Meditation: Identifying Self
Meditation: Identifying Self
Jam-yang-shay-ba's Great Exposition of Tenets Kensur Lekden's oral teachings
Jang-gya's Presentation of Tenets
The Fifth Dalai Lama's Sacred Word of ManjushrT Kay-drup's Manual of Instructions on the View Ling Rinbochay's oral teachings Corresponding section of the translation pp.684-5 Jam-yang-shay-ba delineates five stages in meditation on emptiness. 12 These outline the progress of one newly developing the powers of meditation:
1 how a beginner develops experience with respect to the view of emptiness
2 how to cultivate a similitude of special insight based on a similitude of calm abiding
3 how to cultivate actual special insight based on actual calm abiding
4 how to cultivate direct cognition of emptiness 5 how to meditate on emptiness during the second stage of Highest Yoga Tantra.
FIRST STAGE OFMEDITA TION ON EMPTINESS
How a beginner develops experience with respect to the view of emptiness
During the first stage a yogi gains an initial familiarity with the meaning of emptiness through one of several reasonings. He proceeds through three basic essentials in meditation: identifying the object negated in the view of selflessness, ascertaining that selflessness follows from the reason, and establishing the reason's presence in the subject.
The initial object of meditation is the selflessness of the person; the reasoning used is the sevenfold reasoning as set forth by Chandrakfrti. 1 Identifying the object negated in the theory of selflessness First, one concentrates and clears one's mind.13 Sitting quietly, one waits for the I to appear. If it does not, an appearance of it is created by thinking '1', and with a subtle type of consciousness one watches the appearance.
If the consciousness that watches the appearance is too strong, one will not see the I, or it will appear and quickly disappear. Therefore, one should allow the consciousness conceiving I to be generated continuously, and through watching this I as if from a corner, one will gain a firm sense of it. One could also imagine that one is being accused, even falsely, and watch the sense of I. One could remember an incident of false accusation, during which one thought, 'I did not do this, I am being wrongly accused.' By watching the I who is accused, a firm sense of the way that the non-analytical intellect apprehends I can be ascertained.
If the memory of such an accusation is not strong, a yogi cultivates it until the sense of I as misconceived by the innate nonanalytical intellect is obvious. This innate mind does not analyze whether the I is the same as or different from mind and body. Without any reasoning and through the force of habituation, it conceives of an I that is as if self-sufficient, able to establish itself, naturally or inherently existent from the very start and fused with the appearance of mind and body.14
Though such an I does not in reality exist, an image or concept of it does exist and will appear. It is initially difficult to identify the appearance of a concrete I, but in time it becomes obvious. Sometimes the I appears to be the breath, and sometimes the stomach as when one has an upset stomach and says, 'I am sick."5 Sometimes the I appears to be the eye, ear, nose, tongue, body, or mental consciousness. In sum, the I appears at times to be physical and at times mental. The Fifth Dalai Lama says that in the end the appearance of the I and the appearance of the mind and body are as if mixed like water and milk, undifferentia t e , but so clear as to seem graspable with the hand. Dzong-ka-ba's disciple Kay-drup says in his Manual of Instructions on the View:16
If the mind thinking 'I' is not generated, you should fabricate the thought 'I' and immediately thereafter analyze its mode of appearance. You will thereby come to know its mode of appearance without mixing it with any other object... If you look gently from a corner without losing the consciousness thinking '1', there is a separate mode of appearance of I to the consciousness which thinks '1', and this appearance is not any of the mental and physical aggregates. The I does not appear to be just a nominal designation, but appears as if self-established. Through holding that the I exists the way it appears, you are bound in cyclic existence. Can the I appear to be self-established if its appearance is undifferentiatedly mixed with that of mind and body? It would seem logically impossible for it to be self-established and yet mixed, but the innate intellect apprehending I does not analyze its object logically before, during, or after its apprehension. The appearance of a self-established I is mixed with the appearance of factors of mind and body but is not exactly the same. The present Dalai Lama's Senior Tutor, Ling Rinbochay, said that if someone sticks a pin in your finger, you feel that the pin has been stuck in you and not just in your finger. You have a distinct sense of the I that is hurt.
In order to ascertain this appearance, it is extremely important to prolong subtle examination of it without letting it immediately disappear. Some teachers advise watching the I for a week or even months before proceeding to the second step. It is interesting to note that the jiva or 'limited individual being' in Vedanta is often said to be the size of the thumb and located in the 'heart'. In Vedanta the jwa is to be merged with the infinite self, Brahman, and in Buddhism the appearance of a concrete I is analyzed, found to be non-existent, and overcome, resulting eventually in a direct realization of emptiness in which the subject, the wisdom consciousness, is merged with its object, emptiness, like fresh water poured into fresh water.
4 Meditative Investigation Sources
Jam-yang-shay-ba's Great Exposition of Tenets Nga-wang-bel-den's Annotations
Corresponding section of the translation pp.687-94 2 Ascertaining that selflessness follows from the reason The second of the three basic steps in meditation on the personal selflessness is the ascertainment that if the I exists the way it is conceived, then it must be either the same entity as the mental and physical aggregates or a different entity from those aggregates.'7 If the I inherently exists, it must be either inherently the same entity as the aggregates or inherently a different entity from the aggregates. Sameness and difference of entity are mutually exclusive; if two things exist, they must be either the same or different. If the I is found to be neither inherently the same entity as the mind and body nor a different entity from them, then the I does not inherently exist.
Through the seven-fold reasoning, one attempts to infer that the I does not inherently exist as it appears to do. Such an inference cannot be generated if one has not ascertained that non-inherent existence pervades, or occurs with, every instance of not being 48 Meditation on Emptiness inherently the same as or different from the aggregates. In other words, a yogi must realize that whatever is inherently neither the same entity as nor a different entity from its basis of designation does not inherently exist. One must come to a firm conclusion that there is no third possibility of concrete existence. When one does, one begins to doubt the existence of the self in much the same way as one starts to doubt an old friend.18 3 Establishing the presence of the reasons in the subject The seven-fold reasoning in brief is:
'I' do not inherently exist because of (i) not being the aggregates,
(ii) not being an entity other than the aggregates,
(iii) not being the base of the aggregates,
(iv) not inherently being based on the aggregates,
(v) not inherently possessing the aggregates, (vi) not being just the composite of the aggregates, and
(vii) not being the shape of the aggregates.
The third step in meditation on emptiness—after identifying the inherently existent I and ascertaining that it must be either the same as or different from mind and body—is the establishment of the first reason as a quality of the I—proving that the I is not mind and body. Many reasons are suggested here, and each should be considered thoroughly until one is found which disturbs the notion that the I is mind and body."
(The reasonings are explained in detail in Part Two.)
i Establishing that the I is not mind and body The I is not the mental and physical aggregates because then the assertion of an I would be senseless. '1' would be just another name for the aggregates.
The I is not the aggregates because just as the aggregates are many, so the selves would be many, or just as the I is one, so the aggregates would be one. The I is not the aggregates because the I would be produced and would disintegrate just as the aggregates are produced and disintegrate. The I is not inherently produced and does not Meditative Investigation 49 inherently disintegrate because if it did, memory of former births would be impossible. For, the two Fs of the different lifetimes would be unrelatedly different because they would be inherently other.
The I is not inherently produced and does not inherently disintegrate because then deeds done (karma) would be wasted as there would be no transmission of the potencies accumulated from actions since the Fs of the different lifetimes would be unrelated others. The I is not inherently produced and does not inherently disintegrate because the I would meet with the results of actions not done by itself. If, on the other hand, the potencies accumulated from actions were transmitted, an I which was totally different from the I that committed the deeds would undergo the results of those deeds.
ii Establishing that the I is not different from mind and body The I is not an entity other than mind and body because if it were, the I would not have the character of the aggregates, such as production, disintegration, abiding, form, experiencing, and realizing objects. The I is not a separate entity from the mental and physical aggregates because if it were, there would be no basis for the designation I. The I would be a non-product, and non-products are changeless whereas the I obviously changes. The I is not a separate entity from the aggregates because if it were, there would be no object to be apprehended as I. The I would be a non-product like nirvana or a non-existent like a flower in the sky. The I is not a separate entity from the aggregates because if it were, the I would be apprehendable apart from the aggregates just as the character of form is apprehendable separate from the character of consciousness. But it is not. iii Establishing that the I is not the base of mind and body The I is not inherently the base of the mental and physical aggregates like a bowl for yogurt or like snow that exists throughout and surrounds a forest of trees because if it were, the I and the 50 Meditation on Emptiness
aggregates would be different entities. This has already been refuted in the second reasoning. iv Establishing that mind and body are not the base of I The I is not inherently based on the aggregates like a person living in a tent or like a lion living in a forest because if it were, the I and the aggregates would be different entities. This has already been refuted in the second reasoning. v Establishing that the I does not inherently possess mind and body
The I does not inherently possess the aggregates in the way that a person possesses a cow because if it did, the I and the aggregates would be different entities. The I does not inherently possess the aggregates in the way that a person possesses his body or a tree its core because then the I and the aggregates would inherently be the same entity. These positions have already been refuted in the second and first reasonings. vi Establishing that the I is not the composite of mind and body The I is not just the composite of the aggregates because the aggregates are the basis of the designation I and an object designated is not its basis of designation. The I is not the composite of the aggregates because the composite of the aggregates does not inherently exist; if the composite of the aggregates were inherently one with the aggregates, the composites would be many like the aggregates, or the aggregates would be one like the composite. Also, if the composite of the aggregates were a different entity from the aggregates, it would be apprehendable apart from the aggregates and would not have the character of the aggregates. But this is not so.
vii Establishing that the I is not the shape of the body The I is not the shape of the body because shape is physical and if the I were merely physical, it would not be conscious. Also, the shape of the body does not inherently exist because it is a composite of the shapes of the limbs of the body. Without any further cogitation, one realizes that the I does not Meditative Investigation 51 inherently exist. One has already ascertained that non-inherent existence follows if a phenomenon is in none of these seven relationships with its bases of designation, and now one has seen that the I and body and mind can have none of these seven relationships. Therefore, the I does not exist as a concrete entity as it is perceived.
For beginners it is necessary to become acquainted with the reasoning over a long period of time before an understanding of emptiness can be generated. However, reasons do not require endless establishment because if every reason had to be established by another reason, one would never realize the main thesis.20 The reasons are established to a point where experience manifestly establishes them.21 If a person lacks this experience, it is necessary to seek other means, such as examples, to gain the necessary experience that establishes the reasons.
5 Dependent-Arising
Sources
Jam-yang-shay-ba's Great Exposition of Tenets Nga-wang-bel-den's Annotations
Corresponding sections of the translation pp.673-6 If a yogi is directed by his guru to meditate on the non-inherent existence of the I through the reasoning of dependent-arising, he would meditate on the thought:
I do not inherently exist because of being a dependentarising. The meditation has three steps:
1 Identifying the object negated in the view of selflessness
This step is the same as that described in chapter three for the sevenfold reasoning. The yogi identifies the appearance of an I as if it covers its bases of designation and identifies how the mind assents to this appearance.
2 Ascertaining that selflessness follows from the reason One ascertains that whatever is a dependent-arising does not 54 Meditation on Emptiness inherently exist because inherent or independent existence is the opposite of dependent-arising.
3 Establishing the presence of the reason in the subject The I is a dependent-arising because of being produced by contaminated actions and afflictions since the life of a being in cyclic existence is created by predispositions established by an action motivated by ignorance. (Even the virtuous deeds that give rise to happy migrations and the non-moving deeds that give rise to lives in the form and formless realms are motivated by ignorance with respect to the nature of the person.) The I is a dependent-arising because of achieving its entity in dependence on its parts—its former and later moments, mind and body, and so forth. The I is a dependent-arising because of being imputed in dependence on a consciousness that designates, '1'. Without any further cogitation one cognizes that the I does not inherently exist because one has previously ascertained that whatever is a dependent-arising does not inherently exist and has now established the presence of the reason—being a dependentarising— in the subject I. The brevity of the reasoning of dependent- arising illustrates why yogis initially use the sevenfold reasoning, which reveals in detail how the I cannot be found under analysis. The sign of dependent-arising is sufficient to show that the subject cannot be found under analysis; however, repeated investigation of dependent-arising is required before it is seen that analytical unfindability or non-inherent existence is concomitant with being a dependent-arising. The reasoning of dependent-arising is also used for phenomena other than persons, such as the body:
The body does not inherently exist because of being a dependent-arising.
1 Identifying the object negated in the view of selflessness One identifies an appearance of body wherein it seems as if inherently existent and self-established within the context of being undifferentiably mixed with the appearance of the five Dependent-Arising 55 limbs and trunk. It is an appearance of body as if it covers the five limbs and trunk. 2 Ascertaining that selflessness follows from the reason Whatever is a dependent-arising does not inherently exist because inherent existence means that which exists in and of itself, independent of others.
3 Establishing the presence of the reason in the subject The body is a dependent-arising because of being produced by the blood of the mother and the semen of the father. The body is a dependent-arising because of attaining its own entity in dependence on its parts—arms, legs, head, trunk, and so forth. The body is a dependent-arising because of being imputed in dependence on arms, legs, head, trunk, and so forth. Without any further cogitation one realizes that the body does not inherently exist. Again, the brevity of the reasoning may not be sufficient for a beginner in which case one could turn to the sevenfold reasoning: The body does not inherently exist because of
(1) not being the arms, legs, etc.,
(2) not being a separate entity from the arms, legs, etc.,
(3) not being the base of the arms, legs, etc.,
(4) not inherently depending on the arms, legs, etc.,
(5) not inherently possessing the arms, legs, etc.,
(6) not being the composite of the arms, legs, etc., and
(7) not being the shape of the arms, legs, etc.
6 Diamond Slivers
Sources Jam-yang-shay-ba's Great Exposition of Tenets Nga-wang-bel-den's Annotations
Corresponding section of the translation pp.639-50 If the diamond slivers are used as the mode of analysis, the meditation has six steps based on the thought:
The body is not inherently produced because of not being produced from self, from inherently existent others, from both, or causelessly. 1 Identifying the object negated in the view of selflessness This step is the same as in the last two meditations. The appearance of a body covering the limbs and trunk is mixed with the appearance of the limbs and trunk and yet appears to exist in itself, to exist concretely.
2 Ascertaining that selflessness follows from the reason Whatever is not produced from self, from inherently existent others, from both, or causelessly is not inherently produced because inherent production is limited to these four possibilities. 58 Meditation on Emptiness Production is either caused or uncaused; and, if caused, the only possibilities are that the causes are the same entity as the effect, or a different entity from the effect, or both. 3 Establishing the presence of the first reason in the subject The body is not produced from self (from what is the same entity as itself)
(a) because, if it were, its production would be senseless and endless,
(b) because what already exists in something is not produced from that something,
(c) because it would contradict what the world manifestly sees, and (d) because the producer and the produced would be one.
4 Establishing the presence of the second reason in the subject
The body is not produced from causes which are inherently existent others because if it were, the body could be produced from anything that was other than it. For, inherently existent others are non-related others since otherness is their nature. The body is not produced from causes which are inherently existent others because the body and its causes are not inherently existent others since the body does not exist simultaneously with its causes. For instance, the body at age ten does not exist simultaneously with the body at age five which is a cause of it. However, if cause and effect were inherently other, the body that is approaching production would have to exist at the time of the activity of its approaching production because this activity depends on it. Also, for causes, such as the parents or the body of an earlier age, to be causes of the present body which are inherently other than it, the causes would still have to exist because it is in relation to the causes that the body is other. How can a thing be inherently other than a thing that does not exist?
5 Establishing the presence of the third reason in the subject The body is not produced from both itself and others because all the fallacies of production from self and from other descend on such a theory.
6 Establishing the presence of the fourth reason in the subject The body is not produced causelessly because then the copulation of the parents for the sake of conceiving a child would be senseless. The mother's care of the child in the womb and later after birth would be senseless. Taking effort to nourish the body for the sake of future health would be senseless. For, the body would arise causelessly.
The body is not produced causelessly because if it were, a body could be produced even from a chair or a door, because everything would arise from everything. The yogi first identified the body as a product and then saw that what is inherently produced must be produced according to one of four possibilities. Thus, upon the establishment of the four reasons as qualities of the body, he realizes without further cogitation that the body is not inherently produced. He then draws out the implications of this realization to include the cognition that the body does not inherently exist. For, if the body is a product and it is not inherently produced, it does not inherently exist.
Kensur Lekden's oral teachings
Corresponding section of the translation pp.651-8 In the Prasangika system, the sevenfold reasoning, dependentarising, and the diamond slivers are the three main forms of reasoning for establishing selflessness. Three other forms are the refutation of the four extreme types of production, the refutation of the four alternative types of production, and the reasoning establishing the lack of being one or many. In the refutation of the four extreme types of production a yogi would most likely take a phenomenon included within the personal continuum such as body or mind, but he might also take as his subject an external phenomenon, such as an apple: An apple is not inherently produced because
(1) an existent is not inherently produced,
(2) a non-existent is not inherently produced,
(3) what is both existent and nonexistent is not produced, and
(4) that which is neither existent nor non-existent is not produced.
1 Identifying the object negated in the view of selflessness The yogi identifies the appearance of an apple wherein the apple seems as if it exists there from its own side without being designated by the subject. The very appearance of an apple toward the subject is the appearance of an inherently existing apple. 2 Ascertaining that selflessness follows from the reason Whatever product is not ultimately produced as an existent, a non-existent, what is both existent and non-existent, or what is neither is not inherently produced. For, the possibilities of the nature of an effect are limited to these four. 3 Establishing the presence of the first reason in the subject An inherently existent apple is not produced because what inherently exists must always exist and thus there would be no need for it to be produced. Or, an apple which is in all ways existent at the time of its causes is not produced because causes and conditions cannot create anything that already exists.
4 Establishing the presence of the second reason in the subject A non-existent apple is not produced because if it were, the horns of a rabbit or the hairs of a turtle could also be produced. Or, an apple is not newly inherently produced because of not existing at the time of its causes, as is the case with a lotus in the sky. For, whatever is inherently produced must always exist because if it did not exist at some time, it would always be inherently non-existent.
Also, an apple would have to exist at the time of its causes because the action of the apple's approaching production exists simultaneously with the action of its causes' approaching cessation. Since the apple is the base of the action of its approaching production, it must exist together with its action if the two are findable. Thus, the apple would have to exist at the time of the seed of the tree that produces it, but this is not the case. 5 Establishing the presence of the third reason in the subject An apple that is both existent and non-existent is not produced because there is no such thing, since existence and non-existence are mutually exclusive.
6 Establishing the presence of the fourth reason in the subject An apple that is neither existent nor non-existent is not produced because there is no such thing.
The yogi then realizes without further cogitation that an apple does not inherently exist; in other words, he knows that a concrete apple such as earlier appeared to his mind does not exist. A vacuity that is the negative of such an apple appears to his mind, and he remembers the meaning of this vacuity much as a man, who searched thoroughly for his prize bull in his four pastures and did not find it, would not forget the loss of his bull when he returned home.22 In the refutation of the four alternative types of production the subject meditated upon might be an eye consciousness: An eye consciousness is not inherently produced because of not being a case
(1) of one inherently producing one,
(2) of many inherently producing one,
(3) of one inherently producing many, or
(4) of many inherently producing many.
1 Identifying the object negated in the view of selflessness The yogi identifies the appearance of an eye consciousness as if it exists in its own right without dependence on designation by thought or terms, as if it exists covering the moments of consciousness which are its basis of imputation.
2 Ascertaining that selflessness follows from the reason Whatever product is not a case of one producing one, many producing one, one producing many, or many producing many is not inherently produced because the possibilities of inherently existent production are limited to these four.
3 Establishing the presence of the first reason in the subject An eye consciousness is not a case of one cause inherently producing one effect because if it were, two of the three aspects of an eye consciousness (being a conscious entity, having power with 64 Meditation on Emptiness respect to colors and shapes, and being generated in the image of its object) would be uncaused.
4 Establishing the presence of the second reason in the subject An eye consciousness is not a case of many causes inherently producing one effect because if it were, only one of the three aspects of an eye consciousness would be produced.
5 Establishing the presence of the third reason in the subject An eye consciousness is not a case of one cause producing many effects because if it were, the three aspects of an eye consciousness would not have individual causes.
6 Establishing the presence of the fourth reason in the subject An eye consciousness is not a case of many causes producing many effects because if it were, the one general eye consciousness would be uncaused and its three aspects caused. Thereby, the yogi without further cogitation realizes that an eye consciousness is not inherently produced and thus does not inherently exist. He absorbs the import of this realization, and if it becomes weaker, he performs the analysis again until the cognition of unfindability returns in force. He tries to become accustomed to this unfindability so that he will never think the opposite again.
The reasoning establishing the lack of being one or many has already been illustrated in the sevenfold reasoning in the sense that the I does not inherently exist because of not inherently being one with or different from the aggregates. However, another form of the reasoning establishing the lack of being one or many is illustrated here in the example of a house: A house does not inherently exist because of not inherently being one and not inherently being many. 1 Identifying the object negated in the view of selflessness The yogi calls to mind a house and identifies the appearance of the house as a whole existing in its own right.
The inherently Realization
existent house is what he might point to when pointing a house out to someone else. Findability is portability,23 and the yogi works for a long time to catch a sense of just what is being pointed out, knowing that it is important to stay with an appearance of inherent existence both so that it becomes well known and so that the ramifications of its absence can be felt.
2 Ascertaining that selflessness follows from the reason Whatever is neither inherently one nor inherently many does not inherently exist because these two positions exhaust all possibilities of inherently existent things. The yogi accustoms himself to this fact by considering hundreds of objects, such as house, boards, group, members, glass, mind, and so forth and seeing that from a specific point of view they are each either one or many. For instance, a group is definitely one from the point of view of the entity, group, and the members of a group are definitely many when considering the constituents of the group. 3 Establishing the presence of the first reason in the subject A house is not inherently one because of having parts. Whatever has parts cannot have an inherent nature of oneness because then a plurality of parts would be impossible.
4 Establishing the presence of the second reason in the subject A house is not inherently many because there is no inherently existent oneness. When a part of a composite is refuted, the composite which is composed of those parts is also refuted. Since the many is composed of ones, refuting inherently existent oneness refutes inherently existent manyness.
Through having ascertained the pervasion and having established the reasons as qualities of the subject, the yogi realizes without any further cogitation that a house does not inherently exist. He knows then that there is nothing he can actually point to when identifying a house. He knows that there is no house which covers its parts. He remains in the force of this realization as long as he can, not allowing the vacuity which is a negative of a pointable house to become a mere nothingness.
The main object of meditation during the first stage of meditation on emptiness is the I.24 Through the sevenfold reasoning the yogi comes to realize that a self-established I, covering its bases of designation, does not exist at all anywhere at any time. He perceives an utter vacuity that is the absence of such an I, and he ascertains the mere elimination of the I that is negated in the view of selflessness with nothing positive in its place. He sustains this space-like realization, which is so called because just as space is the mere absence of obstructive contact, so the selflessness that he sees is the mere absence of such a self. When his certitude of the non-existence of an inherently existent I weakens, he again reflects a little on the reasoning and renews the strength of the view of the emptiness of a self-established
I. The yogi during this stage of meditation has generated an inferring consciousness that realizes the emptiness of the person, and this consciousness has no ascertainment of knower and the object known. All the elaborations of subject and object are said to disappear in the sense that a consciousness that infers emptiness does not ascertain subject and object; however, subject and object still appear at this time. Though appearing, they are not determined, for a consciousness inferring emptiness does not identify the object, emptiness, and the subject, the cognizing wisdom. The only phenomenon that is ascertained is the mere absence of a self-established I such as usually appears to the mind. It is not even thought, 'This is emptiness.'25 In an inferential realization of emptiness, an emptiness is cognized conceptually or through the medium of an image. Despite the profound nature of such inferential intuition, direct realization is yet to be attained.
Sources
Pa-bong-ka's Lectures on the Stages of the Path Jam-yang-shay-ba's Great Exposition of the Concentrations and Formlessnesses Jam-yang-shay-ba's Great Exposition of Tenets Lati Rinbochay's oral teachings Geshe Gediin Lodro's oral teachings
SECOND STAGE OF MEDITATION ON EMPTINESS
How to cultivate a similitude of special insight based on a similitude of calm abiding
The second stage of meditation on emptiness is the mode of cultivating a similitude of special insight based on a similitude of calm abiding.26 During it, the yogi achieves calm abiding, defined as a stabilization arisen from meditation and conjoined with special pliancy. Etymologically, calm abiding (shamatha, zhi gnas) is explained as the mind's abiding (stha, gnas) on an internal object of observation upon the calming (shama, zhi) of distraction to the outside.
PREREQUISITES FOR ACHIEVING CALM ABIDING
The causal collections or prerequisites for achieving calm abiding are six:27 1 Staying in an agreeable place
This has five features:
a. Good acquisitions. One needs easily obtainable sustenance not involving wrong livelihood or offerings from sinful persons.
b. Salutary location. Staying in an area blessed by the presence of former holy persons affords blessings, but if such is not available, one should at least not stay where those who have lost their vows dwell, where the spiritual community has undergone disturbance, or where there are fierce animals, robbers, nonhuman evil spirits, and so forth.
c. Salutary place. The place should not generate hot or cold diseases, and the area and water should be agreeable.
d. Salutary friends. It is harmful for beginners to stay alone without friends, and thus one should have at least three companions whose views and behavior are concordant and whose presence promotes conscientiousness. Also, since sound is the thorn of concentration, one needs to be free of the sound of humans during the day and of dogs and water, etc., at night.
e. Possession of the pleasant 'articles' of yoga. Through hearing and thinking one should eliminate false ideas with respect to the object of meditation and become skilled in the essentials of practice.
2 Few desires
One should not have desire for food, clothing, and so forth, either of good quality or in great quantity. 3 Knowing satisfaction
One should be satisfied with gaining only mediocre food and clothing, for if one is not and instead is attached to them, one will be distracted to the purposes of accumulating and keeping wealth, and meditative stabilization will not be generated. 4 Pure ethics
The pacification of subtle internal distraction depends on
abandoning coarse external distractions; hence, ill behavior of body and speech should be restrained and pacified through proper ethics, for if one is dominated by coarse discursiveness, one's mind will not abide in a natural state.
5 Forsaking commotion
If commotion is not abandoned, time will be passed in senseless activities and conversation, etc. Thus, for the sake of generating concentration, one needs few purposes and few activities—this coming of its own accord if a meditator has few desires and knows satisfaction. For one-pointed practice, astrology, medical practice, prophecy, performing rites, and so forth must be forsaken. Also making effort at something of small purpose, such as a minor topic of scholarship, does not achieve the essential purpose, much like being attached to sugar-cane but not taking the sugar.
6 Thoroughly abandoning thoughts of desire and so forth One must turn the mind away from these through contemplating their faults and reflecting on impermanence. Pa-bong-ka states that if all these prerequisites are complete and one practices with effort, the achievement of calm abiding will not take more than six months.
THE OBJECT OF CALM ABIDING
.Calm abiding must be achieved with respect to an internal or imagined object, and thus even when non-Buddhists use a pebble or stick as the object, these are only bases of later imagination by the mental consciousness; one cannot achieve calm abiding with the eye consciousness.28 The Buddhist scholar-yogi Nagabodhi, being unable to achieve progress with other objects, imagined that the horn of a buffalo had grown from his own head, since he was familiar with it; however, in general for a Buddhist not just any object is suitable. Rather, the object itself should aid in the process of eliminating the chief faults obstructing meditative stabilization, laxity and excitement. To aid in eliminating laxity, it should be easier, upon observing the object,
to generate faith and enthusiasm, and to aid in eliminating excitement, it should be easier to hold the mind to that object and generate sobriety.
The object with respect to which calm abiding is achieved should possess a special purpose.29 Observation of emptiness, as here in the second stage of meditation on emptiness, has the special feature of facilitating generation of special insight, but emptiness—due to its profundity—is a difficult object for beginners. Unless memory of the realization of emptiness during the first stage remains firm, since one must temporarily forsake analysis and remain only in stabilizing meditation in order to achieve calm abiding, the ascertainment of emptiness can weaken to the point where one is no longer meditating on emptiness but on nothingness. Such meditation would only increase ignorance, and thus many choose a different object. It is said that the desirous should concentrate on ugliness, reflecting on (1) the ugliness of pain,
(2) the relative ugliness of the beautiful in dependence on something more beautiful,
(3) the ugliness of the afflictions,
(4) the ugliness of rapid disintegration, or
(5) the ugliness of filthy substances.
The hateful should concentrate on love, wishing help and happiness for friends, enemies, and neutral persons. The ignorant should concentrate on the dependent-arising of cyclic existence (see pp.275-83). The proud should concentrate on the six constituents in their own continuum—earth, water, fire, wind, space, and consciousness (see p.627)—thereby overcoming the conception of the body as an amorphous whole and attaining a discrimination of ugliness by seeing the parts, such as fat; by this means pride is deflated. Those with too much discursiveness should concentrate on the inhalation and exhalation of breath. These five types of objects are called objects of observation for purifying behavior and have the special feature of facilitating the conquest of desire and so forth and thus aid in the generation of meditative stabilization. Those in whom either desire, hatred, obscuration, pride or discursiveness predominate should choose an object as outlined above because without overcoming the vibrancy of the afflictions by way of those objects of observation, firm meditative
stabilization cannot be attained.31 Hence, the desirous temporarily should not use joy, love, or the like as the object of observation. Similarly, the hateful should not concentrate on suffering, and those with predominate discursiveness should not use bright objects, etc. A particular object of observation, however, is not specified for those whose afflictions are small or of equal strength; they may use any of these.
It is said that observation of the body of a Buddha is better than all others because it not only has the special feature of facilitating the achievement of meditative stabilization through its blessings but also has the special feature of completing the collections of merit as well as enhancing later cultivation of deity yoga in tantra.32 At the point when the object of observation—a Buddha body—becomes firm, ordinary appearances are replaced by pure appearances, and one sees a Buddha night and day; through this, one becomes a suitable vessel for Secret Mantra. Also, through a Buddha's always appearing to the mind, one accumulates the merit of seeing a limitless number of Buddhas, whereby innumerable benefits, such as not being overcome by pain even in dire circumstances, arise.
Thus, in order to aid in the development of calm abiding, the yogi might not take emptiness as his object of observation. However, once the object is chosen, he would not switch from it to another until a fully qualified calm abiding has been achieved, much as one would not change the place of friction when trying to ignite a fire by rubbing two sticks together.33 During this period, continuous effort without, for instance, resting for a day or two, is required.
FAULTS AND ANTIDOTES IN DEVELOPING CALM ABIDING
In the process of developing calm abiding a yogi overcomes five faults through eight antidotes (see Chart 2).34 1 Laziness The first fault, laziness, involves either not wishing to engage in cultivating meditative stabilization or the inability to continue 72 Meditation on Emptiness
Chart 2: Faults of Meditative Stabilization and their Antidotes Five Faults
laziness (kausïdya, le lo) forgetting the advice (avavâda-sammosha, gdams ngag brjed pa) [non-identification of] laxity and excitement (laya, auddhatya; hying ba, rgod pa) non-application (anabhisamskâra, 'du mi byed pa) [over-]application (abhisamskdra, 'du byed pa) Eight Antidotes faith (shraddha, dad pa) aspiration (chhanda, 'dun pa) exertion (vyayama, rtsol ba) pliancy (prasrabdhi, shin tu sbyangs pa) mindfulness (smrti, dranpa) introspection (samprajanya, shes bzhin) application (abhisamskdra, 'du byed pa) equanimity (upekshd, btang snyoms)
the practice once begun. Laziness is of three types: indolence through attachment to sleep and so forth; adhering to nonvirtuous activities of desire and so forth; and a sense of inadequacy, thinking, 'I cannot do this'. Thus, laziness is not just sluggishness but also the factor of enthusiasm for afflictions, as well as a false sense of inadequacy. The three types of laziness cause procrastination and are overcome through faith, aspiration, exertion, and pliancy.
Faith is mainly conviction in the qualities of meditative stabilization and its fruits, but also includes both the faith of clarity, which is a captivation with those qualities, and the faith that is the wish to attain those qualities. In order to attain faith in meditative stabilization, it is necessary to contemplate the disadvantages of
not having stabilization—such as losing the value of virtuous practice through distraction—and the advantages of having i t - such as steadiness of mind whereby feats, clairvoyance, magical emanation, and so forth can be achieved. Also, with stabilization sleep turns into meditative stabilization, afflictions lessen, and spiritual paths are easily generated in the mental continuum. The faith that sees these qualities induces aspiration, which involves a seeking of meditative stabilization. Aspiration, in turn, induces effort, which here is an enthusiasm for meditative stabilization, leading to exertion, which acts as the antidote to the three types of laziness. As will be explained later, exertion eventually generates a mental and physical pliancy or serviceability that is the final antidote to laziness.
2 Forgetting the advice
The second fault, forgetting the advice from one's lama on the object of meditation, means to lose the object of observation, the pole to which the elephant of the mind is being tied with the rope of mindfulness in order to be brought under control by the hook of introspection. Forgetfulness here is an afflicted mindfulness— taking to mind a non-virtuous object through the power of excitement, laxity, and so forth. It is overcome through mindfulness uiiich is defined as having the function of non-forgetfulness with respect to a familiar phenomenon. This non-afflicted mindfulness has three features:
a. Objective feature: a familiar object. If emptiness is the object of observation, familiarity with it was gained during the first stage of meditation on emptiness; there, with realization of noninherent existence, one 'found' the object. If, on the other hand, the body of a Buddha is the object of observation, familiarity is gained through repeated viewing of a picture or image and then causing it to appear to the mind.
b. Subjective feature: non-forgetfulness within observation of that object. With mindfulness, the aspects of the object appear continuously without forgetfulness, as in being mindful of food when hungry.
c. Functional feature: causing the mind not to scatter to other objects of observation.
One must hold to the object of observation with a tight mode of apprehension without distraction; only that object should appear to the mind.
3 Non-identification of laxity and excitement Then, when mindfulness is able to hold the mind to the object of observation, the third fault, non-identification of laxity and excitement, arises. Laxity is defined as the mental factor of declination in the mind's mode of apprehension when cultivating virtue; it is an internal distraction, a depression in the intensity of the mind's clarity. In a coarse neutral form of laxity the object is not seen, as if one had entered into darkness. This is a time of suddenly losing the intensity of the factor of clarity, losing the object, and being unable to move the mind to any object; in this state, the mind abides in a subjective clarity, but without intensity, and is unable to remain on the object of observation. Another form of coarse laxity occurs when the mind has stability in the sense of abiding on its virtuous object of observation but lacks clarity; this is a virtuous form of laxity due to the mind's abiding on a virtuous object. Subtle laxity occurs when one has the stability of not losing the mode of apprehension of the object as well as clarity, but lacks an intensity of clarity due to having loosened the strength of the mode of apprehension. Since both subtle laxity and actual meditative stabilization have stability and clarity, it is difficult to distinguish between the two. The factor distinguishing meditative stabilization, however, is an intensity of clarity. An absence of intensity refers to a looseness of mind and can occur within the stability ofbeing able to stay on the object; firming of the factor ofstability within this looseness acts as a cause of subtle laxity. Having an intensity of clarity, on the other hand, means that the mind dwells tightly on the object of observation. Having or not having this intensity is compared to loosely or tightly holding a bowl, or the difference between usual faith in a lama and the particularly strong faith that is occasionally generated when a tightening in the mode of apprehension occurs.
Since in a state of subtle laxity the movement of the breath in the nostrils can stop, resulting in a firm mind for even an entire day, some have mistaken this for meditative stabilization and have even advised loosening the mode of apprehension of the object. They have confused this with a similar occurrence in the stage of completion of Highest Yoga Tantra upon the entering, remaining, and dissolving of the winds in the central channel; in the latter, however, the movement of the abdomen also stops and profound states are induced. From mis-identifying subtle laxity as meditation, not only can the four concentrations and four formless absorptions not be achieved, but also in this lifetime itself forgetfulness will increase and wisdom diminish, resulting in cultivating—as if intentionally—the means of achieving rebirth as an animal.
Though lethargy and drowsiness can lead to laxity, laxity is neither of them. Lethargy is a heaviness of body and mind, included within obscuration and accompanying all root and secondary afflictions (see p.265), whereas laxity is a factor of withdrawal inside and thus cannot accompany the afflictions of desire, hatred, and so forth, which are distractions outside. Lethargy darkens and obscures the mind whereas laxity does not. However, the mention of laxity here as a fault in meditative stabilization implicitly includes lethargy, sleep, and so forth. Within laxity itself, two types are to be distinguished, one which is an over-withdrawal of the mind inside and another which is a mere diminishment of the mind's mode of apprehension. Excitement is a disquiet of the mind and scattering to an object of desire—mindfulness of a pleasant object, such as remembering at night a dance seen during the day. Since excitement is a secondary affliction included within the factor of desire, not all scatterings are instances of excitement, as when the mind scatters to an object of anger or even to another virtuous object. Although all scattering harms meditative stabilization and is implicitly included in the mention of excitement, it is not stated explicitly because those newly cultivating meditative stabilization are of the Desire Realm. They must mainly cease attachment to pleasant forms, sounds, odors, tastes, and tangible objects whereas
scattering to virtuous or hated objects is less frequent and for shorter periods. However, when cultivating calm abiding, scattering to pleasant or unpleasant objects or to virtuous ones, such as becoming mindful of making donations, interrupts the stabilizing of the mind and, therefore, must be stopped. Coarse excitement is a case of losing the object of observation in forgetfulness, whereas in subtle excitement the object is not lost but a corner of the mind is involved in fast-moving thought such that a pleasant object is about to appear to the mind. The state of subtle excitement is compared to water moving about under ice on a frozen river.
The antidote to non-identification of laxity and excitement is introspection that quickly recognizes them. Like a spy, introspection investigates and determines whether or not laxity and excitement have arisen. Constant cultivation of introspection would prevent stability; yet, if introspection were not cultivated at all, one would not know the faults that had already occurred, like allowing a thief to enter and carry off the wealth; therefore, one must prepare mindfulness beforehand and then occasionally initiate inspection of whether laxity and excitement have arrived or not. As in the example of (1) holding a cup of tea with the hand, (2) holding it firmly, and (3) investigating with the eye to see if it is tilted, (1) mindfulness holds to the object of observation, (2) the mode of apprehension is tightened, and (3) introspection analyzes whether laxity and excitement have arisen or not.
4 Non-application
When either laxity or excitement have arisen, non-application of their antidotes is a fault. Application—the mental factor of intention which here is an engagement in a virtuous object—is necessary as its antidote.
Antidotes to laxity. Since subtle laxity is a case of having both the stability of being able to remain on the object and subjective clarity but of lacking intensity, it is not necessary to leave the meditative session or switch to another object when it arises. Rather,
it is sufficient merely to tighten the mode of apprehension; however, if it is tightened too much, excitement will be generated, and thus a moderation of tightness and looseness is necessary, as is the case with the strings of a violin for achieving a pleasant sound. If one suspects that excitement is about to be generated, one should loosen the mode of apprehension a little, whereas if one suspects that laxity is about to be generated, one should tighten a little. The mid-point between these is known only through experience. However, just as there is greater danger from an enemy within one's own circle because of the difficulty of identification, so there is greater danger of mistaking laxity for meditative stabilization, and thus tightness should be emphasized. If, having tried to tighten the mind, one is unable to remove the fault of subtle laxity and experiences a lack of clarity in the mode of apprehension, coarse laxity has arrived. This is the fault of over-withdrawing the mind inside; to counter it, one should 'extend' the object a little, increasing it in brilliance or noticing its details. If this still does not remove laxity, one should leave the object of observation and invigorate this depressed mind by cultivating joy—reflecting on the difficulty of finding the meaningful life of leisure and fortune as a human, on the auspicious attributes of the Three Jewels, on the advantages of relying on a spiritual guide, or on the benefits of the altruistic intention to become enlightened. One can also take to mind a luminous object or imagine great acts of charity. If the mind heightens through such techniques and awakens, one should again apprehend the original object of observation. For those who are not used to these techniques, it is difficult for them to help immediately; however, for one who is familiar with them, contemplating, for instance, the difficulty of finding this meaningful life of leisure and fortune is like throwing cold water on the face. However, if laxity is still not removed, one can use the forceful method of imagining one's own mind as a drop of white light at the heart and with the sound 'phat' causing it to exit from the crown of the head, ascend high in the sphere of the sky, and mix undifferentiably with the sky.
If laxity is still not removed, one should leave the session and remove the causes that generate it—lethargy, sleep, darkened mind, and so forth—by staying in a cool area, going to a high place with a vast view, walking about, washing the face with cold water, and so forth. When, having done this, the mind has awakened, one should, as before, apprehend the object of observation. Antidotes to excitement. Subtle excitement is a case of distraction within not losing the object; its arising is due to the fault of having tightened the mind too much, and thus one should loosen the mode of apprehension a little. If that does not help and one is still distracted, then coarser excitement has been generated. Since this is caused by a happy mind, one should not be too happy, for progress will be impeded, as was the case with Buddha's father who did not achieve the state of Stream Enterer due to being too happy at his son's success. At this point, it is not necessary to leave the session; rather, one should contemplate sources of sobriety, such as death, impermanence, cyclic existence, and the sufferings of bad migrations.
If excitement is still not removed, one can use a forceful method of eliminating it, such as observing the inhalation and exhalation of the breath when dominated by discursiveness; exhaling, one should think, 'Going there', and when inhaling, 'Coming here'. Or, one can mentally count the breaths, counting in rounds up to ten, back to one, up to ten, back to one, and so forth.35 If, though this is done, excitement is not eliminated, one should temporarily leave the session. Since beginners can only remain in contact with the object of observation for short periods, initially one should meditate in brief sessions even eighteen times a day; in due course stability will be achieved of its own accord, at which time the session can be lengthened. It is important not to try at first to meditate for long periods; otherwise, upon sight of the meditation cushion, one will feel nausea and laziness. The session should be left while it is going well, when one still feels that it would go well if continued.
5 Over-application
When laxity and excitement have been eliminated, application of their antidotes is a fault preventing stability of mind; as its antidote one uses equanimity, that is, one desists from applying the techniques for pacifying laxity and excitement, such as invigorating the mind, withdrawing it inside, and so forth. This is a loosening of, or leaving off, the exertion involved in those antidotes— an equanimity that causes the mind to abide naturally on the object of observation accompanied by intense clarity. This occurs on the ninth state of mind (to be explained below) when one loosens the exertion of the introspection investigating whether laxity and excitement have arisen without, however, loosening either mindfulness or the intensity of the mode of apprehension of the object.
As Pa-bong-ka concludes:
Having completed the prerequisites for calm abiding in a place having the five qualifications and so forth, one sits on a comfortable cushion [in a posture] having the seven features of Vairochana. A Shakyamuni, only a fingerlength high, separates from the lama on one's head and is set in space [about six feet] in front of one's navel [or at eye level]. Initially, the object of observation will not be clear and one does not need to make it so. For if mere generalities of the parts—head, arms, legs and so forth—and a mere sense of flashing gold appear and if mindfulness keeps the mind undistractedly [on the object] without forgetfulness and with a tight mode of apprehension, this mode of sustaining [[[meditation]]] through such mindfulness alone contains all the ways of eliminating laxity and excitement. This is an unparalleled quintessential instruction to be held in the heart by great meditators, for the tight mode of apprehension eliminates laxity and nondistraction eliminates excitement.
If, when meditating this way, stability arises, then because one has come closer to laxity, one should be wary of it, [increasing] clarity and tightening the mode of 80 Meditation on Emptiness
apprehension. However, if clarity arises, one is closer to excitement and thus should be wary of excitement and seek stability. One should not pretend to be achieving meditative stabilization while not knowing what is needed to possess it; rather, one should definitely achieve a meditative stabilization possessing the two features of
(1) stability in general but mainly
(2) clarity with a tight mode of apprehension. As explained above in detail, mindfulness holds the object of observation without losing it, and at that time whether coarse or subtle laxity or excitement are about to arise, introspection immediately recognizes them, and they are stopped through directly relying on their specific antidotes. Then, when laxity and excitement are eliminated, one should not make the exertion of the antidotes but abide one-pointedly on the object of observation, sustaining it with great clarity that possesses intensity.
NINE STATES IN DEVELOPING CALM ABIDING
There are nine states or levels in the process of developing calm abiding (see Chart 3), of which the first two occur during the first stage of meditation on emptiness; the remaining seven occur during the second. Although actual meditative stabilization (samadhi) is associated with calm abiding, each of the preliminary nine states is called a meditative stabilization due to being an instance of the development of the mental factor with that name (see p.247).37
