, p.62.
63
   Ibid., pp.54-55.
64
   Andre Padoux, “Tantrism: Hindu Tantrism". p. 279.
65
   "Srimantanianta/j karuntimay am tarii
salvor tint lielo/hahirugrart'/parii:
iidlhani Yamdruh Prampatya murglianfl
hklidmi laisritllianamisfliellioh . " Sdilluinamrild. p.550.
66
   Andre Padoux. “Tantrism: Hindu Tantrism". p. 2S0.
67
   Tantric dik->a is different from the upanayanu, which is given to all twice-born male Hindus. Dik^a is given to any suitable candidate irrespective of caste and sex. Agchananda Bharati states that diksa is also different from ahhifvka. In the former, a nutniru is invariably imparted to the neophyte while in the latter it is not conferred. For a detailed discussion on diksi sec Agchananda Bharati. The Tantric Tradition, pp.185-197.
68
   Sanjukta Gupta. Dirk Jan Hoens, and Teun Goudriaan, Hindu Tantrism, pp.40-41.
69
   On the basis of conduct (acaras) tantras have been divided into Daksirn, and Vama to which is sometimes added a third called Samaya. Daksina or the right-handed practice (dak.p/tdcara) is the way of the spiritual attainment without the use of panca-makSras (madya. mdmsa. mma. mudra and maithuna) and other extreme forms of rituals. They follow the Vedic tradition and accept the vamasrama. A great number of Vedic stanzas are applied in their tantric ritual context. The Vedasamhitas are related to the four internal cakras, the highest being the Athari’a-veda. The lefthanded practice (Vwniicara or Kaula) is the conduct of external worship employing the panca-makSras. Saktas and Saivas may claim to be Kaulas. Abhinavagupta belongs to the Kaula tradition of Kashmir. In the Sakti tradition, kaula worship is related to the three manifestation of Sakti, namely Sri or Tripura. Kali and Tara. SamaydcJra means 'the practice of internal worship' as advocated by Laksmidhara and his followers. It is followed by the Srh'idytJ cult.

4.2 The Saktas

In Saktism the Supreme Being is female, unlike in the other systems where the female deity is considered only as a consort of the male deity. She is the ddisakti, the 1 primordial energy, and the all-pervading female principle. According to Sakta puranas the great goddess created from her own body Brahma, Vifrnt and Siva and then having divided her own self into three parts mated with them as a result of which life and the universe came forth.2 The root of Saktism may be traced back to the primitive cults of the Mother Goddess. There are several divisions of Sakta tantras such as Srlkula and Kalikula,3 4 5 Kddimata and Haditnaia 73 etc. Sakta tantras claim a large section of tantric literature including the twenty-eight Saiva Agamas as well as the sixty-four Bhairava Agamas. Nitvasodasikarnava, Tantraraja tantra, Rudrayamala tantra, Saktisangama tantra, and Mahanirvarta tantra are some of the important tantras of the Sakta tradition. Prapancasara and Saundaryalahari, the hymn to the Divine Mother attributed to Sankaracarya belong to this tradition.


4.3 The Vaisnavas


The major schools of Vaisnava tanlras arc the Pancarat ra and the Vaikhanasa. Pancar air a75 is considered sdttvika by nature and is held superior to Vaikhanasa, which is tdmasika and hence inferior. The Pancaratras arc three fold, namely, Divya or those revealed directly by Lord Nardyana. Muni-hhdsita or those revealed by sages and dpta-manuja-prokta or those told by authoritative men.'*’ Vaisnavism flourished in Bengal especially at the time of Caitanya. the deified Vaisnava mystic. The Vaisnavas in Bengal developed a special kind of tantric sddhana, which came to be known as Sahujiya (from sahaja “natural, inborn”). They emphasised divine love coupled with eroticism. In their sexo-yogic practices they are indebted to the Buddhist Sahajaydna.'1 The Vaisnava Sahajiyas of Bengal, an important Vaisnava sect, is known for its peculiar erotic mysticism. N The Bauls of Bengal draw inspiration from them.


4.4 The Sauras


The Sammohana Tantra indicates that there are 180 Saitra Tantras. The number may be fictitious but it shows that the Sauras were one of the prominent tantric sects.

Though in several neighbouring nations the worship of the Sun was popular, Surya did not occupy a very prominent place in the liturgical worship of the Vedas, which is, for the most part, dominated by Agni. However, during the epic period Surya assumed a loftier position. The Sauras worship Surya exclusively and they acknowledge no other deity. Prabha (Brightness) is the consort of Surya but being unable to sustain the pressure of his intensity she assumed the form of Chliaya (shade) and was impregnated by him.11 12 13 Surya cult was very popular in Bengal, which had a number of folk-ballads in praise of the Sun-God. Sinyer Panchali of Ramjivana Bhattacharrya Vidyabhushana is a work on the cult of the Sun in medieval Eastern Bengal.


4.5 The Ganapatyas


The supreme deity is Ganesa or Ganapati (the god of the gun a or tribe). In theRg-veda we find traces of this deity.s2 Of the six branches of Ganapatyas14 the worshippers of the Ucchistaganapati were undeniably followers of tantrism. They visualised Ganesci with four arms, three eyes, lasso (pasa), goad (ankusa), club (gacla.) and in abhaya mudra. He consumes liquor with his trunk and is seated on a mahapilha while engaging in kissing and embracing his Sakti on his left lap. The Ucchistaganapatyas did not differentiate between merit and demerit, encouraged sexual promiscuity, denigrated the caste system, particularly the Sm/ti injunctions restricting social interactions, and Vedic samskaras.1'-1


4.6 Minor Hindu Tantric Sects


This section presents a brief survey of the Minor Hindu Tantric Sects: The Siddhas. the Nathas. the Vaisnava Sahajiyas and the Bauls. They do not strictly adhere to any one particular school of Hindu Tantrism discussed above; instead they incorporate elements from various schools including the Buddhist ones.


4.6.1 The Siddhas


It is a very ancient religious cult with a keen interest in Psycho-chemical processes of vega, which is called Kdya-sculluniii. The primary aim of it was to make the body perfect and immutable and thereby attain immortality. The Siddhas hold that death can be either pul off ad libitum or overcome by dematcrialising and spiritualising the body. The Siddlia cult comes very close to the Indian school of Rasdyana (alchemy). ' They incorporated elements of Vqjraydna. Saivism. magic, alchemy and I/aihayoga. The Tamil Siddhas. the most prominent of whom is Tirunu'ilar (7,h century A.D.), owed their allegiance to Saivism while the Eighty-four Siddhacaryas belonged to the Buddhist fold*’ 15 16 17


4.6.2 The Nathas


The Natha cult, also known as Yogi-pantha seems to be a particular phase of the Siddha cult of India. It came to be known as ‘Natha cult’ on account of the fact that its masters adopted the title 'Nath' (or Natha) signifying a state of supreme existence. The origin of this cult is shrouded in mystery. According to some, it is an esoteric Buddhist cult, which later left its Buddhist moorings and became a Saivaite cult. On the contrary, some others hold that it is essentially a Saivaite cult, which absorbed esoteric Buddhist practices. In it we find a compendium of yogic Saivism and esoteric Buddhism. According to Nathism, the Ultimate Reality has two aspects represented by the sun and the moon - sun the symbol of death and moon, the symbol of immutability. The aim is to unite these two forces within the body through kaya-sadhana and experience the non-duality represented by Siva. Some of the great masters of the Natha cult were Mlna-nath or Matsyendra-nath, Gorakh-nath, Jalandharlpa, Kanupa, Gopi-candra and Mayanamati; of these Gorakh-nath was probably the most celebrated Natha guru.


4.6.3 The Vaisnava Sahajiyas


The Vaisnava Sahajiyas of Bengal evolved out of the Buddhist Sahajiya cult under the influence of the love religion of Bengal Vaisnavism. The concept of lsahaja’ is 18 19 20 common to all the different medieval Sahajiya schools.21 The term *sahaja' literally means, ‘that which is bom or that which originates with the birth or with origination of any entity' (saha jayate iti sahaja h).22 Sahaja is the ultimate nature of all things, the quintessence of all dharmas. which is of the nature of mahasukha. Sahaja in the form of mahasukha is realised in and through a physiological process (kaya-sadhana). Hence the cult of the body is of paramount importance.

The Vaisnava Sahajiyas consider every man and woman to be the physical manifestations of Krsna and Radha. The body itself is the Vniddvana, the site of Krsna’s sport, where sahaja in the nature of pure love flows between Radha and Krsna. Once this realisation takes place, the love that exists between man and woman transcends the category of vulgar sensuality and transforms into love divine, which is the realisation of sahajaThis sahaja is experienced when Sakti in her upward march through the nerve channels reaches the sahasrara cukra, the Gokula, the abode of Krsna. This union is brought about by two types of union between man and woman, namely svakya (conjugal union) and parakfya (union with the wife of another man).

The Vaisnava Sahajiyas incorporated the element of love to the scxo-yogic practice of the Buddhist Sahajiyas. The Vaisnava Sahajiyas divinize the sex-emotion. Neither Maha-sukhu nor supreme love of the purest and most intense nature is attainable without the help of the chosen woman. She is the embodiment of mahablidva, i.e., the supreme emotion of love personified as Radha. This exaltation of human love is the greatest contribution that the Vaisnuva Sahajiyas made to the Sahajiya tradition.


4.6.4 The Bauls


The Rauls at first sight appear to be an order of rustic minstrels who enchanted rural Bengal with their haunting melodies but deeper thought reveals that they are a group of mystics with tantric affiliations. These rustic mystics owe their mysticism to the Vaisnava Sahajiyas of Bengal and to the Sufi mystics of Islam. The Radha-Kr.sna principles of Vaisnavism plays a crucial role in the Bauls’ conception of all mankind as female representing Radha, in her relationship to the only universal male principle, Krsna. The quest for self-realisation, which we notice in Upanisadic mysticism, is reiterated with a unique emphasis on love. The Divine personality, is called the ‘Man of the Heart' and the ‘Unknown Bird’, is our Sahaja nature. The Baal is the lover whose melancholic search for his beloved is expressed in such verses as, ‘kothay pabo tare dinar maner nuinus ye re' (‘Where shall 1 find him, the ‘Man of 25 my Heart*?’). For the Sufi mystics the individual is the mad lover in pursuit of the ever-unattainablc Beloved but for the Baul it is possible to capture ‘the Man of the Heart*.1,5 The love celebrated in the Baul songs26 27 is mutual. The Infinite, on the one hand, manifests itself in the finite and relative nature of the world, and on the other, inspires man to dissolve gradually his separate existence and pass away into his original being in God.

According to Upendranath Bhattacarya, “sexual yoga is the sine qua non of the Bauls* religious path. A ritualised coitus rcservatus performed on three successive days while the woman is menstruating is at the core of their belief’28 29 This tantric sddhana is called ‘the sddhana of the four moons’ >w The external sexual sddhana may be later replaced by the purely internalised sddhana where the mind takes the part of the female partner.


5. Tantric" Innovations in Buddhism


Buddhism never remained a fossilised ethical formula of liberation; on the contrary, it was a dynamic, self-evolving; spiritual movement. It profoundly influenced the course of Philosophy and Religion in the world, while itself being shaped at the anvil of philosophical, religious, social and political currents of the time. This interaction brought about deeper and more profound insights into the teaching of the Buddha, as well as, further development of his doctrine. Buddhist historians Buston and Taranatha identified three principal turning points {dharma cakra pravarttana or Three Swings of the Wheel of Law) in the history of Buddhism. The first turning point was from the radical realism of the Abhidharmika system (Theravada and Vuibhasika) to the critical realism of the Sautrantika school. The second transition was from this (critical) realistic phase to the radical Absolutism (advava-vada) of the Madhyctmika. The third phase was the transition from the Mudhyamika Absolutism to the Idealism of Yogaedra and later Vijnanavddu. The emergence of Madhvamika is an important watershed in the development of Buddhism because it is with the Madhyamikci that Mahavana Buddhism developed its religious potential to the full. 30 31 This transition into the region of religion laid the foundation for what we could call the fourth phase in the development of Buddhism - the tanlric phase.


5.1 Reasons for the Tantric phase


In the course of the development of Buddhism, direct realisation of Wisdom (prajria) was overshadowed time and- again by an over emphasis on the exposition of doctrine. The Abhidharmika system, for example, focused its attention entirely on the analysis of the universe into clhanmis, which are scumkrta and asariiskita, and classified them into skandhas, ayatanas, and dhatus.33 34 In this context Mahaydna emerged to balance the scholasticism of Ahhitlhunnika. The Mahayanists discounted the claims of ratiocination and logic through its dialectic and replaced reason with intuition as the way to realise sunyata. But again, in the course of time, the

Mahayanists fell into the same trap, stressing the dialectic of the Mailhyamiku and the doctrines of Yogdcdra. And their legacy, the Way of Perfection (Paramitaydna), presented itself to be a lengthy meandering towards the ultimate goal."” In this context. the tantric masters developed a unique praxis based on the cosmic, mantric and occult elements and called it Muntrayanu or Vajrayana. Thus arose Vajrayana to balance the scholasticism of Mahayana and emphasise that its doctrine be supplemented with rigorous praxis. Vajrayana did not contest the doctrinal claims of Mahayana or its ultimate goal but, built on the theoretical framework of the former, a system of praxis that would ensure the quick realisation of the goal.

Another important factor that probably diverted Buddhism on to the tantric path was the philosophical stagnation of Buddhist speculation itself. The dbhidhannika had taken Buddhist speculations to the limits of Realism. Madhyamika and Yogacara systems took it to the heights of Absolutism. With the development of these systems speculative philosophy had reached its saturation point. The Madhyamika intuition that the Ultimate Reality is sunya appeared to be a sterile proposition to the later philosophers of the Yogacara-Vijndnavada. The latter preferred to refer to the Ultimate Reality as vijnana or consciousness. The tantras went further to characterise the Ultimate Reality as great bliss or mahasukha.

The transition from the Arhat ideal of the Srdvaka and the Pratyckahuddha to the ideal of the Bodhisattva. was a significant one. Philosophy had distanced and universalised the Buddha, rendering him so transcendental and nebulous that the ordinary believer could not love or relate to him with prayer and worship, and seek mundane blessings.IW This religious urge of the common man was satisfied, only

with the induction of the bodhisaltvas. The bodhisattvas became objects of worship and adoration, essential to all religious practices. The Buddhists invented their bodhisattvas by personifying different virtues and attributes of Gautama Buddha, as in the case of Manjusri (wisdom) Avalokitcsvara (koruna or compassion; Maitreya (maitri or friendliness) etc. This habit of inventing deities by personification reached its climax in the hands of the Vajrayanists. resulting in a proliferation of divinities within its fold. Abhayakara Gupta. the author of Nispannayogd\all deified almost everything that was sacred in Buddhism, such as the twelve bhiimis. the twelve paramitas. the twelve principal dharanis. etc.10' In short, it was with the introduction of the bodhisaitva ideal, that Mahay ana Buddhism emerged as a religion, paving way for the free induction of tantric elements into its practices.

Hindu religious revival prompted by the appearance of new cults after fifth century B.C., in the form of worship of devas and deified heroes, triggered off a similar and simultaneous movement within the Buddhist fold. As a result the religious impetus within Buddhism began to show itself, for the Buddhists could not resist the temptation to worship for long. The Buddha began to be worshipped in symbolic ways, e.g., the pair of foot, the throne, the flaming pillar, the dhartnacakra, the tri-ratna symbol, the bodhi tree, the stupa etc.

The conversion of A6oka (c.268-232 B.C.) to the Buddhist faith had much to do with the transformation 36 37 Buddhism itself underwent.38 In some sense he converted the faith which converted him. As'oka was to Buddhism what Constantine (274-337 A.D.) and Charlemagne (742814 A.D.) would be to Christianity, bestowing it with temporal power and wealth, and making it into a universal religion. His influence was not limited only to the organisation of the faith but also to the codification of its tenets. He did not favour the early Buddhist idea of annihilation after death or that of transmigration, but believed in a world beyond (paraloka), a transcendental world, which would be reached by the good.39 As'oka’s preference for benevolent action to asceticism might have egged on the development of the later bodhiscittva ideal. He may probably have realised the political potential of his new-found religion to unify people and heal the wounds of war and destruction, which his endless military campaigns had caused. The state-sponsored erection of stupas and caityas, construction of monasteries and maintenance of monks, addition of pomp and paraphernalia to worship, transformation of the human Buddha into the transcendental Buddha etc., added further religious colouring to Buddhism. Once Buddhism established itself as a religion, tantrism lost no time in taking roots within its fold.

The missionary enterprise of the Buddhists, under the royal patronage of As'oka and others, as well as the foreign invasions especially by the Greeks, Sakas, Parthians and Kusanas. brought Buddhism in direct contact with

varied religions, cults and practices. An effective way of winning neophytes to its fold was the liberal adoption of the latter’s deities, cults and practices. Instead of changing the new converts and making them abandon their hitherto favourite observances, the Buddhists incorporated and sanctioned those very practices. Megasthcncs (300 B.C.), the Greek ambassador to the court of Candragupta Maurya. referred to the worship of the Greek deities Herackles and Dionysos in India.1"0 Padmasambhava in establishing the Dharnia in Tibet adopted many of the deities of the lion pantheon into the Buddhist fold and assigned to them various roles as guardians and protectors. This catholicity and the amoebic flexibility of Buddhism facilitated the incursion and inclusion of tantric deities and practices into the Buddhist fold.

Thus the inner dynamism of the Buddhist thought itself, the religious quest of the believer and the sociopolitical and religious atmosphere of the time, fathered the birth of Buddhist Tantrism, which is now known as Vajrayana.


5.2 The Term Vajrayana


Vajrayana comes from the two words ‘vajra’ and 4yana’ The term ‘vajra* is at times translated as ‘thunderbolt’, which symbolises India’s power in Hindu mythology. In the Buddhist tradition, “the vajra is regarded as the symbol of highest spiritual power, which is 40 irresistible and invincible. ‘ Vajra'"0 is therefore compared to the diamond, which is capable of cutting asunder any other substance, but which itself cannot be cut by anything.’41 42 ‘Diamondsignifies, preciousness, immutability, indivisibility, purity and clarity of the enlightened mind"43 (“abhedyam vajram ity uktam”)44 45 and hence in Buddhism vajra' is considered diamond."4 Though the diamond is able to produce all colours, it is colourless according to its own nature. Hence it is a suitable symbol of that transcendental state of emptiness, sunyata - the absence of all conceptual determinations. The

Yogaratnamala, a commentary on the Hevajra Tantra, equates sunyata and vajra. “The void which is the firm essence, indestructible, indepletable, indivisible and not capable of being consumed is called vajra."46 47 ‘Yana’ literally means ‘vehicle’, which signifies the dynamic character of Buddhism. The idea of ‘the way’, of ‘going’, of ‘movement’ is a hallmark of Buddhism right from the start. We have expressions that exude this character, like, ‘the eightfold path’ (asfangika-nmrga), ‘the middle way’ (madhyama pratipad), ‘the small vehicle’ (Hmayana), ‘the big vehicle’ (Mahayana), ‘the crossing of the stream’ {paragatim), ‘the entering into the stream of liberation’ (sotdpatti) and ‘the Buddha as one who has ‘thus come’ or ‘thus gone’ (tathagata).Ub Vajrayana, therefore, is aptly translated as ‘the Diamond Vehicle


5.3 Founder of Vajrayana


There is no consensus among scholars as to who was the founder of Vajrayana, as well as to the time and place of its origin. Benoytosh Bhattacharyya believes that Vajrayana had its origin in the fourth century with Asariga,49 50 to whom he ascribes the Guhyasaniajatantra.,l9

Giuseppe Tucci also opines that Vajrayana dates back to the time of Asariga (4th century A.D.).51 Asahga himself is believed to have been initiated in this mystic cult by Maitreya in the Tusita heaven.52 But Austine Waddell considers 500 A.D. as the beginning of tantric development in Indian Buddhism, which, according to him, began with the incorporation by Asanga of the pantheistic cult of Yoga (i.e. the ecstatic union of the individual with the Universal Spirit) of Patanjali.53 In fact, one Sadhana (No. 159) on the worship of the Prajndparamita, is ascribed to Asanga. However, Wintemitz rules out such a possibility. He states, “It is scarcely feasible, however, that Asartga himself should already have written Tantric works, though there seems to be a historical connection between the Yogacara school and the rise of the Vajrayana.”

Some scholars hold that Nagaijuna, of Madhyamika fame, is the founder of the esoteric school, and had received the Vajrayanic doctrines from the celestial Buddha, Vairocana through the divine bodhisattva, Vajrasattva of ‘the iron tower’ in South India.55 Wintemitz argues that “the Nagarjuna who is mentioned as the author of sadhanas and numerous tantric works, is not the founder of the Madhyamika system, but a teacher, who probably lived about the middle of the seventh century.”56 T.R.V. Murti believes that “Tantra is certainly much earlier than Asariga, and the basic ideas and practices have been present in all ages.”57 S.B. Dasgupta dissociates himself from any historical enquiry into the origin of Vajrayana. He states, “it is wrong to try to discover a particular man who might have introduced Tantricism into Buddhism all at once at a particular point of time.”58 59 As historical data is scant, any conjecture on the matter is bound to remain a provisional assertion. It is clear that seeds of tantrism are very ancient and that they were sown in Buddhism, not by one man but by many, over an indefinite period of time as it was in the case of Hinduism and Jainism.


5.4 Seat of Vajrayana


There is also no unanimity among scholars on the place of origin of Vajrayana. The Hevajra Tantra

enumerates four Pit has which is probably the earliest record on the matter. They are, viz., Jalandhara (definitely near the present Jullundar, East Punjab), Oddiyana (or Uddiyana) or Urgyan in Tibetan, Pumagiri (the location is doubtful) and Kamarupa (Kamrup in Assam, a few miles from Guwahati, which is the only Pit ha in action at present).60 The Sadhanarndla. also mentions four Pithas of the Vajrayanists namely, Kamakhya, Sirihatta, Pumagiri and Uddiyana.61 Kamakhya is identified as Kamarupa. Sirihatta is the modem Sylhet. There is no consensus on the two names, Pumagiri and O^diyana. Pumagiri is sometimes identified with modem Pune, which is unlikely. Uddiyana is identified with Udyana in the Swat valley by Waddell, while S. Levi considers it as Kashgarh. Mm. Haraprasad Shastri identified it with Orissa. 62 Benoytosh Bhattacharyya believes that Uddiyana falls in Bengal (or even in the western part of Assam), and that it is there that Buddhist Tantrism first developed and was probably transmitted to the other Pit has, and thence to the rest of India.63 On the basis of available data so far we cannot pinpoint any particular Piffia as the birthplace of Vajrayana. However, the four Pit has mentioned above were great centres of tantric Buddhism.


5.5 Sources of Vajrayana


The theoretical framework of a philosophical and theological nature of Vajrayana depends heavily on unsystematised metaphysical fragments taken from the different schools of Buddhist thought particularly Mahdydna Buddhism,64 and also from cognate Hindu thought. We have fragments of Madhyamika, Vijridnavada and Vedanta, as well as tenets of early Buddhism along with BrShminic ideas, especially of Sdthkhya and Yoga. confusedly jumbled together.65 T.R.V. Murti holds that the Madhyamika intuition of Sunyata is the metaphysical basis for Vajraydna.

The Vajrayanic praxis is the fusion of a large amount of mystical ideas and practices current in India from very ancient times. The yogic practices of Hatha yoga, Laya Yoga, Dhydna yoga and Raja yoga, elements of Vedic ritualism and other autochthonous rites have been adopted, and at times modified, to form the Vajrayanic praxis. The Vajrayanists attempted to absorb and integrate their praxis with Buddhist speculation especially that of Malidydna. The close relation between Malidydna and Vajraydna is seen also from fact that The Blue Annals calls the Buddhist tantras, 'Malidydna Tantras’.


5.6 The Goal of Vajraydna


Vajraydna does not differ from other forms of Buddhism in its ultimate goal, namely the realisation of the Clear Void.68 69 The purpose of Vajraydna has been highlighted by several tantric texts. The Sadhanamdld, considers Vajraydna to be the path of transcendental enlightenment. It states, "es'oham anuttara-samyak- I IK * sambodhi-margarii afrayami yad uta vajraydnamNo enlightenment is possible unless one overcomes the snare of false subjectivity. Vajraydna is the antidote against such

misconceptions. “kalpand-jala~purnasya samsarasya maho-dadheh vajra yanam samaruhya ko va param gamifyatV'™9 SrI-Guhyasamdja tantra, the oldest Buddhist tcintra, delineates the goal of Vajrayana as well as the path thereto: “moho dvesastatha ragah sadd vajre ratih stithd / updyastena buddhanam vajraydnamiti smrtamU70 71 (Vajrayana is the constant immutable bliss of the Buddhas attained through the instrumentality of moha (desire), dvesa (aversion) and raga (attachment).

In short, the ultimate goal of all the rites and forms of worship endorsed by Vajrayana is the generation of bodhicitta, and the final realisation of the voidness of the self and the identity of the self with all the objects of the world, which again is of the nature of essence-lessness.72 The Guhyasiddhi of Padmavajra claims that Vajrayana is indeed the unity of all the religions, an unparalleled religion of non-substantiality and purity, the doctrines of which are the most secret.


6. The Development of Vajraydna


Tattva-ratnavali collected in the Advayavajm-samgarha divides Mahdyana into two schools, namely, Paramita-naya143 and Muntra-naya (“mahayanarii cu dvividhant, pdramildnayo mantranayasceti").1 44 The two have the same goal but follow different paths. The principles of the latter are said to be very deep, subtle, and inaccessible to ordinary men. Vajrayana is deemed superior to Paramitaydna on account of the hope that the former is the quickest way to enlightenment. This Mantra-naya or Mantm-ydna appears to be the initial stage of Tantric Buddhism from which all the other offshoots such as Vajra-ydna, Kalacakra-yana, and Sahaja-yana arose subsequently.


6.1 Mantrayana.


The Buddhists were Indians first and foremost, and so belief in mantras, which existed from the Vedic times, came naturally to them. Belief in the power of the solemn utterance of truth (Pali- sacca-vacana) and the threefold repetition of the formula of refuge, which they believed would cure diseases and prevent calamities, are found in Thervdda Buddhism. In the Pali texts we have a type of mantric mutterings, called parittas, which are protective spells against some particular evil. The worship of the Buddha, and devotion to the stupa, which existed side by side with the practice of virtue and meditation, were accompanied by the chanting

and recitals of a mantric character. The Sarvastivada school made a collection of these mantras entitled the Mantra pi taka. Similarly the Mahasanghikas possessed a collection called Dhdrani or Vidyddhara pitaka.Ub Gestures and postures (mudra) for gaining concentration in meditation were soon inducted. The belief in the bodhi-mandala, (the circle around the famous bodhi tree beneath which the Buddha performed all his meditations and attained bodhi) led to the general belief in drawing circles and other diagrams in a place selected for performing religious duties. Mantra (including dhdrani and bija mantras), mudra and mandala were resorted to, for creating the suitable mental conditions for devotion and meditation. As people of heterogeneous origin embraced Buddhism, these accessories attained the status of dogmas and articles of faith.


6.2 Vajrayana


Vujraydna is a further development of Mantrayana. It is also used as a general term for the entire gamut of tantric 78 Buddhism.79 The concept of vajra is central to this system. The term 'vajra' is translated as ‘diamond’, and sometimes as ‘thunderbolt’. From the philosophical point of view, the term 'vajra' signifies perfect void or sunyata (p raj rid) (vajram prajria ca bhanyate)80** The philosophical nuances of the term 'vajra' will be taken up at a later stage. In the tantric Buddhist tradition it is the symbol of the highest spiritual power which is irresistible and invincible, and hence comparable to the diamond, which is cable of cutting asunder any substance but which itself cannot be cut by anything else.

In Vajrayna everything is vajra (i.e. perfect void). The deity is of the nature of vajra; the worshiper is vajra\ the materials of worship are vajra\ the mantras are vajra\ the process is vajra; in short, everything is vajra}'0 It is because all these lead one to the realisation of the void-nature of the self and the dharmas.


6.3 Sahajayana


Sahajayana is supposed to have been founded by the noted Kashmiri Yogin, Luipa (c.750-800 A.D.). The Sahajayanists were popular in Bengal from the beginning of the 9th century A.D. This sect was dominated by wandering siddhas who challenged the Establishment. 1 The Sahajiyas were noted for their anthologies of poetry (doha and caryapada ) which versified the quest for enlightenment in vivid and varied imagery in keeping with the Madhyamika philosophy and Mantrayana systems. Such poetry is attributed to Saraha, Kambala, Krsnacarya, Tailapada, Luyipada, Bhusuka, and others. In their attempt to appeal to the masses, they wrote in the vernacular Apabhrarhsa.'85 Sahajayana survived the Muslim invasion and continued for a time in Magadh, Bengal and Orissa, probably on account of the fact that it was more a movement of the laity, than that of the monks. Moreover, the Sahajiya tenets clothed in popular lyrics remained imbedded in the minds of the populace. Though the content of these verses was essentially the same as that of the Mantrayana tradition, it came to be known as a new vehicle.

Sahajayana is called the ‘natural vehicle’ on account of its central concept of ‘sahaja’ (simple and natural). It is ‘simple’ since it involves nothing but the most ‘natural’ behaviour as means towards spiritual emancipation. 86 What is ‘natural’ is the easiest and so Sahajayana is considered the straight or the plain path.87 It is Sahajayana also because it aims to realise the ultimate innate nature (sahaja) of the self as well as of the dharmas.88 89 90 The ultimate innate nature, which is realised through a physiological process including sexo-yogic practices, is experienced as mahasukha.

The Sahajiyas differ from the Vajrayanists in certain respects. The former holds that Truth cannot be attained through the mere austere practices of discipline, rituals, and worship prescribed by Vajrayana, or even by philosophic speculation. Laksmlnkara in her Advayasiddhi championed this view.1*7 Truth, “is to be intuited within in the most unconventional way through the initiation in the tattva and the practice of yoga. This makes the position of the Sahajiyas distinct from that of the Vajrayanists in general." The Vajrayanists had replaced the dharmakaya of the Mahayanists with the vajrakdya. They also added a fourth kdya namely, the mahdsukhakaya to the three kayas of the Mahayanists. In Sahajayana, the Vajrasattva or the vajrakaya has been transformed into the sahajakdya.150 The Mahdydna concept of the production of bodhicitta (bodhi-citto-tpdda) is transformed in Sahajaydna into the production of a state of intense bliss (ntahasukha) through the sexo-yogic practice. The Sahajiya esoteric practice consists in the production of bodhicitta in the nirnidm-cakra (or the manipura-cakra) through the union of the prajiia (female) and the updya (male). Through processes of hatha yoga, this bodhicitta is made to rise through the different cakras (kayas) and reach the usnisa-kamala or the vajrakaya (or sahajakaya).

The Sahajiyas were noted for their spirit of heterodoxy and protest, and their aversion for scholarship, and their opposition to formalities of life and religion. A detailed account of the Sahajiyas can be found in Shashibhusan Dasgupta’s, Obscure Religious Cults. Sahajiya. influence can be seen among the Vaisnava Sahajiyas, the Natjhd Nadhis, and the Bauls of Bengal.


6.4 Kalacakrayana


Kalacakrayana is perhaps the extreme phase of the Vajrayana with the predominance of the terrible gods and goddesses whom Austine Waddell labels ‘demoniacal Buddhas’. He writes, In the tenth century A.D., the Tantrik phase developed in Northern India, Kashmir, and Nepal, into the monstrous and polydemonist doctrine, the Kalacakra, with its demoniacal Buddhas, which incorporated the mantrayana practices, and called itself the Vajra-yana or “the thunderbolt vehicle”, and its followers were named Vajra-carya or “Followers of the Thunderbolt.1<l2 There is also the view that the Kalacakra system developed outside India,'63 before it came to be known in the land of the Buddha, in the latter half of the tenth century (c.966 A.D.), during the reign of King Mahipala of Bengal. It was introduced into Tibet in 1026 A.D. and into Upper Burma in the 15th century.94 95 96 Two great scholars of the system were Tsilupa and Somanatha. The Kalacakratantra is the only available fundamental text of this system.97 However, Warder mentions

Anupamarak$ita’s Sadadgayoga and Vibhuticandra’s Antarmarijarl as works on the Kalacakra system.98 99 The Kdlcicakra tantra is said to have been spoken by the Buddha at Dhanyakataka (Andhra).

The concept of Kdla or ddibuddha, the primordial Buddha whence arises everything in the universe, is central to the system.101 'Kata' is the unchanging dharmadhatu, while the 4Cakra ’ is the manifestations of time.102 103 The Kalacakrayanist attempts to keep himself above the influence of the cycle of time which is in constant motion, bringing about decay, death and re-birth. Time reveals itself in the flow of vital winds within the body, which is the microcosm. The Kalacakrayanist tries to stop the flow of winds and raise himself up to the state of mahasukha through sexo-yogic practices. Since Kdla]1° is the highest principle in this system they attach great importance to astronomical conceptions of yoga, kara/ia, tithi etc., and to the movements and positions of the sun, the planets and the constellations. They even interpret the various principles of Buddhism in terms of time and its different units. Thus the doctrine of Pratityasamutpada is conceived as the movement of the sun through the twelve zodiacal signs in twelve months. Further, sunyata is thought of as the sun of the dark fortnight and karuna as the moon of the bright fortnight.

Waddell considers Kdlacakra as, “unworthy of being considered a philosophy”, and as a, “coarse Tantrik development of the adi-Buddha theory combined with puerile mysticism of the Mahayana”;105 nevertheless, it is a popular school of tantric Buddhism, initiation to which is given even today among the Tibetans. 1 Kamalakar Mishra. Significance of Tannic Tradition (Varanasi: Ardhanarisvara publicalions, 1981), p.91. 2 N.N. Bhaltacharyya, History of the Tantric Religion, (Delhi: Manohar Publishers & Distributors. 1982), pp.261-262. 3 According to Srikula. Brhaman or Siva is the material and efficient causes of the world. The atomic elements that compose the souls and the material world arc produced by his Sakti. The KAlikula followers are exclusively monistic. They hold that Sakti is same as Brahman in its three aspects of sat. cit and Ananda and not its mAvA-vivarta or transforming aspect. Ibid., p.264. 4 Kdtftmata pertains to the deity KA<fi or to mantras beginning with the letter 'ka\ Tins school is also known as VhrAdanuttara or KAlhnata. Hadimata refers to mantras beginning with 'ha'. 'Ha' is the symbol of Siva after which this school is designated. Chakravarti Chintaharan. Tantras: Studies on their Religions and Literature (Calcutta: Punthi Pustok, 1972) pp.56-57. 5 For details see N.N. Bhattacharyya. History of the Tantric Religion, pp.66-71. 6 It should be noted that the name Paiicardtra is found used in connection with sects other than the Vaistmva as well. There are Paiicardtra works associated with the names of deities like Siva. Devi. Cane.il, Brahman and Malidkdla. Chintaharan Chakravarti, Tantras. p.57. 7 S.C. Banerjee, A Brief History of Tantra Literature, (Calcutta: Naya Prokash, 1998) p.535. 8 Sanjukta Gupta, Dirk Jan Hoens, and Teun Goudriaan, Hindu Tantrism, p.27. 9

Andre Padoux, "Tantrism: Hindu Tantrism”, p. 276.

10 N.N. Bhattacharyya, History of the Tantric Religion, p.37. 11 Edward Moor F.R.S., The Hindu Pantheon, (Varanasi: Indological Book House, 1968), p.203. 12 Sarat Chandra Mitra. The Cult of the Sun God in Medieval Eastern Bengal (New Delhi: Northern Book Centre, 1986), p. 1. 13 “ga/Kindm tv6 gampmatim havdmaheih" (11.23:1; VSjasaney Samhita XXI11.19) as quoted in N.N Bhattacharyya, History of the Tantric Religion, p.269. 14 The six types of Ganapatyas arc - MahQganapati, HaridrAganapati, Ucchi.yfagartapati, Navanilaga/tapati, Svarttaganapati, and SantAnaga/iapati. 15 N.N. Bhattacharyya. History of the Tantric Religion, p.271. 16 S5 Sliaslubhusan Dasgupta. Obscure Religious cults. (Calcutta: Fmna KLM Pi ivale Limited. 1976). p 192 From now on referred to as ORC 17 Sanjukta Gupta. Dirk Jan Moons, and Term Goudriaan. Hnulu Taninsni. p.23. 18 Shashibhusan Dasgupia. ORC, p.192. 19 N.N. Bhallacharyya. History of (he Tantric Religion, p.287. 20 Shashibhusan Dasgupta, ORC. p.382. 21 In a general sense, besides the Buddhist Sahajiyas and the Jama mystics, the Santa, the Sikh and the Sufi poets of upper, central and northern India as wells as the B3uls of Bengal belong 10 the Sahajiya family. 22 Shashihluisan Dasgupta. ORC, pp.77-7S. 23 An oft quoted couplet of Saraha states: "I have visited in my wanderings shrines and other places of pilgrimage.* But I have not seen another shrine blissful like my own body.” Charles. II. Capwell. "The Esoteric Belief of the Bauls of Bengal” in JAS. Vol.XXXIlI. No.2..(February 1974). p.26I. 24 Shashihluisan Dasgupta. ORC. p. 134. 25 The standard Vaisimva cults and Sahajiya Vaisnavas accept the ideal of pnrukhu love as contrasted with the ideal of svukiya love in then doctrines. In the former, this idea remains mere theoretical speculation but in the latter it has practical beatings. Ibid., p. 113. 26 Dasgupta notes that it is this conception of the ‘Man of the Heart* in the Baul songs that drew the attention of Rabindranath Tagore, whom he considers to be the greatest of the Hauls of Bengal. In the ‘Man of the Heart* concept we find “a happy nuxtiiie of the conception of the paramdlman of the Upamsads. the sahaja of the Sahajiyas and the sOfi-istic conception of the Beloved" Ibid., p. 181. 27 Lalon Fakir is the most famous of the Bauls. A collection of his songs is entitled Ldlan-g/tikd. See also the collection of Baul songs by Ksitimohan Sen entitled Bangavdni. 28 Charles H. Capwell. "The Esoteric Belief of the Bauls of Bengal" p.256. 29 The tantric theory behind this sddhana is explained by Charles H. Capwell. "In the two products of the human generative organs, the Divine is manifested in its two forms as the pair-principle, the active and the passive. The active form appears during a woman’s monthly periods to take part in the life of men and it is for this reason the ritual coitus occurs then. It is only in this form that the Man of the Heart can be regained and made to reunite with its passive form within the bodies of men and women.*’ Ibid., p.259. 30 From now on terms like Mantra’ and ’tantric' refer exclusively to the Buddhist tantras (Vajrayana). unless specified otherwise. 31 In early Buddhism "...there was no element of worship, no religious fervour, no devotion to a transcendent being. No cosmic function was assigned to Buddha; he was just an exalted person and no more. His existence after pariuin-tina was a matter of doubt; this was one of the inexpressibles.” The MahAyAnists projected him not as a historical person but as the essence of all Being (dharmakdytt), having a glorious divine form (.«/dibliogukdya) as well as an illusory body (niniidiHikdya), which he assumed at will for salvation of all beings and propagation of the d/wmia. T.R.V. Murti, CPB, p.6. 32 In Stcherbatsky’s 'The Concept of Buddhist Xiruina . the tanlric phase is considered the third phase of the development of Buddhist thought. David Kalupahana states that I’ajravdna is generally regarded as the final phase of Buddhism m India. See David J. Kalupahana, A History of Binhllnst Philosophy, p.217. 33 Theodore Stcherbatsky, The Central Conception of Buddhism and the Meaning of the word "Dliarnia", 3rd ed. (Calcutta: Susil Gupta (India) Ltd., 1961) p.3. 34 The Dasahhimiikastnra presents the arduous journey that the ‘bodhisattva-to-be’ has to undertake. The first hhtnni itself calls for the ten mahapranidlrinas (DBMS, 10-11) and the ten nisthdpada (DBHS. p.3): at the second bhinni one must perfect the ten mental dispositions and the ten good courses of action; at the third hlumii he must practice the four dhySnas (DBMS, 20): at the fourth bhtnni he must attain perfection in the thirty-seven virtues (DBHS, • 24) anil so on. 35 Har Dayal, The Bodhisalt\a Doctrine in Buddhist Sanskrit Literature (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. 1931) p.34. 36 Benoyiosh Bhaltayacharyya. cd.. Nispannayogdvali. p.19. 37 Hajime Nakamura, Indian Buddhism: A Stmvy with Bibliographical Notes (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, 1989), p.103. 38 Right from its inception. Buddhism enjoyed royal patronage under such benevolent kings as Prasenjil, Bimbisara. Ajatasatru and later emperor Asoka. Kamska, Marsha Vardhana and the P3la and Sena dynasties. Mm Bahadur Shakya, “A study of Traditional VajraySna Buddhism of Nepal” (Essay on-line, accessed on 19 April 2004) available from http://kaladarshan.artsohio-statc.edu/exhib/-sama/%2A Essays/SP92.051 Hevaj.html; Internet. 39 Hajime Nakamura, Indian Buddhism, p.94. 40 Later on under the patronage of the Kusanas the Buddhist pantheon was expanded to depict Greek gods like Hermes. Dionysos. Zeus and Herackles etc., as Vajrap3ni (Buddha's angel companion), perhaps to show Buddhist superiority over them. In the course of time more Buddhas were invented, and their figures were magnified owing to opulent imagination. Ibid., pp. 157-158. 41 The Tibetan equivalent for ‘vajra’ is ‘rdo-rje', (pronounced ‘dorjay'). 'rdo' means ‘stone’ and 'rje' means ‘ruler’, ‘master’, ‘lord’. Therefore, 'rdo-rjc' is the king of stones, the most precious, i.e., and the diamond. Lama Govinda Anagarika. Foundations of Tibetan Mysticism (London: Rider & Company, 1960: this edition. 1969), p.62. 42 Ibid.. p.6l. 43 Vajracchedika, one of the most profound Philosophical Scriptures of the Mahdyfina, ends with the words “This sacred exposition shall be known as Vajracchedika-Prajnd-Pdramitd-suxra, because it is hard and sharp like a diamond, cutting off all arbitrary conceptions leading to the other shore of enlightenment.” Ibid., p.62. (emphasis added). 44 HT(F) 1:1:4. (emphasis added). 45 The controversy on the translation of the term 'vajra' is not settled. Max Muller renders the Vajracchedika siitra as 'Diamond Sutra. " But Edward Conze translates 'vajra' as ‘thunderbolt’. He writes. “The terms (vajra) ij familiar from many Buddhist texts, including the large PrajnOpdramitd Sutras. Everywhere it refers to the mythical ‘thunderbolt’ and denotes irresistible strength, both passively and actively. The title (Vajracchedika Prajnapdramitd) therefore means ‘the perfection of wisdom which cuts like the thunderbolt’ or, less probably, ‘which could cut even a thunderbolt”. See Edward Conze, ed. & trans., Vajracchedika Prajndpfiramitd (Roma: Is. M.E.O., 1957), p.8. We need not enter further into this debate. The essence of the term 'vajra' lies in its function of cutting asunder avidyd in all forms. 46 "dpjhani stir aril asau£n$yam acchedydbliedyalakviikwi// addin' avindS ca sCmyatd vajram uccvatc//" HT(S) Part 2. Yogaratnamdld, pp. 104-105. 47 Lama Govinda Anagarika, Foundations of Tibetan Mysticism, p.261. 48 At times 'vajra' is also traslated as ‘adamantine’ and Vajraydna as , the ‘Adamantine vehicle’. 49 Benoytosh Bhattayacharyya, ed., Nif pannayogdvali. p.15. 50 Ashok Kumar Chatterjee points out that such an assertion is ill-founded and that “No real Tantra can be proved to have existed before the 7th century A.D...A11 we can say is that some of the elements of Tantrism arc already found in earlier works.” Ashok Kumar Chatterjee, Yogdcdra Idealism, (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd., 1962; Reprint 1999), p.35. From now on referred to as YI. 51 Ibid., p.35. 52 S.B. Dasgupta. ITB. p.53. 53 See Austine Waddell. Buddhism und Lamaism of Tibet (Darjeeling: Oxford Book & Stationery Co., 1985), pp. 13-17. 54 Sec Maurice Wintemitz, History of Indian Literature, vol.H, (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1993), p.378. From now on referred to asHIL 55 S.B. Dasgupta, ITB, p.54. 56 Maurice Wintemitz, HIL, vol.II, pp.378. 57 T.R.V. Murti. CPB, p.109. 58 S.B. Dasgupta, 1TB, p.54. 59 "...bhugavdn Aha/ pitharii jdlandhararit khydtam 0(t(hydnatii tathaiva ca/ p/fhariipaurnagirif caiva kdmarOpun tathaiva ca//" HT(F) 1:7:12. 60 Agehananda Bharati, The Tantric Tradition, p.88. 61 Sfidlianamfild, pp.453,455. 62 Benoytosh Bhattacharyya, 1BE, pp.43-44. 63 Ibid., p.46. 64 Many of the mantras used in the sadhana are nothing but the well- known doctrines of Mahdydna Buddhism with the addition of an •O/ii. or Phaf or Svdha etc. For example, we have mantras like, "On') Siniyatd-Jhdiui-vajra-svabhavdtinako ’had).' “On) svabhdva-sudddh sarva-dharmdh svabhdva-suddho horn : Orii sai'va- lailidf’aid-iniako 'had). ” “Orii dharmu-dhdtu-svabh&vd-tniako luid)“ etc. See S.B. Dasgupta, ITB, p.76. fn. 1. 65 Ibid., p.4.

66

   T.R.V. Murti, CPB, p.109.
67
   George N. Roerich, The Blue Annals, p.102.
68
   John Blofeld, The IVay of Power: A practical guide to the tantric mysticism of Tibet (London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd., 1970), P-31 •
69
   SfidltanamdlO Vol.I, p.225.
70
   Benoytosh Bhatlacharyya, Two Vajrayana works, (Baroda: Oriental Institute, 1929) p.68.
71
   S. Bagchi, Guhyasamdja tantra (Darbhanga: The Mithila Institute, 1965), 18:51
72
   "tatlidgato yat-svabhdvas tat-svablidvam idam jagat/ tathdgato nilhsvablidvo ni/bsvahliavam idam jagat" (Kriyd-samgralta-nama-paiijika, MS. P.2 IE) as quoted in S.B. Dasgupta, ITB, p.74 fn.2.
73
   " atynataguptamudghdtya vajraydnamanuttarani/ sarx'adharmasamaikatvarit yat tvayd bha.ptam prabho" Guhyasiddhi.2:\ 1
alio guptdtiguptasya vajraydnasya de&intv niJisvablidvasya fuddhusya vidhyate yasya nopamA" Gtdiyasiddhi,2:13. See Samdhong Rinpoche and Vrajvallabh Dwivedi, eds. Gtihyddi-Asfasiddhi SatYgraha (Saranath: Rare
74
Buddhist Text Project. Central Institute of Higher Tibetan Studies. 1987).
75
   The Paramitd-naya includes the Sauirantikn. Mtidhymnika. and the Yogacaru schools. They emphasise the practice of the paramitas as means to enlightenment. It is also called the Siilraydmi on account of its conviction that the Sutras lead one from ignorance to enlightenment. It entails a rational, intellectual and systematic approach to mind training, based on a stable foundation of ethical discipline and a fully developed single-pointedness developed through calm abiding. The goal is attainable only after an immeasurable period of time (calculated at three times ten to the power of fifty-seven years). There are three divisions within Sfitrayana viz., the Srdvakaydna followed by the Sravakas. PratyekabuddliaydiM followed by the Pratyekabuddhas and the Bodliisattuiydna followed by the Bodhisattvas. The first two lead to the result of arhathood while the last leads to the attainment of perfect buddhahood.
76
   Mahamahopadhyaya Haraprasad Shastri. Advayavajrasariigrului (Baroda: Oriental Institute, 1927), p.14.
77
   S.B. Dasgupta, 1TB. pp.52-53.
78
Alicia Matsunaga. The Buddhist Philosophy of Assimilation (Tokyo: Sophia University, I969),p.90.
79
   The original name Mantra-yAna is also sometimes used to refer to the later Buddhist Tantric Schools as a whole. For example in (he Hevajra-parijikA we read 'mantra-mahAyAne t\< anuvaksyate \ or again in Advaya-vajra-samgraha we find the expression, "mantra-yAnA-nusArena tad idam vakfyate ’dhunA" See S.B. Dasgupta, ITB. p.63., fn.2. Vajraydna is also called Up Ay ay Ana, and GuhyavAna. Sridhar SJB Rana, “VajraySna and Hindu Tantricism", (Essay on-line, accessed on 19 April 2004) available from http://kaladarshan,arts.ohio-statc.edu/exhib'sama/%2A Essays/SP92.051 Hevaj.html; Internet.
80
   “bhagavAn aha/
hekArena mahAkarunA vajradt prajriA ca bhanyate/ prajriopAvAtmakarh tantra tit tan me nigaditam s/iia// " HT (F) 1:1:7.
81
   Lama Anagarika Govinda, Foundations of Tibetan Mysticism, p.61.
82
   S.B. Dasgupta, ITB. pp.72-73.
83
   Louis O. Gomez. “Buddhism : Buddhism in India” in Encyclopaedia of Religion, Vol.2, p.376.
84
   The Dnhdkosa edited by Bagchi and the CarydgMkofa edited by Bagchi and SSnti Bhiksu were published by Santiniketan in 1938 and 1956 respectively.
85
   A.K. Warder. Indian Buddhism, pp.492-493.
86
   Ibid , p.493.
87
   Sarahapada says in one of his songs. "O Yogins, do not leave off this straight and easy path and follow the crooked and curved path; bodhi lies near you, - do not go to Lanka (Ceylon) in search of it. Do not take the glass (ddpana) to see the bracelets in your hands. -realise your own pure ciltn for yourself (and within yourself).*’ As quoted in Shashibhusan Dasgupta, ORC, p.52.
88
   S.B. Dasgupta, ITB, p.69.
89
   "No katfa kalpandm kuryyannopavdsani na ca kriyd/ri/
snanarii suuc aril na caivdtragrdma dharina vivarjannm//" Ramprasad Mishra, Advayasiddhi: The Tannic view of
Laksmidkard (Delhi: Kant Publications. 1993; First published 1995). v.13.
“Saila mmmaya caityUdin na kurySn pustakeritiiii/
Na mandal&ni svapneapi kSyavakcittakarmana//” Advayasiddhi. v.18.
90
   S.B. Dasgupta, 1TB, p.69.
91
   Ibid., pp.80-81.
92
   According to standard Mahdydna thought, the bodhicitta. after production, moves upwards through the ten Bodhicitta-bhOmis and reaches the highest state called Dharma-megha and attain Buddhahood there. In Sahajiydna. the KSyas replace the BhQmis. it should also be noted that bodhicitta in Sahajaydna is understood on two levels, viz., Samvrta and Vivpa or Pdramdrthika. The bodhicitta experienced as gross sexual pleasure in the Nirmdna cakra is known as Samvpa (Samvfti-satya, the phenomenal) and in its motionless aspect in the Usnisa-kamala is known as Pdramdrthika (the ultimate reality of Mahdydna Philosophy). See Shashibhusan Dasgupta, ORC, pp.93-94.
93
   Benoytosh Bhattacharyya, IBE, p.76.
94
   Austine Waddell, Buddhism and Lamaism of Tibet, p. 15.
95
   According to Alex Csoma De Koros, Kdlacakra is derived from Shambhala. It was introduced into central India in the last half of the tenth century A.D. Later via Kashmir it found its way into Tibet where it flourished especially during the fourteenth, fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. See Alexander Csoma De Koros. “Note on th Origin of the KJla-cakra and Adi-Buddha systems" (Reprinted from The Journal of the Asiatic Society (JTAS). vol.I, 1833) in JTAS, vol.xxviii, no.2 (1986), p.108.
96
   Biswanath Banetjee, ed.. Sri-Kdlacakralantra-Rfiju, (Calcutta: The Asiatic Society, 1993) p.x.
97
   Srf Kalacakratantra-Rdja is also known as Laghu-kdlacukra-lanira-rdja. The important commentaries on it are Kdlacakrdvatdra. the Vimalaprabhd and the Sekodde.it tika. There
98
are Tibetan commentaries and sub-commentaries by Tsong-kha-pa, Padma-dkar-po, Mkhas-grub-rje and others. See Ibid., p.xii.
99
   A.K.. Warder. Indian Buddhism, p. 492.
100
   Ibid,, p. 491.
101
   Louis O. Gomez, “Buddhism : Buddhism in India”, p.378.
102
   Ibid.. p.378.
103
   Since very ancient time Kdla (Time) has been regarded in India as the supreme force by different religious sects.
104
   Biswanath Banerjee, ed., Sri-Kdlacakratantra-Rdja, p.xv.
105
 

Waddell Austine, Buddhism and Lamaism of Tibet, p. 131.


7. Classification of Buddhist Tantras

The Mantrayanic Buddhists identify nine yanas.1 2 3 4 They are: 1) Srdvaka-ydna, 2) Pratyekbuddha-ydna, 3) Bodhisativa-yana, 4) Kriyd-tantra-yana, 5) Cana-tantra-ydna, 6) Yoga-tantra-vdna, 7) Maha-yoga-lantra-ydna, 8) Anuttara-yoga-tantra-ydna and 9) Ati-yoga-tantra-ydna.l7J The last three yanas are collectively known as Anuitara tanira. The more commonly accepted division of Vajrayana is its division into four classes, viz., Kriya tantra, Carya tantra, Yoga tantra and Anuitara tantra.'75 Waddell designates Kriya and Cana as lower tantras (Tib. og-ma), and Yoga and Anuitara tantras as higher tantras (Tib. gon-ma). We shall now briefly comment on each of the four commonly accepted divisions of Vajrayana.


7.1 Kriya Tantra


According to Mkhas-grub-ije (1385-1438 A.D.), the Kriya tantra is meant for the sake of candidates who delight in outer action.5 These outer actions (bahya-kriyd) are such actions as bathing, cleaning etc.6 7 8 9 10 These help the sadhaka to purify his body, speech and mind. In the Kriya. tantra, the deity (yidam) is viewed as external to the sadhaka. The practice of Kriya tantra is believed to lead the practitioner to enlightenment in a span of sixteen lifetimes.170 Acarya Abhyakara teaches in the Vajrdvali-nama-mctndala-sadhana that there are six kinds of initiations given to candidates of Kriya and Carya tantras. They are: the flower garland, the water, the diadem, the thunderbolt, the bell and the name. Of these, only the flower garland, the water and the diadem initiations are given in the Kriya tantra. Kriya tantra sadhana involves three methods of procedure (anust hand). They are: Meditation with Muttering (japa), Meditation without Muttering and Accomplishment of Siddhi after Appropriate Service (seva). Susiddhikara and Dliyanottaraopatalakrama are considered important Kriya Tantras.


7.2 Carya Tantra


Cana (antra is directed at candidates who delight in practising outer action and inner yoga in equal measure.11 12 13 14 The term ‘Carya' means ‘conduct’ and it refers to the action to be performed in the ritual, and more importantly to the whole conduct of the performer while preparing for the action and carrying it out. Caryci (antra has four parts. The first part is the Initiation which is given for the sake of making one a fit receptacle for the intense contemplation of the path. The second part is the Purification of vows (sariivura) and Pledges {sanutya), which arc in common with those of the Kriya (antra. The third part is the Procedure of Preliminary Service (purva-sevaj1' Finally, the fourth part is the Manner of accomplishing siddhis after certain perfection is attained in the Service (seva).15 16 Here the sadlxaka visualises the deity as external and superior to himself. The practice of Cana helps the sadhaka to familiarise himself with dharma. It is believed to enable him to achieve liberation in seven lifetimes. The chief of Cana tantras is Maltavairocana-abhisambodhi-tantra. It is believed to have been preached by Vairocana, the Body of Complete Enjoyment (sarhbhoga-kdya) in the Akanistha Ghanavyuha. 17 It contains consecration and postures for meditation, as well as the rituals of symbol and diagram, all of which are for the realisation of one’s identity with the Buddha Vairocana.


7.3 Yoga Tantra


The Yoga Tantra was revealed for the sake of subduing the candidates who delight in the yoga of inner samadhi.19 Here, ‘yoga’ means, union with the dharmadhatu by means of intense contemplation of a god. Here ritual and ‘conduct’ are subordinate to meditation. The student embarks on a journey from the external to the internal.20 The goal is profound concentration (samadhi) which is the gateway to personal liberation. Samadhi is attained by suppressing the wanderings of discursive thought and by fixing the mind one-pointedly on the object of meditation.21 All the four classes of tantras use some form of deity-yoga. In the Yoga tantra the practitioner imagines himself to be the form-body (rupakaya) of the Buddha.22 In this way the vulgar body, speech and mind, together with their conduct, are transmuted in to the Buddha’s Body, Speech, and Mind together with their marvellous Action.1,5 In Yoga tantra, the sadhaka visualises himself as the deity and merges the yidam with himself. The practitioner is believed to attain liberation in three life-times. Vajrasekhara, Sarvutathagata-tattvasamgraha and Sarvadurgat Iparifo-dhana Tantra197 are fundamental Yoga tantras. Yoga Tantra was prevalent in Indonesia, Japan and South India, especially Kanchi and Nagapattanam.


7.4 Anuttarayoga Tantra


The Anuttarayoga tantra is the incomparable tantra aimed at subduing the candidates who delight in inner-yoga. 109 There are four basic initiations conferred in Anuttarayoga tantras. These are namely, the Flask/Mastcr initiation (kalaSa/acarya), the Secret initiation (guhya), the Insight-knowledge initiation (prajnd) and the Fourth initiation (caturtha or turfya-abhiseka).23 24 25 26 27 28 The steps of the path traced out in Anuttarayoga tantra are divided into two, viz., Steps of Production (utpatti-kruma) and Steps of Completion (nispanna-krania or sampanna-krama). The first is called the “path of maturation” in which “the forms of the male and female deities are visualised within their complete mandalas. Their forms, mandalas, symbols and seed-syllables are used to snare and purify the various arising manifestations of the personality. This step of purification is necessary to proceed to the next process of Completion."29 The Steps of Completion is called the “path of liberation". In it “the union of the two purified forms, mandalas and the seed-syllables of the deities of Wisdom and Means is performed."30 The whole process is indicated by the word ‘evam

The process of Generation is indicated by the letter V and the syllable ‘vam\ These two components of the word "cvanY represent the purified male and female, solar and lunar deities and their mandalas, the two principal concealed essences. The Process of Completion is indicated by the union of these two components and the formation of the word 4evam That is, the union of these two components symbolizes the union of the two deities of Wisdom and Means.

Anuttarayoga tantra is subdivided into three, viz., Mahayoga. Anuyoga and Atiyoga.32 The Mahdyoga tantra is also known as the Male tantra or Father tantra to which the Guhyasamaja tantra, belongs. Anuyoga is also known as Yogini tantra or Mother tantra. It includes the Cakrasariivara, Vajrabhairava. Hevajra, Buddhakapdla, Mahdmdyd, Krsnayamdri, Caturyoginisarhputa, Mahdmudratitaka, Yoginisamcan’d, Dakarnava and the important Abhidhdnottara.33 The Mahdyoga and Anuyoga are called Father tantras and Mother tantras respectively because the former lays emphasis on the active realisation of the ideal of karund (updya) while the latter lays emphasis on the ideal of prajnd or transcendental wisdom.34 Both Mahdyoga and Anuyoga are the preliminaries to the goal of Atiyoga. In Mahdyoga, the process of Generation is practised and the sadhaka attains clear vision and uninterrupted meditation. In Anuyoga the practices of energy control meditation leads to attainment of siddhis. In Atiyoga the mind is placed in a condition of spontaneous luminosity.35 The Atiyoga tantra is the ‘not-two’ or non-dual tantra to which the Kdlacakra tantra


belongs. “ Classifications of Anuttarayoga tantras attested by different tantras vary; however, most accept the three fold division of Anuttarayoga mentioned above.


8. Vajrayanic Literature


The earliest Buddhist literature is in the form of the Buddhist Tripitaka, namely the Vinaya Pi taka, the Sutta Pifaka and the Abhidhamma Pifaka. While the Vinaya and the Sutta arc common to all schools, each school developed its own Abhidhamma. After the great schism in Buddhism at the Council of Vaisali (383 B.C), the Mahasartgikas developed their own Abhidharma literature.2-09 This served as a precedent for later inclusions to the Tripitakas. This tendency became very pronounced from the time of Nagarjuna when certain apocryphal treatises, which were promptly attributed to Sakyamuni, began to appear in the fold of Mahdyana literature; chief among these were the Prajndpdramitd Sutras. Kaniska’s Council at Jalandhar about the first century A.D. adopted and legitimised this inflated version of the Buddhist canon, paving way to future incorporations in the form of tantric Sutras, Dharanls and Tantras. This section is meant only to introduce us to the different genre of Vajrayanic literature in Sanskrit, 36 37 namely, Sutra. Dharanl. and Tantra, and is not meant to be an exhaustive catalogue of the same.


8.1 Sutra


The Sutras38 arc dialogues, which are the primary source for the Buddhist doctrine. The Dharma, recited by ananda and endorsed by the first Council, came to be known as the Sutra Pi (aka. 39 However, already in the first century B.C., the need was felt for a full-scale restatement of the Dharma. For this purpose they rewrote the sutras, or wrote new sutras, sufficiently similar in content as well as in style, as to appear authentic, at the same time opening up new avenues of thought. These new sutras were thought of as spoken by the Buddha to a divine audience in different heavens, or to human audience, which failed to hand them

down.40 The author of such sutras believed that he was inspired by a divine being revealing a sutra, which was preserved by the gods or the dragons, until a competent teacher or student was found. In this way, they claimed legitimacy for these later developments in the Buddhist Literature. Here we shall be concerned only with some of the tantric sutras of Vajrayana. Tantric sutras are primarily magical formulas for worship or for protection from demons and diseases. They are not strong on

philosophical doctrine though certain philosophical concepts lie scattered in them. Mahamayuri Sutra is one of such magic sutras. It is related to the Atandtiyasutta, a sacred book of Early Buddhism.41 Mdtangi Sutra is an important predecessor of Vajrayanic magical formulas. Maniratna Sutra (available only in the Chinese version) is a spell to repel demons and diseases.42 43 44 Kara

ncki-vyuha enumerates the great example of Avalokitcsvara renouncing nirvdria in favour of helping the suffering humanity.-15 It is partly in verse and partly in prose, and explains the Avalokitesavara mantra, <Om Mani Padme Hum'. In the Mahd-vaipulya-Mahay&na-sutra {Marijusrim ulakalpa)"16 Sakyamuni gives Manjusri instruction on magic rites with mantras, mudras, man^alas etc. The culmination of the sutras is found in the compilation of the Mahavairocana and Vajra.<ekhara Sutras.45 In these two sutras we find esoteric Buddhism in a systematised form. In the Mahavairocana Sutrat Mahavairocana is called Mahavira and his samadhi is

elaborated in it; various syllables are enumerated and esoteric meanings arc ascribed to each of them. From the philosophical point of view, the central theme of the sutra is the Bodhi-mind. The Vajraiekhara Sutra, which is believed to have been composed by Nagabodhi in South India, contains the fivefold meditation to achieve the body of Mahavairocana. It also describes the ‘the thirty-seven Devuta-utpatti ’ as well as the Four methods of Abhiseka.46 47 There are several versions, smaller and larger, of this sutra, which are not dealt with here. The Mahavairocana and Vajrasekhara Sutras are considered tantras in the Tibetan tradition due to their distinctively tantric features.


8.2 DharanI


The sutras, which were composed in about the fourth century A.D., manifested a new trend by their use of DharanI fan utterance usually mystical in nature). 48 49 The word 1dharanf literally means, ‘that by which something is sustained or upheld’ (dharyate anaya iti). They are mystic syllables, which sustain the religious life of man. Dharanls have their origin in the Sutras. The ordinary followers of Buddhism could not follow the aphoristic statemertts of the Dharma. Hence it was necessary to shrink the sutras into dharanls which the ordinary believer could easily commit to memory and recite them with faith.*21 Such fervent recourse to the dharanls was believed to confer immense benefit on the practitioner. One important characteristic of the dharanl and the mantra is its meaninglessness. Vasubandhu says in his Bodhisattva-bhumi that this absolute meaninglessness is the real significance of the mantras. A sadliaka who meditates constantly on the meaninglessness of the mantras will gradually be led to a state of mind where it will be very easy for him to meditate on the ultimate nature of the dharmas as absolutely meaningless. In this way, dharma-funyata is realised.50 Thus Mantras help the sadliaka in realising the nature of the universe as absolute void. The four kinds of dharanls of the bodhisattva, which the Bodhisattva-bhumi mentions, viz., Dharma-dhdrani, Arllia-dhavanl Mantra dharanl, and the Dharanl, for the attainment of forbearance of the Bodhisattva (Bodhisattva ksanti-lahhaya ca dharani). have this aim in view.

Dharanls may also be divided into four classes depending on the type of deity with whom they are affiliated."4 From a religious point of view, dharanls were considered the relics of the dharmakaya of the Tathagata52 53 and were often enshrined within stupas and icons. Dharanls were sought more for their mundane potential than for their philosophical propensities. They were believed to be powerful protection against disease, death, demons, and hell as well as ensure better re-birth.54 This explains the immense popularity that dharanls enjoyed among the Vajrayanists.


8.3 Tantra


Tantras differ from the tantric sutras in many ways. The tantric sutras were considered buddhavacana and were not associated with human authors but the tantras were brought to light and handed down by human authors. Many of the profound yoga and anuttarayoga tantras were separately obtained by the different siddhacaryas,55 56 and began to appear in composition about the middle of the seventh century A.D. They elaborate the philosophy and tantric theoretical assumptions contained in the tantric sutras and lay down precise instructions on the praxis. From the number of commentaries written, it appears that the Guhyasamaja Tantra, the SrT-cakrasarnvara tantra and the Hevajrci Tantra are the most important Buddhist Tantras.

The Guhyasamaja Tantra, a Father Tantra of the Anuttarayoga class, is one of the earliest Buddhist tantras22* and exercised considerable influence on later tantras and on Buddhist csotcrism as a whole.57 It is in this tantra. for the first time, that we have the conception of the five Dhyani Buddhas as well as the five female deities. The central theme is the development of hoilhicitta and the realisation of the ultimate emptiness of all entities. The text follows closely the doctrine of void as expounded by Nagarjuna.58 59 60 As regards the authorship and date of composition of the Cuhyasamaja tantra. there arc different opinions. Benoytosh Bhattacharyya holds that it was written by Asahga in third century A.D., but Alex Wayman is of the opinion that the text is of the fourth century A.D. probably authored by Indrabhuti the Great, who is not to be confused with the later King Indrabhuti.*

Srf-cakrasariwara- Tantra, is a Mother Tantra belonging to the highly developed subdivision of Anuttarayoga tantras called Amtyoga. It is the first Buddhist Tantra to be published, and the first to be translated into any European language. It is believed to have been composed by “Yeshcs-Sengc. a priest of gNas-rNying” at the "Monastery of Shakya on the 25lh of the l" Summer month of the Earth-Tiger year” *'2 The text details the Philosophy, ritual and rites of the ahhiycka. sadhana. and the mandala of Sariivara with sixty-two deities, which is one of the richest and most complex mandalas. This text reveals the syncretic tendencies within Vajraydna of incorporating Hindu deities and transforming them completely in their symbolism.61 The central deity is the four-faced, twelve-armed Sambara (Samvara or Heruka) embraced by his Prajnd. Vajravarahi.


The Hevajra Tantra, which is one of the three most important Buddhist tantras, will be dealt with in detail in chapter two of this work. One of the less important tantras is the Mafijusri-mula-kalpa, which describes itself as Maha-vaipulya-mahaydna-sutra. It carries forth the spirit of Man tray an a, as it is essentially a manual of magic in which the Sakyamuni instructs Manjusrl with magic rites, mantras, mudras and mandalas.63 The text contains both Kriya and Caryd elements. Warder places it in the early eighth century A.D.64 It is vast in extent and could not have been the work of a single period. Some of its parts could even be earlier than eighth century. It includes a substantial history of Buddhism down to the beginning of the Pala dynasty in the eighth century.

In Canda-mahdrosana-tantra there is a quaint mixture of Buddhist Philosophy and Vajrayanic practices. In chapter XVI there is the exposition of the Pralityasumutpada on the lines of Mahaydna doctrine as well as the enumeration of the cult of Yoginls such as Mohavajrl, Pisunavajri, Rajavajri etc. The female deities are presented in sexual union with their male counterparts. Sexual union is presented as essential for the attainment of the Six Perfections. In one passage Bhagavati asks, ‘0 Lord, can the dwelling of Canfa-mciharosutui be attained without a woman, or is that not possible?’ The Lord said, ‘That is not possible, O Goddess. Enlightenment is attained by means of bliss, and there is no bliss without a woman.

The Mahakala Tantra and the SariJvarodaya Tantra have strong Saivaite flavour. The former caters to such mundane benefits as finding hidden treasures, gaining a kingdom, and obtaining a desired wife, and other magical rites.230 Mahakala is a deity of terrifying appearance, invoked in terrible rites, quite contrary to the notion of karuna so dear to the Vajrayanists.66 67 68 The Satimirodaya tantra is more Saivaite than Buddhist. It recommends the Lingo cult and the worship of Saivaite gods.69 In the Kalacakra tantra of Pito, we see liberal borrowings from Vaisnavism and Saivism. The central deity of the Kalacakra mandala, Lord Kalacakra, is surrounded by Hindu gods as guardians of the cardinal points.70 The Guhyasiddhi of Padmavajra is remarkable for its use of Tantric code language (sandhydbhdsd). Tson-kha-pa states that it establishes the niddna of the Guhyasumaja and teaches the stages of the path. The Pancakrama, also an extract from the Guhyasamdja, as the name itself suggests.

explains the five stages towards the final possession of the highest yoga (yuganaddha).71 The Jndnasiddhi of Indrabhuti, the king of Uddiyana, is another work based on the Guhyasamaja. ~72 It states that Buddhahood should be realised through conceiving all things as the self.

Tantras were followed by a series of commentaries, as the texts required further exposition on account of their enigmatic expressions. There were commentaries on the Guhyasamaja Tantra by Nagaijuna (the tantric), Candraklrti and Anandagarbha. The Hevajra Tantra was commented on by Saroruha, Krsnacarya I, Bhadrapada, Dharmaklrti II, Vajragarbha and Tankadasa. Krsnacarya II, Bhadrapada and Javabhadra wrote commentaries on the Cakrasan'jvara Tantra.

Another important section of Vajrayanic literature is the anthologies of poetry, which highlight the quest for enlightenment in many and manifold imagery. These were composed mostly in Apabhrams'a (a vernacular probably spoken in Magadha as well as further west). They were collectively called Doha and Caryapada poems, and attributed to a galaxy of Siddhas like Saraha, Kambala, Krsnacarya, Tailapada, Luyipada, Bhasuka and others.75 In addition to these we have specific tantric texts as well as works of a general nature such as the Ni spann ayogavalT76 77 and the Sadiumamala 249 which supplement our knowledge of the theory and praxis of Vajrayana. Space does not permit us to be more elaborate on the Vajrayanic literature.

The Blue Annals composed by the well known scholar and translator Gos lo-tsa-ba-gZon-nu-dpal (1392-1481 A.D.) is the main source of information on all later historical compilations in the ‘Land of Snows’ as well as on the development of schools of Tibetan Buddhism. Due to lack of space we do not enter into the discussion on the development of Vajrayana Literature in Tibet where alone Buddhist tantras were safeguarded and practised even up to the present day.


9. Tantric Language and Literary Style


Tantra has devised some unique forms of communication. It employs a tantric system of language called sandhyabhdsa in its composition There is some controversy about the correct form of the term and its translation 50. CandrakTrti'51 in his Pradipodyotanu. a commentary on the Guhyasam&ja Tantra, defines sandhyahhasa as, “vi&staruci-sattvdnarii dharmatuttva-prakasanum/ virttddhdldpayogena vat tat sandhydy(sic\)abhasitam:’2$2 By the use of this technique 78 79 80 the intended meaning is conveyed through coded formulas.81 Hence terms and phrases belonging to this class are not to be understood in the literal sense.82 The actual meaning is generally elucidated by the commentary. It is the language of communication between the Guru and the disciples as well as the circle of initiates.83 84 85 In the Hevajra Tantra we have a list of terms and their corresponding tantric codes. The sadhaka is duty-bound to communicate using the tantric code language lest grave dangers befall him.

Sandhydbhdp5 is only the direct, vocal, method of communication but there are other modes of secret communication as well. Choma, the Secret Sign Language, is widely used in the Ganacakra (the Circle of Initiates) and other gatherings. This consists of secret hand-sign language used in the Assembly of the Initiates to express realisation. As the emphasis is on direct personal experience of the Innate (sahaja), doctrinal expositions have no place in such assemblies. Words and concepts would only confuse the unripened disciples and hinder their concentration.86 Hence natural language is replaced by an artificial sign language.

Other non-verbal modes of communication arc also used as in ‘purification by Smile, by Gaze, by Embrace and by Sexual Union*.Songs and Dance are also employed in the gatherings of the Initiates. Through dance the disciple attunes himself to the form of the deity to be emanated. Song is the recitation of the mantraBy the employment of these modes of communication the theories, practices, and experiences of the processes are taught and directly experienced.

Tantric texts reveal a unique literary style. Probably, the first and most prominent characteristic of the literary style of the tantras is the paradoxical nature of the description of their doctrines. Second, the profuse use of symbolism especially in expressing the various positive categories of the doctrine. Third, the concluding statement that often expresses, cither in brief or in detail, a feeling or experience of peace and happiness, more often than not, in the form of a magical formula.87 88 89 David Kalupahana points out that the structure of tantric discourses follows the four distinct stages of the Buddha’s method of language and communication, namely ‘pointing out’ (sandasseti), ‘creating an agitation’ (samuttejeti), ‘appeasing the mind’ (sampahatmeti) and ‘converting’ (samadapeti).90 We shall see in the next chapter that the discourses in the Hevajra Tantra too follow a similar structure. The unique language, literary style, and structure of discourse that these texts employ make them a distinct literary genre, the knowledge of which is essential to understand and interpret tantric texts.


10. Vajrayanic Masters: The Siddhacaryas


Vajrayanic theory and praxis were handed down through a lineage of tantric masters known as the Siddhas. Tradition speaks of the Eighty-four Siddhas who brought about the flowering of the tantric tradition from the eighth to the twelfth century.203 They were persons, who, following the path laid down by Vajrayana. attained direct realisation of the Buddha’s teachings and guided innumerable disciples towards the same. The claims of Mahayana were not repudiated by the Siddhas. Some, in fact, combined scholarship in Mahayana with Vajrayanic pursuits. However, a large number preferred tantric praxis to the study of Buddhist texts. The Siddhas came from a wide variety of backgrounds. The Siddha lineage claims great Mahayana philosophers like Nagarjuna and Asanga as well as Santaraksita and Santidcva. Though the most famous of the Siddhas were monks the majority were laymen and laywomcn. Most of them were of lowly origin and worked in rather menial positions. In the spirit of iunyata that all phenomenal distinctions arc essencc-lcss, they ignored the restrictions of caste, the idea of purity and impurity and of proper and improper living. The Siddha is one who possesses Siddhis. Siddhis arc of two types, mundane and transmundane. The latter is considered the highest Siddhi, which is enlightenment. It is more properly called the Mahamudrd Accomplishment.


Conclusion


Vajraydna, which is a system of esoteric theory and praxis, is the product of orthodox as well as heterodox elements. Vajrayanic doctrine is founded largely on Mahayanic ideals, and to some extend also on Sartkhya, Yoga, and Vedantic philosophy. But its praxis borrows liberally even from unorthodox practices, such as witchcraft, sorcery, shamanism, occultism, magic, and the like. The goal of tantrism, as seen from a large number of Sutras, Dharanls and Tantras, is both mundane and transmundane. On the one hand, it caters to the lofty ideal of the non-dual (advaya) experience of the Ultimate Reality, and on the other, pursues such mundane benefits as siddhis. Thus Vajraydna serves as an interface between Buddhist speculation and praxis.

1

   Hach Ytina is further divided into four parts or stages, namely, the View (dfsfi) the Meditation (dliyfiita), the Practice (caiya) and the Fruit (jdudu).
2
   Kazi Dawa-Samdup, cd.. &f-Cakra&iiinvra-Timtra. (First published: Calcutta: Thacker, Spink & Co., 1919; Reprinted: New Delhi: Aditya Prakashan, 1987) Sec introduction, pp.63-64.
3
   S.B. Dasgupta. ITB, p.63, see fn.3
4
   Austine Waddell, Buddhism and Lamaism of Tibet, p. 164.
5
   F.D. Lessing & Alex Wayman, Transs., Introduction to the Buddhist Tantric Systems (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt.Ltd., 1998), p. 219.
6
   Manjusrimulakalpa has great deal of kriya elements; which are designed to honour the compassionate bodhisattvas and other beings such as the AvalokiteSavara and the series of Tarts.
7
   T.D. Bhutia, Beyond Eternity through Mysticism (Darjeeling: Doma Dorji Lhadcn. 1994), p.227.
8
   For details on Kriyfi tantra Initiations, see F.D. Lessing & Alex Wayman .Transs., Introduction to the Buddhist Tantric Systems, pp. 141-155
9
   For details sec Ibid., pp. 159-203.
10
   A.K. Warder. Indian Buddhism, p.493.
11
   F.D. Lessing & Alex Wayman .Transs.. Introduction to the Buddlusl Tun trie Systems, p.219.
12
   A.K. Warder, Indian Buddhism, p. 494.
13
   In addition to the three Kriyd tantra initiations (ahhtyeka) mentioned earlier, the Caryd tantra initiations include those of the thunderbolt, bell and name.
14
   This has two phases namely, yoga with images and yoga without images. The former is the yoga of the deity not governed by voidness. The latter is theyogn of the deity governed by voidness.
15
   For details sec F.D. Lessing & Alex Wayman. Transs.. Introduction to the Buddhist Tantric Systems, pp.207-213
16
   T.D. Bhutia. Beyond Eternity through Mysticism, p.227.
17
   F.D. Lessing & Alex Wayman, Transs., Introduction to the Buddhist Tantric Systems, p.205.
18
   A.K. Warder, Indian Buddhism, p.495.
19
   F.D. Lessing & Alex Wayman, Transs., Introduction to the Buddhist Tantric Systems, p.219.
20
   A.K. Warder, Indian Buddhism, p.495.
21
   For details see F.D. Lessing & Alex Wayman, Transs., Introduction to the Buddhist Tantric Systems, p.215-249.
22
Jeffrey Hopkins, "Tantric Buddhism: Enhancement or
Degeneration from the viewpoint of Tibetan perspective" (Essay on-line, accessed on 19 April 2004) available from
http://kaladarshan.arts.ohio-statc.cdu/exhib/sama/%2A Essays/SP92.051 Hcvaj.html; Internet.
23
   F.D. Lessing & Alex Wayman.Transs.. Introduction to the Buddhist Tantric Systems, p.241.
24
   T.D. Bhutia. Beyond Eternity through Mysticism, p.228.
25
   The whole teaching of San-adurgatiparisodhana Tantra (Elimination of all Evil destines) is geared towards procuring a better rebirth for the dead and a better life for those who arc living. Tadcusz Skorupski, The Sarvadurgatiparisodhana Tantra-Elimination of all Evil Destinies (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1983), p.vii.
26
   Lokcsh Chandra, "Borobudur as a Monument of Esoteric Buddhism" in JTAS vol.xxvii, no.4 (1985), p.23.
27
   F.D. Lessing & Alex Wayman, Transs., Introduction to the Buddhist Tantric Systems, p.219.
28
   For details see Ibid., pp.311-325.
29
   HT (F). p. xx.
30
   HT (F). p. xx. Farrow and Menon speak of three steps (kramas) viz.. Generation (utpatti-krama) Completion (utpanna-krama), and Perfection (mspanr.a-krama), while Alex Wayman and David Snellgiovc speak only of the first two kramas. They consider the nispamui-krama as another name for the step of Completion. But according to Farrow and Menon, at the stage of Completion the absolute nature is not fully manifest. Only in the process of Perfection through the MahamudrS Accomplishment the full realisation of the Absolute Voidness of all natures is realised. But the thud step seems to be superfluous and is not recognised by other scholars. The present study also recognises only the first two steps, namely Generation and Completion.
31
   HT (F). pp.xxn-xxiii. Farrow and Menon mention the phrase 'want may a' as indicating the three steps in their scheme. According to them the word 'maya' indicates the third step, namely ’the process of Perfection’.
32
   The Sambarodaya, the Vajrapanjard. the Buddhakapdla and other Anuttarayogatantras, make a basic division of the Anuttarayoga tantra into (mahd)yoga tantra and Yogini tantra. The Kdlacakra and others make a basic division of the Anuttarayoga tantra into Updya tantra and Prajnd tantra. The Vajrahfilaydlumkdra and others speak of the Ddka tantra and Ddkipi tantra. (Malid) yoga tantra, Updya tantra and Ddka tantra are synonymous. Similarly Yogini tantra, Prajnd tantra and Ddkini tantra are synonymous. See F.D. Lessing & Alex Wayman, Transs., Introduction to the Buddhist Tantric Systems, p.251.
33
   A.K. Warder, Indian Buddhism, p.496.
34
   Biswanatha Banerjee ed.. Sri-Kalacakratantra-Raja. p.iv.
35
   T.D. Bhutia, Beyond Eternity through Mysticism, p.229.
36
   “The classifications set by Bu-ston and Tson-kha-pa differ in details from the tluee subdivisions of the anuttara-yoga, propounded by Jayapandita Blo-bzan-hphrin-las (A.D. 1642-): 1. Neither Father nor Mother Tantras (Tson-kha-pa does not admit this subdivision) 2. Mother tantras 3. Father tantras." see classification of tantras in Kazi Dawa-Samdup, ed., Cakmsitiiln’tira-Tantra, ed.. pp.7-8.
37
   The Mahdydna Abhidharma Sanskrit literature may be divided into two broad groups: I. The works belonging to the Mddhyumika school of NSgarjuna. 2. the works belonging to the Yogdcdra-Vijhdnavdda school of Asartga and Vasubandhu.
38
   Sutra is defined as "svalpdkfaram asarhdigdharit sdravat vifvatomukham astobhamam anavadyarit ca sutra tit sutravido vidu/t"
39
   The Sutra Pifaka was arranged into five flganias (traditions) -Dirgha dgama. Madhyama dgama. Samynkta dgama. Ekottara dgama. and Ksudraka dgama. The SthaviravSdins call them NikSyas (collections). Sec A.K. Warder, Indian Buddhism. p.202.
40
   Ibid., p.354.
41
   Hajimc Nakamura, Indian Buddhism, p.317.
42
   Ibid., p 3IS.
43
   Benoytosh Bhattacharyya. 1BE, p.29.
44
   \tariju 'Tinuilukalpa was first edited by Mm.T. Ganapati Sflstri in Trivandrum Sanskrit Scries, No.LXX, LXXVI and LXXXIV, i.e., in three pans published in 1920. 1922 and 1925 respectively. This sinru contains material on astronomy, astrology, geography, geophysics, history of the Buddhist Church, and prominent kings, all put in a jumbled form. It contains innumerable mantras for the benefit of the sddhaku. The text has been edited and published by P.L. Vaidya. as the second part of MahAydno Sfitra-Saritgarha. Sec Introduction, P.L. Vaidya cd., MahAyAnastitrasariigraha, Part II, (Darbhanga: The Mithila Institute, 1964).
45
   Hajimc Nakamura, Indian Buddhism, p.319.
46
   Ibid., pp. 322-323.
47
   Ibid., p.324.
48
   Ratnaketu-dluSrapf, the first sutra in a collection of sutras entitled Maliasannipdta, contains a dhdrapl It is for the most part unintelligible, consisting of repeated syllables (guru. guru, mum, iimru. liili. Iitli, ha'.a, hula, and so on) sprinkled with occasional words like ‘great compassion* etc. A large number of texts of this period and later periods exhibit this new trend. A.K. Warder, Indian Buddhism, pp.485-486.
49
   The Atfasdhasrika Praj ndpdramitd was shortened to the form of tiatasloka Praj ndpdramitd of one hundred stanzas. Later it was still shortened to Prajitdpdramitd H/xlaya Sillra. This was further abridged to a Praj/idpdramitd Dhdrapi. of a few unintelligible words which ultimately gave rise to the mantra of Prajndpfiramitd. It was believed that the recital of even the mantra would bring the benefit of the complete Prajncipdramitd. From die Praj Mpinamitd mantra evolved the bga-mantra 'Pram'. See Benoytosh Bhattacharyya, IBE, pp.30-31. The bija-mantras are mono-syllabic mantras symbolising some particular god or goddess. Thus 'a' represents Vairocana, 'ya' Aksobhya, 'ra' Ratnasambhava. 'ba' Amitabha and 'la' Amoghasiddhi. "Hum' is the bija-mantra of Vajra-sattva. S.B. Dasgupta, ITB, p.57.
50
   S.B. Dasgupta, ITB, p.59.
51
   By the recitation of the Dharma-dhdrani the follower attains memory (snifti), perfect knowledge (Prajrkl) and spiritual strength (bala). By Artha-dhdrani the correct significance (artha) of the Dharmas is revealed to the follower in a spontaneous way. The Mantra-dhdranf enables one to attain perfection. By the last type, the ultimate immutable nature of the Dharmas is revealed to the reciter. Sec Shashibhusan Dasgupta, ORC, p.21. Sec also Nalinakslia Dutt, ed. Bodhisattt\’abhumi (Patna: K.P. Jayaswal Research Institute, 1966) p. 185.
52
   The four kinds of Dharanls are, viz.. Vidya- utterances associated with female deities; Mantra - utterances associated with male deities: Hrxiaya - utterances of the wrathful deities; and Upahnlaya - utterances of the male and female messengers and servants of deities. F.D. Lessing & Alex Wayman. transs.. Introduction to the Buddhist Tantric Systems, pp. 116-118.
53
   .Ibid , p.107.
54
   The Pa/icarakfu (The Five Protective Spells) is a collection of five Dharanls, viz., Mahd-pratisard, for protection against sin, disease and other evils; Mahd-sdhasra-pramardmi - for protection against evil spirits; Mahdmdyuri contains a number of magic sutras; Mahfi-sitavall for protection against hostile planets, wild animals and poisonous insects; Mahdraksa-mantranusarinl for protection against diseases. See Hajime Nakamura, Indian Buddhism, p 317. Again, the five dharanls of Usrtisa-vijaya are believed to piotect the follower as well as remove karmic hindrances which bring about re-biith in an evil destiny. See F.D. Lessing & Alex Wayman. transs.. Introduction to the Buddhist Tantric Systems, p.U5. Ganapati-dhdraniis for gaining wealth, the performance of magical acts of controlling sentient beings and destroying demons. Sec Ibid., p. 123. Dharanls, were at times more elaborate as to include the rite of building stupas, manufacturing tile Buddhas, making offerings, niarnjalas etc.
55
   Tara»ath5 gives a list of important tantras and their compilers. Saralia obtained the Biiddhaokpala-tantra. Lui-pa obtained the Yoginisancarya, Lva-va-p3 and Saroruha obtained the Hcvajra, Krsnacarya obtained the Samputa-tilaka, Lalitavajra obtained the three parts of Krsm-yanion, Gambhiravajra obtained the Vajrdmpu, Kukuri-pa obtained the Mahdmdya, Pito-pa obtained the Kdtacakra. See, Debiprasad Chattopadhyaya, ed., Lama Champa & Alaka Chattopadhyaya. transs.. TArandthd ‘.v Histoiy of Buddhism in Indio (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, 1990) p.343.
56
   Bcnoytosh Bhattacharyya believes that Manjusriniiilakalpa is earlier than the Guhyasamdja and was written probably in the second century A.D or even earlier. According to him the latter was composed by Asaiiga in the 3rd century. Asaiiga is believed to have composed also a sddhnno of Praj/kipdruniild where he made a definite reference to the five Dhydni Btuhllms and their consorts. See Bcnoytosh Bhattacharyya. IBE, p.62. The Guliyasinndjn is also known as Taditigaiaguhyaka or Asfudasaputola signifying its eighteen chapters. See S. Bagchi, ed.. Guhyusamdju Tantra, p.ii.
57
   The Guhyasanidja has been translated into Chinese. Tibetan and other languages of the different Buddhist count! les which show s its wide subscription. It is also an oft-quoted tantra, an authority recognised by Indrabhuti in his JnAnasiddht and Advayavajra in his Advayavajrasamgraha and commented on by several faultic masters. S. Bagchi ed.. Guhyasanidja Tantra, p ii.
58
   Ibid., p.vi.
59
   Alex Wayman. The Buddhist Tantras: Light on hub-Tibetan Esotericisin (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd.. 1996). p.19.
60
   Kazi Daw a-Samdup, ed.. Sri-Cakratin ara- Tantra. p. 155.
61
   Ibid., p.10.
62
   Kazi Dawa-Samdup, ed., £rt-Cakrafariivara-Tantra, p.10.
63
   Maurice Wintemitz, MIL. vol.l/., pp.382-383.
64
   A.K. Warder, Indian Buddhism, p.491.
65
   Ibid., p.494.
66
   Maurice Wintemitz, HIL, wl.ll., p.383.
67
   Ibid., p.385.
68
   V/e have a verse in the Sddhanamdld "dedrye yah sadd dvesf kupito ratnatrayeapi vah /
anekasattvavidhwms/ Afahdkdlena khddyate "ft Sddhanamdid p.586. (One who is persistently a hater of the preceptor and is adversely disposed towards the three jewels - Buddha. Dharma. Saitgha - and immolated many animals, is eaten up alive by Mah3k£la).
69
   Maurice Wintemitz, HIL. will., p.385.
70
   Biswanath Banerjee. cd.. &f-Kdlacakra Tantra. sec Introduction, pp.x-xiv.
71
   Maurice Wintemitz, HIL, vol.II., pp.381-382.
72
   Alex Wayman, Yoga of the Guhyasamdjatantra: The Arcane Lore of Forty verses (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1977: Reprint 1999) pp-90-91.
73
   "bodhicittam idam vajram sarva-buddhatvam atmanah/
tasmat sarvStma-yogena sarva-buddhatvam apnutc" Jndnasiddhi Ch.XV. See Samdhong Rinpoche and Vrajvallabh Dwivedi, eds. Guhyddi-A f/asiddhi Sadgraha, p.144 .
74
   For further details see A.K. Warder, Indian Buddhism, pp.491-492.
75
   Ibid., p.493.
76
   NispannayogdvalT of Abhayakaragupta. is a remarkable work containing twenty-six Mandalas in twenty-six chapters. All these mandalas describe innumerable deities of the Buddhist pantheon. Its treatment of the images and deities is more varied and extensive than that of the Sddhanantdla. See Benoytosh Bhattacharyya. ed.. Nis pannayogdvali. p.12.
77
   The SddlumanuJUl. (or Sddhana-samuccnya) also edited by Benoytosh Bhattacharyya. contains 312 Sddhanas. It is of great importance from the point of view of Buddhist iconography. Some of the S&dhanas are anonymous while the authors of some others are mentioned. They belong to the period between the seventh and the eleventh century A.D. "The work reveals much information on Tantric tradition, its philosophy and psychic exercises, and also of the Tantric authors, siddhas. mantras, mandalas and various other matters of historical and cultural interest." See N.N. Bhattacharyya. History of the Tantric Religion. p.64.
78
   There are two opinions on the correct form of this word. Some scholars like Snellgrovc, Lama Govinda, Pandit Haraprasad Shastri. Farrow and Mcnon hold'that the term is ‘sundhydbhasd\ while others like Eliadc, Agchananda Bharati. Shahidullah, V. Bhattacharya, and P.C. Bagchi consider that the more probable reading is 'sandhdhhdsd'. The £a tap i taka Tibetan-Sanskrit Dictionary gives both 'sandhd'and *sandhyd’ as the Sanskrit originals for the Tibetan equivalent of sandhydblitifti (Idem por dgons re b<ad pa ni). The term has been variously rendered into English. Sandhydbhdsd has been translated as,' twilight language’, ‘enigmatic language', ‘mystery’, ‘hidden sayings’ etc. Agehananda Bharati prefers Eliade's translation of Sandhdbhdfd as. ‘langage intcnlionnel' (intentional language). For details see Agehananda Bharati, The Tantric Tradition, pp. 164-180; Vidhushekhara Bhattacharya, "SandhAbha$a" The Indian Historical Quarterly (IHQ), vol.IV, cd., N.N.Law (Delhi: Caxton Publications, 1926; Reprint 1985) pp.287-296.1 use the term sandhydbhdsd. since both 'Sundhd' and 'Sandhyd are acknowledged by the Tibetan -Sanskrit Dictionary, and both the translators of the Hevajra Tantra (Snellgrovc & harrow and Mcnon) use the term sandhydbhdsd and not sandhdhhdsd
79
   It is not certain whether this Candrakirti is the Candraklrti of
(Prdsangika) Mddhyanuka fame.
80
   There is some confusion with regard to the reading of the term ’sandhyayabhasitam'. Chintaharan Chakravarti while using the devanagari script writes it as sandhydvabhddtam (p.3), while in transliteration records it as 'sandhdyabhdptam (p.31). He writes, “The term 'sandhydya bhdsa’ has been also read as sundhd. santlhdva. sandhydbhdy}.“ See Chintaharan Chakravarti. ed.
Guhyasamdj<itantra-pradif>odyotana/ikb-su/kofAydkhyd (Patna:
Kashi Prasud Jayswal Research Institute, 1984) ch.l, p.3 & p.31. The above passage is translated as, “whichever one reveals a truth of nature of sentient beings having superior zeal, and by the method of ambiguous discourse (viruddhdldpa) - that one is expressed in the manner of samdhi." As found in "Tantric Songs and Twilight Language,” in EBT, vol. 2, p.462.
81
   According to Mircea Eliade, Sandhdbhasa has the dual purpose to
camouflage the doctrine against the non-initiate as well as to project the yogi into the 'paradoxical situation' indispensable for his spiritual training. See Agehananda Bharati, The Tantric Tradition, pp.172-173. *
82
   HT(F) 11:3:53-54.
83
   HT(F). p.xxxviii.
84
   HT(F) 11:3:56-60.
85
   HT(F) 11:3:66-67.
86
   HT (F). pp.xxxviii-xxxix.
87
   HT(F) 11:3:11. These actions express llic affection between the deities of Wisdom and Means at the different consecrations. 11T(F). Yo^uruinuuu’iUi, pp. 183-184.
88
   For details sec HT (F), pp.xxxviii - xLi.
89
   David J. Kalupahana, A History of Buddhist Philosophy, pp.221222.
90
   Ibid., p.225.
91
For the biography of the eighty-four siddhas, See James B. Robinson, trans., Buddha's Lions: The Lives of the Eighty-Four Siddhas. CaturaSM-siddha-pravflti by Abluiyadatta.

Conclusion

We find that the Hevajra Tantra occupies a singular position in the Vajrayanic literature as a unique treatise of tantric theory and praxis. Its peerless position is due to the fact that it has been able to synthesis the inspirations of early Buddhism, later Mahayanic speculations, and tantric insights and praxis. The deities of the Hevajra Mandala, as we shall see later, are nothing but the dharmas enumerated by the early Buddhist schools of Therav&da and Sautrdntika. The practice of virtues that these schools upheld, is presupposed in the Hevajra Tantra. The Mahay<inic speculations, as discussed above, serve as the bedrock of the philosophy of Hevajra Tantra. The text is also a compendium of tantric insights and praxis common to Vajrayana in general. No wonder then, the Hevajra Tantra is considered to be a Vajrayanic masterpiece.


TANTRA


Vajrayana, as we have seen, inherited much from its Mahayanic ancestry. There was no direct transplanting of Mahayanic categories on to the soil of Vajrayana; nevertheless, Vajravanic speculation came to be highly influenced by the Madhyamika-Yogacara mindset. Equally important and influential were certain specifically tantric theoretical assumptions that contributed to the crystallisation of the Vajrayanic theory. The focus of the present chapter is to identify and analyse these tantric principles as we find them in the Hevajra Tantra. Principal among these principles is the notion of the Absolute as bipolar in nature. In the text, the Mahayanic categories of sunyata and karuna arc considered as constituting the two polarities within the Absolute, and these two polarities are viewed as female and male. Another important tantric insight is that the body is the microcosm, and hence, the abode of truth. It is within the body that truth is realised through direct personal experience (svasan'jvedyant). Finally, the realisation of the Absolute leads the enlightened person to have a ‘homologous-vision’ of the world.

terms of a diametrical polarity.1 Everything is “conjunctio oppositorum."2 3 In everything there is a built-in polarity, which may be expressed in terms of positive-negative, potential-kinetic, thought-action, intelligence-emotion, male-female etc. This insight must have led to the intuition that the ultimate reality is bi-polar. Both the Hindu and the Buddhist Tantras hold that, “the ultimate non-dual reality posses two aspects in its fundamental nature - the negative (niv/tti) and the positive {pravitti), the static and the dynamic, and these two aspects of the reality, are represented in Hinduism by fiva and sakti and in Buddhism by prajna and upaya (or funyata and karuna)."4 Prajna and upaya arc the two aspects of the absolute reality, namely, the principle of passivity and the principle of activity respectively. The former is associated with the dharmakaya. while the latter is the whole world comprised of sariibhogakdya and nirnianakdya. These two are the manifestations of karuna, since they are meant to lead all sentient beings to the ultimate goal. The relation between prajna and upaya is likened to that of a lamp and its light -they are different yet inseparable.

Dasgupta considers this bi-polar conception of the Ultimate Reality a theological principle. However, it appears to be a metaphysical necessity as well. In Vajraydna, phenomena is not utterly naught but is a real emanation of the noumenon. The latter therefore must already contain within itself some principle of selfdiversification. It must have within it the germ of everything phenomenal. Hence the noumenon, in tantric parlance, must be both passive and active. This does not conform exactly with the MahSyanic trend of thought where phenomena is not integral to funyata. but something thrust on it from without.6 7 The bi-polarity is the tantric attempt to bridge the gulf between the Absolute and the relative (paramartha and sanivrti) - a unique way to accommodate the empirical. The quiescent as well as the creative (emanative) aspects of the neumenon are polarised into the static and the dynamic. This bi-polar nature of the non-dual is foreshadowed in the Mddhyamika conception of bodhicitta6 as the co-mingling of sunyata and karuna 8 9 though this polarity is not understood in the tantric sense. The bi-polarity of the non-dual reality is expressed in such compound terms as, sunyata-karund. prajna-upaya, Lotus-Jewel, ghanta-vajra. Sun-Moon, ali-kali, lalana-rusand. dinam-naktam etc. There are other terms which are simple but compound in meaning, such as, e am, cantjali, Hevajra, and Vajrasattva. These also represent the ultimate non-dual reality, which is bi-polar.


1.1 Sunyata and Karunas Prajna and Upaya


Suttyaia and karttnd are called Wisdom and Means (prajna and up&ya) in the Buddhist Tantras. Prajna10 is the perfect knowledge of the voidness of all natures, and it is passive or static by nature. Karuna is compassion, the realisation of oneself as non-different from the other, and it is the active principle.11 It serves as the means for the realisation of the highest goal. While prajna commands the metaphysical level, koruna relates with the physical or moral realm. Moral actions purified by prajna do not leave vasanas and sariiskaras. and these do not bring about rebirth.

The concepts of prajna and updya are found already in Asvaghosa. "It is said in his Awakening of Faith in Mahay ana (Mahayana-sraddhotpdda-slitra) that

Enlightenment a priori has two attributes, viz., (I) Pure Wisdom (Prajna) and (II) Incomprehensible activity (Updya? Koruna)."'1 In the Astasdhasrika Prajndpdraniitd, Sariputra declares, "A Bodhisattva who wants to win full enlightenment should therefore develop the perfection of wisdom and become skilled in means."1* Nagatjuna also used the term updya for koruna by which he meant the preaching of the truth among lay people to remove their veil of ignorance and realise the truth. Northern Buddhism in general holds that these two aspects of the ultimate reality correspond to vajra-dhatu (tathata) and the Garhlia-dhdtu (tathagatagarbha) respectively. The Prdjnika, a subsect of the Svabhavika school of Nepalese Buddhism equates prajna with Dharma, updya with the Buddha and the union of the two with Sa/igha.

Bhagavan defines Hevajra Tanlra as one that is of the nature of Wisdom and Means (parjnopdydtmakani tantram).N Guhyasamdja Tantra equates prajna with voidness (nibsvabhdvatd) and updya with the empirical reality; the union of the two with yoga.16 In Hevajra Tantra, prajna is understood in two ways, viz., Wisdom (jnanam) and Wisdom consort (tnudra). The primary characteristic of this knowledge is its non-dual nature. It is, “free of notions of self and other, space-like, undefiled, void, the essence of existence and non-existence and (is) the supreme.”17 It is known through direct personal experience (svasarm’edyam). Unlike the sunyata or prajna of Madhyamika, knowledge (j nan aril) in Vajrayana is a blending of Wisdom and Means (prajnopayav-yatimisrarii).18 19 This knowledge is all-pervading (sarvayapi)

and abides in all living bodies (,sar\>adehe\yavast hit ah). The nature and function of Wisdom (prajna) is indicated by the titles ascribed to it, such as, Mother, Sister, Washerwoman, Daughter, Dancer, and Outcaste Woman. It gives birth to the universe and hence it is called Mother.20 It is prajna that distinguishes the Absolute and the relative, and hence is called sister (bhaginiti tatha prajna vibhagarii darsayed yatha).21 Wisdom is called Washerwoman because she delights all beings with great bliss.22 It is the fullness of enlightened qualities (gunasya duhanat prajna) and hence it is addressed as daughter. Since the novice cannot stabilise this wisdom it is called dancer {prajna cancalatvan). Prajna is called Dotnbi (outcaste woman) because it is outside the ken of sense experience (iindriyanam agocaratvena).23 24 In the text we find a bias in favour of prajna; the notion of upaya is not elaborated as much as prajna is. In Hevajra Tantra, prajna is understood also as the wisdom consort (mudrd/muhamudra).2 3 As wisdom consort she is the personification of wisdom (sa dhrti). She is the noble lady {saiva bhagavat I prajna). She is of the nature of the Five Aspects of Enlightened Awareness

{pancajndnasvarupinl). She is Nairatmya, the essence of nature and is none other than Hevajra himself.25 Here again prajna includes the notion of upaya as well. Prajnopd) avini&ayasiddhi of Anarigavajra states that the non-dual union of the two aspects like milk and water is called praj/lopaya

Wisdom cannot be pursued in isolation. The yogi should take into account all the other sentient beings. Similarly Method when divorced from Wisdom has the effect of chaining the individual to sarhsara.27 Hevajra Tantra indicates this inseparability of prajna and upaya by stating that prajfid pervades the world. Iconographically it is depicted by prajfid embracing Hevajra (prajnali/igitah), and by presenting both with the same attributes (prajfid bhagavadrOpini).28 In the Vajrayanic conception of the

Ultimate Reality, the Real is not just 6unya or prajfid' but prajriopaya, i.e., the fusion of funyatd and karund.29 Hevajra Tantra does not elaborate on the nature of upaya, as Snellgrove points out, “in this union Wisdom, although unrealizable apart from Means, yet predominates.”30 There are only a few references to upaya in our text. It is symbolised sometimes as the corpse on which the yoginls stand or as the hand-drum which is one of the five ornaments of the yogi.31 The text equates prajfid

with dharmakdya, while upaya is related to the sanibhogakaya and nirmanakdya, which originate for the benefit of the world from the Source of Nature (idhannadhatu).32 Hence upaya is essentially compassion (upayo mahakaruna).33 “Compassion (karund) is bom of the realisation of the universality and unity of all beings. As one with the Dharmadhdtu all beings are equal.”34 35 In Pramdnavdrtikavrtti Manoratha Nandi says, that karuna is the earnest desire to save all beings from dukha and the causes of

dukha.214 A Bodhisattva is said to exercise his compassion by revelation, by rekindling the desire for liberation in sentient beings and by becoming a Guru and granting initiation to his disciples. Karuna is inseparable from sunyata as the latter serves as the raison d'etre for the former. “A person can be compassionate only if he overcomes his ‘species bias’ by which he considers the humans as different and superior to the rest. Sunyata enables one to realise that differences are only skin deep.”36


In the twin principles of prajnd and upaya, Vujrayana summarises the entire process of Paramitdyana. The bodhisattva marga towards samyaksambodhi can be reduced to jnanasambhara and purtyasambhara. The first is prajnd, which is attained through meditation, and the second is upaya achieved through the practice of virtues like dana etc. Therefore Vajrayana is right in conceiving the ultimate reality as prajnopayatmaka.


1.2 Prajiia and Upaya as Female and Male


The bi-polarity of the ultimate reality, seen from the psychological and mythological angle, led to the conception of the two as man and woman, and in its cosmicizcd version as god and goddess. The characterisation of the bi-polar nature of the ultimate reality as male and female is ubiquitous in various religions, as well as in mystical and magical traditions of the world. However, in tantra the ascription of gender to the bipolarity and the consequent sexual connotations are more pronounced than in other traditions. The Hindu tantric tradition assigned the dynamic principle to the female and the static to the male, while in the Buddhist tantric tradition the roles are reversed.


The Indian and Tibetan masters of Vajrayana ascribed all cognitive terms of spiritual consummation such as wisdom, realisation, beatitude etc., to the static and all conativc terms like compassion, method, energy etc., to the dynamic.'38 Though grammatically both the terms, prajna and kannja are feminine in gender, the Vajrayanist always considered the latter male. Of the four grades of iunyata that Nagiirjuna speaks of in his Pancakrama, the first sunyata is prajna. which is also called woman. The second (i.e. atistmyata) is called upaya and here too the sexual connotation is implied.39 Similarly Sri-cakrasariivara-Tantra states, “Appearance, Method and Great Compassion are the Male Deity, whilst the Void, Prajna, Tranquillity and Great Bliss are, the Female Deity.”30 The Hcvajra Tantra calls prajna as female and upaya as male.40 41 Upaya refers to the yogi and prajna to the mudra (female co-practitioner).42 The synonyms for prajna such as mudra, mahamudrd, vajrakanya, vuvati. lotus (the female organ) bhagavat/"etc., show that prajna is feminine. In the Hevajra Tantra, prajna is also called Mother, Sister, Washerwoman, Dancing girl, Daughter, Donibi.43 Prajna should be understood from the absolute and the relative points of view. From the former point of view it is transcendental wisdom, while from the latter it refers to the wisdom consort of the yogi


1.3 Prajna and Upaya as Lalana and Rasana


Laland. rasana and avadhuti are three important nadis that are employed in tantric sadhana. Hevajra Tantra associates the dual nature of the Absolute with the first two nadis by declaring that laland is of the nature of Wisdom (prajiia) and rasana of Means (upaya).44 The dual nature of the Ultimate Reality is referred to as laland and rasana.

and their union as avadhQti in Sadhanamdla as well. It states, “Inland is of the nature of Prajna, and Rasand remains as Updya, and Avadhutiremains in the middle as the abode of Mahasukha.,v44 Laland is believed to be on the left and rasand is believed to be on the right, and avadhQti in the middle.45 46 47 Hence laland and rasand are also called Left and Right or vdma and dakfina respectively. Again, laland is considered as the nature of Moon, and rasand. of Sun.40 Laland is the bearer of the seed, and rasana, of the ovum.48 Here there is an anomaly because laland, which is prajna (female,!, is said to carry the seed while rasana. which is upaya (male), bears the ovum. This should have been reversed in order to be consistent with the rest of the tantric analogy. However, the real aim is achieved - to show that the essential duality of the ultimate descends on the physical body as well.


1.4 Prajna and Upaya as Vowel and Consonant


In the realm of sound (speech), the metaphysical categories of prajna and upaya are referred to as dli (vowel series), and kali** (consonant series) respectively.49 50 Just as the consummation of prajna and upaya generates bodhicitta (bindu), the union of the vowel and the consonant produces the syllable (aksara).51 The seed syllable (bjja) may be a pure vowel when it indicates the unmanifested state, as for example, the vowel ‘a’ of Nairatmya. Generally, the seed syllable of a manifested divinity consists of a consonant (or consonants), a vowel and a final ‘/w’ (anusvara). The anusvdra indicates the union (bindu), and is written as a dot over the syllable. Every complete seed syllable thus represents the essential idea of upaya (vajra or kali), prajna (lotus or all) and the consummation (bitidu).


Dasgupta justifies the ascription that prajna is ali on the account of the fact that the letter 'a' is without beginning or origination; it is immutable and free from all vocal modulations as prajna is. In every set of alphabets, 'a' is the first letter and is the source of all other letters. Hence it is an apt symbol to indicate the void nature of the dharmas, i.e., sunyaid/prajna. The Ekallavira-cantja-mahdrosana-tantra also employs ‘a' to represent prajna and 'va' to represent upaya. The Hindu texts too often use V to represent Brahma, the creator of the universe. In the Bhagavail Gita. Lord K.rsna declares that among the letters He is ‘a\ Hence the letter 4a’ represents best prajna or suuyata.

Another set of vowel and consonant used generally to indicate prajna and upaya are V and 4varif. V is bhaga.5' (i.e., the lotus, the female sexual organ, or prajna) and 4varif is kulisa (i.e., the vajra, the male sexual organ, the upaya)*' The compound syllable 4evatii’ expresses the union of the bi-polar nature of the Bhagavan.

Hevajra Tantra states that “the divine letter V, adorned with the syllabic 'vatif placed within it, is the abode of all bliss and the receptacle of the jewels of the Buddhas.”56 57 ‘Evant’ represents the Ultimate Reality. In the Dohakosa of Kanhu-pada it is stated that one who has understood e-vam-kara has understood everything completely. In Hevajra Tantra ‘e’ and ‘varii’ have been variously interpreted.50 The seed-syllable 'hurii* also indicates the union ofprajrid and upd}>a (// urn.. .prajriopdyasvabhavakam).

Our text uses few other words as well to indicate prajrid and updya as well as their union, viz., 'Hevajra', 4CandalF' and ‘ Vajrasattva . The term ‘Hevajra' is a combination of 'he' and ‘vajraThe former symbolises Great compassion and the latter Wisdom.58 59. The word ‘CandalT is composed of 'canda* (the fierce one) which refers to Wisdom {prajrid) and ‘afi‘ which refers to Vajrasattva. Usually, in iconographic representations, Wisdom is portrayed with a benign bhav (appearance), but here Wisdom is fierce in the sense that it destroys the klesas and the Maras. It is also said that ‘canda' is Wisdom and the left nddl 'ali* is Means and the right nadj. The union of the two nadls in accordance with the Guru’s instructions is called Candali. conceived as a blazing fire engulfing every manifestation of existence. There are various interpretations given to this composite word but all agree that it indicates the union of Voidness and Compassion.

The composite name 4 Vajrasattva is formed of two words 4vajra’ and 4sattva\*° “The Void which is the firm essence, indestructible, indepletable, indivisible and not capable of being consumed is called Vajra."61 62 Here 4vajra’ stands for prajna, 4Sattvarii' refers to ‘existent being’. “What the wise call existent being is the Aggregate of the Five Components of Phenomenal Awareness."63 Sattvarii. the existent being is updya. Again the text states that, “the union of ali and kali is the seat of Vajrasattva.”64 Here the commentary explains that 4vajra’ refers to the symbol (hiiiiba) and 4satn-a’ refers to the seed-syllable (hjja). The principal deity originates from the sattvabiriiba, that is, the union of sattva (seed-syllable) and biriiba (symbol).65 The deity is the embodiment of the union of these two natures, prajna and updya. Thus the term 4Vajrasattva’ too indicates the dual nature of the non-dual reality.


2. The Tantric Absolute as the Union of the Bi-polarity


The tantric Absolute is the union of the polarities of sunyata and karuna; it is called yuganaddha, the ultimate goal of all tantric sddhana. Sarahapada says in one of his Dohas, “He who discards Karuna and sticks to Sunyata alone never has access to the right path; he, again, who meditates only on Karuna. is not liberated even in thousands of births; he. on the other hand, who can mingle

Sunyata and Kanina, remains neither in bhava (existence) nor in nirvana (extinction).”66 67 Yuganaddha is the cessation of all forms of duality. The fifth chapter (Yuganaddha-krama) of the Panca-krama explains clearly the notion of yuganaddha.66 It states that the synthesis of the notions such as samsara (creative process) and nivitti (absolute cessation), samkle.ia (phenomenal) and vyavadana (absolutely purified entities), and the perceiver (grahya) and the perceived (grdhaka), is called yuganaddha. 68 69 70 Hevajra Tantra refers to it as hodhicitta, prabhasvara etc. Our text states, “The absence of distinction between Wisdom and Means (Sunyata and Kanina) is the characteristic of the Innate Radiance (prabhasvara), the supreme perfectly Enlightened

Consciousness.”6 In the Sddhanumdla. the union (yuganaddha) of sunyata (female) and karuna (male) is called hodhicitta, which is advaya and is conceived as the neuter gender.

In yuganaddha. Ihc bi-polarity is synthesised; one aspect is not negated for the sake of the other. Samsara is not disowned for the sake of nirvana; but the two arc reintegrated as the two aspects of one and the same reality. Dasgupta states. To enter into the final abode of ‘thatness’ in body, word and mind, and thence again to rise up and turn to the world of miseries - that is what is called Yuganaddha. To know the nature of sarin’fti (the provisional truth) and the paramartha (the ultimate truth) and then to unite them together - that is real Yuganaddha.

What is negated is the notions of duality, distinction, and differentiation,71 72 73 which arise from thought-constructs and theories about the real.

In our text, syllables such as 'evanY. and and names like *Hcvajra\ ‘ Vajrasattva' and 'Candali \ are expressions of the notion of yuganaddha. The same is symbolised by the flame arising from the lotus, or the moon-crescent, or by the flame arising from the kalasa (jar). In Tibet, it is represented by the Asoka branch inserted into the ambrosia vase. In Chinese and Nepalese Buddhism, it is indicated by Iheyinyang symbol. '


This notion of union is expressed iconographically by the depiction of gods and goddesses in amorous embrace. In Tibetan and Nepalese Buddhism, the union of the bipolar reality is represented in the yabyum iconography.™ In our text, Bhagavan Hevajra is presented in union with his yoginT. In the two-armed Hevajra, he is in the embrace of PomM.™ In the four-armed Hevajra, he is presented as embracing his Wisdom, Vajravarahl.74 75 76 77 In the six-armed Hevajra, he embraces Vajrasrnkhala.70 According to Lama Govinda Anagarika, the yabyum is a meditative imagery, a representation of the highest level of absorption or reintegration.


In the actual tantric sadhana, the yuganaddha is achieved at least initially through various consecrations including sexo-yogic practices. The union of the master with the rnudrd (wisdom consort), and later the union of the yogi with her, are prescribed as means for the direct realisation of union {yuganaddha). This union may also be achieved purely through the internal union employing prdnaydma. According to Lama Govinda Anagarika, though this symbol depicts sexual union, there is nothing “sexual” about the tantric sadhana. Today what is utilised most is the Erotic Metaphor of Union78 and not actual physical union between the yogi and

theyoginl. But Bharati observes that sexual union was literally part of the sadhana. “Sexual contact docs take place in certain meditations of the rgyud tradition, as it does in its Indian counterpart, the left-handed tantric exercise...”79 It is reserved for the very advanced disciples.


3. The Centrality- of the Body


In tantra, body refers not only to the gross, but also to the subtle or the psychic, as well as to the cosmic aspects of the physical body. Hence body is to be understood as a psycho-somatic as well as a cosmic entity. It is a fundamental tantric insight that body is the abode of all truth. The great knowledge that the body holds is that the nature of the Absolute is bliss and that it pervades all beings.80 This bliss can be experienced only in the body, and only in reference to the body can the Absolute be spoken of as bliss.81 This does not mean that bliss is ultimately dependent on the body, because the text clearly states that though it is in the body, it is not of the body (ciehastho'pi na dehajah).82 What is implied is that, in terms of the process of Generation, “...it is not possible to instruct about bliss anywhere else other than in the body.”83 Bliss in itself is independent of the body, but bliss as an object of experience cannot be had except in the bbdy (rupadyahhavena saukliyam naivopaIabhyute).%} This again accentuates the centrality of the body in tantra.

The bodily experience of pleasure is but a momentary glimpse of the same absolute bliss, which is the nature of all beings. In our ordinary life the most intense of such pleasure is experienced in sexual union. Hence the absolute bliss is likened to the experience of sexual union. The Bhaguvan declares, “I dwell in sukhavatl, the Citadel of Bliss, in the womb of the Vajra Lady which has the shape of the letter ‘e’ (a triangle pointing downwards) and is the receptacle of the jewels of the Buddha”. 4 Yogaratnamala associates V and 'van? with body; it tells us that ‘e’ is hhnga (the female sexual organ), and 'van? is the kulisa Of

(the male sexual organ). '

Bliss, as we have seen earlier, is spoken of as absolute and relative; as absolute it is the enlightened consciousness, and as relative it is the semen. Our text states that these two aspects of bliss are generated in the lotus of the lady, which is sukhavatl.by forming the 'evari?*(' which once again highlights the significance of the body. The commentary states, “the Attainment of the State of Unity is achieved along with an external consort and is by means of uniting the Lotus and Vajra and by the simultaneous dropping of the seminal fluids (in orgasm).”

3.1 Tanlric Physiology

The entire tantric sadhana is performed in and through the body. Hence an understanding of the Yogin's body is essential. Here we shall consider three important aspects of the Yogin's body, namely, the spinal cord, the plexus, and the nadis, which constitute the anatomy of the yogin’s subtle body.


3.1.1 The Spinal Cord


The spinal cord is central to tantric physiology. It is called the mcrudanda and is identified with mount Sumcru. It stretches from the bottom of the back to the medulla oblongata. It is described as, “...the cave of the highest truth where all the world vanishes away." ' It is along the spinal cord that the cakras are visualised and it is through it that the nadis pass. Hence the steady vertical position of the spinal cord is insisted upon in all yogic meditative practices.


3.1.2 The Cakra


There are four plexus (cakras or lotuses). The first is the Lumbar plexus (nuinipura cakra) located in the navel region. The second is the Cardiac plexus (andhata cakra) located in the heart. The third is the Laryngeal and pharyngeal plexus (visudilhu cakra) at the junction of the spinal cord and the medulla oblongata (throat). The fourth 89 and the most important cakra is the Cerebral plexus (u$nlsa-kanutla) located at the crown of the head. The

Hindu tantras identify seven plexus in their system. In Vajrayana, the four cakras are associated with the four kayas.)0 Thus, the manipura-cakra is associated with the mnndnakdya\ the anahata-cakra with dhannukdya\ the vifuddha with sariibhogakdya\ and the usnisa-kamcila with sahajakdya.90 91 The text furnishes certain reasons why a particular kaya is associated with a particular cakra:

The Body of Creation is proclaimed to be there from where all living beings are bom, the act of creation being constant and age-old. Since it generates, that is, creates, it is known as (the Body of) Creation. ‘Nature’ refers to the nature of consciousness and the Body of Essential Nature is located in the heart. ‘Enjoyment’ is the enjoyment of the six flavours and the Body of Enjoyment is located in the throat. The Centre of Great Bliss is located in the head.

The nirmanacukra is visualised as a lotus of sixty-four petals; the dharmacakra is a lotus of eight petals; the sariibhogacakra is a lotus of sixteen petals and the mahasukhacakra is a lotus of thirty-two petals. At times certain anomalies are noticed in terms of the number, location and the number of petals of the lotus that represent the cakra.

The four kayas are associated with the four Beings. Dhannakaya is associated with Vujrasattva: suriihhogukaya with Mahdsattva; nirmaimkaya with Sanutyasuttva and nuthasukhakayu with Vujrudhara, the Supreme Non-duality, the secret of all the Buddhas, namely HevajraP' Since these manifestations of the Absolute are the kayas and the kayas are located in the cakras it may be said that body is the abode of truth (dehastharii ca mahdjndnam). Moreover, in our text we find a general co-respondence between the four cakras and the four 92 93 94 95 goddesses, the four tattvas, the four nuidras, the four elements, the four fruits, the four consecrations, the four MAras etc.'><‘ This is the Vajrayanic way of relating all aspects of theory and praxis with the body. This will be taken up at a later stage.


3.1.3 The Nile!I


The nadis form another component of the tantric physiology. The Buddhist tantras, the Hindu Tantras, and the Yogopanisads agree that there are seventy-two thousand nadis apart from upanadls which are innumerable. Of these, thirty-two are the important nadis.96 97 98 99 In the Hevqjra Tantra, Bhagavan states that these thirty-two nadis bear bodliicitta and flow into the Centre of Great Bliss (mahasukha-cakra): of these, three are the most important, namely, lalana. rasana and avadhuti'n In the

Hindu tantras these three nSt^is are called i(jd, piiigald and susumnd, respectively.100 101 Laland is believed to start from the neck and enter the navel region from the left side. Rasana starts from the navel and enters the neck from the right. Within these two, and passing through the lotus in the heart is the avadhQtI.m AvadhutJ is so called because it is that which destroys all sins through its effulgent nature.102 The Muktavali also states that avadhuti is so called because it purges away false views (vikalpas).103 In the Hindu tantras the susumnd, which passes through the spinal cord, according to some outside it, is believed to be composed of three nadls, citrini (of the nature of saliva), vajrd (of the nature of rajas) and susumnd (of the nature of lamas). Sufumna is thought of as a sort of duct, encasing both vajrd and citrini within it, running up to the sahasrdra where it has an opening called brahnutrandhra.104

Laluna and rasand are associated with various pairs such as sunyald-karu/ja, prajnd-upaya, ali-kali, Moon-Sun, Left-Right, grahya-grahaka, etc.105 The thirty-two nerves are associated with the fifteen yoginls in our text.106 As regards the nature of these natjis the text states that they arc transformations of the three realms of existence, namely. Body. Speech, and Mind, which encompass all that exists. They are devoid of the duality of subject and object. However they arc conceived of as possessing characteristics of phenomenal things.107 The reason for conceiving the nadls in such a manner is given by Yogarutnamdld: “As a means to attain the Vajradhara state, in order to assist disciples, all these nadls arc conceived of as possessing characteristics of phenomenal things. Therefore, particular phenomenal qualities are conceived of in a particular centre as the nature of Lalana. of Rasand and of AvadhutJ."

By associating the nadls with the essentials of Vajrayanic theory and praxis, the centrality of body is once again brought to focus. Everything is to be found within tbe body and the ultimate goal is to be realised in and through the body (kaya sadhana).


3.2 Body as the Microcosm


In the tantras, the body is viewed as a microcosm. It is a microcosm because it embodies the truth of the universe.100 Moreover, the constituents of the universe are identified with parts of the yogin’s body. As we have seen the spinal cord, which is called merudanda, is identified with mount Sumeru in the Sri-samputikd. Our text enumerates the names of PIthas and other meeting places (meldpakcisthdndh),UQ which are actually to be found within the yogin’s body. Snellgrove points out that, 108 109 110 111 They (the commentators - Dharmaklrti and Saroruha)1" are not interested in these places in the world without. ‘These places Jalandhara and so on, arc not mentioned for the benefit of simple fools who wander about the country’....

They are therefore interpreted as symbols for the places within the body, that is to say, they are external equivalent of that which exists within."2 Vajragarbha too holds the view that these external places in the world without where deities dwell, exist internally in the body, in the form of veins."3 The body is called the nikdya (the assembly of the Bhiksus). The womb is called the vihdra (monastery)."4 The three kayas namely, the dharmakdya, sariibhogakdya and the ninndnak&ya. are located within the body in the form of cakras."5 Bhagavan 112 113 114 115 116 stated that the nadls are all transformations of the three realms of existence (Body, Speech and Mind), which encompass all that exist.

The deities such as Amitabha, Vairocana and Vajrasattva, arc identified with Body, Speech and Mind respectively. Speech is expressed in the body through the tantric song and the Body finds expression in the tantric dance. 118 In the realm of phenomenal existence body is the substratum of Speech and Mind as well. So within the body the whole existence is experienced and expressed. The whole realm of existence is within the body in the form of the nadls. The fifteen yoginis who represents the totality of phenomenal existence are identified with the thirty-two nadis. 119 There is no clear cut rationale for assigning various cakras or nSdis to various aspects of existence; but one thing is clear, that there is the dogmatic assertion of the essential identity of the macrocosm and the microcosm. This relation can be understood only in actual mystic experience, which is the ultimate goal of tantra.


4. Body, Speech and Mind


The ‘existent being’ is characterised by the Aggregate of the Five Components of Phenomenal Awareness or pancaskandha. The commentary quotes Bhagavan as saying, “What the wise call the existent being is the Aggregate of the Five Components of the Phenomenal Awareness.""'5 When the pahcaskandhas are transformed, they become the three Centres, which are the Body, Speech, and Mind.120 121 These three Centres are called the three realms of existence, which constitute the entire dharmas (truyobhavah sarvadhanndh). As we have seen above, the nadls are spoken of as the transformation of these three realms of existence (tribhavaparinaiaJi).

Body, Speech, and Mind are associated also with the three cakras or kayas, viz., nirmanakaya, sambhogakaya, and dharmakaya respectively. The commentary states, “The Body Centre is in the generative organ, the Speech Centre is in the throat and the Mind Centre is in the heart.”122 The unity of these three centres is spoken of as the fourth centre, namely, the mahasukhacakra at the top of the head.

Body, Speech, and Mind arc called trayo vajrinah (the three vajrls), and their unity is called trib/iavasyaikatd which is the state of non-duality. Muktavali states that this state of unity is attained when the seeds of all asravadharmas perish and consciousness attains pure bliss. At this state the alayavijnana attains the state of anasravadharmas, devoid of illusory projections, and having the nature of clear light and bliss.

The Body, Speech, and Mind are also called the ‘secret three’ (triguhyarii or triguhyasariihara) and are spoken of as located in the centre of the mandala in the form of the three goddesses, Bhucarl (Body), Khccari (Speech) and Nairatmya (Mind). Their locations are below, above and middle respectively.124 125 The Body, Speech, and Mind are the wombs of the Vajra Ladies (Locana and others) where

the Bhagavan dwells.126 The Yogaratnamala states, "The Three Secret Centres are wombs of the adamantine goddesses because their bodies are in essence faultless and possess infinite pure natures. The Body, Speech and Mind of all the Buddhas are synonymous with the wombs of these adamantine goddesses is the intent.”


Further, the commentary adds that these three centres constitute the form of Bhagavan Vajradhara, which is nothing other than the Source of Nature (dharmodaya).128 Vajradhara is the heart, i.e. the essence, of the Body, Speech, and Mind of all the Buddhas (.sar\>atathdgatakdyavdkcittahidayarii), the embodiment of the supreme non-duality. The commentary adds that the most secret of the secret forms of Vajradhara is the Hevajra,129 In our text Bhagavan declares that the indivisible unity of these three Centres is the Vajrasattva.130 It is identical with the dharmakdya (Vajrasattva ity evam kathito ilhannakdyo). The sddhaka is to correlate his body, speech and mind to those of the Buddhas. He correlates the body by means of gesture (mudrd), speech by means of incantation (mantra) and his mind by means of intense concentration (saniadhi).'"* Vajrayana perceives that existence is nothing but Body. Speech, and Mind and by making them adamantine (vajra) existence itself is transmuted. This is the ultimate goal of tanlric sddltana.

5. Homologous Vision

A ‘homologous-vision* of reality is another fundamental aspect of tantric thought and praxis (yatha bahyarii tat ha 'dhydtntani iti). By homology we mean *co-rcspondence’ or similarity in structure, but not necessarily in function, among the co-responding entities. Systematic analogies are found even in the Vedas and the Upanisads (c.g Ry-veda. Chdndogya Upanisad. Bdularanyaka Upanisad. Mandukya t pant sail etc). In the Vedas we have the three-fold symbolism of heaven, atmosphere and earth. In the Mandukya L 'pantsad we have the four-fold system of jdgrat. svaptia. sttstipn and turna. In the Taittirha we find the five-fold co-rcspondcncc between the microcosm and the macrocosm.

In the Buddhist tantras and especially in our text we have three-fold, four-fold, five-fold and six fold co-respondences.1 1 It is noticed that though there are many numerical categories in early Buddhist thought there is no systematic homology as we have in the Buddhist tantras. 131 132 133 Alex VVayman speaks of ‘analogical thinking*, but analogy is about external similarities. In tanira we notice that the various elements in the different co-respondences do not reveal any such similarity. At times these co-respondences are even forced. Hence ‘homologies’ may be a better term to depict these co-rcspondence among the various entities mentioned in the Hevajra Tantra.

Tantric vision is of constant co-respondence between the external and the internal. There is perfect conformity between the outer rite and the inner one and vice versa. Alex Wayman writes, “One must clear defiled thoughts from a space within the mind and erect the meditative image in this space. In the external mandala-rite, first one drives away the evil spirits from the selected area; in this consecrated space one will draw the mandala.”

The external mandala is nothing but a representation of the internal manckila within the body of the sadhaka, which in turn is the blueprint of the Ultimate Reality. This is because of the firm belief in the identity of the microcosm and the macrocosm. It is this identity between the two that serves as the raison d'etre for all other co-respondences. The mandala-rites involving abhisekas, joys and moments, are all external manifestations of the inner process. For the same reason, whatever is performed symbolically is believed to occur actually as in the case of various riles, especially the fierce rites mentioned in chapter two of our text.

The first kind of co-respondence we notice in the Hevajra Tantra is the three-fold co-rcspondence. There is a correspondence between body, speech, and mind of the candidate with the Body, Speech, and Mind of the Buddha. We notice a three-fold pattern in our text incorporating ‘the secret three’, the three sattvas, the three goddesses, the three locations, the nadis etc.135 The four-fold co-rcspondenccs arc even more frequent in the Hevajra Tantra. We have a four-fold pattern of Elements. Goddesses, Cakras, and Centres. Similarly there is a pattern among the Four Noble Truths, the Four Principles, the Four Schools, the Four Moments, the Four Joys, the Four Disciples, the Four Vows, the Four Consecrations, the Four Purifications, the Four Brahmaviharas and the Four Maras.

135 Three-fold Co-respondences:

‘Secret 3’ Sattvas Yogini Location Nadis Biological Body Vajrasattva Bhucari below LalanA Semen

Speech Mahasatt\a Khecari above RasanA Ova

Mind Samayasatt\'a Nair At my A Middle Avadhuti Blja

Doctrinal Cosmical Sexual Vocal Philosophical Three Worlds

Wisdom Moon Padma Ali Imagined Kamadhatu

Means Sun Vajra KAli Contingent RupadhAtu

Union Fire £ukra Akyara Absolute ArupadhAtu

Cfr. HT(F) YogaratnamAla. pp.4, 6, 12-13, 238. See also HT(S). Parr I, p. 27.

136 Four-fold Co-respondences:

Doctrinal Sexual

Elements Seals
Goddesses
Cakras
£
Bhaga
Earth
Karmamudra
Locana
NirmAn
cakra
Varii
Kutifa
Water
Dharmamudra
MSmaki
Dharma
cakra
Ma
ActivationFire
MahAmudra
PSndara
Sariibhoga
cakra
Ya
Innate
Air
Samayamudra
Tarini
MahAsukha
cakra
Cfr. HT(F). YogaratnamAlA. pp. 5, 222.
In the Hcvajra Tantra we also find Five-fold co-respondenccs. We have a five-fold pattern involving the five Buddha families, the five Seals of the Families, the Five Dhyani Buddhas, the Five Defects, the Five Yoginls, the Five Skandhas, the Five Elements and the Five Ornaments. We also have a five-fold co-respondence based on the five aspects of sexual Union.137
Noble Truths
Tam as
Schools
Moments
Joys
Fruits
Dukhii
Atmatuttva
St M van
Diverse
Ordinary
Corresponding
Sanmlayu
Mwinviaitva
Sarvasliwda
Ripening
Rcllncd
Matured
Xirmlti
Devolutive)
Samvidi
Dissolving
Cessation
Personal striving
\Mrgu
Jiinwtattva
Malta sanghi
Signless
Innate
Pure
Cfr.HTtF). )ng(iraiiHimaki. pp 16*17.182.223.225.
Disciples
\ons Consecration Purifications
BrahmaviMras Miras
Weak
Differentiated Master
Smile
Friendliness
SkandhamOra
Medium
Undillercntiatcd Secret
Gaze
Compassion
Kle.ii morn
Strong
Extremely Wisdom l ndi Ifcrent ialed.
Embrace
Joyfulness
MfTyumnra
Strongest No Vow Fourth Union Cfr. HT(I'). )ngaratiuimt)IA. pp. 69.37.116.183.
Detachment
DevaputromAra
137 Five-fold Co-respondences:
Families
Seals
Dhyani Buddhas
Defects
Yoginis
Vajra
Dombi
Aksobhya
Dvesa
Naira tmy3
Tathagata
Brahmarti
Vairocana
Moha
Vajra
Ratna
Caiul&li
Ratnesa
Paisunya
Gauri
Padmi
Marti
Amitabha
Riga
Variyogini
Karma
Rajaki
Amoghasiddhi
Irsya
Vajratjakini
Lastly, we have a few six-fold co-rcspondcnces mentioned in the Hevajra Tantra. We notice a co-respondcncc between the six families and the six senses. There is also a co-rcspondcnce between the six sensations and the six Yoginis. There is also a co-rcspondence
Skandltns
Elements
Ornaments
Vijj'kina
Water
Circlet
RCipn
Earth
Bracelet
Yedana
Space
Necklace
Sa/njiki
Fire
Ear-rings
Snriisktira
Air
Girdle.
Cfr. HT(F), Yogaratnamdld, pp.53-54, 65, 114, 117, 174-175.
Five -fold Co-respondence Based on the Five Aspects of Sexual Union
Aspects
Experiences
Elements
Defects
Dhyani Buddhas
Contact
Hardness
Earth
Delusion
Vairocana
Fluid
Fluidity
Water
Wrath
Aksobhya
Pounding
Friction
Fire
Passion
Amitabha
Motion
Movement
Air
Envy
Amoghasiddhi
Pleasure
Impassioned
State.
Space
Malignity
RatneSa.
Cfr. HT(F). YogaraluamOld, pp. 174-175.
Co-respondence Based on the Five Aspects of Enlightened Awareness

Aspect
Moon
Sun
Seed-syllable & Symbols Unity of these Form of the Deity
Awareness Mirror-like Awareness Awareness of Equanimity Differentiated Awareness Awareness of Performance Awareness of the Pure Nature. Cfr. HT(F), YogamtnamdlQ. pp. 43, 86.
between the six realms of existence, their predominant
• I Ul "
experiences and the lords of each of them.
It seems to be a pre-occupation with the tantric masters to establish co-respondences among the various aspects of the doctrine and praxis. Certain co-respondences, no doubt, are forced and arbitrary. Neither the text nor the commentators fumisTi any reason for associating one element with another, and not with a third one. Probably the reasons are extra-rational or intuitive and a fact of meditative experience. We see an attempt at resolving some 136

Cfr. HT(F),
YogarauiamtiU't. pp.54. 111.

Mind.

Cfr. HT(F),
Yogaratnainala. pp. 115-116.

Sensations

Form
Sound
Smell
Flavour

Touch
Thought

Goddesses Gauri (II) Cauri

Vctali

Ghasmari
Bhucari
Khecaii

Propensities
Wrath
Delusion
Malignity
Passion
Envy
Bliss

Lords

Aksobhya
Vairocana

Ratnasambhava
Aimtablia
Amoghasiddhi
Vajrasattva

Cfr. HT(F).
YogaratiuimfilA. pp.230. 239.
of the contradictions involved in these co-rcspondcnces in the Hevajra Tantra where Vajragarbha raises his objections to the Seals assigned to the different families, and are answered by the Bhagavan. 130 This enterprise seems to demonstrate the tantric doctrine of the identity of the microcosm with the macrocosm, or the psycho-somatic with the cosmic. Contradictions become visible only when one approaches it with concepts and categories. Since everything is essentially csscncc-lcss (sunya) everything co-responds to everything else, or better, there is no co-respondence at all.
1
The Bi-polar Nature of the Non-dual Reality
The tantric noumenon is a supreme non-duality, which is inexpressible and incommunicable in itself, except in
2
   Agchananda Bharati, The Tantric Tradition, p.200.
3
   Herbert V. Guenther. Yuganaddha: The Tantric View of Life, 2nd edition (Varanasi: Chowkhamba Publication, 1969), p.8.
4
   S. B. Dasgupta, ITB, pp.3-4.
5
   Ibid., p.95.
6
   These ideas emerged out of my discussions with Prof. Ashok Kumar Chatterjcc.
7
   The term 'bodhicitta' originally meant the mind (citta) bent on attaining enlightenment (bodhi). However, in later MahSyflna tradition it implies the essence of consciousness which is a mingling of <Cmyat6 and karuntt. Sec S. B. Dasgupta, ITB. p88.
8
   “sunyatakarunabhinnam bodhicittam iti smrtani" AAA. P.29.,as quoted in T.R.V. Murti, CPB. p.264. fn.2.
9
   "tana prajnopdya-sOnyatOkanniA-cumlrasuryaiihdlikdli-praw-•ianididtia-dinordtri-va astanuinodoya -uttardyanidak- pndyarfi lyaiuiJ-sanibhogiinirnidiMi’Svapiuipraboilha-paraiiidrtIuisamvpi-sukyiundiula- ekdviuitkOra-kadtktirariikdra-bhdvAbliAva-jncyaj-iYiniiu(nu)-grdhyagrAlutkau(ka)-hi(rahu-ndl(duiid-ti)ytddptngidd evanuhiuviriiiatydkdnmidliimunccl" Samdhong Rinpoche and Vrajvallabh Dwivedi. eds. J/'kUiodayu Taniram (SaranAth: Rare Buddhist Text Project. Central Institute of Higher Studies, 1988), P-7.
10
   Gopinath Kaviraj equates the Vajray3nic notion of prajnd with the £akti of the Hindu tantras. He writes "tdntrik updsand vdstuv me .<akti ki lii updsand hai. Bauddhom ki drsfi me prajnd hi Scikti ka svanip hai (Tantric sddhana is indeed a sd11liana of Sakti. According to the Buddhists prajna is essentially Sakti) See Gopinath Kaviraj, Tantrik Sddhana aur Siddlidnt (Patna: Bihar RashtrabhSsha Parishad, 1979), p.269. But this seems to be an unwarranted generalisation. Lama Anagarika writes. “ The concept of Sakti, of divine power, of the creative female aspect of the highest God (£iva) or his emanations, does not play any role in Buddhism. While in the Hindu Tantras the concept of power (sukti) forms the focus of interest, the central idea of Tannic Buddhism is prajna. knowledge, wisdom. To the Buddhist sakti is mdyd. the very power that creates illusion, from which only prajna can liberate us." Lama Anagarika Govinda, Foundations of Tibetan Mysticism, pp.96-97.
11
   Agchananda Bharati points out that though the doctrine assigns static nature to prajna and dynamic nature to updya. the Tibetan iconographic presentation of the two in union (yabyum) presents a paradox. The yabyum is a position in which the goddess sits astride on the god's lap facing him. In this iconographic representation the 'yah' (god) sits in padmdsana or vajrdsana in which no movement is possible where as the posture of the 'yum' (goddess) suggests intense motion. This way the iconography of yabyum seems to contradict the doctrine it represents. This apparent paradox is rectified to some extend by depicting the 'yab' in fierce (ghnra) bhdva in keeping with the dynamic aspect while portraying 'yum' in benign attitude characteristic of the static nature. There are fierce goddesses (Nilasarasvati, Apardjita and the pskinls) but they are never shown in yabyum. Sec Agehananda Bharati, The Tantric Tradition, p.216.
12
   as found in S. B. Dasgupta, 1TB, pp.91-92.
13
   Edward Conzc, Iran.*.. AsiasdhasnkA Prajikl/iflramitA. chapter 16, p.l 16. (emphasis added)
14
   S. B. Dasgupta. 1TB, p.98.
15
   HT(F) 1:1:7. See also HT(T), MuktAvatl, p.9.
16
   "prajnnpdyasamdpattiiyoga ityabhidhfyate yanisvabhdvatah prajna updyo bhavataksartam ” Cuhyasamdja Tantra. XV11I.32.
17
   **.. j/kina/ii svaparavittivarjitam/
khasamait) viraja/ii sunya/n bliQvdbhavdtmakaiit param..." HT(F) 1:10:7.
18
   ‘ 'prnjfxtpd i a \yalimi.6 a til rdgdrdgavimi.fritain" HT(F) 1:10:7.
19
   HT(F) 1:10:8-9.
20
   "jananihha/iyaleprajnd janayatiyasmdjjagat" HT(F) 1:5:16.
21
   HT(F) 1:5:16.
22
71 “r/irwM'itn /mfirh rodial)At rajakiti" HT(F) I;5:17.
23
   HT(F) 1:5:17-18.
24
   See HT(F) 11:3:10,13,15; 4:41,44,57.
25
   “suvifuddhadharmadhdtu sd saivdharii mantjalddhipah/
saiva nairdtmyayogini svardparii dharmadhdtukam/r HT(F) 11:4:50. Here 'mandalddhipah' refers to Hevajra himself.
26
   "ubhayormelanariiyacca sailaksfrayoriva
advaytSkdrayogena prajnopdyah sa uccyate"
Prajiiopdyavini&ayasiddhi, 1:17. Benoytosh Bhattacharyya, Two Vajraydna Works.
27
   Bhajagovinda Ghosh, “Concept of Prajna and Upaya” in Bulletin ofTibetology, No.3 (1992), p.43.
28
   Sec HT(F) 1:3:17.
29
   "grdhyagrdhakasantyaktarii sadasatpadkavarjitam laksyuhtk.vinanirmuktari) fuddharh prakrtinirmalarit
tut dvaymh ntidvayarit Mutant Gvari) sarvcitra sariisthitam prarydlniavedliyamacalarii prajnopdyanuwdkuladi" Prajriopdya-vini.'fcavusiddhi, 1:19-20.
30
   HT(S). Part l.p.24.
31
   Sec HT(F) 1:8:20; 1:6:12.
32
"prakfs/arit jndnarh prajfid dharmakdya ft updyo
jagatlai tliakarandya tannifyandabliuta sa/ftbhoganirmdpakdya-dvayaih taros tatsvabhdvatah tatsrabhdro jdtu ity drthap." HT(S), Part2. Yogarainantdld. p.129.
33
   "paramaraudrakdyavdkkarma-sandarSanltu mahdkarupd ” HT(T), Muktdvali, p.9.
34
   Tomy Augustine, “In Search of a Buddhist Ecology” in The Philosophical Quarterly, vol.VIII, No.3-4, (July-October 2002). p.166. See also p. 167.
35
   “dukhOd dukluiheto.sea samudharanakdmand karuna ” as quoted in Gopin&th Kaviraj, Tantric Sddhana aw Siddlidnt, p.252.
36
   Tomy Augustine. “In Search of a Buddhist Ecology”, p. 167.
37
   But Luipa. Sarahapa. Indrabhuti. LaksmirikarS seem to have favoured the Hindu trend. "On the surface, then, the situation is this: the Hindus assigned the static aspect to the male principle, the dynamic aspect to the female principle. The tantric Buddhists in India (Luipa. Sarahapa. Indrabhuti, Laksmihkara) were not quite at one between themselves about this assignment, but they tended to fall in line with the non-Buddhist trends round them, for it seems probable that the matrifocal atmosphere in which they flourished (Bengal in the East. Oddiyana in the west - the latter being linked with an Amazon-like tribe in the legend) was indirectly conducive to assigning the dytuwus to woman." See Agehananda Bharati, The Tantrii Tradition, p. 200.
38
   The Tibetan tradition invariably assigned the dynamic aspect to the male and the static aspect to the female. Bharati suggests certain possible reasons for their choice. See Ibid., pp.201-206; 220-224.
39
   S. B. Dasgupta. ITB. p.105.
40
   Kazi Dawa-Samdup, ed., Srf-cakrasa/mara-Tantra: A Buddhist Tantra. p.28.
41
   "yo.pt tfivad bhavet prajnO upayah pumsah smpah" H T(F) 1:8:26.
42
   **krpopdyo bhavedyogimudrd hetuviyogatah" HT(F) 1:10:40. Here 'hetuviyogatah' means ‘freedom from causality’ i.e., the utter nonarising of all phenomenal things. This is supreme Wisdom
(praj/ki).
43
   HT(F) 1:5:16-18.
44
   "laland prajridsvabhdvena rasanopdyenasarinthitd" HT(F) 1:1:15. See also
“lalanS prajhSsvabhavcna rasanopSyasaihstitha
avadhuti madhyadese tu grShyagrahakavarjita." Jndnodaya
Taut ram. 28. p.10.
45
   Sddhanamdld, p.448. The following passages are also found in S. B. Dasgupta, ITB, p.107.
“laland prajnd-svarupena rasano-pdya sarhsthitd/
tayor madhye gatarii devi amkdrarii vi&a-riipiniV" -Heruka-
tantra M.S. p.74 (B) also
“laland rasana nddi prajno-pdya£ ca melakah/P' Pdkdrnava (Ed. MM. H.P. Shasti), p.158.
46
   In the Hindu tantric tradition they are called Ida. Pidgald and Sti.sumnd respectively.
47
   "vdmagd yd idd nddi svkla-candra-svarupini/ fokti-rfrpd hi sd devjsdk.fdd amna-vigraha// dakse In pidgald ndma purusah surya-vigrahah/
raudrdlmikd mahddevi dddimi-kesara-prabhd//" Sammohana-lantra quoted in the Safcakra-nirupanam Ed., by A. Avalon as found in S. B. Dasgupta, ITB, p.107.
“evam sarve ca ni$pannah prajhopayasvabh2vatah/ prajhSlikalyupaycti candrSrkasya prabhedanat/”. HT(F) 1:8:10. Yogaratnamdld commentary explains that dli is the wind that originates in the left nostril and kdli in the right nostril (dlrr vdmandsdpiifaprabhavo vdyu/i/ tadaparah Kdlih). HT(S), Part 2, Yogaratnamdld, p. 109. This makes the association of dli and kdli with laland and rasand clear.
48
   “akynbhvdvahd laland rasand raktavdhinf" HT(F) 1:1:16. See also "aksobhya-vahd laland rasand rakta-pravdhinV
avadhiity ainita-ndthasya ddltdra-bhdvinf sadd//" Sddhanamdld, p.448. ’
"tcydm madhye slliild ndQi laland fukra-vdliinil dakfinc rasand khydtd ndtji rakta-(pra)\dhini//“ Heruka Tantra, MS.p. 14(B) as quoted in S. B. Dasgupta, ITB, p.107.
49
   dli and kdli are generally interpreted as Wisdom and Means respectively. However, we notice that in the interpretation of the name 'Canddli' 'can(id' refers to Wisdom and dli refers to Vajrasatrra. In another interpretation, 'Can(id' is Wisdom and the left nd(fl while dli is Means and the right nddi. (See HT(F) pp.21 -22) Here again there is no consistency with the rest of the tantric scheme.
50
   On the cosmic level dli is Moon and kdli is Sun or it is as night (naktam) and day (dinarii).
evam saive ca nifpunndhprajriopdyasvabhdvatafil praj/idlikdlvupdyeti candrdrkasya prabhedandt/" HT(F) 1:8:10.
51
   HT(S). Part I. p'-26.
52
   For details see S. B. Dasgupta. 1TB. pp.108-109.
53
   In the Hevajra Tanira. prajna is called blwga. It is symbolised by the letter e' In the Bhriimi script 'e is written' as a triangle (trikonam bhagamityuktam). See Gopinath Kaviraj, Tantrik Sddliana aur Siddliant. p.270. In the Hindu Tantras the Devi is spoken of as the nature of 'kddi\ The meaning of this is that the triangle is the form of the Devi The letter 'ka' written in Bengali, and generally in earlier DevanSgiri form, shows a triangle in the left. Sec Arthur Avalon. Tantrardja Tanira (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. 1981) p.l.
54
   "E-kdra/ii bliagam ily uktarii VAM-kararii kulisa ill smpa/fi" HT(F) 1:1:7; See also HT(S), Part 2. Yogaratnamdld. p.103.
55
   Evaili indicates the dual aspects of the Bhaga\-dn expressed by pairs of tantric terms. “It is said: ‘BhagavSn is of the nature of
Semen: that Bliss is the Beloved. It is also said: ‘Vajradhara is characterized by the qualities of Essential Namre (dharma) and Enjoyment (sariibhoga).’ And again: ‘As relative, white like jasmine; as absolute essentially blissful.’ By such statements, the essential tantric view regarding the nature of Voidness (£unyatd) and Compassion (kartind), Wisdom (prajrit)) and Means (updva), the Body of Essential Nature (dharmakdya) and the Body of Enjoyment (sariibhogakdya), the Relative (sarirvrii) and the Absolute (paramdrtha) and the Process of Generation (utputtikrama) and the Process of Completion (utpannakraina) are expressed.’’ HT{F)Yogaratnanuil<i, pp.4-5.
56
   “bhagavtin aha/
ekdrtikfli yad divyarii madhye variikdrabh up tain/
dlaya/l sarvasaukhy6n6tii buddharatnakarandaknmH" HT(F)
11:3:4.
57
   In Hevajra Tantra we see that V is prajna and is called mother while 'varif is updya and is called father and their sexual union produces bindit, the immutable knowledge. Again, V is understood as Moon and 'varii' is understood as Sun. According to one interpretation of the niddnavtikyarii, 'evarinnayd snitariT. "E is known as the Earth element, the Seal of the Ritual (kannamudrd) and Locana. Locana is in a lotus of sixty-four petals in the Centre of Creation (nirmdnacakra) located in the navel. Vaih is known as the Water clement, the Seal of Essential Namre (dhannaimidrd), and MamakI is in a lotus of eight petals in the Centre of Essential Nature (dharmacakra) located in the heart." HT(F), Yogaratnamdld. p.5. Though there are varying and at times contrary interpretations given to 'evarii\ it epitomises the entire thought and praxis of tantra.
58
   HT(F) 1:3:5.
59
   "HE-kAre/xi mahakarunA VAJRAMprajnA ca hfuirnate" HT(S). Part 2. YogaratnanuilA. p.104 "Hevajra ithtrsarii ntimakena kAranciia sariigrhitaiii prajfnpAyAtmakam ityAdt" HT(S). Part 2. YogarainamalA. p.105. See also HT(F) 1:7:27. Here again our text is inconsistent with its interpretation of 'he'. While interpreting the composite word 'Snhcnika \ *he’ is interpreted as primordial voidness of causality (lickArarii hct\A(hsunyatd) HT(F). YogaratnamdlA. p.82. Again, in the early part of the text 'vajra implies Wisdom but while speaking of * I'ajra-kapdla Yoga, 'vajra has been interpreted as karunA (Compassion or Means - 'vajro Hevajra//) and *kapAla’ as NairAtmyA (voidness - prajna -Wisdom) HT(F), YogaralnamdlA. p.82.
60
   For details sec HT(F). YogaralnamAlA. pp.21-23.
61
   "bhagavdn /ilia/
ahltedyarit vajrani ity uktam sattvarii lribhavasyaikat/i/ anav/i prajriayd yuktyri \ajrasatt\a iti snip aft/" HT(F) 1:1:4.
62
   HT(F) p.7.
63
   “tathd cokrarit BhagavattS satt\arii satt\am iti Vipra yaduta paricuskandhdft' HT(S), Part 2, YogaratnamdUl. p.105.
64
   "ritikdlisaniriyogo vajrasatrvasya viffaraft HT(F) 1:8:8. This refers
to the union of the Lunar and the Solar Marlas.
65
   HT(F). Yogaratnamflld. p.87.
66
   as quoted in S. B. Dasgupta. ITB, pp. 89-90.
67
   See Paikukranui (of NSgarjuna), (Xerox copy of a manuscript) in the possession of Santarakshita Library'. Central Institute of Higher Tibetan Study. Saranath) pp-100-106. The relevant portions have been paraphrased by S B. Das Gupta in ITB. pp-113-115.
68
   "samsaro nirvrtisceti kalpanadvayavarjanat/ ekibhavo bliaved yatra yuganaddharii taducyate// saiiiklesam vyavadanahea jnatva tu paraniarthatah/ ekibhavaiii tu yo vetti sa vetti yuganaddhakam// grahyan ca grahakah caiva dvidha buddhirna vidyate
ablunnata bhavet yatra tadaha yuganaddhakam//" Pancakrama,
p.100
S. B. Dasgupta, ITB. p. 113.
69
   II.T.(T), Yogiiratnunialft, pp. 136-137.
70
   "ckii/i \ vfthhdvikah kliya/i .iunyatA-karund-dvayali/ mipiiiiiHtkam iti khyfito yuganaddha ili kvacit" Sddhaniundld. Vol.II. pp.505.
71
   S. B. Dasgupta. ITB. p.l 14,
72
   HT(F) 1:9:21; 1:10:31-32; 11:3:41-49.
73
   In the Chinese symbol of Yinvang. 'Yin' the female principle is portrayed as dark in hue and represents the potential side of things. 'Yang' the male is portrayed in light hue and represents the active or the actuality. The rvvo are combined in a circular diagram of interlocked halves, which evidently depict the state of sexual union Each half displays one tiny spot of the opposing colour whereby indicating the non-dualistic interpenetration of the two principles. See Marco Pallis. "Consideration of Tantnk
Spirituality" in The Journal of Oriental Research Madras (JORM). No.xxxiv-xxxv (1964-65, 1965-66), p.43, fn.2.
74
   Agehananda Bliarati points out that this is typical of the Tibetan and Nepalese Buddhism. Though presentation of gods and goddesses in erotic postures is common in Hindu sculpture the yabyum model is not seen in Hindu sculpture or even in purely Indian Buddhist sculpture. See Agehananda Bharati, The Tantric Tradition, p.213.
75
   "... (fomhyuliiigitakandharo inahArQgAnurdgitali//" HT(F) 1:3:10.
76
   "...sesudvibhujdbhyAth prajn&lingitah vajravdrdhl..." HT(F) 1:3:17.
77
   "... Je.yidvibhujdbhydth vajrafplkhaldsaniflpannafi... ” HT(F) 1:3:18.
78
   See HT(F), pp.xxx-xxxiv.
79
   Agchananda Bharati, The Tantric Tradition, p.215.
80
   "deltastltatit ca nuihdjMnam sarvasamkalpavarjitain/
\ydpakahsan'avasliin/lih dehastho "pi na dehajah//” HT(F) 1:1:12.
81
   "dehfihhave kuta(t stnikhyani saukhyam vaktumna sakvate/ vydpyuxyApakarttpepa snkhena \y6pitariijagat/T' HT(F) 11:2: 35.
82
   HT(F) 1:1:12
83
   HT(F) p. 165.
84
   HT(F) 11:2:36.
85
   "vihnrc ‘lui/ii sukhdvatydrii sadvajrayosito blioge/ ekarfiknirfipc tn buddlniratnakarapdake//" HT(F) 11:2:38.
86
   IIT(F). Yoguratnomdld. p.4. “E-kdram bhugodt ity nktaiit I'AAf-kanuh kiili’Zitfism/torit" HT(S), Part 2. Yogurainamtild. p.103.
87
8ft “xaiin /nnii knndtisn/iikd viiii viv/torii siikluinqnnnm/
strikakkoloxiikhdvolvdm cvottikorosvarCipoke//" HT(F) 11:4:34.
88
i 11(F). Yogoroinamdld. p.95.
"hdhyoiniidrtiyd stdw kanudokidixayov yogcim liilyokdlopoioooifi unnopniti//‘ IIT(F), p.xLv. Tins passage is not found in the
Yogarutnumala commentary given in the Sanskrit by Snellgrove on page 126 of Snellgrove’s The Hcvajra Tantra. A Critical Study Part 2. Farrow and Mcnon have included it from the manuscript of the Hcvajra Pannjiku preserved in the National Archives. Kathmandu.
89
S. B. Dasgupta, 1TB. p. 147.
90
   Dasgupta speaks of the fourth kaya and calls it the sahaja-k/tya. He states that the sahaja-kdya is also called mahdsukhacakra or mahdsukha-kainala. See S. B. Dasgupta, ITB. p.148.
Though four kSyas are often spoken of, our text speaks of three kayas, and the knowledge of the three kayas as the fourth cakra. The text states:
“trikdyam dehamadhye tu cakrarupena ka thy ate/
trikdyasya parijndnam cakramahdsukhadt matam//" HT(F)
11:4:54. (emphasis added)
91
   S. B. Dasgupta, ITB, pp. 147-148. See also
“dharina.uiriibhoganirntdnanmiahdsukharii rathaiva cal yonihftkanthamasU’su traya/i k/lyfl vyavasthitfi/i// HT(F) 11:4:55. See also HT(T), Muktdvali, p.22.
92
   HT(F) 11:4:56-58.
93
   HT(F) 1:1:24.
94
   For example the Heruka tantra described the antihunt -cakra as a lotus having eight petals while Sekoddcii speaks of it as a lotus having thirty-two petals. While the Heruka tantra and Sckoddcw-tika speak of the uf/tifa-himala as a lotus of four petals. Hcvujra Tantra states that it has thirty-two petals.
95
   See HT(F) pp.6-8.
96
   For details sec HT(F). Yogaralnamfilfi. pp. 15*21. See also HT(T), Mnkt Avail. pp.22-27.
97
   Tlie text furnishes the names of the thirty-two nadis. See HT(F) 1:1:17-19. For a detailed discussion on the nadis. see HT(T),
Alnkrfivali. pp. 16-21.
98
   "hhagavfin filin'
ilvfiimiisad hodhiciufivahfi malifisiikhasthfine sravante/ tfisfiiii nnulltve lisro nfiihah pradlifinfih'
lalnnfiiasaiifi avadlnitf celitP’ HT(F) 1:1:14. Sekodde.ia-fikfi of NUila-pada speaks of five important nerves (instead of the three mentioned in our text), each presided over by the five Tathagatas. See S B. Dasgupta, ITB. pp. 157-15S.
99
   "blutgtivfin film/ dvfiiridisnd bodhicinfivahfi nmlifisnkhasllifine Slavonic/ tfisfiiii nuidhyc lisro nfiiftiih pradlifinfifd laliinfirasanfi avadliiiticcli//" HT(F) 1:1:14.
100
   Susumnd lies within the spinal cord while idn and pidgala are outside it and proceed from the left and right sides towards the nasal region, encircling the cakras. According to another view i(jn and pii)gald start from the right and left testicles respectively and pass to the left and right of the supwind. l<ja. piilgald and susumnd are also called YamunS, Sarasvati and Ganga respectively. They meet at the root of the penis called triveni. The first two are the bearers of the two vital winds, prdna and apdna. See S. B. Dasgupta, 1TB, pp.154-155.
101
"ka n<jhdddrabhya vamenafa) pravptd 'dhomukhi
ndbhmuintjalagatd muiravahd dlivyaptd/ ndbherdrabhya sayyena piav[Uordhaiii(fdh)mukhF karnjhaparyantagatd raktuvahd kdlivyOpta// madhyamd tu nd<fikd dvayddvaikorupa 'dhomukhi bodliicittavdhd ...dharmakdya vdkcittairupd shajdnandaddyikd eld lisro ndifika... “ Jndnodaya Tanlram, pp.6-7.
102
   “avahelayd andbhogena kle&l-di-pdpam dhunoti ity avudhutl" as quoted in S. B. Dasgupta, ITB, p.l58.fn.4.
103
   “avadhutavikalpatvdd avadhutf’ HT(T), MuktSvali, p.19.
104
   Ibid., p.154.
105
   For details sec Ibid., pp. 154-155.
“/aland prajndsvabdvena rasanopdyenasaritsthitd/ avadhtni madhyadede grdhyagrdhakavarjitd// akfobhydvahd laland rasand raktavdhinU
prajiidcandrdvahdkhydtdvadhuti sd prakhtitd//" HT(F) 1:1:15-16. Here we notice a certain flaw in the correspondence. Laland. which is associated with the feminine, is shown to be the bearer of semen (Aksobhya); and rasand, which is associated with the masculine, is shown to be the bearer of rakta (ova). See also ‘'Inland praj/tdsvabhdwna rasanopayasariathitd avadhtni nunthyadese la grdhyagrdhakavarjita lalana sambhogukdyo rasand nirmdnikdanuh avadhtni dharmakdya/i sydditi kdyatrayo mat ah" Jndnodaya Tan tram. pp. 10-11.
"Inland praj/td-svabhdvena vdma-nddipi'akh titd/ rasand co-p dya-rupena dakpne sumavuthitd//" Ekalla-vira-cantja-mahdroyana-tantra, MS. (R.A.S.B., No. 9089) p. 15(A) as quoted in S. B. Dasgupta. 1TB, p. 155.
106
   Sec HT(F) 11:4:26-28.
107
   “bliagavdn dha/
108
tribhdvaparinatdb saivd grdhyagrdlwkavarjitd/i/ atliavd san’opdyena bhdvalakfnnakalpitdiy/" HT(F) 1:1:21.
109
   HT(F), Yogaratnamdld, p. 14.
110
   It is said that Gambopa, the foremost disciple of Milarepa, experienced his body vast as the sky. From the top of his head down to the tip of his toes, his whole body, including all the limbs was full of sentient beings. See Garma C.C. Chang, trans., The Hundred Thousand Songs of Milarepa, vol.ll., p. 479.
111
   Sec HT(F) 1:7:12-18.
112
   Snellgrovc here refers to Dharmakirtrs Neiraviblwi)gn (id.xvii.336a-423a) and Saroruha’s Padmini(id.xv. 142a- 194b).
113
   HT(S). Pari I. p.69. (emphasis added)
114
   It should be noted that there is no consensus among the
commentators on the list of these meeting places. They assume that there are 32 places on the analogy of 32 veins. However, our text mentions only 24 places. G. Tucci quoted a list of 24 places with 24 equivalent parts of the body. Here no attempt is made to clear the confusion with regard to the number and names of the places. We are interested only in showing that there has been a consistent effort to relate the external places with the body and its components. Saraha stated in one of his verses: “I have visited in my wandering kycira and pifha and upapi'ilia, for I have not seen anothei place of pilgrimage blissful like my own body." See HT(S). Part I. pp.69-70. ..
115
   "mkAyatii kayum ity tiklam udororii vihAra/ii ucyater HT(F) 11:4:64.
116
   "InkAyniii dchamadhyc itt cakrarupem kuthyate" HT(F) 11:4:54. It is often stated that the Buddhist tantras added a fourth kAya to the existing irikAya system of the MahAyAna tradition. It must be noted that our text does not speak of MahAsukha as a kAya but uses the term cakru to designate it. It is in YogaratnamAlA that
Mahdsttkha cukra is called ‘the fourth kdva'. Our text is consistent in'speaking of the three kayas (see HT(F) 11:4:54-55). Mahduikha is spoken of as the knowledge of the three kayas. Even Yogaralnamdld states, “traydndrh parijhdnam samatd jhdnarit svabhavikah kdyah. Sa mah&sukhacakram ity arthah". Again it states. “kdyatrayasya samvararupena maltasukhacakrSkSrciM nirdifyata ity arthah". However, it also has statements like. “trayamm parijhdnaiit samatdjhdnadt svdbhivikah kdyah Sa ntahasukhacakram ity arthah." (emphasis added). This may be because the fourth is totally indeterminate. But Yogaralnamdld has one expression, “mahasukhakayaS caturthah", which speaks of mahdsukha as the fourth k3ya. See HT(S), Part 2. Yogaralnamdld. p. 148. S. B. Dasgupta and Snellgrove consider cakra and k3ya as synonymous. But Hevajra Tantra seems to be reluctant to call mahdsnkha cakra as a kdya. It always speaks of the first three (sa/iibhoga. dharma and nirnidna) as kayas, and the fourth [mahdbukha) as cakra.
117
   “bhagavdn dha/
tribhavaparinatdh sarvd grdhyagrdhakavarjildh/ athava sarvopayena bhavalak$anakalpitah//‘* HT(F) 1:1:21.
118
   HT(F) 11:4:12-13. See also HT(S). Part I. p. 102.. fn.3.
119
   “kulapafale vd ndtjyah kathitd dvifOfkiMtniikd/y nddidvayadvayaikaikd yoginyafr krama&> matahV" HT(F) 11:4:26. See also 11:4:27-28; HT(F), Yogaratnamdld. p.213.
120
   HT(F). YogaralnaimilA. p.7. See also "salivatit sattva/ti id Idpra yinlutdparicaskandhah“ HT(S), Part 2, YogaratnamtiM. p.105.
121
   HT(F), YogaratnaniAlA, p.7.
122
   HT(F), YogaratnamAlA. p. 15.
123
   See HT(F), YogaraiinwiAlti, p.15.
124
   "kathaiii tasyaikata? sarvasasravadharmabijaksayat pratisjade-habhouaniibh&sanarii vijninSnam mrodhAt kevalavimalSnand-anabhasialambhe ciitamalatyakialayavijhSnalaksane anSsrava-dhatulaksana-prapte saktilaksane sar\abuddhadharmabijadh5re nirabhasena prakasarupena mahSsukhamaya (iri) bhavasya yavadakasameva sthanam tnbhavasyaikata." Muktavali, p.6.
125
   "bliagavdn aha/
triguhyarii cakramadhye lu kayavakcittabhedataW adhorddhvamadhyumariisthdnarii cakramadhye xyavaslhitam// bhCleari kdyamudrisydd adhomukhikdyavajrini' khecari rdgamudrica urddhvamukhi vdgvajrini// cittavajrfca nairatmyd cittan nairdtmyarupakam/ cittarii madhyamakarii sthdnarii nairdtmyd tena madhyajd//" HT(F) 11:4: 97-99.(Bhagav3n said: The 'Secret Three' are at the centre of the Circle, differentiated as the Body. Speech and Mind. They are located below, above and in between respectively, being situated in the middle of the Circle. BhOcari. the Adamantine Body goddess, is below and is marked by the Seal of the Body. Khecari. the Adamantine Speech goddess, is above and is marked by the Seal of Passion. The Adamantine Mind goddess is NairitmyS. for the mind is the nature of Nair3tmy3. Mind is in between, centrally placed, and so Nai(2tmy3 arises at the very centre.)
126

    • ...bhagavan sarvalathdgatakdyavdkcittavajrayo.pdbhagcstt

vijahara/rUT{¥) 1:1:1.
127
126HT(F). Yogaratnamdld. p.4.
128
   " ..tat ( i.e., kdyavukcittarii) pnnar Bhagavato Vajradharasya rttpariidharmodaydkhyarii" HT(S), Parr 2. Yogaratnamdld. p. 103.
129
   "Bhagavan dha/ kirn vidsfaril tat san'atathdgatakd-
yavdkcittahtriayarii sdrarit vajradharahlut/fdrakaril
paramadaivatatn ata eva sanatathdgatdndri) gtthyaril VajraiUua ah' tasydtiguhyatararit sravakadinam aprakdsyatvdd Hevajratit ” HT(S). Part 2. Yogaratnamdld. p. 104.
130
   “hhagavdn dha/
abhctlyatri vajram ity nktam satn-am tribhavasyaikatd/ anttvd pra/tlayd yktyd vajrasattva iti sm/tah'/" HT(F) 1:1:4.
131
   Alex Waynian. The Buddhist Tantras. p.l 10.
132
   In ihe GuhvasaniAja tanira we find five-fold co-respondence based on the five dhyini Buddhas. In ihe Kdlacakra we have six-fold co-respondence due to the addition of the 'know ledge element' to ihe pancabhiitas. Commentaries on the Sii-cakrasanivara tanira propose a seven-fold co-respondence. See Alex Waynian. Yoga of the Gnliyasainlijatantra. p.63.
133
   Alex Waynian. Tlic Buddhist Tantras, pp.30-31.
134
   Alex Wayman. Yoga of tlic Guhyasamfijatantra. p.62.
135
   These rites such as the cloud-rending ritual, the chalk ritual for the destruction of one’s enemy, ritual for the destruction of the gods, causing sickness, ritual for subduing a young woman etc., involve symbolic rites. What is thus perfomied symbolically is believed to conform to the result desired.
136
Six-fold Co-respondences:
Families Senses
Citta Eye
$Ssvata Ear
Ratnesa Nose
VSgisa Tongue
Amoglia Body
Sdtlvika


2.4 Nairatmya and her Troupe

The term ‘Nairatmya’ means ‘no-soul’ and indicates sunyata or nirvana. Gradually, sutiyata was conceived as a goddess in whose embrace the bodhisattva remains in absolute bliss. Sunyata has often been compared to the sky, the colour of which is blue and hence Nairatmya too has the colour blue.1 2 Nairatmya is described in two sadhanas in the Sddhanamdla. Her form is similar to that of Vajravarahi with the kartri and kapala. The difference is on the position of the corpse on which each stands. When the corpse is presented as lying on its chest, the goddess is Vajravarahi; when it lies on its back the goddess is Nairatmya. Again, Vajravarahi, being an emanation of Vairocana, bears an image of Vairocana on the crown, while Nairatmya, being an emanation of Aksobhya, bears the image of Aksobhya instead. 121 Sddhanamdla gives a description of Nairatmya as blue in colour, terrible in appearance, holding the kartri and kapala while dancing the ardliapatya/ika on a corpse that lies on its back.

The conception of Nairatmya shows how tantric Buddhism systematically deified Mahayana principles. In the Mahayana tradition the highest perfection is prajnaparamita, the supreme truth of void (.<CmyatA), which in Vajrayana is deified as the goddess Prajnaparamita. In the Hevajra Tantra she is called Nairatmya, which means ‘the absence of the notion of selfhood’ (i.e. nonsubstantial). The supreme truth, under the male aspect, is vajra. expressed as, Aksobhya, Vairocana or Hevajra.

The nature of Nairatmya is described in the Hevajra Tantra thus: Semen is itself Nairatmya and bliss is the nature of Nairatmya. The bliss of Nairatmya is the Mahamudrd located in the navel centre. She is of the nature of the first vowel, a. and the Enlightened Ones conceive her as Wisdom personified. In the Process of Completion she is the noble lady. Wisdom. She is neither tall nor short and neither square nor round. She is beyond

taste smell and flavours and is the cause of the innate joy. The yogi generates in her and enjoys her bliss. It is along with Her that the Accomplishment, which bestows the Bliss of Mahamudra is attained. Form, sound, smell, taste, touch and thought, characterised by the Essence of Nature, are all enjoyed only in this Wisdom. She is herself the Innate, the great blissful one, the divine Yogini. She is the Mandala Circle. She is of the very nature of the Five Aspects of Enlightened Awareness. She is the Mirror-like Awareness, The Awareness of Equanimity, the Differentiating Awareness of the six components of sensor)' experience, the Awareness of the Performance of Duty and the Awareness of Pure Nature. She is me, the lord of the mandala. She is the Yogini Without a Self (nairannyavogini), the very epitome of the Essence of Nature.

This passage reveals the relative and absolute characters of Nairatmya. As relative she is the wisdom-consort, the vogm/with whom the yogi should practise and experience all cognitions, which are characterised by the Essence of Nature (dhannadhatu). From the absolute point of view, she is indescribable, beyond shape, size, sensory experience; she is the embodiment of the Five Aspects of Enlightened Awareness. In other words, she is the culmination of the clhyani Buddhas who are nothing but these five wisdoms. Hevajra declares in this passage that ‘she is me, the Lord of the Mandala ’ (saivaharii 5 mamkilddhipah), that is. as the epitome of the Essence of Nature (dhurmadhatu) she is identical with llcvajra.


2.5 Other Deities of the Mamlala


In the Hevajra Tantra Hcvajra appears with a troupe of eight goddesses, and Nairatmya is seen surrounded by a troupe of fourteen. However, in some thankas the two circles have been merged and we have the full company of sixteen (as represented on the frontispiece of Snellgrove’s The Hevajra Tantra: A critical Study, Part I). The two circles were also used separately in actual rituals.

The outer circle of goddesses belonging to the Nairatmya circle belongs specifically to the circle of Hevajra. These Yoginis are also called the Circle of Mothers. It may also be noted that within the troupe of Nairatmya the inner five are goddesses proper while the outer eight are the names of low caste women or eight feminine relatives.

The five Yoginis of the inner enclosure of the Nat rat niva mandala arc of the nature of the purified pancaskandhas.8 9 Vajra is rupa skandha; Gauri is vedana skandlia. VariyoginI is samjnd skandha, VajradakinI is samskaru skandha and Nairatmya is vijnana skandha. They are assigned different directions in the nianckila. Vajra is in the eastern direction (of the inner enclosure), Gauri in the southern, VariyoginI in the western. Vajradakl in the northern and Nairatmya at the centre.12* The Yoginis of the outer

enclosure are Gauri, Cauri, Vetali, Ghasmari, PukkasI, Savari, Candall and Dombl. The first four occupy the four doors of the square enclosure; beginning with the eastern direction are Gauri, Cauri, Vetali, Ghasmari respectively. The last four occupy the four comers; beginning with south-eastern direction are PukkasI, Savarl, Candall and Dombl respectively. Yoginls Bhucari and Khccari arc located below and above respectively. 10 Along with Bhucari and Khecari the first four embody the six cognitions; the last four the four elements.11 Space is associated with Nairatmya. These fifteen Yoginls belong to the five families of dhyani Buddhas.

The goddesses arc of the nature of Vajradhara. They arise from the seed-syllables of the Moon (Nairatmya) and the Sun (Hcvajra), Wisdom and Means, or dli and kali. As we have seen above, Nairatmya is Hevajra or Vajradhara himself. She is said to arise from the seed-syllable 'ah'. Each of the fifteen yoginls has her own seed-syllable.

The thirty-two nadls mentioned in the first chapter of part I of the Hcvajra Tantra arc assigned to the Yoginis, two to each YoginI in the appropriate order. The three n§dls, lulana, rasand and avudhutiarc assigned to NairatmyS. The last digit is arbitrarily rejected. As the Yoginis arc aspects of the Moon they are related to the fifteen digits of the Moon as well as to the fifteen vowels which are of the nature of dll Again the Yoginis Bhucari, Khecari and Nairatmya are the ‘Secret Three’, namely Body, Speech and Mind respectively.

All the Yoginis in the Nairatmya mandala have similar features as Nairatmya has. They are exceedingly fierce, black in colour, and are adorned with the Five Symbolic Ornaments. Each of them has a head, two hands, yellow hair, blood-red eyes and holds a knife and skull in her hands. A khatvdriga rests on her left side. Each wears tiger skin around the waist, and stands on a corpse.15 These symbols must be understood in the manner explained earlier. However, the Yoginis in the Hevajra mandala are seen as holding in their hands various other symbols and implements, which represent the key aspects of the Mahayana and Vajrayana doctrines.


Gauri holds a knife in her right hand and a fish in her left hand; Caurl holds a hand-drum in her right hand and a wild boar in her left hand; Vetali holds a tortoise in her right hand and a skull in her left hand; Ghasmarl holds a snake in her right hand and a mendicant’s begging-bowl in her left hand; PukkasI holds a lion in her right hand and an axe in her left hand; Savari holds a monk in her right hand and a Khatvariga in her left hand; Canddli holds a disc in her right hand and a plough in her left hand and Dombi holds a Vajra in her right hand and her left hand is held in the pointing gesture. 16

These Yoginls stand in a dance posture with one leg raised. They have two arms and three eyes each. The colours of these eight Yoginls resemble the colours of the dhyani Buddhas but there is no strict correspondence.17 These retinue goddesses of Hevajra stand on Brahma, Indra, Upendra, Rudra, Vaivasvata, Vittanayaka, Nairrti and Vemacitri respectively.18 In the actual mandala ritual, these eight retinue goddesses arc represented in the nutndala bv the eight ritual posts which have five lines drawn on each of them ' and by the eight consorts who arc made to enter the marujalu.

In the iconographic presentation of these fifteen Yoginis we do see certain forced correspondences and even contradictions, yet one must admit that there is some pattern and purpose in the conception of these Yoginis. They are essential to the theory and praxis of the Hevajra Tantra. The Yoginis presented with symbols and implements indicate the bi-polarity of the ultimate reality ( Simula and karund). Their identity with the dhyani Buddhas show the essential identity of the polarities. Hevajra and Nairatmya along with the Yoginis represent the ultimate reality in its multiplicity as well as in its nonduality. Their circle becomes the map. which every sddhaka follows in the process of his own re-integration.


2.6 The Nature and Significance of the Deity


The nature and significance of the deity in religious practices of India is a complex one. Arindam Chakraborty points out that in all rites and rituals there arises the basic question, ‘to whom* is it offered? According to him, the “vedic or tantric devata fills this cthico-logical blank by answering this deepest dative, ‘to whom’ question (kasmai) asked by the moral man" As regards the nature of the vedic 19 20 divinity lie opines that it is a generalised, depersonalised, sensory power (indriya-sakti or

karanesvari) taken in the widest possible sense of the term, ‘indriya’ or instrument of cognition or conation.21 In short, the deities are essentially instruments of cognition. This assertion, as we shall see later, is corroborated by the Hevajra Tantra. The deity is a deliberate construction. From the analysis of the iconography of the deities, male and female, it is clear that they

are not external, objective, divine persons, but symbolic figures, deliberately constructed with a definite purpose in view. They have been created to embody the fundamental Mahayana ideals. They are quasibeings, presented, in an out-of-the-ordinary fashion, in terms of the number of heads, limbs, and other features. The purpose is to transport the mind of the worshipper from the ordinary

realm of concepts and categories to a state of de-conceptualisation. In the deity we visualise Vajrayanic concepts in graphic forms. By projecting the concepts in the form of deities, one is able to distance oneself from those very concepts and become aware of the process of ‘concept- construction’ We may call this a visual version of the dialectics of the Mddhyamika. Moreover, the odd

forms of the deities make us break with the conventional patterns of thought and realise that reality is beyond our conceptual framework. Further, the sddhaka is made to visualise, project and withdraw the deities in the space of his consciousness, and thus he is made aware of the creative function of consciousness. He is led to the conviction that the empirical existence is likewise a projection of his own consciousness.

From the metaphysical point of view, the deity is a prototype of the highest knowledge, the void.22 Just as infinite space cannot be apprehended except by some individualising medium; so too, the void or the Buddha nature cannot even be faintly understood, unless and until refracted through different moulds. The figures of Buddhas and other beings, represent in symbolic form, the transcendental in its myriads of qualities.23 The deities are the .innumerable refractions of the Ultimate Reality, By identifying

oneself with a deity one attains identity with the whole, the transcendental. Deities express the transcendental reality in its varied dimensions, such as wisdom, compassion, energy etc. However, all these different forms arc but one essentially. This is seen from the fact that each deity contains all the others, and in turn is contained by them. Though the Ultimate Reality is clothed in empirical forms, the practitioner is made aware of the non-empirical nature of the deity by means of its grotesque appearance involving multiple limbs, heads, and other startling features.

Cosmologically, the deities are symbolic representations of phenomenal existence. They are embodiments of the Five Aggregates of Phenomenal Awareness (pancaskandhas), the Five Elements (pancabhutas), the six indriyas, the twelve ayatnas, as well as the Five Evils affecting existence.24 In the deity we see brute empiricality face to face. The deity is also the Five Aspects of Enlightened Awareness (abhisamhodlti) needed to traverse through phenomenal existence. The deity is like a lens; when looked from one angle we

perceive the unity of all things (funyata or nirvana)’, and from another angle, it manifests the multiplicity and contradictions of phenomenal reality (.samsara). Though the tantric deities lack distinct personality, they are utilised to create the formless divine within the individual for the purpose of identification with it. However, they are not to be treated as mere symbols. Alicia Matsunaga writes,

...we would be mistaken if we merely regard the divinities as symbols having no other reality. If they were such they could not fulfil their function to assist in mental purification, for the intellect would merely grasp the meaning of the symbol and it would be impossible to move beyond the range of discriminative knowledge. By making the deity an object of faith, having a reality equivalent to all else that wc perceive, it was possible to engage in a mystical union that did not entail the use of reasoning.

The faith itself was an inducement for the laity to turn to the divinity and begin the process leading to purification.”25 The deity is nothing but sunya and as such it is real; but the deity in its manifestation is a created entity; and hence is provisional. It is the form of the Formless; the Formless is real, but form is relative.

The deity is a psychic reality. Jung opines that tantric gods form a 'psychic reality’, though virtually non-existent, tantric gods are powerful- as powerful as thoughts in the mind of man. He states, “The gods of Tibetan Buddhism belong to the sphere of illusory separateness and mind-created projections, and yet they exist;...”26 Evan-Wentz agrees that the deities arc mind-created, and he goes on to state that, the mind itself is nothing but ‘That’ and its ideas are forms of the ‘That’.27 It is a manifestation of the

depths of human psyche; the unheeded aspirations, instincts, fears and phobias, which have been repressed, emerge, within the placid surface of the mind, in benign or terrifying forms and figures. In moments of spiritual concentration these appear from the depths of the unconscious, and as they are unacceptable modes to the conscious realm, they appear to be threatening and terrifying.

This might explain the presence of a large number of terrifying deities in the Buddhist pantheon. Deity is a psychic tool to externalise and come face to face with the inner world of one’s own psyche. Alex Kennedy states, “The contemplation, in imagination of those figures allow us to project more and more of our own inner nature.”28 The bright colours, rich bejewelled attire,

brilliant light, and other visual techniques are used to arrest our concentration and arouse our sense of awe. The sadhaka uses the deity as a psychic tool in his psychic exercises, aimed at developing psycho-spiritual powers. Il is through the medium of the deity that the adept communes with the inexhaustible storehouse of power and empowers himself during the sadhana. 29 The deity is significant as a metamorphosis of one’s spiritual ecstasy. In deeper levels of meditation, truth appears in certain

ecstatic forms. These ineffable forms are best expressed in iconography. For the sadhaka they become provisional supports in his meditative enterprise. In the deity we have the meeting of the speculative, the aesthetic and the affective aspects of our consciousness. The deity is both an expression and a means for experience of the undifferentiated consciousness. The religious purport of the deity is highlighted by the Agnipurcina, which states that the Godhead who has no form assumes different forms for

the sake of the devotees, and that such manifestations of the unmanifest has only an instrumental value as it frees consciousness from the veil of mdya. Mukiavali states that the sentient beings enslaved by unfavourable dharmas are freed by the emanation of the deity.30 31 When the luminosity of the pure consciousness shines within us, the Gods, which are themselves images of consciousness, vanish.10 So the deities are the luminous fabric of the mind in benign or terrifying forms having religious and theological values.

In the context of sadhana, Tucci states, that the transfiguration from the plane of sariisara to that of nirvana takes place in degrees, and the gods arc symbolic representation of these degrees marking the transition from disintegration to re-integration. This process is two-fold. Through violent evocation of the mystical state the meditator forces the divine plane to descend on him (avahana or samavesa) and transform him. In this case the deity symbolises the divine plane. The second process is one by which the meditator evokes the infinite possibilities of consciousness that are mysteriously present in himself. Here the gods are nothing but representations or projections of his own consciousness.32 The deity is essentially a representation of the non-dual consciousness, the void, the Ultimate Reality, whether perceived on a distinct divine plane or visualised within the phenomenal plane of one’s own consciousness.

In order to be effective instruments of re-integration the deities are presented in varying forms and natures. We have deities of beatific or of terrifying natures, alone or in coital union. The same deity may appear in different forms, colours, bearing implements, and ornaments, and with varying number of heads and limbs. Deities as ‘provisional figurations’, become focal points for the sadhaka to fix the turbulent forces of his psyche, and identify these psychic forces with the deities. In this manner he cognises them and eliminates them in a precise process of deliverance. Tucci states, “The different colours of the faces, the variable number of hands, the implements grasped, are so many translations into visible signs of the truth which the mystic must relive in the spiritual drama which, surging up from the depths of his soul, regenerates him.”

By the touch of iconography these abstract truths and concepts come alive in visual forms, and similarly also, the psychic forces within man. Now the sadhaka who meditates on these forms and identifies himself with them is transformed. The deity has great significance in the theory and praxis of Vajrayana. From the point of view of Metaphysics. Cosmology, Psychology, Theology, and sadhana, the deity is a unique creation.


3. The Mantra


The term ‘mantra' comes from the root ‘/w?/i’34 which means Mo think’ and ltra\ the Avr-suffix indicating instrumentality. Lama Anagarika calls it, ‘a tool for thinking’ or a Thing which creates mental picture’.35 Monicr Williams lists the following meanings for the term "mantra': instrument of thought, speech, sacred text or speech, a prayer, a vedic hymn, incantation, spell, charm etc.36 The interpretation of Ramakrishna Paramahamsa brings out another nuance. He speaks of mantra as "montor 'mold (mind) and

"tor' (yours), i.e., (after the initiation) Mhe mind (is) yours’.37 For him mantra is a way of taking possession of one’s mind. This is done by protecting the mind from sense objects and discursive thought. I5' Eliadc too points out that mantras as phonemes are support for concentration. ' Vidyd. a form of mantra. counters avit/vd. and protects the mind from the darkness of passion and other klcsas.156 And dhdruni. another form of mantra, is one by which the adept fixes and retains the truth attained during deep absorption (samddhi). 100

Mantra is not a word or mere sound. It is reality itself in sonic form, a transformation of reality into vibrations of human voice. 'Om\ the seed-syllable, we are told, is the quintessence of the universe.101 Mantras arc eternal truths, which revealed themselves to sages in the form of sound-representations.38 39 40 41 42 43 The divinity is said to have two aspects, the subtle and the coarse. The subtle aspect is the mantra and the coarse aspect is the image. The seed-syllable {hija-mantru) is considered the

essence (svarupa) or seed of the deity. So much so, in many mandalas there arc no images of deities but only their seed-syllables or symbols. In tantric sadhana the cosmic evolution and involution are reproduced according to an alphabetic scheme. These alphabets and their combinations reflect the complex cosmic processes.44 The bJja-mantra (seed syllable) is the “microcosmic sound representation of the ultimate essence” of a deity.45 Tucci points out that “these ‘seeds’, which apparently have no meaning, present in the symbol of sound the correlation between the various planes and reflect the play of cosmic forces.” 46 The bija-mantra which is a sound symbol is not without its support, the prana. Pram is the cosmic energy, the universal breath of many aspects, and of infinite vibrations. It represents the hidden life of deity and of things.47 Thus the seed stands for breath, life

and the ultimate essence of all things. The affinity between the deity and its seed-syllable is so intimate that it is enough to concentrate one’s thought on the latter for the image to rise in the horizon of one’s mind.48 In the Hindu tradition, mantra is Brahman or the ultimate reality in the form of sound. Letters, words, and sentences are its different forms through which sakti appears in the individual. For the Vajrayanists mantra is endowed with great power and can even confer Buddhahood. A sound-symbol becomes mantra only when a Guru administers it to his disciple at an initiation ceremony.


Each word is the sound-equivalent of an experience of reality. Experience of a higher order cannot be effectively expressed or re-enacted through concepts; but through sound-symbols it can be. These sound-symbols arc not arbitrarily created outside such experiences but they are spontaneous expressions, springing forth from the deepest recesses of the human psyche during such an experience. They convey an experience of reality that cannot be translated into concepts. When a mantra is uttered, it calls forth its content into a state of immediate reality. Hence, mantra is not mere speech but power; it docs not speak, but acts.109 H.

Zimmer too acknowledged mantra as an expression of the innermost essence, as non-dual knowledge, which is not argument or proposition, but power.17^ Thus mantra has two aspects- that of being the essence of reality as well as that of being the non-dual experience of that reality. In his explanation of the Avalokiteswira mantra. 1Om mani padme hum: hrih\ Lama Anagarika brings out clearly this dimension of mantra as both essence and experience of the Ultimate Reality.1'1 Mantra is not only an expression of the non- 49 50 51 52 dual experience of reality but also a means of identification and introjection of that very same reality. Such mantra as ‘ Oiii Suiiyaia-indna-vajra-svabhdvtitmako’ham ', becomes a means for identification with sunyata ,the Ultimate Reality.

Mantra is not a plea or prayer to some deity in the heavens to act in some miraculous way. The power of the mantra is self-generated. Mantra disposes the sadhaka to a psychic disposition by which he evokes from within his own consciousness the deity as well as its power. Hence the inner attitude, as Lama Anagarika points out, is the main source of power. He points out three important components, which determine the efficacy of the mantric formulas, namely, form, feeling, and idea. The mantra should be

melodious, rhythmic, and forceful in form. The feeling aspect is the devotional impulse expressed in faith, love, and veneration. The idea is constituted of the mental associations, knowledge, and experience (not abstraction), which arouse, intensify, and transform the latent psychic forces.1' ' The actual mantra is not the physical sound; it is not uttered by the mouth nor heard by the car; it is spiritual, uttered by the mind and heard by the heart. The mantra to be effective must be learned from a competent Guru and requires constant practice.

Finally, it must be noted that a mere historical or philological interpretation of a mantra is a most superficial evaluation of it. The employment of mantra is not a case of degeneration or relapse into ancient brahminical practices. Again, it is not a piece of ‘occult-linguistic’ or some hocus-pocus gibberish, though it is often composed of a string of meaningless syllables. Yasubandhu in his Bodhisattva Bhumi states that this absolute meaninglessness is in fact the real significance of the mantras.

A Sddltaka is to meditate on these Mantras as something absolutely meaningless and this constant meditation on the meaninglessness of the Mantras will gradually lead to a state of mind where it will be very easy for him to meditate on the ultimate nature of the dharmas as absolutely meaningless; this meaninglessness is the void nature of the dharmas and thus the meditation on the Mantras will gradually lead a Sdd/uika to the realisation of the void nature of the dharmas.

Mantra purges the mind of concepts and categories and heals it of its constructive tendencies; it becomes a psychic tool in the whole dialectical process. The meaning of the mantra is more than the sum of its parts. It is meaningful not from a discursive or descriptive point of view, but in an all persuasive holistic sense.55 56 It is a symbol, a hieroglyph as it were of a direct inner vision of Ultimate Reality persuading the sddhaka to that Reality. And the emotive and psychic effect of the mantra leading the sddhaka to the depths of non-dual consciousness vouches for its efficacy.


4. The Guru


The term Guru means ‘one who dispels darkness’. The Guru brings to light gradually that which is hidden in the depths of the disciple’s consciousness, and as a result, truth reveals itself to the disciple. This calls for a direct and cordial relationship between the Guru and his disciple. It is not a cold intellectual relationship, but an intimate, vital contact, or a ‘spiritual courtship’ as Agehananda Bharati calls it. When the two are thus spiritually attuned, the spirit of the neophyte is renewed. The mystics compare this interpersonal relationship between the Guru and his disciple to that of the cow and her calf. 1 (' The Upanisad is so called because the disciple has to sit near and below the Guru to obtain knowledge, which could be transmitted only in a one-to-one association of the two.

According to the popular conception, a Guru is one who gives dikpi. He is not always a monk; sometimes he is a householder who has achieved the state of a spiritual master. The Guru may be a yogin or a celestial hodhisattva as in the case of Nagaijuna, or a Ddkini as in the case of Virupa. A Dakini may be a human female adept (yogini) as it was for Luyipa.1'7 A Guru is one, who has received dikfa from one or more Gurus, is one who is capable of conferring, and has actually conferred, initiation on another

person or persons. He is endowed with all qualities, such as spiritual maturity, age, renown, learning etc. He is idolised as the Buddha, Sugata, the dharmakaya; and it is he who bestows liberation.1'9 Advayasiddhi states that, “The Preceptor is the supreme god and hence adorable with care.” The Guru is often regarded as even higher than the deity, because without the former, man cannot realise God or the Ultimate Reality. 58 59 60 61 62 Tibetan Buddhism is noted for its veneration of the Guru, so much so, that it added a ‘refuge’ in the Guru to the traditional ‘three refuges’ in the

Buddha, Dharma, and Sarigha. According to the tantra of Sungwa Nyinpo, in the task of guiding all sentient beings, the Guru exercises four kinds of compassion, namely the constant compassion, the spontaneous compassion, the compassion of granting benediction and prayers, and the compassion of guiding the disciples according to their needs.

Vajraydna asserts that nothing can be gained without the Guru.1** The Hevajra Tantra states, “By no other can the Innate be explained and in no other person can it be attained. It is known intuitively as the result of merit gained from diligently following the guru’s instruction and

observances.’ The tantric practices are secret and complex and there is every chance of aberrations at every step and hence, without the assistance of an able Guru the sadhaka may bring upon himself grave dangers. In the root text of the Kalacakra Tantra it is stated, “Even if you were to make offerings to all the Buddhas of the past, present and the future and practise charity to sentient beings for eons, you might still not be able to attain Enlightenment.

But by making full proper Guru-devotion, the attainment of Mahdmudra becomes easy.” In the practice of Vujrayanu the primary responsibility of the Guru is to know the inner disposition of his disciple. These great masters had many tantras at their disposal and they imparted them in accordance with the propensities of their disciples. Hence the Guru must first closely observe the nature of his disciple and identify its predominant defect (delusion, wrath, passion, envy, or

malignity). In this manner he determines the ‘family’ (kula) of his disciple. He then assigns to him the mandala in which the Buddha of his family is at the centre.18' The disciple should honour his Guru with worship and hymns, and should make offerings of food and drink. The disciple, seeking initiation prays thus: “O Lord, Great Tranquil Being who is intent only on the Vajra union, pcrfecter of the Seals and on who originates from the union of the indivisible Vajras! O great Being, as you do for yourself, O Lord, may you also do the same for me. I am sunk in the thick mud of phenomenal existence; save me who has no other resort.”67 68

The offering, the disciple makes to the Guru consists of, “pleasing food and drink, wine and meat of fine quality, incense, sacrificial oblations, garlands, bells, banners and anointments” 18 ’ The Guru then confers on the disciple the required ubhiseka (or diksa in Hindu tradition) during the

Initiation ceremony. In the Hevajra tradition, the Guru first performs the purification of the site70 for the construction of the mandala followed by the Hun'jvajrj rite,71 then constructs the mandala of the particular deity.72 This is followed by the conferring of the four Consecrations: the Master consecration, Secret consecration, Wisdom consecration, and the Fourth consecration.73 During the Initiation, the Guru instructs the disciple of the way in which the mantra should be recited and the number of times it should be muttered in order to attain the different kinds of perfections.

The Guru is an indispensable instrument in the process of re-integration of the sadhaka. The tantric aspirant is explicitly warned not to embark on this sure, yet dangerous, means of liberation without the guidance of a competent Guru. Through the observation of his disciple, through instructions, by conferring abhisekas, and by constant monitoring of his progress, the Guru accompanies him in the process of re-integration. For the disciple the Guru is all- the deity, the mantra, the very foundation and guarantee of the tantric sadhana.


Conclusion


The fundamental tantric tools, namely, the Mandala, the Deity, the Mantra, and the Guru, are essential for the tantric sadhana. Mandala is the road map for the reintegration of the sadluika from his state of disintegration. The deities are important milestones in this spiritual journey. The Mantra provides the concentration and the constancy to pursue the goal, and the Guru acts as the constant companion and preceptor. These are the tools or instruments in the process of re-integration and emancipation, and hence provisional aids to discover oneself. Once the bi-polar nature of the Ultimate Reality is discovered within oneself and they arc united emulating the matrix of the mandala, the sddhaka realises his own innate nature as Bliss; then these tools may be, and actually are, dispensed with.

Symbol
Vajra
Cakra
Lotus
Jewels
Visvavajra.

Vahana
Elephant
Dragon
Peacock
Horse
Gambia

87 Name

Bluispar.4a Dhorniactikra Somddhi I'aroda Ah hay a

Families
Wrath
Delusion
Malignity
Passion
Envy

Dhyani Buddhas
Aksobhya
Vairocana
Ratnasambhava
Amitabha
Amoghasiddhi
1
   Bcnoytosh Bhattacharyya, The Indian Buddhist Iconography, p. 204.
2
   Ibid., p. 203.
3
   "SuvahrccandrathardliaparyarikaruStyathinirii Nairdtmdrii kfsndrh
ekaimikhd/fj urdlnapairigalake&rii Akfobhyamuku tinirii dariistrdkarallalajjihvdm. dak.pnena kartridhdrinlrii vdme kapalukhap-dhgadhdrinirii. raklavartulatrincirari)
paikamMid\ ibltusandrii (dhyaydt) " (The worshipper should
conceive himself as Nair2tmy2 who stands in (lie anlliapaiyaiika in a dancing attitude on the moon over the chest of a corpse. She is blue in colour, has brown hair rising upwards, and bears the image of Aksobhya on her crown. Her face looks temble with bare fangs and protniding tongue, and she carries the kartri in the right hand and bears the kapala and the khapa/iga on the left. Her three eyes are red and round, and she is endowed with the five auspicious symbols). See Sddliunamdld. p.451.
4
   Hevajra. the male aspect of the void comprehends the whole truth as much as docs the goddess Prajhaparamita. The essential identity is shown by the transmutation of the female form into the male form HT(S) 11:2:24-27. Sec HT(S), Part I. p.24.
5
HT(F) 11:4:43-50.
6
   The existence of the two separate circles could also be the reason for the duplication of Gauri in both the circles. In the passage (HT(F) 11:5:28.) the Yoginis of the Hevajra Circle are given different seed-syllables. This again shows that originally there were two separate lists of Yoginis.
7
   HT(S). Part I.p. 31.
8
   HT(F) 1:8:11.
9
12S HT(F) 1:8:12.
10
   HT(F) 1:8:13-14; see also 11:5:13-18.
11
   HT(S). Part 1. p. 127.
12
   The Five Families, the dhyani Buddhas and their yoginls arc:
Yoginls
Nairatmya. Pukkasi. (Gauri(II)) Vajra. Savari. Cauri. Bhucari Gauri, Candali. Vetali Vari, Dombi. Ghasmari. Khecari Vajradaki. Sec HT(F).
YogaratnanuilA. p.211.
13
“It is said that the seed-syllables of the Yogmis are as follows: Nairatntya's is a. Vajra’s /. Variyogini's i, Vajra<)2ki’s «. Pukkasi's //. Savari’s f. Candali's R. Dombini’s /. the other Gauri’s L. Cauri's e. Vejali’s oi, Ghasmari's o Bhucari's au and Khecari's aril." HT(F) 11:4:22-25. See also HT(F) 11:5:28: "From Ute blazing and terrifying black seed-syllables lui/ii and aiii of the Lord and his erotic consort, issue the retinue-goddesses (of Hcvajra) with their seed-syllables garii, cam, vari\ g/ianX parti, farii, law and darii." This again shows that originally there were two lists of Yoginis.
14
   HT(F) 11:4:97-99.
15
   HT(F) 1:8:15-20.
16
   HT(F) 11:5:30-33; 52-55. Hevajrapindcirlhafika explains the doctrines signified by these symbols: The knife means the cutting of the klesas: the drum the sound of the Absolute Void; Tortoise constant bliss; Snake wrath; Lion prompt and unhesitating action; Monk constancy in the condition of arhat; the Wheel (disc) the turning of the Wheel of Dharma; Vajra the overcoming of the klesas; the fish pleasantness to the touch; the wild boar the destruction of delusion; the Skull the preservation of bliss; the Bowl taking knowledge; the Axe the cutting of the klesas at the root; the fan bliss; the Plough the non-existence of the klesas. By pointing the finger, the goddess indicates the spot which is immaculate. HT(S), Part I, p. 112., fn.l. Thus we see that the various symbols held by the goddesses represent the doctrine of the Void and Compassion, the removal of jikvavarana and klesSwirana. and the resultant bliss.
17
   See HT(F) 11:5:35-36. There is no strict adherence to the colour of the family to which the Yoginls belong. For example, Ghasmarl belongs to the family of Amitabha whose colour is red but she is presented here as green, which is the colour of the family of Amoghasiddhi.
18
137HT(F) 11:5:37. Benoytosh Bhattacharyya interprets such
presentation of Buddhist deities standing on Hindu gods as a deliberate act of insult and humiliation of Hindu deities by the Buddhist tantras. But it may have some deeper iconographic significance.
19
   HT(F) 11:5:50-51.
20
   HT(F) 11:5:58-59. These blissful consorts arc twelve to sixteen years of age and arc adorned with garlands and jewellery. They are known as Mother. Sister. Daughter. Niece. Maternal 1'ncle‘s Wife. Maternal Aunt. Mother-in-law. and Paternal Aunt. For details see HT(F). YogaralnamfllA. p.257. It should be noted that HT(F) 1:10:5 speaks only of one divine consort to be introduced into the murnlala.
21
Arindam Chakraborty. “Making ‘Sense’ of the Vedic/Tantric Divinities" unpublished manuscript in the possession of Prof. Ashok Kumar Chatterjce.
22
   nirdhlidsu/ii vijnaptimdtram. huieva licrukain d\ a\ agrfiliMtsyii dvauipratibhdsasya ca tenaiva bhuksontit" HT(T). StuktdvaU p.215.
23
   Alex Kennedy, The Buddhist Vision, p. 180.
24
   See HT(F) 11:3:32-35.
25
Alicia Matsunaua. The Buddhist Philosophy of Assimilation, p.93.
26
   W. Y. Evan-Wentz, ed.. The Tibetan Book of the Great Liberation.
p. x.xxiv.
27
   Evan-Wentz writes, “Although mind-created by the yogin, the visualized images of spiritual beings, upon which our texts direct him to concentrate, arc not to be regarded by him with indifference. If he merely thinks to himself ‘I am creating with my mind’, no more than intellectual progress is made. The yogin must understand that his practices are not simply mental; he should regard them ‘with exaultcd regard, veneration, and devotion, looking upon the Devatds (i.e. the visualised Deities) as real, holy, and divine. They arc none the less so because mind-produced, for the mind ultimately is That, and its ideas forms of That.” W.Y. Evan-Wentz. Tibetan Yoga and Secret Doctrines. p.44. (emphasis added).
28
   Alex Kennedy, The Buddhist Vision, pp. 180-IS1.
29
   Bcnoylosh Bhaltacharyya, Indian Buddhist Iconography, pp.23-24.
30
"yatlifi hvakavimanadi tathivo sarvasttvfindmaku&davyakrta dluinnd dvaranasa riigrah ittih, te.sfiiii pratipukyth
svadhidaivatahhuvanfi " HT(T), Muktdvali.p. 135.
31
   In certain Indian liturgies a mirror is employed which serves to remind the sadhaka that the images of Gods arc but reflections to be burned by the power of knowledge and that they have no nature of their own. See Giuseppe Tucci, The Tlieoiy and Practice of the Mamlala, p. 65.
See the following advice of the Master to his disciple: “O son of noble family, if thou do not recognize that these images are of thy own thought, even if thou hast been learned in the holy scriptures and hast observed the precepts of the Law, for a whole cosmic age thou shall not be consubstantiated with the Buddhas. But if one recognizes that these are images of one’s own thought one will be instantly consubstantiatcd with the Buddhas." As found in Ibid., p. 66.
32
Ibid., pp. 29-30.
33
   Ibid., p 68.
34
   In Greek 'maws' and Latin 'mens'.
35
   Lama Anagarika Govinda, Foundations of Tibetan Mysticism, p. 19.
36
   Sir Monier-Williams, Sanskrit-English Dictionary (Delhi: Motilal
Banarsidass. 1974). pp.785-786. .
37
   Agehananda Bharati, The Tantric Tradition, p. 105.
38
   “In explanation, 'man' is mind, and 'tra' is protecting, so it means protecting the performer's mind from signs and discursive thought. As to how it protects, the purpose of mantra is the recitation of the mantra through non-dual engagement of means and insight (upaya-prajna). That method of cultivation generates the non-dual wisdom of voidness and compassion in the practitioner's stream of consciousness; md because of that method it is called mantra." As quoted in Alex Wayman, The Buddhist Tantras. pp.64-65.
39
   Agehananda Bharati, The Tantric Tradition, p. 10S.
40
   Alex Wayman. The Buddhist Tantras, p. 65.
41
   Lama Anagarika Govinda. Foundations of Tibetan Mysticism. P-32.
42
   “...Oihityetadaksaramitarh sarvarh tasyopavyakhy&nam bhutaiii bhavadbhavisyaditi sarvamortkara evat yaccanyat trikalatitaiii tadapyoiikara eva//” Swami Gambhiriinanda. trans.. Matuhtkya Upaniyul with the KfiriktS of Gainkipdda amt the commentary of Satikarficthya (Calcutta; Advaita Ashrama. 1990). MU. 1.
43
   Sasln Bluisan Dasgupta. Aspects of Indian Religious Thought (Calcutta: Firma KLM Private Limited. 1977) p.24.
44
   Kashmir Saivism symbolises by means of vowels, the various phases of the cosmic process. For an explanation sec Giuseppe Tucci. The Theory (nut Practice of the Mandala. pp. 60-63.
45
   Sashi Bhusan Dasgupta, Aspects of Indian Religious Thought, p.36.
46
   Giuseppe Tucci, The Theory and Practice of the Man(kda, p. 61.
47
   Ibid., p. 61.
48
   In our Text, Hevajra is called hiiriibhavah. i.e., bom of the seed-syllable 'Inim\ HT(F) 1:3:17. Again Nairatmya is spoken of as of the nature of the first vowel 'a' (fidisvarasvbhflvfi sfi) HT(F) 11:4:44. See also HT(F) 1:3:3; 5-7.
49
   N. N. Bhattacharyya. d Clossaiy of Indian Religious Terms anti Concepts (Columbia: South Asia Publications. 1990). p.99.
50
   Lama Anauarika Govinda, Foundations of Tibetan Mysticism, pp. 18-19.
51
   Agehananda Bharati, The Tantric Tradition, p. 106.
52
   He explains that in Otit we experience the dharmakdya and the mystery of the universal body, in the Mani, the sa/iibliogakdya and the mystery of the mantric sound. In the Padma we experience the nirmanakaya and the mystery of the all-transforming mind. In the Hum we experience the vajrakdya as synthesis of the transcendental body of the Three mysteries. In the Hrih we dedicate the totality of our transformed personality (which has become the vnjrakava) to the service of Amitabha. Lama Anaganka (invimla. I'mimlaltons of Tibetan Mysticism, p. 230.
53
   Agehanauda Bhutan. The Tan trie Traililinii. p. 112.
54
   Lama Anaganka Govinda. T’oiaiilations oj Tibetan Mysticism, pp. 32-33.
It may he noted that m the sacrificial rituals of Brahmanism at the time of the Buddha, the use til" mantric words had degenerated to a mere convention and to a convenient means for escaping one’s own responsibility by relying upon (he magic power ol gods, demons and compelling magic formulae. But the Buddha placed man at the centre and believed in the possibility of self-liberation and not through divine intervention.
55
   As found in S. B. Dasgupta, ITB, p. 59. See also , "toil vuthd ndstyeMun nianlropaddndm kdcidarthapimmyutnih nnaithd waneJ oyamwa coiydinartho yailtua nirariliatd• tasindeco para tit poiioraporamartliatii mi uinuuncsotc//" Nalmaksha Dult, ed. Bodlmontvohlu'nm. p. 185.
56
   Alex Wayman points out that the 'meaning' of the imouro is not inheient in its constituents but it is ascribed to it. Foi example the
57
dhttrani of I’imaloan\a "kyi/ki kyi/Mt k\un ksini' kyuna ksutm" is translated as "Guard, guard! Rescue, rescue! Nourish, nourish!." In some cases, the commentator may ascribe an unexpected meaning to a mantra. For example, the mantra "hana. liana" (in the woik BahnuUtka of the Tenjur Canon) actually means Destroy, destroy' but they are tianslated as Prick, prick' Here the commentator relates it to the vedic meaning of the veib ■/mu* 'to hull a dart upon.* Alex Wayman, "The Significance of Mantras. Veda and Buddhist Tantric Practice" in Btnldhisi Insight: £vwns hy Alex Wayman, Geroge R. Elder, ed. (Delhi: Monlal Banarsidass. 198*1) p.429.
176 Giuseppe Tucci, The Theory ami Practice of the ,\fan(kila, pp. 7677.
58
   While all the great masters of Mahdydna were men. women had a much more prominent role in Vajraydna. Sec James B. Robinson (trans.), Buddha's Lions, pp. 14-15.
59
   Agehananda Bharati, The Tantric Tradition. pp. 186-188.
60
   Bcnoytosh Bhattacharyya, IBE, p. 93. LaksmirtkarS in her Advayasiddhi compares the Preceptor with the incarnation of Vajrasattva or Tathatd.
“sa eva tut ha t dr up i lokdnugrah hetund/
rupamdsrtya sadtvrtyd sadtsthito yogapifliake//" Advayasiddhi, 34. "The Master of the Mapdala assuming the form of the two-armed Hevajra should enter the mandoUi dancing the majestic postures of Vajrasattva...He majestically utters hildt lidiii and the terrifying hi hl\ See HT(F) 1:10:28-29.
61
   "dcdryaOparamodevaO pOjanfya(iprayatnafa" Advayasiddhi, 33.
62
   S. B. Dasgupta, 1TB, p. 159.
63
   Alex Wayman, The Buddhist Tantras, p. 72.
64
   Garma C.C. Chang, The Hundred Thousand Songs of Milarepa, vol.II. p.466.
65
   "acdry at parataram ndsti trailokya sacardcarai/
yasya prasdddt prdpyante siddhyo 'nekadhavudhaih" (In the whole three worlds, there is no other than the preceptor who can enable through his merciful and meticulous guidance his learned disciple to attain multiple and multi-lateral perfection). See Advayasiddhi, 32.
66
   "ndnyena kathyate sahajaiima kasminn opi labhyate/
Qtmand jndyotepuny Adguruparvopasevayd//” HT(F) 1:8:34.
67
   As quoted in First Panchcn Lama, The Great Seal of Voidness (Dharamsala: Library of Tibetan Works and Archives. 1975) p. 5.
68
   HT(S). Part I. p. 30.
69
   HT(F) 11:3:18-19.
1S9 HT(F) 11:3:20. See also 11:7:12-13. The Vcdic injunction is that the Guru has to be approached samitpAyi (with firewood in the student's hand).
70
190 See HT(F) 1:10:23-24.
71
191 See HT(F). YogaralnamfiUi, p.119. It is a rite of protection. This will be taken up in detail later.
72
192 A description of this nuirniiln is given in HT (F) 1:10:19-22; 26-27.
73
193 These four Consecrations will be dealt with in the later chapters. Sec HTfFl 11:3:13-16.

CHAPTER 6

THE PROCESS TOWARDS BUDDHAHOOD

The conception of Buddhahood is slightly different in the Sutra system, and in the Vajraydna system. The Sutra system conceives Buddhahood as the non-dual realisation of the Ultimate Reality (sunya). It is the intuition of the Real (tattva) as transcendent to thought, as non-relative, non-determinatc, quiescent, non-discursive, non-dual.1 But in Vajraydna it is the experience of the void nature, the Innate, as Great Bliss (sahajdnandarh). The nature of the Absolute in both systems has already been discussed at length in chapter three.

Here our focus will be on the process towards Buddhahood as prescribed in the Hevajra Tantra. As regards the process towards Buddhahood, the Sutra system pursues the practice of the Six Paramitas2 and the passage through the Dasabhumis,3 while Vajraydna follows the Stage of Generation (utpattikrama) and the Stage of Completion (utpannakrama or sampannakrama). The yogi and the yogini undertake the practices of these two stages in accordance with the instructions of the Guru. The success of the path depends primarily on the adequate preparation of the yogi and the vogini and the exact fulfilment ofihc instructions imparted by the Guru*


1. The Preparation of the Yogi


The yogi and the vogini arc the practitioners involved in the processes of Generation and Completion. Our text uses several terms to denote the yogi' On the basis of their maturity, the disciples are classified into four classes: those of weak sensibilities, medium sensibilities, strong sensibilities and the strongest sensibilities; l’ and the sadhana prescribed for each varies accordingly.

Hcvajra Tantra prescribes a strict course of philosophical training for the yogi before he commences 4 5 6 the practice of Hevajra sadhana. Once again this reveals the relation and the continuity of the Abhidharma and Mahayana principles in Vajrayana. As regards the philosophical discipline that the yogi should undergo, Bhagavan stated that first he should be given the injunctions for conduct7 and then instruction on the fundamental moral precepts.8 Then he should be instructed in the Vaibhasya doctrine and after that the Sutranta doctrine. Then he should be instructed in the doctrines of Yogacdra followed by those of Madhyatnika. Then the disciple should be trained in Mantra sastra and then the doctrines of Hevajra practice should be revealed to him.

The moral discipline prepares the yogi for the rigorous philosophical training that follows. The Philosophical training proper begins with the realistic and pluralistic philosophy of the Vaibhasika (San’dstivada), which enables him to view reality in terms of the seventy-five dharmas. The philosophy of the Sautrantika10 makes him critically analyse these dharmas. In this manner the seeds of Idealism are sown in the mind of the yogi. Then, like the

7 These refer to the conduct followed from sunrise onwards, on full-moon days and other important occasions. According to Snellgrovc. it consists of the public confession of sins (posadlta).

8 These consists of the eight precepts such as detachment from the evil ways of body, speech and mind as well as those precepts which ought to be followed as long as one lives. Snellgrove states that these refer to the ten rules of virtuous conduct.

9 bhagavan alia/ pay ala til dnatc prutliainarn tadanu Gks/ipadarn diset/ vaihliasvaiii latra descla sCttrdntarh vai punas tathfi// yogdcdraiii tata/t pascal tadanu inadhyainakani di&t/ sarvaniantranayadi jrkitvfi tadanu bevajrant Grabbed..." HT(F) II.8.10-11. 10 The Sautrantika as we know reduced the number of dharmas from seventy-live to forty-three.

Yogacarin. lie Icams to view the object (dharnui) as nothing but a projection of the subject (vijilana)V Finally, with the Madhyamikn. lie asserts that the object as well as the subject is devoid of essence (.<unya). He realises that the “Real is transcendent to thought; it is non-dual f.sunya), free from the duality of ‘is’ and ‘not-is’ Milarcpa in The Hundred Thousand Songs of Milarcpa states, “I am a yogi who is devoid of thoughts, knowing that there is no such thing as mind."13 This vision of reality or this awareness of the ultimate non-substantiality of all phenomenal experiences, is termed in our text the True Principle (taltva). And the yogi who realises the True Principle is called tauvavatsalah.

The above mentioned philosophical process of overcoming duality and attaining the True Principle is at times expressed, not in the concepts of Mahay an a, but in tantric Code Language (sandhyahhasa). It is referred to as ‘eating’.14 The text states that, “the yogi must cat the flesh 7 8 9 10 of one killed at the gallows pole as well as one killed by a weapon and one who is a seven times relumed. The wise yogi performs the rite of Killing after intently arousing mercy.”1 Snellgrove points out that ‘consuming the one

killed at the gallows pole’ (dhvaja) means that the yogi consumes or destroys any thought with an object for its activity. That is, he refutes the Realist’s (Vaibhasiku and Sautrantika) position that the objects of experience (dharmas) are real. He realises that the object has no existence apart from the cognising subject, the mind. In this way, the yogi makes his mind rest on its foundation. To ‘consume the one killed by weapon’ (sastruhcita) means the yogi consumes the notion of self-existence. The yogi realises that just as the object is of the nature of void, the subject too is of the same nature. In this manner, he establishes the non-substantiality of the differentiated phenomena and the non-substantiality of all thoughts. Thus the yogi overcomes the subject-object duality (grahya-grahaka dvuya). Now by consuming ‘the seven times returned' (suptavarta) the yogi consumes his own person, that is, by making all thoughts non-existent he attains the stabilised meditative state of the void. At this stage there is neither the consciousness of an object, nor the consciousness of a subject (in relation to external objects) nor even the consciousness of self.

In Tantric Code Language, the act of rendering phenomenal existence non-substantial (sunytt) is also called ‘the rite of Killing’ While speaking of the observance of the Vow (samara), and the Observance of the Concealed Essence (sa/fmira) for the yogi in this highest stage, the Bhagavan stated:

(As the Observance of the Vow) you should kill living beings, speak lies, take what is not given and service others’ wives. (As the Observance of the Concealed Essence) one-pointedness of thought is the killing of living beings, for the thought is the very life breath; the vow to save all beings is the speaking of lies; the sexual fluid of the woman is that which is not given and others’ wives arc the beautiful ones who arc one’s own.

Since thought arises from the life breath, the very nonarising of thought is considered killing. The vow to save all living beings is the speaking of lies since the world of living beings is not real in terms of the absolute truth. The sexual fluid of the Vajra Lady is the non-dual knowledge. This non-dual knowledge is ‘what is not given’ because it is attained by means of a non-dual intuition. The ‘beautiful ones who are one’s own’ refer to Nairatmya and the other yoginis. They are considered ‘the wives of others’ (para) because of their most (parama) excellent nature.

The yogi is to be an embodiment not only of prajnd (irnyatd) but also of Compassion (karum). This emphasis on kariuja is inherited from Xhihayana. In the Asfasahasrika Prajnapdramita the Lord teaches, “The Bodhisattva should adopt the same attitude towards all beings, his mind should be even towards all beings, he should not handle others with an uneven mind, but with a mind which is friendly, well-disposed, helpful, free from aversion, avoiding harm and hurt, he should handle others as if they were his mother, father, son or daughter.”14 15 16 17 In Vajraydna. the concept of karuna becomes more

accentuated. The Hevajra Tantra states that ‘the rite of Killing should be preceded by the generation of mercy’, which means, the yogi starts with the practice of the Brahma vihara, especially the exercise of karuna. The outstanding characteristic of the yogi is his Compassion. The yogi should first and foremost be compassionate (krpavan).l‘> Our text states that he always drinks compassion (karuna piyale nityarii) for the benefit of all beings.'0 In fact those who lack mercy cannot succeed (k/pahina na siiidhyanti)\ hence the disciple is exhorted to arouse compassion within himself (lasmat kipam ulpadayet)'1 The tantric praxis involves a constant mingling of sunyata and karuna. Therefore, rightly is this praxis called the Vajra-Kapdla Yoga, or the union of Compassion and Voidness.

Once the void nature of phenomenal existence is realised and compassion is generated, the yogi is ready for instructions in Mantra sastru. He now conceives the same phenomenal forms in terms of the Five Aspects of Enlightened Awareness.19 He perceives all that exists, moving or stationary, grass, shrubs, creepers etc., as the Supreme Principle, which is one’s own very nature.20 21 This Supreme Principle is the Enlightened Nature, the Innate, which pervades the entire world of phenomena.22 The Innate, which is the core of one’s own being, is also the core of ever>' other phenomenon. In this way the yogi realises his identity with everything else in the phenomenal world.

The yogi should constantly abide in the True Principle like the flow of the river’s current, or like the rays of the light of a lamp.23 For him the visible manifestation of the True Principle is the deity Hevajra. Therefore, being united with Hevajra is being united with the True Principle. The yogi is to be one with his chosen deity (svestadevutasuriiyogi) constantly. Bhagavan states, “One who wishes to attain the Accomplishment should remain at one in union with Nairatmya or Heruka and should not even for a moment rest in any other thought.’’24 25 This constant and unfailing union with the deity is stressed by the text repeatedly. By such constant union he realises that he himself is Hevajra who is the supreme underlying principle that is present in all individuals. For such a yogi, everything that he does or does not becomes sadhitna27 because he is in constant union with the True Principle.

The yogi’s vision of phenomenal existence as nonsubstantial is depicted through the attire and ornaments he uses. His dress is designed to match that of the Hevajra, and he adopts the vajrapada 28 postures in order to signify that the yogi is himself Hevajra, the embodiment of the True Principle. The yogi is to wear the five divine ornaments29 which symbolise the five dhyani Buddhas who are but iconographic representations of the Five Aspects of the Enlightened Awareness. He is dressed in tiger skin30 and his hair is to be coiled into a crown like a knot on the top of his head. He should adorn his hair with five skulls representing the Five Buddhas. The thread used for tying his hair has two strands, symbolising Wisdom and Means. In this way. every aspect of his attire indicates the philosophical process that he undergoes, and the realisation of the Tme Principle, Hcvajra, who is the union of sunyata and karittxi.

This realisation is further translated into the way the yogi orders his daily life, the food and drink he consumes as well as the classes of people he interacts with. On account of the realisation of the True Principle, the yogi conceives all distinctions as misconceptions, or as sunya. The text states that once the knowledge of the True Principle arises within the yogi, “ it is no longer possible for the him to be obstructed by the misconception that distinguishes himself from others.'

The yogi, who is one with the intrinsic nature of all things, is free of all ties of social conventions, caste restrictions, religious injunctions, and inhibitions. ' He does not make such distinctions as worthy and unworthy, edible and inedible, liked and disliked.'6 Bhagavan points 31 32 33 out that food and drink should be accepted as it comes without thought of what is acceptable or forbidden. One should not perform the rituals of bathing and cleansing or avoid vulgar behaviour. He neither recites mantras nor

meditates; neither forsakes sleep nor restrains the senses.34 He interacts with people of all castes as though they are the same as his own body and enjoys all kinds of women.35 He docs not love friends and hate enemies. He does not worship any idol made of wood, stone or clay, but remains united with his own chosen deity. He partakes of the conventionally most abhorrent food and drink.36 For the one who has the awareness of the non-dual knowledge there exists nothing inedible.37 Thus distinctions and differences arc overcome not only at a conceptual level but also at the physical level. Milarepa says, “if the realisation (of sOnyatd) is stable, the organs and senses move freely but do not cling. One then forever merges with the Trikayci. This is the conviction of Enlightenment.’*

Just as the life and activities of the yogi are unconventional so arc the modes of communication that he employs. The yogi should communicate using the Tantric Code Language (sandhydbhdfd)39 so that the praxis is kept secret from the uninitiated. Similarly, the mode of communication between the initiates is by the use of the Tantric Sign language (chomd)40 41 Further, the use of these modes of communication becomes necessary because the realisation of the Absolute is beyond empirical concepts and categories.


2. The Preparation of the Yogini


The role of the yoginl44 is important in the Hevajra praxis because it is in and through her that the yogi experiences Bliss. Since an intimate relation between them is essential for sddhana, she must be one who loves the yogi (sadhakapriydm).42 As regards obtaining the yogini it is said that the yogi should receive her as a boon (varalabdhd yato). She may be a divine consort who originates from one of the five families or she may be any available sixteen year-old girl.43 A yogi may also attract a yogini by his own power from among the gods, titans, men. or even from the wood-spirits or celestial musicians.

The tantric sadhana employs great passion, hence the physical qualities of theyog/w/are emphasised. She is to be of twelve to sixteen years of age and must be adorned with garlands and jewellery.45 The text describes the characteristics of the relative mahamudra (yogini) as,

neither too tall nor too short; she is neither too black nor too white, and is the colour of a lotus petal; her breath is sweet smelling and her perspiration pleasant like the smell of musk. Her sexual organ has fragrance like that of the pink lotus. Her smell, that of the male and female sexual fluids... she also has the fragrance of the blue lotus and the scent of the sweet aloe wood. She is resolute and not fickle, pleasant of speech and delightful. She has lustrous hair, has three folds around her waist and by her shape and nature known as a Lotus Maiden (padmini).

As regards the training to be imparted to the yogini the text states briefly that she should be refined with the Enlightened Consciousness, that is, by the Triple Refuge and other initial practices. First, the ten virtuous observances- the ten rules of virtuous conduct- should be imparted. Then the instruction in the Hevajra doctrine must be given. She should be trained to identify the mind with the deity. Further she should be instructed in keeping the Observances of the vow and in the attainment of the one-pointedness of mind through the Innate Yoga (sahaja yoga).47 She must be consecrated in the Hevajra practice (svabhisiktam lu hevajre).48 She must be free from all misconceptions (sarvasariikalpavarjita)49 hence the strict philosophical training is incumbent on her as well. As regards the preparation of the yogini the text does not elaborate. The yogini is treated more as an aid for the yogi than a co-practitioner.


3. Application of the Vows


The yogi and the yogini are now ready to commence the praxis, which begins with the manciala practice. As the first step in this practice, the Pledge (samaya) and Vows (samvara) are taken as one enters the mcindala. The Tibetan equivalent of ‘samaya' is \lam-tshig ’ which means a pledge or guarantee. The Pledge consists in resolving to avoid the fourteen fundamental transgressions and the eight grave transgressions.50 51 The yogi takes the Vow of the Five Families, which is the tantric counterpart of the boilhisaltvu vow. Vows are of two types, namely, common (saclharana),i4 and uncommon (asddharana)52 53. The former is common to all whether one follows the Paramitayana or Mantrayana. At initiation it is repeated thrice after the Guru. The latter is the vow of the Five Families and is special to each sadhana.

Samaya has several other nuances as well. Snellgrove calls it the ‘conventional form’, by which he means the mandala and the different forms of divinities through which the practitioner experiences the very nature of the Absolute and phenomenal forms. It is also used to refer to the outward sign of an inner hidden power. Samaya is also the type of ritual food or ‘sacrament’, especially the pancamakaras.

Sarimtra. the Tibetan equivalent of which is ‘sdom-pa\ also means ‘bond’ or ‘union’. It signifies the mystic union of all forms and elements. It is the quintessence of all things (sandkaraikasa/in’aram),54 55 56 the Concealed Essences

of all natures (sanadluirmaikasa/m’arafi) Sarimira is also the union of various concealed essences within the Yogin's body, which constitute the internal mandala.y> The mystic union is of the microcosm and the macrocosm and the resultant supreme bliss is also called sarirvara (Tib. bdemchog)

The text claims that enlightenment is quickly attained by the application of the vow. The vow for each type of practitioner is different.57 58 The Yogaruinamdla states that the disciple of mild sensibility is given the differentiated vow. The differentiated vow is explained in the seventh chapter of the second part of the Hevajra Tantra. By this vow the disciple is made aware of the plurality and diversity of the phenomenal world. He is to satiate the six senses, the eyes, ears, nose, tongue, skin, and mind. This is achieved by partaking of the ‘sacramental food’ (samaya), performing dance, song, music etc.

The disciple of medium sensibility is administered the undifferentiated vow. Here the praxis consists in making the disciple realise the undifferentiated character of phenomenal existence. By taking this vow the yog/does not distinguish between castes.60 He eats bhaisajyam (faeces) and drinks vari (semen) which are ordinarily considered disgusting.61 He overcomes the mental distinctions of worthy and unworthy, likes, and dislikes, edible and inedible etc.62 The yogi becomes free of all social and religious injunctions and inhibitions.60 In this manner he realises that within the phenomenal universe all things are of the same nature.

The disciple of strong sensibility is given the extremely undifferentiated vow. This vow takes the disciple a step higher. He now realises that not only are things of the world undifferentiated, but they are of the nature of void. That is, all things are ultimately devoid of essence. By the earlier vow he realises that things of the world are of the same nature; by the extremely undifferentiated vow he realises that this nature is futiya (void); and he attains the awareness of non-dual knowledge.63 64 65 For the disciple of strongest sensibility the text prescribes no vow. For such a disciple, in the fourth consecration, the application of the vow is realised through

the mahdmudra. The non-dual knowledge attained in the earlier stages is now experienced as great bliss (mahasukha). For the yogi the non-dual knowledge is now non-dual bliss. In this way, the application of the vow leads the disciples of varying sensibilities to enlightenment. The different vows gradually wean the disciple away from the diversity and multiplicity of phenomenal existence to the sameness of nature, and then to the realisation of that nature as void, and lastly to the experience of void as bliss.


4. Conferral of Consecrations


The tantric praxis, namely the Processes of Generation and Completion, is marked by four Consecrations (abhiseka) administered by the Guru. Ahhiseka literally means a purificatory sprinkling/’ Broadly speaking they are initiation rites. The Tibetan equivalent is dbar) bskur' which means 'conferral of power* " So by consecration one is empowered to receive the doctrines of the tantra. Abhiseka is not peculiar to Vajraydna; it is found in early Buddhism in the form of the initiation to the vow of pabbajjd (Skt. pravrajyd), the vow of

renunciation or the initiation to the upasampada marking the entry of one as a full-fledged member of the Sa/igha. Abhiseka in some form or other is found in all schools of Buddhism as well as in other religious traditions and sects. It is deemed indispensable for taniric praxis.7' In tantric Buddhism we have four Consecrations, namely the Master Consecration (acatyabhiseka), the Secret Consecration (guhyabhiseka), the Wisdom Consecration (prajndbhiscka) and Fourth Consecration (caturthdbhiscka).7‘ The last three

Consecrations arc considered higher initiations.66 67 68 69 70 They are given only after one has received the Master Consecration. Some texts prescribe preparatory rites, such as driving away the disturbing spirits of the ten quarters through mantras and other practices, prior to the consecration ceremonies. To ensure the safety of the practice, the ten Buddhas are placed at the ten quarters. The yogi seeking initiation should constantly think of himself as the adamantine being and the yogini as prajnd.1A The yogi and the yogini are made to enter the mantjala and the consecrations are conferred on them.


4.1 The Master Consecration


The Master consecration (acdryabhiseka) is also called kalasabhiseka or jar consecration. It consists of six subsidiary consecrations, in all of which a kala&j (jar) is used. These six subsidiary consecrations are those of Water, Crown, Vajra, Bell, Name and Master.71 72 These six are of the nature of the six Tathagatas.73 The text describes how this Initiation is given: The Master enters into sexual union with the yogini presented to him by the yogi. “Embracing a sixteen year old wisdom consort with the hands and by uniting the bell and vajra is the master consecration.’’74 The Master consecration is given in order that the yogi may progress and be far away from evil dharmas. This abhiseka makes the disciple worthy of the initiations, reflection and meditation, which follow. It is administered to the disciple of weak sensibility and instruction is given in meditation with the kurmunnulra.7K It is said that it washes away the impurities of the body and bestows upon the yogi the power of the nirnia/xikaya


4.2 The Secret Consecration


In the Secret consecration (githyabhiseka) the preceptor explains the secret process of the yogic union of prajna and updya by which the bodhicitta (semen) is produced. Instruction is given on how the downward tendency of the bodhicitta is to be checked and how it should be forced upward, through breath-control, to the usnisa-kanuda. and how the mahasukha is attained.r> In this consecration, while the songs and praises proper of this consecration are chanted, the Master with the thumb and ring finger of his left hand drops the juice of his sexual union with the yogini into the mouth of the disciple.75 76 77 It is called ‘secret’ because it cannot be explained to the yogi in terms of concepts and is hidden from the Sravakas, Pratyeka-buddhas, and all those below them. This consecration is administered in order that the impurities of Speech are washed away and the yogi is empowered in the sariibhogakaya. This consecration is given to disciples of medium sensibility through instruction in meditation (bhavana) on the samayamudra.


4.3 The Wisdom Consecration


At this consecration the master explains to the disciple the void nature (sunyata) of the self {pudgala) as well as that of all objects (dharma). He explains to him as to how this yogic process leads a seeker to this very realisation. Hence, this is called prajnabhiseka,8' In this consecration the master, after having worshipped the wisdom consort, offers her to the disciple saying, “O great being, take this Consort who will give you bliss.”78 79 This consecration is given to disciples of strong sensibility through instruction on the dhurmumudrd, the mental concentration (samadhi) in which all dhamias appear as illusion. This abhiseka washes away the impurities of the mind and bestows on the yogi the power in the dharmakdya.


4.4 The Fourth Consecration


The Fourth consecration is given immediately after the wisdom consecration. Dasgupta calls it vajra-jndndbhiseka as it leads the disciple of the strongest sensibility to the realisation of the ultimate adamantine reality (vajra).80 It is at this consecration that the nature of ‘thusness’ is realised. This process of yoga has no object of experience (andlambanayogena) and is characterised by the absence of discrimination. It is experienced with the external mtulrd and by instructions of one’s master.K4 The master

instructs the disciple in the following words. “Take, O great Being, take this delightful goddess who is beautiful, the bestower of erotic delight and the bestower of the ‘state’ Taking her perform the service.”8'" By this consecration the impurities of body, speech and mind arc cleansed and the yogi is bestowed with power in the mahasukhakdva. The realisation at this consecration is most subtle since it is beyond the realm of phenomena. It is space-like because it is devoid of projections and subject-object distinctions; it is undeftled since the afflictions (klesa) are destroyed; it is the essence of vajra, which is the essence of all the Buddhas. As every seeker is a *vqjragarhha\ this realisation is not granted by any other being; here one is one’s own procrcator {pita te tvam asi svavam) and has direct and immediate experience of it as mahasukha,


5. The Process of Generation


The wg/and theyogini, having undergone the required philosophical training, performed the vows, and having received the required consecrations, are now ready to begin the process of Generation (utpattikrama). The insight that the yogi arrived at through the philosophical process that preceded it, is now re-enacted and realised within him 81 82 83 through the meditative process of Generation. The process of Generation is also called the process of Emanation. The

utpattikruma is the manifestation (utpada) of phenomenal existence in symbols, figures, and deities. The world of phenomenal existence, which was known earlier through the dhamias. is now manifested in the form of divinities. The stabilised meditative state in which there is the emanation of the form of the goddess by the transformation of the moon, the symbol, the seed-syllable and so on, is called the utpattikrama. As pointed out earlier, the divinities are nothing but the idealisation of sariisara. Snellgrove states, “Emanation refers to the manifestation of the forms of divinities. The meditation in which this


consists, is the Process of Emanation." ‘ The existent is

thus manifested because it is by utilising the existent that

men are liberated. Hence, first among the techniques taught


by Hevajru uwira is the method of generating the Heruka. Through the process of Emanation, the yogi becomes aware of the diversity of existence, and realising the dreamlike (.svapnaval) nature of this diversity he renders it to himself as undiversified, by means of this very diversity.84

The mantkila, being a psycho-cosmogram, clearly manifests to the practitioner the diversity of phenomenal existence in its internal (psychic) and external (cosmic) aspects. Our text teaches that existence should be conceived in terms of its non-existence. Even Heruka who is the epitome of existence should also be conceived in a similar manner.88 Through the constant practice of the manikila the world of objects appears as an illusion and so on.89 In this way the emanation of the deities in the niandala becomes a tool to overcome the jneyavarana and arrive at the realisation that the world of phenomena is cssencc-less (sunya).


The purpose of the process of emanation is the removal not only of jneyavarana but also of klesavarana, which arise only on account of the false view of existence. The emanation of the deity’s body eliminates the impure tendencies, and at the same time nourishes the tendencies of the purified aggregates of personality.90 The form of the deity, which is a repository of arms, faces, and colours, arises in accordance with unrefined past

tendencies.91 That is, the deity is a manifestation of the practitioner himself. Each deity, as we have seen, is the embodiment of a particular personality trait. Delusion is Vairocana; wrath Aksobhya; passion Amitabha; envy Amoghasiddhi and malignity is Ratnasambhava.92 93 The Deity, who is thus the idealisation of diversities and defilements itself, is used to remove all diversities and defilements, just as poison is used to dispel poison.90 The intrinsic nature is experienced when consciousness is thus purified94 95 through the process of Generation.


The purification of defilements (jneyavarana and klesavarana) is done by constantly identifying oneself with the form and nature of the appropriate deity that is emanated. It is the Guru, who after having discerned the principal personality trait of the disciple administers the appropriate wisdom deity as antidote. The assignment of the appropriate deity and the mandala is done through the consecration rite. The forms of the male and female deities are visualised within their respective mandalas; in this case, they arc the mandala of Hcvajra and

the mandala of Nairatmya. Through their forms, the mandalas, the symbols and the seed-syllables, the various manifestations of the personality of the disciples that arise are purified. Through the application of the appropriate wisdom-deity-antidote the disciple realises the non-substantiality of his own dominant nature. 92 The apparent diversity of existence is reduced to the duality of the male and the female aspects within the yogi. In the Hevajra Tamm, the purified male and female, the two principal concealed essences, are expressed in tantric code language as V and ‘varif. This purification is a necessary step towards the next stage, namely the process of Completion.


The purpose of the process of Generation is purification, which is done through the emanation of the deities in the mandala practice. The Guru assigns the appropriate mandala to the disciple after having ascertained his predominant nature. This mandala is the idealisation of the disciple’s existence, his psyche, and his cosmos. It sets before him the diversity and defilements of his own existence. Now, by identifying himself with the principal deity of the mandala. he realises the dream-like nature or the non-substantiality of his own existence. In this way, the yogi is purified ofjneyavarana and klesavaruna.


5.1 Meditation on the Hevajra Mandala


We have seen above what takes place in the process of emanation. What follows is a brief account of how the .yog/ actually carries out the emanation of the Hevajra mandala. This is a meditative process, involving the production of figments by ideation, through which, the stream of the yogi’s consciousness matures (vipaka marga). In order to be a fit vessel for the process of Generation, first the Master consecration (kalasabhiseka) mentioned above is conferred on the disciple. Prior to the meditation on the mandala proper, certain preliminaries are to be performed.


5.1.1 The Preliminaries


The preliminary practices are for acquiring merit. They are five, namely, Taking refuge, Ripening of the mind, Making the offering, Chanting the hundred-syllable mantra and Guru yoga. The traditional refuges are the Buddha, the Dharma and the Sarigha. In Vajrayana the Guru is the Buddha, the deity (yidam) is the Dharma, and the dakini and the dharmapdla form the Sarigha. The Ripening of the mind is achieved through the practice of the brahmaviharas

especially the last, namely of equanimity. The purpose is to get rid of the notion of T (aharii) which is the root of ignorance. The Offering (of mandala) is to cut off the root of clinging. It is the offering of the entire universe in the form of mandala. The hundred- syllable mantra represents in the form of sound, the 100 peaceful and wrathful deities. Gradually the hundred-syllable mantra dissolves into the seed-syllable ‘hunt'. Finally

'hum' dissolves into light, and merges into space. The purpose is to clear the mind of the sadhaka. The Guru yoga is a meditation on the Guru. Every detail of his figure, dress, seat etc., is meditated upon. The sadhaka chants the twelve-syllable mantra of Guru Padmasambhava, "orii - ah-hum-vajra-guru-padma siddhi huong ’ This frees the sadhaka from the twelve links of prat ityasamutpada™

The Hevajra Tantra mentions the above practices only in brief. It states that the yogi should settle in a pleasant place and adopt a comfortable posture. He then should pronounce three times the raksa mantra 100 in order to protect the site, himself, and the performance. Then he should worship the Bhagavan, represented by a picture or image or symbol, using one’s mantra. He then should intone the prayer of dedication followed by the confession of sins. Then he should perform an act of gladness at merit gained and should perform the triple refuge.96 97 98 He should make an offering of himself and pronounce the vow, “May I having become Heruka, make all beings without exception into Heruka too.” Besides these, the yogi should practise the four brahma viharas.99 100 These preliminary practices constitute what is known as the Foundation Yoga.


5.1.2 The Four Stages of the Sole Hero Yoga


The preliminaries arc followed by the Four Stages of the Sole Hero Yoga (ckav/rayoga). F.ach stage of this yoga is prefaced by the Foundation Yoga discussed above. The first stage is called the Mild stage or the primary yoga, which is the four-fold vajra (vajracatuska) consisting of four steps. The first step is the realisation of the void. It is the realisation of the cssencc-lessness of all things and the realisation that everything is just thought. The second is the visualisation of the seed-syllable. In the brilliance of the void, the yogi envisages a solar disk and

the deity’s seed-syllable on that. The third is the visualisation of the deities. From the seed-syllable the yogi visualises the emergence of the deity in arthuparyahka posture, mounted on a corpse. The fourth is the implanting of the seed-syllable. At this step the yogi imagines in his own heart the seed-syllable of the deity.

At the second stage of the Sole Hero Yoga, the yogi visualises the solar mandala arising from the fire seed-syllable 'ram'. Above the solar mandila he emanates the crosscd-vajras as originating from the blue seed-syllable 'hum'. Then on the horizontal plane he emanates the vajra balustrade and above it a vajra canopy. Below it he visualises a vajra floor and a blazing vajra nimbus enclosure. He then recites

the raksa mantra to empower this emanation. 101 Within the vajra balustrade the yogi should visualise a corpse which is the Essence of Nature (idharmadhatu). He then visualises himself as standing on the corpse assuming the form of Heruka.102 103 104 Then the yogi should visualise in his heart the seed-syllable ‘rani' and the solar mandala arising from it. From the solar mandala he emanates the seed-syllable lhum‘. ‘Hurii* is of the nature of Wisdom and Means. Now the yogi should conceive of himself as the Wrathful One (Hevajra) who is the transformation of the seed-syllable 1hum

The third stage of the Sole Hero Yoga, is performed after the completion of the first and second stages. Here the yogi envisages Hevajra in space emanating from his seed-syllable along with his retinue of eight goddesses holding various symbols. The yogi worships him internally with the mind.100 From the brilliance of His body shoots forth rays, which pervade the whole expanse of the sky. The yogi collects these rays and brings them back into the same [[seed-

syllable]] and brings the seed-syllable itself into his own heart; and thus he becomes the Wrathful One (Hevajra).10' He conceives himself as the two-armed Hevajra.105 At this stage, the yogi employs the lunar mandala (ali) and the solar mandala (kali), the seed-syllable and the symbol of the deity which Yogaratnamdld relates to the Five Aspects of Perfect Enlightened Awareness (pancdkdrdbhisarhhodhi).1This meditative exercise is beneficial to the yogi because he should conceive the phenomenal objects in the light of these Five Aspects of Perfect Enlightened Awareness.

The fourth stage of the Sole Hero Yoga involves the mandala of the four Hevajras and Nairatmya. The four Hevajras are the two-armed Hevajra symbolising the purification of the Five Buddhas represented by the Five Symbolic Ornaments. The Four-armed Hevajra symbolises the defeat of the four Maras. The Six-armed Hevajra symbolises the Six Perfections."1 The Sixteen-armed Hevajra symbolise the Sixteen voids."2 The mandala of the Hevajra is to be visualised as discussed in the fifth chapter. Through the emanation of these, the yogi’s consciousness is matured and he becomes suitable for the process of Completion.

1

   "u/Hira-pratyayam .ianta/ft prapancair aprapancitam: nirvikalpain anfindrllunn etal tattvasyo taksanam. MK. XVIII.9.
2
   The six paramitas are: dCina. 6it a. ksanti. virya. dbyQna and projna.
3
   The dasabhiimis are: pramuditd, vimatO, probhdkari. Arcismat/, Sudurjayti. Abhimukhi, Dura/igamd. A cola. Sddliumatf and Dhornmnwgha.
4
   In I'ajrtiydim the process and the experiences at vaiunis stages of the process are always explained from the point of view of the yogi and not of the vogini The vogini appeals only as an aid. nevertheless an important one. in the whole process. Probably the vogini is also expected to reflect on these experiences in similar manner as the yogi does.
5
   The yogi is called Yogavil (the wise yogi) 'Iiaif (vow-holder), Prdjnah (the wise one). Siddlnkdiikynkn/i (the one desiring accomplishment), Tiinvnvalsaliih (the one to whom the True Principle is dear). Bluivnkn (the practitioner), Hcmkayogayui puritso (the one who performs the ticnikii yoga), Mnniri (the practitioner), Sisya/i (the disciple), Suyognvtin (excellent yogi), Blirdu) (brother), I'niu/i (the wise one). huddhaih (the wise), Updva (the Means) etc
6
   "aira lantre mpiunuidhyddiwndlrddlniniUratarnsnltvnhhcdcna eolasro mudrdh prdg inldiyfd/i " HT(S). Pail 2. Yogurnliuinidld, p. 120. (It was previously mentioned that in this nuitrn there are four kinds of Seals (inndrd) for the four types of practitioners who are distinguished as being of weak, medium, strong and strongest sensibilities. HT(F), Yognraiiuundld. p.69.
7
   Space does not permit us at this juncture to enter into a discussion on the development of Yogdedra Idealism from the theories of Sarvdsiivdda and Sautrdntika. For a thorough investigation of this aspect one could profitably read Ashok Kumar Chalterjce. YI. pp. 24-44.
8
   T.R.V. Murti, CPB, p.208.
9
   Garma C.C. Chang, trans.. The Hundred Thousand Songs of Milarcpa. vol.l, p. 13. (emphasis added). Commenting on this couplet. Chang states, ”An accomplished yogi should have freed himself from all thoughts, or conceptualisations, be they simple or complex, good or evil, monistic or duahstic.. .then he is said to have acquired the wisdom of Equality or Non-discrimination." See. Ibid., p.21. fn.8.
10
   The yogi is to consume the fivefold sacrament of initial HA, initial GA. initial HA, final S\'A and initial S\'A (11T(S) I:xi:S-9). Snellgrove points out that *NA* represents the first letter of the name of man (nara). similarly ’GA’ represents cow (go). 'HA' represents the elephant (hastin), '$VA ’ represents the last letter of
11
the hoisc (</«•«) and 'SI'.-I' the first letter of the dog (sum). Thus these lettcis represent the five kinds of flesh that the yogi should consume. See HT(S). Part I., p.86 fn.2. See also HT(S) II:x:5. These five ambrosias one should consume for the sake of perfection in Hcvajra All living beings are nothing but the Aggregates of the Five Components of Phenomenal Awareness (puiKuskamUut). So by ’eating all living beings’ is meant the realisation of the non-substantiality of all beings composed of the Aggregates of the Five Components of Phenomenal Awareness.
15 MT(F) 1:7:21. See also 1:11:8-10; 11:7:10.
12
   HT(F) 11:3:29-30. (emphasis added).
13
   HT(I;). Yogaratnamfila. pp. 192-193.
14
   Edward Conzc. trans., Astasdhasrikd Projnapdramiti , chapter 16, pp. 119-120.
15
   l!T(E) 11:8:7.
16
   HT(F) 1:6:26.
17
   HT(F) 1:7:22.
18
   Our text asserts that "all those living beings whose flesh the wise yogis cat are all subdued by means of this Vajra-KapSla Yoga". HT(F) 1:7:28.
19
   See IIT(F) I:8:6-7, sec also HT(F), YogaraliuuntlU). pp.43, 218. He views the world of phenomena in terms of the Five DhySni
20
Buddhas who are embodiments of the Five Aspects of Enlightened Awareness.
21
   Msiltiracahlfca ye bliavAs tnxigulmalalAdayn/i/
bhAvyunte vai puraiii tattwirft dlimtbhdvasvani/xikam/r HT(F) 1:8:43.
22
   "riqxtvisayAdiye 'py aityeparlibhAsante hiyogi no lyf
sane le suddhubhAvA hi yasmdd buddhuiniivuri) jagiU/f' IIT(F) 1:9:4.
See also HT(F) 1:10:39. 41.
23
   “nadiuota/ipravAhena dipajyotihprabandhavat/
sahiltnii tunvayogeiui siliAiavyam ahordlraia/i// 1IT(F) 1:8:54.
24
   "nnirdimydyogayukldlmd 'lhavA hcrukayogata/y
ksunam apv anyaciltah sun mi tisfhet siddhikAAkxiikalV/" HT(F) 11:2:2.
25
   Sec HT(F) 11:2:5-9.
26
“yatdtmani tat lid sattvc tathdtmani aha tit paratnl..." HT(F) 1:7:25.
27
   The Yogaratnamdla points out that for the yogi who is thus united with the Deity (Hevajra), “eating is fire-sacrifice, yoga is serving Wisdom, and austerities are his physical activities. The sound of the hand-drum is the mantra and the holding of the kliaf\'ai)gti is the concentration (dliydna). Similarly, the Vajru dance is the concentration and the Vajra songs the mantra. Tims, whatever he does is the Observance of the Vow (samava) and whatever he does not is the Observance of the Concealed Essence (sa/inara)." HT(F). Yogaratnamdla. pp.6S-69.
28
   The yogi is to adopt the vajrapada postures of Hevajra such as the grounded feet, the raised feet, equipoised feet and half lying. Sec HT(F). Yogaratnamdla. p.64.
29
   The five divine ornaments are the circlet, car-rings, necklace, bracelets, girdle, which respectively represent Aksobhya, Amitabha. Ratncsa. Vairocana and Amoghasiddhi. See HT(F)
1:6:12.
30
   Sri-Cakra virinara-Tantra mentions that Heruka wears a Tiger’s skin loosened. It denotes that He casts off the outward object and the inner perceiving subject. It also means diat he has fully developed His three principles namely His Body, Speech and Mind. Sec Sr i-Ca kra.«/ /in a ra -Tantra. p.98 (26),fn.9 and p.99(27).fn.l.
31
   “.. .svaparabhagavtkalpena baditum naiva iakyate// HT(F) 1:8:51.
32
   "siksddiksdvinirmukto lajjdkdryani taihaiva ca/ sanabhdvasvabhdvena vicared yogi mahdkfpa/y/" HT(F) 1:6:23.
33
   See HT(F) 1:6:19-21. See also
“ndkatyam vidyale kntcin ndbhakfyarit vidyale sadcU ndcinryarii vidyale by atra navdcyariiyac chubhd&ihluim/r HT(F) 1:7:24. (The yogi should not think of anything as being prohibited and he should never think of anything as being inedible. There is not anything, good or bad. that he should not think or say). See also
“brahmajndne samutpanne kriiydkriryani na vidyale" (When Brahman-knowledge has arisen there is no longer distinction of what should be or should not be done). Arthur Avalon, The Great Liberation {Mahdnirxdna Tantra), (Madras: Ganesh and Company. 1985) VII. 94.
34
   "net kayta kalpand/ii kuryannopavdsarii no ca kriyfim
sndnu/h <aucari> na caivdtra grdma dhanmi vivarjanarh" Advayasiddhi. 13.
35
   See Advayasiddhi. 22.
36
   Yogi is to drink Semen and especially wine. See HT(F) 1:6:14; 11:11:15. “He must eat the Five Nectars, drink liquor made from molasses, east the poisonous N'eem and drink the placental fluids. He must eat foods which are sour, sweet, bitter, hot, salty, astringent, rotten, fresh and bloody liquids along with semen...Obtaining menstrual blood he must place it in a skull-cup and mixing it with phlegm and mucous, the holder of the Vow must drink it." HT(F) 11:3:46-48.
37
   See HT (F) 11:3:41-48; 11:4:6-10; 11:6:9-11; 11:7:12-13; 11:11:8. See also Advayasiddhi. 11. 14.
38
   Garma C.C. Chang, trans.. The Hundred Thousand Songs of Milarepa, vol.l, p.101. (emphasis added).
39
   Sec HT(F) 11:3:65-67.
40
   See HT(F) 1:7:1-7.
41
   Tlic yogini is referred to as the Wisdom Consort. PrajnA (wisdom). Mudrd (seal), Muhdmudrd (great seal). Padmini (lotus maiden), I’ajrakanxd (the vajra girl). Bhagmf(sister) etc.
42
   HT(F) 11:4:40; 11:6:11.
43
   HT(F) 1:10:5. The text states, “If a virgin of the Vajra Family is not available, then prepare to practise with the virgin belonging to the family of one’s own chosen deity. If not practise with a virgin bom of another family." HT(F) 1:6:9.
44
   HT(F) 11:2:19-20. The rite of subduing a young woman is described in HT(F) 1:2:26.
45
   HT(F) 11:5:58.
46
   HT(F) 11:8:2-5. See also HT(F) 1:6:9; 11:2:17; 11:3:14; 11:4:39-40;
11:5:58-59; 11:6:11.
47
   HT(F) 11:2:17-18
48
   HT(F) 11:4:40
49
   HT(F) 11:2:19.
50
   For details see F. D. Lessing & Alex Wayman, trans., Introduction to the Buddhist Tantric Systems, pp.328-329, fn.14 & 15.
51
   The following Common Vow is mentioned in VajrapadjarA-tantra
1. I take my refuge in the Three Jewels;
I confess every one of my sins;
I rejoice in the merits of the living beings;
I set my mind on the Enlightenment of the Buddha.
2. I take my refuge, up to Enlightenment,
in the Buddha, his law. and the supreme host;
For accomplishing my own and others’ aim.
I generate the Mind of Enlightenment.
3. After generating the Mind of Supreme Enlightenment,
I shall be host to all the sentient beings;
I shall practise zestfully the best practice of Enlightenment; May I become a Buddha for the sake of the world!
Sec F. D Lessing & Alex Wayman. trans.. Introduction to the Buddhist Tnntnc Systems, p. 151.
52
   The uncommon vow is peculiar to each sddhnna as in the following case, which is an uncommon vow belonging to the Kdhuakrn Tun tin. "Having conferred upon me the sublime initiation of the irreversible wheel. O Lord, pray explain the reality of the gods of the wheel, the wondrous action of the hierophant, the pledge of all the Buddhas, and the highest secret of the vow. So as to serve the ami of all sentient beings may I forever be a hierophant!" See Alex Wayman. The Buddhist Tantras. p.66.
53
   HT(S). Part l.p. 138.
54
   HT(F) 1:10:39.
55
   HT(F) 11:10:1.
56
   “satin arahheda.f cu kuthyate/ dlikdticundrusuiyapro/Tiopfiyadharmasariibhoga-
nirmaiHwuihdsukhakdyavdkciltam/r HT(F) 1:1:22. (The various Concealed Essences (sarin-ara) are mentioned: ali and kdli, Moon and Sun, Wisdom and Means, the Centres of Essential Nature. Enjoyment. Creation and Great Bliss and the Body, Speech and Mind.)
57
   HT(S), Part l.p. 138.
58
   See HT(F). YogaratnamtilO, p.69.
59
   See Hevajra Tanlra. Part II, Chapter 7 entitled “Book and Feast.' HT(F) 11:7:10-11.
60
   HT(F) 1:6:4.
61
   HT(F) 1:6:14.
62
   HT(F) 1:6:19-21.
63
   HT(F) 1:6:23-24.
64
   See HT(F) 11:3:41-49.
65
   HT(F). YogaratnamdUi, p.69.
66
   "sekani caturx’idham khydtarh sattxdndni siddhihetave/
sicyate sndpyate’neneti sekas tendhhidhhatel1" HT(F) 11:3:12) (In order that beings may attain the Accomplishment consecration is proclaimed to be four-fold. Consecration is so called because one is sprinkled and cleansed).
67
   Alex Wayman. The Buddhist Tamms, p.61.
68
"nd hhtykto hi to yogixogitxain ahliixdnchati/
hanyate nuts find ‘kdsurii pivet ca nifga-trsjjikdnt// (The yogi tvho tries to attain yogihood without initiation only fists the sky and drinks the water of mirage) quoted in the Krixd-sa/iigralui Panjika, MS.p.5(A) as found in S. B. Dasgupta. ITB. p. 160.
69
   Besides these, our text (HT(F) speaks of a Consecration by Deity. Snellgrove calls it ‘Self-consecration’. Tins is consecration by emanation. See HT(F) 1:4:1.
70
   F. D. Lessing & Alex NVayntan. trans.. Introduction to the Buddhist Tantric Systems, p. 329.
71
   S. B. Dasgupta, ITB, p.161.
72
   In his The Buddhist Tantras, Wayman lists them as Water, Diadem, Vajra, Bell, Mirror, and Name. See Alex Wayman, The
Buddhist Tantras, p.68.
73
   Water is of the nature of ideal knowledge (Aksobhya); the Crown of equalising knowledge (Ratnasambhava); the Vajra of discriminative knowledge (Amitibha); the Bell of performance of duty (Amoghasiddhi); the Name of knowledge of the perfectly pure illiarmadhdtu (Vairocana); the Master of adamantine knowledge (Vajradhara). See F. D. Lessing & Alex Wayman, trans.. Introduction to the Buddhist Tantric Systems, p.3I5.
74
   “pdnibhydtit tu samdlitigya prajndm vai yodasubdikdmJ
glumfdvajrasamdyogdd dcdryasecanath ntatain/T' HT(F) 11:3:13. See also HT(F) 11:12:2.
75
   The various mudras will be explained later in this chapter.
76
   S. B. Dasgupta. ITB. 161.
77
   “.. .jyeythdndmikdhhydri ca &$yavaktre nipdtayet/
kdriunyan ca tatraiva samarasarit SwagocarnriV/" HT(F) 11:3:14. Sec also HT(F), Yoguratnamdld. p.185 and HT(F) 11:12:3. Lessing and Alex Wayman describe the ceremony differently. According to them the red-and-white element of the "Father-Mother" union is taken from the lotus of ihe Mother with the ring fingers of the “Father-Mother" and placed on the tip of their tongue(s). When it reaches the throat it produces a special bliss. F. D. Lessing & Alex Wayman. nans.. Introduction to the Buddhist Tantric Systems, p.319.
78
   S.B. Dasgupta. ITB. p. 161.
79
   “prajMiit ptijayec chflstfi arcayitvA samarpayet/
SAstA hn'/yfit muliAsaltva gfii(Xt mudrA/ii sukhAvtihAmlF HT(F) 11:3:15.
80
   S. B. Dasgupta. ITB. p.161.
81
   HT(S), Part 1, pp.132-133.
82
   "jmtvd sifyarh mahadbhut am nirirfyarii krodhavarjitam/
&!sta tarn djndpayati kundurum kuru vajradh/k//" HT(F) 11:3:16. See also 11:12:4. By ‘service’ sexual union with the wisdom consort is intended.
83
   "idamjndmiri) mahdsukpnarh vajraman(Jath nabhopamam/ viraja/h mokfadam Mutant pi id le tvam asi svavam//" HT(F) 11:12:5.
84
   " ..candracilmabijddipariitdmena devatdkdranispattir utpattih stJ vasmtn sumadhau asti sa utpattikrama Id” HT(S) Part 2, Yogaratnamdld. p. 125. In the case of male deities, the transformation of the Sun, the seed-syllable and symbol are referred to. See HT(F) l:3:5-7.
85
   HT(S). Part 1, 75. fn.4.
86
   “prathaman't uSvad bhaved ekarii herukotpattikdranam/ bhdvcnaiva vimucyante vajragarbita mahakrpa//" HT(F) 1:1:10. See also
"yogi it hid tit yathQnydyam utpattisthitikdranam/ sdmarthyam jndnavij/khtarii devatdndrit yathodayam/r HT(F) 1:1:9. (It teaches the correct method of generating the yoginls, their location, and their source. It is proficient in the science and technique of the correct method of manifesting the deities.)
87
   '*utpattikramayogena prapancarit bhdvayed \rati/
prapaficam svapna.at kpva prapancair nihprapancayet// HT(F) 11:2:28.
88
   “badhyante bhdvabandliena mucyante tatparijnayd/ bhdvaiii bhdvyarit bhavet prdjna abhdvam ca parijnavd/ tadvacclirihenikaifl blidvyam abhdvam ca parijnavd// HT(F) 1:1:11.
89
   “valla) mbya yailia svapnariiyalhd sydd antardhhavam/ lailaiiva naii)(I<daifi bhdti satatdbhydsayogala!)//'’ HT(F) 11:2:29.
90
   HT(F). Yogaratnamdld. p. 171.
91
   “devaldyogaruparil la jdiamdtre xyavasthitali/ hhujamukhavarpasthdndt kim tu praknavdsand//" HT(F) 11:2:45.
92
   See HT(F) 11:2:53-57.
93
   See HT(F) 11:2:46-51.
94
   **.. .i uliujmii j a gut san-arii sahajarit svarupum ucyatv/ svttrupam <*»•« nir\-6mritvi&cddhtik6racetasQ//" HT(F) 11:2:44.
95
   HT(F), p. xix-xx.
96
   For detailed discussion on the preliminary practices see T.D. Bluitia. Beyond Eternity through Mysticism, p.196-215.
97
   One of the common raksa mantras is : Otii raksa rakfa hOift hunt hQtUphaf svQhA.
98
   HT(F). Ycgaratnamdld. p.37.
99
   The Four Brahma Vih&ras form pail of the ancient yoga and probably the earliest Buddhist practice, which have been incorporated into the practice of I ‘ajmythm loo. They are Love. Compassion. Joy and Impassability. Love is the directing of thoughts so that all persons gain happiness. Compassion is the will to extricate all beings from suffering, even at the cost of one's ow n life. Joy consists in rejoicing at that which is beneficial for others. Impassability is the indifference to the harm done to self by others. HT(S). Pan 1. p.56. fn.l. See also HT(F). Yogaraiiuwidld. pp.37* 3S.
100
   HT(F) 1:3:2. See also HT(F). Yogaraliutmtllti. p.38.
101
   HT(F) 1:3:3. Sec also HT(F), Yogaratnawdld. p.39.
102
   HT(F) 1:3:4.
103
   HT(F) 1:3:8-10.
104
   HT(F) 1:3:12.
105
   For a description of the two-armed Hevajra see HT(F) 1:3:13-15.
106
   Moon is the Mirror-like-Awareness. Sun is the Awareness of Equanimity. The Seed-syllable and the Symbol is the Differentiating Awareness. Bringing all these into unity is the Awaieness of the Perfomiance of Duty. And the perfected manifestation of the form of the deity is the Awareness of Pure Nature. See HT(F), Yogarainamdld. p.43. See also HT(F) l:8:6-7; HT(F), Yogarainamdld. pp. 86-87.
107
   “...dkdrdn bhdvavet pancavidhdnaih kalllilair builliah//' HT(F) 1:8:7.
108
   For description of the four Hevajras see HT(F) 1:3:13-15. 17. 18; 11:5:8-12.
109
   Sec HT(F). Yogarainamdld. p.l 16.

9. Vajrayana for Personal Re-integration and Universal Harmony

A system of metaphysics is a way of looking at things00 and this ‘way of looking at things’ determines man’s understanding of reality and his relation to it. The ‘way of looking at things’ hitherto, has been predominantly rational, analytical and conceptual, where distinctions and differences hold sway over unity and identity. Another 1 2 ‘way of looking at things’, though less frequented, is the intuitive way with its emphasis on unity, wholeness and oneness. Vqjrayana, like Maclhyamika, Yogacara and

other Absolute systems, has recourse to the intuitive approach in the realisation of the ultimate reality. The way of ratiocination may be at the root of the fragmented vision of reality. Man finds his own self fractured by inner conflicts, splits, and contradictions. He finds himself distinct and distinguished from everything outside him, and this cellular perception of himself leads to divisions and segregation in all other aspects of empirical life as well. He considers himself

superior to everyone and everything else. Ideological differences, intolerance of other views and dogmatic sectarianism spring from a purely rational approach to things. Domination of one and the subjugation of everyone else in the social, political, cultural, and religious spheres, to name but a few, are the fallout of this approach. Such attitude proves disastrous to world peace and harmony.


The Vajrayanic approach, on the contrary, is predominantly intuitive, which perceives differences as illusory, and highlights the underlying unity of all things. The Vajra method starts by reducing all plurality to a fundamental bi-polarity, and finally re-integrating them in a mystic unity. The individual is made to realise that the warring elements within him in the form of views and mental afflictions are nothing but distorted forms of the two fundamental energies, the static and the dynamic, the male and the female. Vajrayana then employs a sophisticated praxis to achieve the mystic unity of this bi-polarity, which results in the re-integration of the individual.


The re-integrated person finds himself in harmony with everything else within his empirical experience. He is not confined by caste or class but interacts with people of all strata of society. He is not bound by social conventions and prejudices but is liberated from the vicious and intolerant coniines of subjectivity. Freed of his parochial mind-set, he finds that life is a web of inter-dependence. He is made to view his body as the microcosm and perceive in it the whole of the universe. “When his vision of reality is transformed, man would act no more in a self-centred manner, but purged of his egoism and moved by compassion, he would devote himself to the welfare of all beings."


Vajrayana proves to be an effective antidote against phobias and fears that afflict human life. The Vajra praxis is designed to make the psyche of the yogi adamantine, and in this way he is fortified against mental afflictions. He is made to stare at the face of every type of fear, which he does through the visualisation of the wrathful deities. The places that the yogi frequents such as cremation grounds and uninhabited places help him shed all fears. The tantric use. especially of the makaras, makes the yogi’s mind unmoved by notions such as likes and dislikes, clean and unclean, edible and inedible, worthy and unworthy, etc., which generate

fear and anxiety in the minds of the uninitiated. The mental afflictions, now known as ‘neurosis, paranoia, schizophrenia etc., torment man because his mind is not adamantine. Some of the tantric practices are absorbed into the training of personnel who require mental toughness, grit, and endurance. The Vajra method is not one of developing self-control or a stoic sense. In it there is no occasion for ‘control’, since afflictions do not afflict him any more; the Vajra theory and praxis lake the sting out of mental afflictions, by discovering ihcir nature as void. Vajrayanic praxis makes one's psyche so strong and adamantine, that, he remains unnerved in adverse circumstances. Hence the tantric praxis could be further explored to discover its psychic effects and be adapted to attain better mental health.


10. Vajrayana: A New Vision of Man, Metaphysics, and Religion


This sojourn into the hitherto unfamiliar territory of Vajrayana for me has been one of discovery, hailing as I am from a tradition and upbringing that is totally different from the former. J have realised that the wealth of insights scripted in such enigmatic manner in the verses of the Hcvajra Tamm and other tantric texts arc the fruit of the rigorous investigations and meditative apperception of reality that our ancients pursued for centuries on end. We have seen several such admirable attempts and appreciable results in other metaphysical and religious traditions of the world, but Vajrayana stands out as unique, distant and distinct from the rest. Vajrayana cannot be brushed aside as some spurious and nefarious art developed by an inferior race. Rather, it may have the potential to furnish us with a new vision of Man. a deeper understanding of Metaphysics, and rich insights into Religion.

Vajrayana has attempted to plumb the deepest recess of man, and map for posterity, the configurations of the human mind. To some extent, it anticipated by centuries some of the discoveries of modem depth psychology and the art of psychoanalysis. These insights, though clothed in symbolic and esoteric language, arc. nevertheless valid and significant. The body-soul dichotomy and conflict, inherited from the Aristotelian tradition, is put to rest by viewing man as a whole, and as a microcosm. Man is not just the crown of creation, but creation itself; he is not a part of the world, but he is the world. There is no ‘creature consciousness’ in him. This cosmicization of man has eclipsed the theistic image of God as the Supreme Being, the creator, the sustainer and the destroyer of the world. The classical distinction between God, World, and Man ultimately lapses. But this is no deification of the ego, for the ego melts away in the process of realisation into the non-dual consciousness, which is neither God, nor world or nor man, but all the three and much more.

This vision of things is not realised through conceptual investigation of reality; it is the fruit of an experiential philosophy. Philosophical enquiry is not a cognitive endeavour alone and does not stop with conceptual analysis, but proceeds to imaginative thinking and nondiscursive analysis. Here, concepts do not remain abstract, cold and lifeless, but come alive in three-dimensional images and visions, bringing to the fore the imaginative and emotive dimensions of ‘doing’ metaphysics. The conceptual analysis undergone so far is now enacted through a process of meditative visualisations.

Vajrayana has revealed the human face of the divine, as well as the divine face of the human, and bridged, as it were, the gulf between heaven and earth. God is not distinct or distant, but within man and non-different from him. Man is free to conceive Him in any manner he wants, because every concept is equally provisional. This shakes the religious traditions of the ordinary believer, so deeply rooted as he is, in one particular concept of God to the exclusion of all the rest. Is Vajrayana doing to religion what Madhyamika does to philosophy? In Vajrayana, religion turns on itself and is turned inside out, and reveals the inner dynamics of religious enterprise. It does not deny the claims of revelation, but shows that revelation is as much human as it is divine. No revelation can be artificially inseminated into the consciousness of man, but must spring from within; that is, every revelation requires the in-built capacity to receive, understand, and accept it.

Vajrayana has a unique understanding into the problem of evil. The eternal strife between Good and Evil, the subject of literary, philosophical and religious discussions since time immemorial, is put to rest. Vajrayana looks in the face of evil and embraces it, knowing fully well, that evil is nothing but the other side of good. Good and evil arc both energies available to man, which can be channelled to benefit him. Passions are powers gone haywire. Evil is not that ‘mV; it is not something to be condemned or condoned or even conquered,4 but converted. In this way, the entire spectrum of psychic energy in the form of good and evil, is tapped and is made use of for the benefit of man.

Vajrayana is threatening to one’s cultural religious and philosophical upbringing, much as the deities of its pantheon are. Its wrathful nature is not an insinuation to discard one’s religious tradition, but to look at it critically and see how far its gods are made in the image and likeness of man himself, and its revelation, pure human conventions. It may help the believer to adhere to his own tradition without compulsion and credulity. Vajrayana threatens the conceptual complacency of the philosopher and prods him to venture into the realm of non-discursive, non-conceptual thinking. It makes man aware that the possibilities of liberation are within him, and chalks out a path that activates them and achieves the goal. In this sense, Vajrayana serves as a help and not a hindrance. The terrain of Vajrayana may be a difficult one to traverse, nevertheless, the journey proves to be a rewarding enterprise to the willing traveller.

1
   Frithjof Schuon. //; the Tracks of Buddhism. p. 19. Scluion considers such conception of the divine as a unique contribution of Buddhism. He states. 'The great originality of Buddhism is to consider the Divine, not in relation to its cosmic manifestations as ontological cause and anthropomorphic personification, but rather in relation to its acosmic and anonymous character, as supra-c.xistential ‘state* which then will appear as voidness..." Frithjof Schuon. In llic Tracks a) Buddhism, p.20.
2
   A.K. Chatterjee. “The MSdhyamika and the Philosophy of Language.” p.30.
3
Toniy \uguslinc. *‘ln Search of a Buddhist Ecology'. p. 168.
4
In The Bodhicary6vat6ra, Santideva considers the defilements as an enemy to be conquered. He writes, "1 do not care if my guts ooze out! Let my head fall off! But never shall I bow down before the enemy, the defilements.” BodhicarydvatOra, 4:44 (emphasis added).


Source